AAiT, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering Reinforced Concrete II

CHAPTER 1. INELASTIC ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS BEAMS &

MOMENT REDISTRIBUTION

1.1. INTRODUCTION
Reinforced concrete structures are generally analyzed by the conventional elastic theory. In
flexural members, this is tantamount to assuming a linear moment-curvature relationship, even
under factored loads. For under-reinforced sections, this assumption is approximately true,
provided the reinforcing steel has not yielded at any section. Once yielding takes place(at any
section), the behavior of a statically indeterminate structure enters an inelastic phase, and linear
elastic structural analysis is strictly no longer valid.

For a proper determination of the distribution of bending moments for loading beyond the
yielding stage at any section, inelastic analysis is called for. This is generally referred to as limit
analysis, when applied to reinforced concrete framed structures, and ‘plastic analysis’ when
applied to steel structures. In the special case of reinforced concrete slabs, the inelastic analysis
usually employed is the ‘yield line analyses. The assumption generally made in limit analysis is
that the moment-curvature relation is an idealized bilinear elasto-plastic relation [Figure 1-1].
This has validity only if the section is adequately under-reinforced and the reinforcing steel has a
well-defined yield plateau. The ultimate moment of resistance ( MuR ) of such sections, with

specified area of steel, can be easily assessed.

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Figure 1-1: Idealized moment-curvature relation

1.2. METHODS OF ANALYSIS ALLOWED IN EBCS EN 2004:2014 (EUROCODE 2)

The methods of analysis provided in EC-2 are for the purpose to establish the distribution of
either internal forces and moments, or stresses, strains and displacements, over the whole or part
of a structure.

1. Linear Elastic Analysis

 Based on the theory of elasticity

 Suitable for both SLS and ULS
 Assumptions:
i. Uncracked cross sections
ii. Linear stress-strain relationships and,
iii. Mean values of the elastic modulus [E]
 For thermal deformation, settlement and shrinkage effects at the (ULS), a reduced
stiffness corresponding to the cracked sections may be assumed.
 For the (SLS) gradual evolution of cracking should be considered (e.g. rigorous
deflection calculation).
2. Linear Elastic Analysis with Limited Redistribution

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Although concrete structures only behave elastically under small loads while the sections remain
uncracked, a linear elastic analysis may still be used for both the serviceability and strength limit
states to determine the internal forces and moments, provided the structure has sufficient
ductility to distribute moments from highly stressed regions to less highly stressed regions.
At ultimate limit state plastic rotations occur at the most stressed sections. These rotations
transfer to other zones the effect of further load increase, thus allowing to take, for the design of
reinforcement, a reduced bending moment  M , smaller than the moment M resulting from
elastic linear design, provided that in the other parts of the structure the corresponding variations
of load effects (viz. shear), necessary to ensure equilibrium, are considered.
 Suitable for ULS
 The moments at ULS calculated using a linear elastic analysis may be redistributed,
provided that the resulting distribution of moments remains in equilibrium with the
applied loads.
 In continuous beams or slabs which:
a) Are predominantly subject to flexure and
b) Have the ratio of the lengths of adjacent spans in the range of 0.5 to 2,
redistribution of bending moments may be carried out without explicit check on the rotation
capacity, provided that:
   k1  k2 Xu d for fck  50MPa

   k3  k4 Xu d for fck  50MPa

   k5 for reinforcement class B & C

   k6 for reinforcement class A

Where
 Is the ratio of the redistributed moment to the elastic bending moment
xu Is the depth of the neutral axis at the ultimate limit state after redistribution

d Is the effective depth of the section

 cu1 Is the ultimate strain for the section in accordance with Table 3.1

recommended value for k1 is 0,44, for k2 is 1,25(0,6+0,0014/εcu2), for k3 = 0,54, for k4 =

1,25(0,6+0,0014/εcu2), for k5 = 0,7 and k6 = 0,8

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For the design of columns the elastic moments from frame action should be used without any
redistribution.
3. Plastic Analysis

 Suitable ULS
 Suitable for SLS if compatibility is ensured
 When a beam yields in bending, an increase in curvature does not produce an increase
in moment resistance. Analysis of beams and structures made of such flexural members
is called plastic Analysis.
 This is generally referred to as limit analysis, when applied to reinforced concrete
framed structures, and plastic analysis when applied to steel structures
4. Nonlinear analysis

Non-linear analysis is a procedure for calculation of action effects, based on idealizations of

the non-linear behavior of materials [non-linear constitutive laws: for concrete and steel], of
the elements and of the structure (cracking, second order effects), suitable for the nature of
the structure and for the ultimate limit state under consideration.

 may be used for both ULS and SLS, provided that equilibrium and compatibility are
satisfied and an adequate non-linear behavior for materials is assumed.
 The non-linear analysis procedures are more complex and therefore very time
consuming.
 The analysis maybe first or second order.

1.3. MOMENT CURVATURE RELATIONSHIP

Although it is not needed explicitly in ordinary design, the relation between moment applied to a
given beam section and the resulting curvature, through the full range of loading to failure, is
important in several contexts. It is basic to the study of member ductility, understanding the
development of plastic hinges, and accounting for the redistribution of elastic moments that
occurs in most reinforced concrete structures before collapse.

The flexural behavior of a reinforced concrete cross-section (a non-linear material) can best be
studied by using its moment-curvature relationship. If the moment-curvature relationship is

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available, one can predict the strength and the stiffness, as well as the ductility characteristics of
the cross-section.

1.3.1. CURVATURE

1.3.2. ELASTIC ANALYSIS OF BEAM SECTIONS

1.3.2.1. SECTION UN-CRACKED

As long as the tensile stress in the concrete is smaller than the tensile strength of concrete (f ctk)
the strain and stress is the same as in an elastic, homogeneous beam. The only difference is the
presence of another material, i.e. the steel reinforcement. As it can be shown, in the elastic range,
for any given value of strain, the stress in the steel is 'n' times that of the concrete, where n
=Es/Ec is the modular ratio. In calculation the actual steel and concrete cross-section could be
replaced by a fictitious section (transformed section) thought of as consisting of concrete only. In
this section the actual steel area is replaced with an equivalent concrete area (nAs) located at the
level of the steel. Once the transformed section has been obtained, the beam is analyzed like an
elastic homogeneous beam.

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A3

Compressive reinforcemnt

A1

Tensile reinforcemnt

A2

Figure 1-2 - Transformed Un-Cracked Section

1.3.2.2. SECTION CRACKED

When the tension stresses fct exceeds fctk, cracks form in the tension zone of the section. If the
concrete compressive stress is smaller than approximately 0.5fck and the steel has not reached the
yield strength, both materials continue to behave elastically.

At this stage, it is assumed that tension cracks have progressed all the way to the neutral axis and
that sections that are plane before bending remain plane in the bent member. This situation of the
section, strain and stress distribution is shown in the Figure 1-3 below.

A3
Compressive reinforcemnt

A1

Tensile reinforcemnt

A2

Figure 1-3 - Transformed Cracked Section

1.3.3. DRAWING THE MOMENT CURVATURE DIAGRAM

With the stress-strain relationships for steel and concrete, represented in idealized form and the
usual assumptions regarding perfect bond and plane sections, it is possible to calculate the
relation between moment and curvature for a typical under reinforced concrete beam section as
follows.

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Figure 1-4 Moment-Curvature relationship for Reinforced Concrete Beam

A. Cracking point (point 1)

Figure 1-5 shows the transformed cross section of a rectangular, tensile reinforced beam in the
uncracked elastic stage of loading, with steel represented by the equivalent concrete area. The
neutral axis, a distance c1 below the top surface of the beam, is easily found. In the limiting
case, the concrete stress at the tension face is just equal to the modulus of rupture fr and the
strain is  r  fr Ec .

Figure 1-5 – Uncracked beam in the elastic range of loading

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The steel is well below yield at this stage, which can be confirmed by computing, from the strain
diagram, the steel strain. I is easily confirmed, also, that the maximum concrete compressive
stress will be well below the proportional limit. The curvature is

1 r (1)
 cr  
c1 c2
And the corresponding moment is

fr Iut (2)
Mcr 
c2
Where Iut is the moment of inertia of the uncracked transformed section.

These values (ϕcr , Mcr) provide information needed to plot point “1” of Figure 1-4.

B. Elastic limit (point 3)

When the tensile cracking occurs at the section, the stiffness is immediately reduced, and
curvature increases to point “2” in Figure 1-4 with no increase in moment. The analysis now is
based on the cracked transformed section of Figure 1-6 with steel represented by the transformed
concrete area and tension concrete deleted. The cracked, elastic neutral axis distance c1  kd is

easily found by the usual methods.

Figure 1-6 – Cracked beam in the elstic range of material response

In the limiting case, the concrete strain just reaches the proportional limit as shown in Figure
1-6(b), and typically the steel is still below the yield strain. The curvature is easily computed by

1  el (3)
 el  
c1 c1

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And the corresponding moment can be calculated using moment is

1 (4)
Mel  fel kjbd 2
2

This provides point 3 in Figure 1-4. The curvature at point 2 can now be found from the ratio
Mcr Mel .

C. Inelastic zone (point 3 – 7)

Next, the cracked, inelastic stage of loading is shown in Figure 1-7. Here the concrete is well into
the inelastic range, although the steel has not yielded. The neutral axis depth c1 is less than the

elastic kd and is changing with increasing load as the shape of the concrete stress distribution
changes and the steel stress changes.

Figure 1-7 – Cracked beam with concrete in the inelastic range of loading

It is now convenient to adopt the equations of  c and  c and equilibrium of force and moment

to find both the total concrete compressive force C and the location of its centroid, for any
arbitrarily selected value of maximum concrete strain  1 in this range. The entire process can be

summarized as follows:

1. Select any top face concrete strain  1 in the inelastic range, i.e., between  el and  u .

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2. Assume the neutral axis depth, a distance c1 below the top face.

3. From the strain diagram geometry, determine  s   cs .

4. Compute fs   s Es  fy and T  As fs .

5. Determine C C  c fcd bd 

6. Check to see if C  T . If not, the neutral axis must be adjusted upward or downward, for
particular concrete strain that was selected in step 1, until equilibrium is satisfied. This
determines the correct value of c1

Curvature can then be found from

1 (5)
 inel 
c1
The internal lever arm z from the centroid of the concrete stress distribution to the tensile
resultant, is calculated after which

Minel  Cz  Tz (6)
The sequence of steps 1 through 6 is then repeated for newly selected values of concrete strain
 1 . The end result will be a series of points, such as 4, 5, 6, and 7 in Figure 1-4. The limit of the
moment –curvature plot is reached when the concrete top face strain equals  u , corresponding

to point 7. The steel would be well past yield strain at this loading, and at the yield stress.

1.4. CONTINOUS BEAMS AND ONE WAY SLABS

Continuous beams and one-way slabs are indeterminate structures for which live load variation
has to be considered. This is because dead load is always there but live load might vary during
the life time of these structures.

One-way slabs transmit their load mainly in one direction (i.e., the direction. of span). A 1m strip
is taken in the direction of span and treated similar to continuous beams.

Elastic analysis such as slope-deflection, moment distribution and matrix method or plastic
analysis or approximate method such as the use of moment coefficient or such methods as portal
or cantilever can be used.

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1.4.1. LOAD ARRANGEMENT OF ACTIONS

The process of designing concrete structures involves identifying the relevant design situations
and limit states. These include persistent, transient or accidental situations. In each design
situation the structures should be verified at the relevant limit states.

In the analysis of the structure at the limit state being considered, the maximum effect of actions
should be obtained using a realistic arrangement of loads. Generally variable actions should be
arranged to produce the most unfavorable effect, for example to produce maximum overturning
moments in spans or maximum bending moments in supports.

For building structures, design concentrates mainly on the ULS, the ultimate limit state of
strength (STR), and SLS, the serviceability limit state. However, it is essential that all limit states
are considered. The limit states of equilibrium (EQU), strength at ULS with geotechnical actions
(STR/GEO) and accidental situations must be taken into account as appropriate.

1.4.1.1. Load Arrangement of Actions: In relation to Influence Lines

Figure 1-8 – One-way slab and continuous beam

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The largest moment in continuous beams or one-way slabs or frames occur when some spans are
loaded and the others are not. Influence lines are used to determine which spans should be loaded
and which spans should not be to find the maximum load effect.

Figure 1-9a shows influence line for moment at B. The loading pattern that will give the largest
positive moment at consists of load on all spans having positive influence ordinates. Such
loading is shown in Figure 1-9b and is called alternate span loading or checkerboard loading.

The maximum negative moment at C results from loading all spans having negative influence
ordinate as shown in Figure 1-9d and is referred as an adjacent span loading.

Figure 1-9 Influence line for moment and loading patterns

Similarly, loading for maximum shear may be obtained by loading spans with positive shear
influence ordinate and are shown in Figure 1-10.

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Figure 1-10 Influence line for shear

1.4.1.2. Load Arrangemnt of Actions: According Eurocode

In building structures, any of the following sets of simplified load arrangements may be used at
ULS and SLS. (EBCES EN 2004:2014 Section 5.1.2)

 The more critical of:

a) Alternative spans carrying γGGk+ γQQk with other spans loaded with γGGk and
b) Any two adjacent spans carrying γGGk+ γQQk
 Or the more critical of:
a) Alternative spans carrying γGGk+ γQQk with other spans loaded with γGGk and
b) Any two adjacent spans carrying γGGk+ γQQk

1.4.2. DESIGN OF CONTINUOUS BEAMS AND ONE WAY SLABS

After obtaining the maximum load effects, the design of continuous beams and one way slabs is
carried out as discussed in Reinforced Concrete Structures I course.

1.5. PLASTIC HINGES AND COLLAPSE MECHANISMS

If a short segment of a reinforced concrete beam is subjected to a bending moment, continued
plastic rotation is assumed to occur after the calculated ultimate moment Mu is reached, with no
change in applied moment. The beam behaves as if there were a hinge at that point. However, the
hinge will not be “friction free”, but will have a constant resistance to rotation.

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If such a plastic hinge forms in a determinate structure, as shown in Figure 1-11, an uncontrolled
deflection takes place and the structure will collapse. The resulting system is referred to as a
mechanism. This implies that a statically determinate system requires the formation of only one
plastic hinge in order to become a mechanism.

Figure 1-11 – Determinate structure

If the structure is statically indeterminate, it is still stable after the formation of a plastic hinge,
and for further loading, it behaves as a modified structure with a hinge at the plastic hinge
location (and one less degree of indeterminacy). It can continue to carry additional loading (with
formation of additional plastic hinges) until the limit state of collapse is reached on account of
one of the following reasons:

 formation of sufficient number of plastic hinges, to convert the structure (or a part of it)
into a ‘mechanism’;

 Limitation in ductile behavior (i.e., curvature ϕ reaching the ultimate value ϕmax, or, in
other words a plastic hinge reaching its ultimate rotation capacity) at any one plastic
hinge location, resulting in local crushing of concrete at that section.

For illustration let us see the behavior of an indeterminate beam of Figure 1-12. It will be
assumed for simplicity that the beam is symmetrically reinforced, so that the negative bending
capacity is the same as the positive. Let the load P be increased gradually until the elastic
moment at the fixed support, 3PL/16 is just equal to the plastic moment capacity of the section,
Mu. This load is

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At this load the positive moment under the load is PL, as shown in Figure 1-12.

Figure 1-12 – Indeterminate Structures

The beam still responds elastically everywhere but at the left support. At that point the actual
fixed support can be replaced for purpose of analysis with a plastic hinge offering a known
resisting moment Mu, which makes the beam statically determinate.

The load can be increased further until the moment under the load also becomes equal to Mu, at
which load the second hinge forms. The structure is converted into a mechanism, as shown in
Figure 1-12(c), and collapse occurs. The moment diagram at collapse is shown in Figure 1-12(d).

The magnitude of the load causing collapse is easily calculated from the geometry of Figure
1-12(d).

(7)

From which

(8)

By comparison, it is evident that an increase of 12.5% is possible beyond the load which caused
the formation of the first plastic hinge, before the beam will actually collapse. Due to the
formation of plastic hinges, a redistribution of moments has occurred such that, at failure, the

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ratio between positive moment and negative moment is equal to that assumed in reinforcing the
structure.

1.6. ROTATION CAPACITY

It may be evident that there is a direct relation between the amount of redistribution desired and
the amount of inelastic rotation at the critical sections of a beam required to produce the desired
redistribution. In general, the greater the modification of elastic-moment ratio, the greater the
required rotation capacity to accomplish that change. Thus the designer adopting the limit/plastic
analysis in concrete must calculate the inelastic rotation capacity it undergoes at plastic-hinge
locations.

One way to calculate this rotation capacity is making use of the moment-curvature relationship
established for a given section. But his plastic rotation is not confined to one cross section but is
distributed over a finite length referred to as the hinging length  l p  .

The total inelastic rotation  s can be found by multiplying the average curvature by the hinging
length:

 Mult  (9)
s   kult  k yd  l p
 M yd
 
where

kult Curvature at the ultimate point of the moment curvature diagram

k yd Curvature at the yield point of the moment curvature diagram
Mult moment at the ultimate point of the moment curvature diagram
M yd moment at the yield point of the moment curvature diagram
lp  1.2h
In which z is the distance from the point of maximum moment to the nearest point
of zero moment

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Figure 1-13 – Plastic rotation of  s of reinforced concrete sections for continuous beams and
continuous one way spanning slabs

According to section 5.6.3 of EBCS EN 2004:2014, verification of the plastic rotation in the
ultimate limit state is considered to be fulfilled, if it is shown that under the relevant action, the
calculated rotation,  s , is less than or equal to the allowable plastic rotation,  pl ,d

In the simplified procedure, the allowable plastic rotation may be determined by multiplying the
basic value of allowable rotation by a correction factor k  that depends on the shear slenderness.
The recommended basic value of allowable rotation, for steel classes B and C (the use of Class A
steel is not recommended for plastic analysis) and concrete strength classes less than or equal to
C50/60 and C90/105 are given in Figure 1-14.

Figure 1-14 – Allowable plastic rotation,  pl ,d , of reinforced concrete sections for Class B and C
reinforcement.

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The values in Figure 1-14 apply for a shear slenderness   3.0 . For different values of shear
slenderness  pl ,d should be multiplied by k  .

k   3 (10)
Where:

 is the ratio of the distance between point zero and maximum moment after redistribution and
effective depth, d. As a simplification  may be calculated for the concordant design values of
the bending moment and shear.   Msd Vsd d 

1.7. MOMENT REDISTRIBUTION

Statically indeterminate structures made of reinforced concrete like fixed ended one span beams,
continuous beams and frames are designed considering internal forces like bending moment,
shear force and axial thrust obtained from structural analysis. Either one or several sections of
these structures may have peak values of the internal forces, which are designated as critical
sections. These sections are dimensioned and reinforced accordingly. Flexural members,
however, do not collapse immediately as soon as the loads at a particular section cause bendding
moment exceeding the maximum resisting moment capacity of that section. Instead, that section
starts rotating at almost constant moment. This is known as formation of plastic hinge at that
section reaching its maximum resisting moment capacity. The section then transfers loads to
other sections if the applied loads are further increased. This process continues till the structures
have plastic hinges at sufficient sectins to form a failure mechanism when it actually collapses.
However, significant transfer of loads has occurred before the collapse of the structure. This
transfer of loads after the formation of first plastic hinge at section having the higest bending
moment till the collapse of the structure is known as redistribution of moments. By this process,
therefore, the structure continues to accommodate higher loads before it collapses.

The elastic bending moment diagram prior to the formation of first plastic hinge and the final
bending moment diagram just before the collapse are far different. The ratio of the negative to
positive elastic bending moments is no more valid. The development of plastic hinges depends
on the available plastic moment capacity at critical sections. It is worth mentioning that the
redistribution of moment is possible if the section forming the plastic hinge has the ability to
rotate at constant moment, which depends on the amount of reinforcement actually provided at
that section. The section must be under-reinforced and should have sufficient ductility.

This phenomenon is well known in steel structures. However, the redistribution of moment has
also been confirmed in reinforced concrete structure by experimental investigations. It is also a
fact that reinforced concrete structures have comparatively lower capacity to rotate than steel
structures. yet, this phenomenon is drawing the attention of the designers. Presently, design
codes of most of the countries allow the redistribution up to a maximum limit because of the
following advantages:

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1) It gives a more realistic picture of the actual load carrying capacity of the indeterminate
structure.
2) Structures designed considering the redistribution of moment (though limited) would
result in economy as the actual load capacity is higher than that we determine from any
elastic analysis.
3) The designer enjoys the freedom of modifying the design bending moments within limits.
These adjustments are sometimes helpful in reducing the reinforcing bars, which are
crowded, especially at locations of high bending moment.

The choice of the bending moment diagram after the redistribution should satisfy the equilibrium
of internal forces and external loads. Moreover, it must ensure the following:

1. The plastic rotations required at the critical sections should not exceed the amount the
sections can sustain.
2. The extent of cracking or the amount of deformation should not make the performance
unsatisfactory under service loads.

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