Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 1

Subject: Forensic Ballistics

Review Notes in Another significant area of ballistics is

FORENSIC BALLISTICS wound ballistics. Closely associated with
terminal ballistics, wound ballistics is however
primarily concerned with the nature and
I. INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
medical implications of physical injury and
The term ballistics evolved from two shock caused by bullets and explosively driven
ancient words: ‘ballista’ and ‘ballein’. Ballista fragments.
was the description of a huge catapult (an
Forensic ballistics is the more important
ancient military weapon) used by the Romans
area of this science in relation to police works.
to hurl large stones at a particular distance to
It is the application of ballistics principles to
kill animals or to fight their enemies. Ballistics
legal matters. Forensic ballistics embodies the
basically means an activity that involves
principles of internal, transitional, external, and
throwing.
terminal ballistics.
In a technical sense, ballistics is the
B. DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
science of the motion of projectiles from the
moment of firing until impact at the target. It 1. PROJECTILE - an object that can be
covers the scientific study of the propulsion fired or launched, such as bullet, artillery
(driving force), flight, and impact (destructive shell, or rocket; could be a metallic or
action) of projectiles. non-metallic object propelled from a
firearm
A. BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS
2. FIREARM - basically termed as a gun; a
1. Internal ballistics, also called initial portable weapon such as pistol or rifle
ballistics deals with the motion of a that discharges ammunition; technically,
projectile while it is still inside the gun. It it is a weapon consisting essentially of a
is the study focused on what happens metal tube that fires a projectile by using
inside the gun during firing. the force of an explosive propellant; a
2. Transitional ballistics, also known as
firearm is an instrument used for the
intermediate ballistics, is the study of a
projectile's behavior from the time it propulsion of projectiles by means of the
leaves the muzzle until the pressure expansive force of gases coming from
behind the projectile is equalized. burning gunpowder
Therefore, it lies between internal
ballistics and external ballistics. Legally speaking, firearms or
3. External ballistics deals with the motion arms include rifles, muskets, carbines,
of the projectile from the time it escapes shotguns, pistols, revolvers, and other
from the gun muzzle until it reaches the deadly weapons from which bullets,
target. It is the study of what happens balls, shots, shells, or other missiles
during the bullet's flight.
4. Terminal ballistics deals with the effect of maybe discharged by means of
the projectile on the target. It is the study gunpowder or other explosives. This
of what happens when the projectile term also includes air rifles except those
strikes the target. of small caliber and of limited range that
are used as toys. The barrel of any
firearm is considered a complete firearm
for all purposes under the law.

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Subject: Forensic Ballistics

3. AMMUNITION - general term applied to D. EXTERNAL BALLISTICS

metallic cartridges and shot shells used
in firearms; any unfired assembly of Trajectory, velocity and range of
primer, powder and ball which might be projectiles are the more important ballistics
used in a firearm phenomena studied by exterior ballisticians.
More significant factors that affect these
Legally speaking, ammunition external ballistics phenomena are as follows:
refers to any loaded shell for rifles,
muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, 1. Interior ballistics data such as: shape
of projectile, caliber of the projectile,
and pistols, from which a bullet, ball,
projectile weight, and rotation of bullet
shot, shell, or other missile may be fired 2. Initial velocity (IV) which also called
by means of gunpowder or other muzzle velocity
explosive. The term also includes 3. Air resistance also called drag
ammunition for air rifles, except those 4. Drift
that are loaded in toy rifles that have 5. Projectile stability
small caliber and limited range. 6. Gravitational pull

4. PROPELLANT - an explosive charge

that projects a bullet from a gun; the
gunpowder loaded in a cartridge or TRAJECTORY refers to the curved path
shotgun shell which, when ignited by the of projectile from the moment it leaves the gun
primer flash, is converted to gas under muzzle until it hits the target. Galileo claimed
high pressure and launches a projectile that trajectory of projectile is like a parabola
through the barrel and on to the target however this is true only in a vacuum.

5. RIFLING - spiral lands and grooves DRIFT significantly affects the normal
found at the bore of the gun barrel trajectory of projectiles. It refers to the lateral
deviation of the bullet’s trajectory from the
vertical plane through the axis of the bore
caused by the rotation of the projectile.
C. INTERNAL BALLISTICS
RANGE simply refers to the linear
Since internal ballisticians are interested on
distance between the gun muzzle and the
what is happening inside the gun during
target. In exterior ballistics, the two types of
firing, their analysis is directed on the
range discussed are:
following phenomena:
1. Accurate range - also called maximum
1. How the firing pin hits the primer
effective range; the distance within which
2. Ignition of the priming mixture
the shooter has control of his shots such
3. Combustion of the
that he can place his bullets at the desired
gunpowder/propellant
specific spots.
4. Expansion of heated gases
5. Development of pressure –
2. Maximum range - also called absolute
generation of energy
maximum range; the farthest distance that
6. Recoil
a projectile can be propelled from a firearm
7. Velocity of the bullet in the barrel
8. Rotation of the bullet in the barrel
9. Engraving of the bullet’s surface
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Subject: Forensic Ballistics

AIR RESISTANCE (drag) is the force was clamped in the top of a device
that opposes the forward motion of projectiles. called serpentine - an S-shaped piece
of metal pivoted in the center
3. WHEEL-LOCK - has improved firing
mechanism compared to firelock and
E. TERMINAL BALLISTICS matchlock; the firing mechanism
consisted of a spring-driven wheel
Terminal ballisticians are involved in 4. FLINTLOCK - the final development of
studying these phenomena: the flint-ignition firearm. It resembled
the snaphance, except that the striker
1. Terminal penetration - the depth of plate was L-shaped. The bottom limb
bullet penetration on the target of the L was used as a cover for the
2. Terminal energy - the striking priming pan, to protect the powder from
power/force of the projectile when its moisture until the upper limb was struck
strikes the target. by the flint of the hammer.
3. Terminal velocity - the speed of the
projectile when it strikes the target
4. Terminal accuracy - the size of the In 1807, the Scottish clergyman
bullet group on the target named Alexander John Forsyth invented
the percussion-ignition system that led to
the development of the first effective
When a projectile hits its target, terminal
breech-loading firearms. Breech-loading
ballistics phenomenon that occurs may be
firearms are those loaded through the rear
one or a combination of the following:
of the barrel rather than through the
1. Indentation muzzle. The first 19th-century breech-
2. Penetration loading guns used cartridge containing only
3. Perforation black powder and a ball. Such weapons
4. Ricochet was usually equipped with a nipple holding
5. Fragmentation a percussion cap that was fired by the
6. Detonation and other related blast
impact of the hammer (or striker) when
phenomena
7. Combustion and incendiary effects released by the trigger.

During the early 20th century,

II. FIREARMS before World War I, rifles were invented
that used the forces of recoil or the
A. HISTORY pressure of the propellant gases to operate
the reloading mechanism. Some of these
The first firearms that were developed
improved weapons fed with continuous
were small arms in the form of miniature
belts of cartridges were called machine
artillery weapons and were at first called hand
guns. The first known true machinegun
cannons. These are classified as follows.
was the Maxim gun developed by an
1. FIRELOCK - a simple, smooth-bore American inventor named Hiram Stevens
tube of iron, closed at the breech end Maxim.
except for an opening called a
touchhole. It was set into a rounded The earlier versions of automatic
piece of wood for holding under the arm rifles are called semiautomatic because
2. MATCHLOCK - essentially the same as they reload and re-cock automatically after
the firelock, except that the slow match each shot, and require release and another
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Subject: Forensic Ballistics

pull of the trigger to fire each succeeding construction. Basing on interior

shot. One of the more popular construction of the barrel, the two general
semiautomatic rifles that were used during types of firearms are:
the 2nd World War was the caliber 30 M1
Garand rifle developed by John C. Garand. 1. Smooth-bore firearms (or simply
smoothbores)
This rifle was officially adopted by the US
2. Rifled-bore guns (or simply rifled
military in January 9, 1936 as the first guns/firearms)
automatic rifle to be the standard infantry
arm of a major army.
Smoothbores are those that do not have
It was during the 2nd World War that rifling inside their barrels. The interior
military troops such as artillerymen, surface of their bore is smooth from end to
engineers, and signalmen were armed with end. On the other hand, rifled guns are
the M1 Carbine. The first known carbine those that have spiral lands and grooves at
was developed by David Williams a.k.a the bore (interior surface of their barrel).
Carbine. M1 Carbine was considerably Almost all modern pistols, revolvers and
lighter and has shorter range compared to rifles have rifling while most muskets and
rifle thus it is more suited to occasional use shotguns do not have.
for defense.
Small arms maybe classified according to
In 1957, the M14 rifle was adopted barrel length. Small arms could either have
by the US Army to replace the M1 carbine. long or short barrels. Long-barreled
The M16 rifle, which permits full- or semi- weapons are designed for long-range
automatic fire, was introduced in 1966, shooting while short-barreled guns are
during the Vietnam War. accurate only at relatively short ranges. All
shoulder firearms and high-caliber
machineguns fall under long-barreled
B. CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS
weapons. On the other hand, pistols,
According to the caliber of projectiles revolvers and submachine guns are
propelled, the two main types of firearms classified as short-barreled weapons.
are artillery and small arms.
Small arms can be categorized also
1. Artillery - firearms that propel according to general use and design.
projectiles with diameter of more Based on this, small arms can be classified
than one inch; large-caliber guns as handguns, shoulder firearms, machine
such as mortars, bazookas and guns, and sub-machine guns.
howitzers, including cannons.
2. Small arms - portable weapons that Another basis in classifying small arms is
developed from artillery and
the mechanical construction of the loading
cannons; this group usually
includes rifles, carbines, muskets, and firing mechanism. The types of
shotguns, revolvers, pistols, and firearms according to mechanical
submachine guns construction are as follows:

1. Single-shot firearms: These are

Another way to classify firearms is guns designed to fire only one shot
according to gun barrel internal for every loading.

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Subject: Forensic Ballistics

2. Bolt-action type: Firearms of this 2. Double-action type – the type that

type are usually classified also as does not need manual cocking;
single-shot types. Reloading is pressing the trigger both cocks and
done by manual manipulation of the releases the hammer causing a
bolt. more rapid manner of firing
3. Repeating firearms: These are
weapons that are capable of firing
several shots in one loading since Shoulder firearms are those normally fired
they are equipped with semi- at shoulder level using both hands. This
automatic firing mechanism. group of firearms includes the following:
4. Automatic-loading type: These are
rapid-fire weapons since they are 1. Muskets
equipped with full-automatic firing 2. Rifles
mechanism. After the first shot, the 3. Carbines
chamber is automatically fed with 4. Shotguns
new cartridge.
5. Slide-action type: Firearms of this
type are capable of feeding the C. PARTS OF FIREARMS
chamber by the backward-forward
manipulation of the gun’s fore-end. The 4 basic mechanisms of firearm:
6. Lever-type: The loading takes
place by applying lever action gun’s 1. BARREL MECHANISM: This firearm
stock. This group of firearms is also mechanism is primarily composed
called break-type. of a metallic tube that initiates the
path of the bullet. It includes the
front sign, flash suppressor and
From the very start, handguns were other attachments. The interior
designed as compact weapons for self- surface of the barrel may be smooth
defense. There are two general groups of or rifled. Revolvers, pistols, rifles,
handguns: machine guns and submachine
guns have rifled barrels while
1. revolvers common shotguns have smooth-
2. pistols bore barrels.
2. CHAMBER: This is a widened hole at
the breech end of the barrel. The
Pistols refer to small portable firearm that chamber serves to contain the
can be held, aimed, and fired with one cartridge while it is properly
positioned for firing.
hand. They have a short barrel (not longer 3. BREECH MECHANISM: This
than one foot) with a lock-and-load firing mechanism closes the rear end of
mechanism at the breech area. the barrel, holding the cartridge in
the chamber. All modern small
One way to classify revolver is according to arms have some way by which the
mechanical firing action. Based on this, breech can be opened for loading
revolvers can be classified as: and locked for safety. Most small
arms usually have a metal cylinder
1. Single-action type - revolvers that called bolt that is locked when the
need manual cocking of the gun is fired. This is drawn back to
hammer before squeezing the eject the empty cartridge case and
trigger to reload.

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Subject: Forensic Ballistics

4. FIRING MECHANISM: In most serves as the magazine as well

firearms, the firing mechanism as chamber for cartridges
consists mainly of the firing spin, Ejector - the mechanism that throws the
hammer, sear, and trigger. For empty shell (cartridge case)
hammerless firearms, a spring from the firearm
drives the firing pin through the Extractor - the mechanism that pulls the
breech bolt against the primer of the empty shell from the chamber
cartridge. The firing pin is cocked Forearm - also called for-end; the part of
(drawn back) against a hook called the stock under the barrel held
the sear. When the trigger is by one hand of the shooter to
pulled, the sear releases the firing maintain proper balance of the
pin, which in turn strikes the primer. gun while firing
Some machineguns have firing Frame - also called receiver, the part of
mechanism activated by a small the gun that houses the internal
amount of electricity. parts; the body of a firearm to
which the barrel, stock, pistol
grip, sights, etc. are fixed and
Functions of the standard parts of common within which lies the firing and
firearms: breech mechanism
Grip - the smaller part of the stock
 Part Description/Purpose behind the trigger guard (for
Action - the main operating mechanism rifles and shotguns); the part of
of a firearm that loads, fires, the gun firmly held the shooter
and ejects the cartridge thus stabilizing the aim while
Barrel - gives direction to the bullet; the squeezing the trigger;
part of the gun that initiates the Hammer - the part of the firing mechanism
path of the bullet in revolvers and some pistol
Breech - the part of the barrel at the that is released by the sear or
opposite end of the muzzle the main spring once the trigger
Breech- - also known as the bolt, it is the is pressed; it strikes the firing
block steel block that closes the pin causing the pin to move
breech against the force of the forward and hit the primer
charge during firing; the face of Magazin - a device for storing cartridges in
this block which comes in e a repeating firearm for loading
contact with the base of the into the chamber
cartridge is the breech-face Main - the spring in a pistol or revolver
Butt - the part of the stock which is spring which propels the hammer
held against the shoulder to Muzzle - the end of the front end of the
stabilize the gun during firing barrel where the bullet or pellet
(for rifles and shotguns) exits
Chambe - the part of the bore into which a Front - the fixed sight on top of the
r cartridge is placed; the sight barrel near the muzzle used to
enlarged space at the breech of aim the gun at the target
the barrel where the cartridge is Rear - the sight found at the top of the
fed sight breech area; this sight can be
Choke - the constriction in smoothbore moved to change where the
barrels designed to cause the bullet will hit
shot to leave the bore in a more Recoil - the spring in automatic or self-
dense pattern and retain this spring loading weapons which returns
pattern for longer range the bolt or breech block after
Cylinder - the part of the revolver that recoil; sometimes known as the
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return spring
Trigger - the part of the gun that initiates 1. Bullet - also called slug; the projectile
the action when the shooter is propelled from a firearm by means of
ready to fire his weapon the expansive force of gases coming
Trigger - the safety device designed to from burning gunpowder
Guard protect the trigger from 2. Cartridge Case - also called shell; is the
accidental bumping or pressing tubular metallic container for the
that may result to accidental gunpowder
firing 3. Propellant - the powder charge
Safety - the gun mechanism that intended to be burned thus generating
prevents the firearm from firing; an energy that will launch the bullet
it may be a button, moveable 4. Primer - also called percussion;
pin, lever, thumb hammer or composed of the metal cup and priming
sliding plate mixture which is highly sensitive
Note: A hard blow or dropping
the firearm could still cause it to The other specific parts of a cased center-
fire. Always have your safety fire cartridge are as follows:
on until ready to shoot. 1. Head stamp
Sear - the part of the firing 2. Primer cup
mechanism, linked to the 3. Priming mixture
trigger, which engages with the 4. Anvil
hammer or striker against 5. Flash hole – vent
spring pressure and, when 6. Rim
pulled clear by trigger action, 7. Extractor groove – true only to pistol
allows firing and rifle cartridges
Stock - the wooden, plastic, or metal 8. Brass case
frame that holds the barrel and 9. Shoulder – true only to rifle cartridges
action; used to get and keep 10. Neck – true only to rifle cartridges
the aim of the shooter; it helps 11. Crimp
in absorbing the recoil when 12. Cannelure – lubricant grooves
firing 13. Metal jacket
Striker - alternative term for the firing pin 14. Lead core
when that firing pin is axially 15. Nose / tip
mounted and spring propelled
inside the bolt
General Types of Ammunition:

III. AMMUNITION 1. Dummy - a carefully made replica of a

cartridge, usually made of steel and
Technically, the term cartridge is used discreetly dimensioned to be used by
to describe a complete unfired unit consisting weapons instructors, inspectors and
of bullet, cartridge case, propellant (gun
repairmen when checking if weapons
powder), and primer. Ammunition for large
are functional
caliber guns (such as artillery) is called shell,
2. Drill ammo - completely inert and
ammunition for rifles and handguns is usually
without an explosive propellant; used in
called cartridge.
military training to practice loading and
manipulation of firearms
Parts of Standard Ammunition for Small 3. Blank ammo - a cartridge without a
Arms: bullet; may contain gunpowder and
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priming mixture thus designed to has three important functions, which are as
produce gunshot to indicate firing; used follows:
for theatrical performance and military
1. to hold the bullet, gunpowder and
training primer thus assembling them as one
4. Live ammo - the real ammunition since unit;
it is composed of a complete unit of 2. to serve as waterproof container for
unfired cartridge the gunpowder; and
3. to act as ‘gas seal’ at the breech end
Classification of cartridges according to of the barrel during firing.
location of primer:
1. Pin-fire cartridge
2. Rim-fire cartridge Standard cartridges of center-fire
3. Center-fire cartridge - This is the type of ammunitions have a shell that is usually
cartridge mostly used today. The made of brass - 70% copper and 30% zinc.
primer cup is centrally placed at the Some other special cartridges are coated
base of the cartridge. The priming with of plastic varnish, zinc, copper or
mixture is exploded by the impact of the
tungsten. Some are made of plastic and
firing on the primer cup which is
supported by the anvil. hard paper, such as the tubes for shotgun
shell.
Some books mention two other early types
of cartridges under this category: the tit-fire Types of Cartridge Case according to
cartridge and tail-fire cartridge. Just like Shape:
needle-fire cartridge, these are no longer
manufactured today. 1. Straight case - true to pistol and
revolver ammunition; the casing of all
Classification of Cartridges according to rimmed-cartridges for revolvers and
Rim: all center-fire pistol ammo that are
1. Rimmed cartridge now manufactured
2. Semi-rimmed cartridge 2. Bottleneck case - always true to rifle
3. Rimless cartridge ammunition; the casing of most
4. Rebated cartridge modern center-fire rifle ammo; the
5. Belted cartridge type of shell that provides the
greatest power capacity
Classification of Cartridges according to commensurate with over-all case
Power: length
3. Tapered case - an obsolete type; very
1. Low-power cartridge - fires a rare but presently being used in
projectile with a muzzle velocity of magnum jet cartridge of caliber .22
less than 1,850 fps firearms
2. High-power cartridge - fires a
projectile with a muzzle velocity bet’n
1,925 & 2,500 fps PRIMER of center-fire cartridges refers to a
3. High-intensity cartridge - has muzzle small metallic ignition cup at the center of
velocity of more than 2,500 fps the cartridge base. The primer is designed
in such manner that once the priming
CARTRIDGE CASE for small arms mixture is compressed, it undergoes rapid
ammunition is also called shell and casing. combustion thus producing flame or sparks
The cartridge case of center-fire ammunition

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to ignite the propellant loaded in the barrel and launched it to fly towards a
cartridge case. Parts of the primer are: target.

1. Primer cup - the container of the Most historians agree that it was the
priming mixture; composed of brass Chinese alchemists who first developed the
and copper or any other gilding black powder sometime in the 9th century
metal
during the Han Dynasty. The formula for
2. Anvil - a thin but rigid metal strip
where the priming mixture is black powder first appeared in the writings
crushed once the firing pin strikes of the 13th-century English monk Roger
the primer cup Bacon.
3. Primer pocket - the space at the
center bottom of the shell where the Berthold Schwarz, a German monk of the
primer cup, priming mixture and early 14th century whose real name is
anvil occupy Constantin Anklitzen, may have been the
4. Disc - small piece of paper or disc first person to employ gunpowder for
of tin foil which is pressed over the propelling a projectile.
priming mixture
5. Priming mixture - the chemical Black powder can be prepared following
component of the primer
this optimum proportion:

1. 11.85% sulfur: This is main fuel

Types of Primer:
component of the gun powder.
2. 74.64% saltpeter: Scientifically
1. Berdan type - the European type
known as KNO3 (potassium nitrate),
invented by Hiram Berdan; the
saltpeter provides oxygen to the
anvil, which is actually a part of the
reaction.
cartridge case, is sticking out from
3. 13.51% carbon
the center of two or three flash
holes
2. Boxer primer - the American type
In 1886, Paul Vieille in France developed
which is also called separate anvil
type. the first smokeless gunpowder called
Poudre B. In 1887, Alfred Nobel also
developed smokeless gunpowder which he
The GUNPOWDER is a chemical called ‘ballistite’. Nobel’s gun powder is
substance of varied compositions, sizes, composed of 40% nitroglycerine and 60%
shapes, and colors that function as nitrocellulose, a powder easier to handle
propellant. Although it burns rapidly upon and more powerful than Poudre B.
ignition, it is classified as low-explosive
mixture. There are two main types of The term smokeless powder is a misnomer
gunpowder: the black powder and the so- for this propellant is neither a powder nor
called smokeless powder. Almost all smokeless. Most smokeless powder used
modern guns use smokeless powder. as propellant appears as flakes. When
they are burned, they produce smoke but
Gunpowder serves as the source of energy not as many compared to huge cloud of
to propel a projectile. Once it is burned in a white smoke produced by black powder.
confined place, it produces large volume of
heated gasses that expand thus generating
energy capable of pushing through the gun
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The 4 Main Classes of Propellants: are characteristics that can be determined even
before the firearm is manufactured.
1. Single-based propellant: This is
composed of pure nitroglycerin The following are class characteristics of firearms
gelatinized with nitrocellulose. that can be determined in fired bullets:
2. Double-based propellant: This type is
composed of nitrocellulose and 1. Bore diameter
nitroglycerin mixed with any or all of the 2. Rifling pattern contained in the barrel of the
following minor ingredients: centralite, firearm
vaseline phathalate esters, and
inorganic salts. This type appears as Rifling pattern contained in the barrel of the firearm
gray-green to black in color and the consist of the following items.
grains are similar in size and shape to
single-based propellant. 1. Number of lands and grooves: The lands
3. Triple-based propellant: This is are the elevated portions in the bore
composed of three principal surface while the grooves are the canals or
ingredients, which are nitrocellulose, depressed areas. The number of lands
nitroglycerine, and nitroguanidine. This present in the bore is always equal to the
type of propellant was developed in number of grooves. The number may
attempting to compromise the low- range from 2 to 22 but usually 4 to 6.
power sing-based propellant and high- 2. Width of lands and grooves: In all kinds of
power but excessive heat of double rifling patterns, the grooves are always
base powders. Triple-based propellant wider than the lands.
contains small percentage of 3. Depth of grooves: This depth is equal to
nitroglycerin but sufficient to provide the height of the lands just after the gun is
added power manufactured but it becomes shallower as
4. HIT (high-ignition temperature) the firearm is used. It is measured in
Propellant: The main ingredient of this thousands of an inch or in millimeters.
class of propellant is the RDX 4. Direction of twist: Rifling either twist to the
(cyclonite) group of high explosives right or to the left. The direction initiates
the bearing of the gyroscopic action of the
projectile that passes through the bore.
The BULLET is a metallic or non-metallic 5. Pitch of rifling: This is also called degree of
cylindrical projectile propelled from a firearm by rifling twist. It simply refers to the distance
means of the expansive force of gasses coming (measured either in inches or centimeters)
traveled by the lands and grooves to
from burning gunpowder.
complete a single rotation (360 degrees).
One of the more important developments in the
history of the rifle bullet occurred in 1883, when Small arms can be identified according to rifling
a Swiss military major named Eduard class characteristics, otherwise called rifling pattern.
Alexander Rubin invented the small-caliber There are seven basic types of rifling pattern for
rifle, one of whose essential features was the small arms. Their class characteristics are as
employment of an elongated compound bullet, follows:
with a lead core in a copper jacket.
1. Steyr type - 4RG=L (or 4GLRHT)
meaning there are 4 lands and grooves
with equal width that twist to the right
IV. FIREARM CHARACTERISTICS direction
2. Carbine type - 4RG2X, which means
A. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS there are 4 lands and grooves that twist
to the right but the grooves are twice
Firearm class characteristics refer to intentional wider than the lands
or design characteristics that are common to a 3. Smith & Wesson type - 5RG=L (five
particular group or family of firearms. These lands and grooves with equal width that
twist to the right direction)
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4. Browning type - 6RG2X (six lands and 1. DRILLING: This is the process of
grooves, right hand twist, grooves twice making a hole from one end to another
wider than lands) end through the center of a steel rod.
5. Colt type - 6LG2X (6 lands and grooves The result of this stage is a rough hole
twist to the left direction and that with almost uniform diameter from end
grooves are twice wider than the lands) to end of the barrel.
6. Winchester type - 6RG3X (six lands 2. REAMING: This stage involves the
and grooves twist to the right, groove process of cleaning or uniformly
width is three times wider than the land) scrapping the interior surface of the
7. Webley type - 7RG3X (seven lands and barrel to achieve the desired bore
grooves with right twist, grooves are diameter. The reaming instrument
three times wider than the lands) removes the metal from the entire
surface because its diameter is slightly
larger than the driller.
B. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF 3. RIFLING: This stage is the process
FIREARMS necessary for making the helical
grooves inside the barrel. This stage
Firearm individual characteristics refer to produces a barrel with lands and
those characteristics of firearms that can be grooves at the interior surface. There
are four types of rifling technique being
determined only after a gun is
used today:
manufactured. For firearm examiners, 4. LAPPING: This is the process of
individual characteristics are marks polishing the inner surface of the gun
produced by the random imperfections or barrel. It simply involves rubbing the
irregularities of tool surfaces. These bore surface using a polishing
random imperfections or irregularities are compound to remove machining marks
unique in every firearm. and any tight spots in the rifling thus
making the bore’s surface
Specifically, sources of individual dimensionally uniform from end to end.
characteristics of firearms are the following:
No matter how long polish the interior
1. Wear and tear of the tools used in
manufacturing the firearm surface of the gun barrel is polished, minute
2. Corrosion or oxidation effect on the imperfections cannot be removed. These
metallic surface of firearm components macroscopic, and sometimes microscopic,
3. Wear and tear due to normal use imperfections are surface irregularities that
4. Damage due to improper operation and impart distinctive scratches on the bullet’s
handling/caring bearing surface. Such marks, usually
C. MAKING THE GUN BARREL
called by experts as striations, are the
Gun barrels are made of solid steel. There mechanical fingerprints of the gun which
are 2 classes of steel currently used in are found in fired bullets. These striations
making gun barrels: chrome molybdenum in the form of linear scratches are used as
steel and stainless steel. Chrome basis in identifying the specific weapon
molybdenum steel is mostly used in hunting where a particular bullet has been fired.
rifles and military firearms.
Firearm examiners must be sufficiently --------------------------------------------------------------
acquainted with the principal steps in
Source: Lecture notes of Mr. Chester D. King-eo
making the gun barrel. Knowledge on this
matter enables them to explain the source
of cause of marks found on bullets.
Manufacturing the gun barrel involves four
stages, which are as follows:

-criminator_budz