No.

In the Supreme Court of the United States

DONALD J. TRUMP, PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES,
ET AL., APPELLANTS

v.
STATE OF NEW YORK, ET AL.

ON APPEAL FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR

THE SOUTHERN DISTRICT OF NEW YORK

JURISDICTIONAL STATEMENT

JEFFREY B. WALL
Acting Solicitor General
Counsel of Record
JEFFREY BOSSERT CLARK
Acting Assistant Attorney
General
HASHIM M. MOOPPAN
Counselor to the Solicitor
General
SOPAN JOSHI
Senior Counsel to the
Assistant Attorney General
NICOLE FRAZER REAVES
BRINTON LUCAS
Assistants to the Solicitor
General
Department of Justice
Washington, D.C. 20530-0001
[email protected]
(202) 514-2217
 QUESTIONS PRESENTED
Congress has provided that, for purposes of appor-
tioning seats in the House of Representatives, the Pres-
ident shall prepare “a statement showing the whole
number of persons in each State * * * as ascertained
under the * * * decennial census of the population.”
2 U.S.C. 2a(a). It has further provided that the Secre-
tary of Commerce shall take the decennial census “in
such form and content as he may determine,” 13 U.S.C.
141(a), and shall tabulate the results in a report to the
President, 13 U.S.C. 141(b). The President has issued
a Memorandum instructing the Secretary to include
within that report information enabling the President
to implement a policy decision to exclude illegal aliens
from the base population number for apportionment “to
the maximum extent feasible and consistent with the
discretion delegated to the executive branch.” 85 Fed.
Reg. 44,679, 44,680 (July 23, 2020). At the behest of
plaintiffs urging that the exclusion of illegal aliens
would unconstitutionally alter the apportionment and
chill some persons from participating in the census, a
three-judge district court declared the Memorandum
unlawful and enjoined the Secretary from including the
information in his report. The questions presented are:
1. Whether the relief entered satisfies the require-
ments of Article III of the Constitution.
2. Whether the Memorandum is a permissible exer-
cise of the President’s discretion under the provisions
of law governing congressional apportionment.

(I)
 PARTIES TO THE PROCEEDING

Appellants (defendants in the district court) are Don-

ald J. Trump, in his official capacity as President of the
United States; the United States Department of Com-
merce; Wilbur L. Ross, Jr, in his official capacity as Sec-
retary of Commerce; the United States Census Bureau,
an agency within the United States Department of Com-
merce; and Steven Dillingham, in his official capacity as
Director of the United States Census Bureau.
Appellees are the State of New York; the State of Col-
orado; the State of Connecticut; the State of Delaware;
the District of Columbia; the State of Hawaii; the State of
Illinois; the State of Maryland; the Commonwealth of
Massachusetts; the State of Michigan; the State of Min-
nesota; the State of Nevada; the State of New Jersey; the
State of New Mexico; the State of North Carolina; the
State of Oregon; the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania; the
State of Rhode Island; the State of Vermont; the Com-
monwealth of Virginia; the State of Washington; the State
of Maine; the State of Wisconsin; the City of Central Falls;
the City of Chicago; the City of Columbus; the City of
New York; the City of Philadelphia; the City of Phoenix;
the City of Pittsburg; the City of Providence; the City and
County of San Francisco; the City of Seattle; the County
of Cameron; the County of El Paso; the County of Hi-
dalgo; the County of Monterey; Howard County; and the
United States Conference of Mayors (collectively, plain-
tiffs in the district court in No. 18-cv-5770).
Appellees also include the New York Immigration Co-
alition; CASA; the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination
Committee; ADC Research Institute; Make the Road
New York, Casa; FIEL Houston, Inc.; and AHRI for Jus-
tice (collectively, plaintiffs in the district court in No. 20-
cv-5781).

(II)
 RELATED PROCEEDINGS
United States District Court (S.D.N.Y.) (three-judge
district court):
State of New York v. Trump, No. 18-cv-5770 (Sept.
10, 2020)
The New York Immigration Coalition v. Trump, No.
20-cv-5781 (Sept. 10, 2020)
United States Court of Appeals (2d Cir.):
State of New York v. Trump, No. 20-2630 (Aug. 10,
2020) (assigning three-judge district court)
State of New York v. Trump, No. 20-3142 (notice of
appeal filed Sept. 16, 2020)

(III)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Opinions below .............................................................................. 1
Jurisdiction .................................................................................... 1
Constitutional and statutory provisions involved...................... 2
Statement ...................................................................................... 2
Reasons for noting probable jurisdiction ................................... 8
I. Appellees fail to satisfy Article III’s requirements ... 12
II. The Presidential Memorandum does not violate
federal statutes governing the census and
apportionment ................................................................ 18
A. The district court’s holding that the
Memorandum requires using information
that is not based on the census contravenes
the statutory framework, longstanding
practice, and this Court’s decisions ....................... 18
B. The district court’s holding that the President
lacks any discretion to exclude illegal aliens
from the apportionment base conflicts with
text, history, and precedent ................................... 23
Conclusion ................................................................................... 34
Appendix A — District court opinion and order
(Sept. 10, 2020)............................................. 1a
Appendix B — District court final judgment and
permanent injunction (Sept. 10, 2020) .. 105a
Appendix C — District court notice of appeal
(Sept. 18, 2020)......................................... 108a
Appendix D — Court of appeals designation of the
three-judge panel pursuant to
28 U.S.C. § 2284(b) (Aug. 10, 2020)........ 110a
Appendix E — District court request to the chief judge
of the U.S. court of appeals for the
Second Circuit for appointment of a
three-judge panel pursuant to 28 U.S.C.
§ [2284](b) (Aug. 7, 2020) ........................ 112a
Appendix F — Constitutional and statutory provisions .... 117a

(V)
 VI

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES

Cases: Page

Arizonans for Official English v. Arizona,

520 U.S. 43 (1997) ............................................................... 12
Bas v. Steele, 2 F. Cas. 988 (C.C.D. Pa. 1818)..................... 27
Clapper v. Amnesty Int’l USA, 568 U.S. 398 (2013) .... 16, 17
Department of Commerce v. New York,
139 S. Ct. 2551 (2019) ................................................... 11, 17
 Department of Homeland Sec. v. Thuraissigiam,
140 S. Ct. 1959 (2020) ......................................................... 29
Franchise Tax Bd. v. Hyatt, 139 S. Ct. 1485 (2019) .......... 27
Franklin v. Massachusetts, 505 U.S. 788 (1992) ....... passim
Genesis Healthcare Corp. v. Symczyk,
569 U.S. 66 (2013) ............................................................... 14
Hall v. Hall, 138 S. Ct. 1118 (2018) ................................ 24, 32
Kaplan v. Tod, 267 U.S. 228 (1925) ................................ 30, 31
Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife, 504 U.S. 555 (1992) .... 12, 16
New York v. United States Dep’t of Commerce,
351 F. Supp. 3d 502 (S.D.N.Y.), aff ’d in part,
rev’d in part, and remanded, 139 S. Ct. 2551 (2019).... 4, 21
O’Shea v. Littleton, 414 U.S. 488 (1974) .............................. 14
Reno v. Flores, 507 U.S. 292 (1993) ..................................... 30
Steel Co. v. Citizens for a Better Env’t,
523 U.S. 83 (1998) ............................................................... 15
Susan B. Anthony List v. Driehaus, 573 U.S. 149
(2014) .................................................................................... 12
The Venus, 12 U.S. (8 Cranch) 253 (1814) ........................... 28
United States v. Munsingwear, Inc., 340 U.S. 36
(1950) .................................................................................... 15
United States Dep’t of Commerce v. Montana,
503 U.S. 442 (1992).............................................................. 18
 VII

Cases—Continued: Page
United States Steel Corp. v. Multistate Tax Comm’n,
434 U.S. 452 (1978)........................................................ 27, 28
Utah v. Evans, 536 U.S. 452 (2002).......................... 18, 22, 25
Warth v. Seldin, 422 U.S. 490 (1975) ................................... 12
Wisconsin v. City of New York, 517 U.S. 1 (1996) ... 18, 19, 20

Constitution and statutes:

U.S. Const.:
Art. I, § 2, Cl. 3
(Apportionment Clause) ............................. 2, 7, 24, 25
Art. III ..................................................................... passim
Amend. XIV ..................................................... 7, 24, 25, 32
§ 2 ............................................................... 2, 24, 25, 28
Act of Mar. 1, 1790, § 1, 1 Stat. 101 ...................................... 25
Act of May 6, 1870, ch. 87, 16 Stat. 118................................ 25
Act of May 23, 1850, ch. 11, 9 Stat. 428................................ 25
2 U.S.C. 2a .................................................................. 7, 8, 119a
2 U.S.C. 2a(a) ....................................................... passim, 119a
13 U.S.C. 141 ............................................................................ 7
13 U.S.C. 141(a) ..................................................2, 19, 23, 121a
13 U.S.C. 141(b) ............................................................. 3, 121a
28 U.S.C. 2284(b) ..................................................................... 5
Miscellaneous:
Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess.:
(1865) ................................................................................ 32
(1866) ................................................................................ 25
Exec. Order No. 13,880, 84 Fed. Reg. 33,821
(July 16, 2019) ....................................................................... 5
Timothy Farrar, Manual of the Constitution of the
United States of America (1867) ....................................... 24
 VIII

Miscellaneous—Continued: Page
83 Fed. Reg. 5525 (Feb. 8, 2018) ............................................ 3
85 Fed. Reg. 44,679 (July 23, 2020) .............................. 4, 5, 29
Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the English
Language (6th ed. 1785):
Vol. 1 ................................................................................. 31
Vol. 2 ................................................................................. 31
Letter from John Adams to M. Dumas (Nov. 3, 1784),
reprinted in 8 John Adams & Charles Francis
Adams, The Works of John Adams, Second
President of the United States (1853) ............................... 26
Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary
(10th ed. 1997) ..................................................................... 28
The Federalist (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961)
(James Madison):
No. 42 .............................................................................. 28
No. 54 .............................................................................. 25
No. 56 .............................................................................. 25
No. 58 .............................................................................. 25
2 The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787
(Max Farrand ed., 1911)............................................... 24, 26
The White House, Statement from the Press Secre-
tary (Sept. 18, 2020), https://go.usa.gov/xGQh2 .............. 16
U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Dep’t of Commerce:
2020 Census Detailed Operational Plan for: 20.
Federally Affiliated Count Overseas Opera-
tion (FACO) (May 28, 2019),
https://go.usa.gov/xGR2r .......................................... 21
Press Release, Statement from U.S. Census Bu-
reau Director Steven Dillingham: Delivering
a Complete and Accurate 2020 Census Count
(Aug. 3, 2020), https://go.usa.gov/xGR2C.................. 4
 IX

Miscellaneous—Continued: Page
U.S. Immigration & Customs Enforcement, Fiscal
Year 2019 Enforcement and Removal Operations
Report (2019), https://go.usa.gov/xG8vT. ......................... 29
1 Emmerich de Vattel, The Law of Nations (1760) ..... 27, 32
1 Noah Webster, An American Dictionary of the
English Language (1828)............................................. 26, 30
Webster’s New International Dictionary of the
English Language (2d ed. 1942) ....................................... 31
In the Supreme Court of the United States
No.
DONALD J. TRUMP, PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES,
ET AL., APPELLANTS
v.
STATE OF NEW YORK, ET AL.

ON APPEAL FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR

THE SOUTHERN DISTRICT OF NEW YORK

JURISDICTIONAL STATEMENT

The Acting Solicitor General, on behalf of President

Donald J. Trump, et al., respectfully requests that the
Court note probable jurisdiction or summarily reverse
the judgment of the three-judge panel of the United
States District Court for the Southern District of New
York.
OPINIONS BELOW
The opinion of the three-judge district court (App.,
infra, 1a-104a) is not yet reported but is available at
2020 WL 5422959.
JURISDICTION
Under 28 U.S.C. 2284, a three-judge district court
was required to be convened because appellees’ suit
challenged on constitutional (and other) grounds the
President’s determination concerning standards for in-
cluding individuals in the apportionment base for reap-
portioning congressional districts. See App., infra,

(1)
 2

112a-114a; D. Ct. Doc. 34, at 39-41 (Aug. 3, 2020), D. Ct.

Doc. 62, at 64-67, 72-80 (Aug. 6, 2020). 1 The judgment
of the three-judge district court, which included a per-
manent injunction, was entered on September 10, 2020.
App., infra, 105a-107a. The government filed notices of
appeal on September 18, 2020. The jurisdiction of this
Court is invoked under 28 U.S.C. 1253. See Dothard v.
Rawlinson, 433 U.S. 321, 324 n.5 (1977); White v.
Regester, 412 U.S. 755, 760-761 (1973).
CONSTITUTIONAL AND STATUTORY
PROVISIONS INVOLVED
Pertinent constitutional and statutory provisions are
reproduced in the appendix to this pleading. App., in-
fra, 117a-121a.
STATEMENT
1. The Constitution provides that “Representatives
shall be apportioned among the several States accord-
ing to their respective numbers, counting the whole
number of persons in each State.” U.S. Const. Amend.
XIV, § 2. To make apportionment possible, the Consti-
tution requires the federal government to conduct an
“actual Enumeration” every ten years in “such manner
as” directed by Congress. Art. I, § 2, Cl. 3.
Congress, in turn, has directed the Secretary of
Commerce to conduct “a decennial census of population
* * * in such form and content as he may determine.”
13 U.S.C. 141(a). Following completion of the 2020 cen-
sus, by December 31, 2020, the Secretary must submit
to the President “[t]he tabulation of total population by
States * * * as required for the apportionment of Rep-
resentatives in Congress among the several States.”

1
All citations of district court documents are to those filed in No.
18-cv-5770.
 3

13 U.S.C. 141(b) (the Secretary’s report or the report).

By January 10, 2021, the President must “transmit to
the Congress a statement showing the whole number of
persons in each State * * * as ascertained under the
* * * decennial census of the population, and the num-
ber of Representatives to which each State would be en-
titled * * * by the method known as the method of
equal proportions.” 2 U.S.C. 2a(a).
While the President’s role in applying the equal-
proportions calculation to the apportionment popula-
tion base is ministerial, his role in determining the pop-
ulation base itself is not. As this Court has recognized,
“§ 2a does not curtail the President’s authority to direct
the Secretary in making policy judgments that result in
‘the decennial census.’ ” Franklin v. Massachusetts,
505 U.S. 788, 799 (1992). Notably, one such “judgment”
is whether a person should be deemed an “ ‘inhabitant’ ”
or “ ‘usual resident’ ” of a State, which is “the gloss” that
has historically been given to the constitutional and
statutory phrase “persons ‘in’ each State.” Id. at 803-
804, 806 (brackets and citations omitted).
The Census Bureau has promulgated criteria to enu-
merate most people for decennial census purposes “at
their usual residence,” which it defines as “the place
where they live and sleep most of the time.” 83 Fed.
Reg. 5525, 5533 (Feb. 8, 2018) (Residence Criteria).
“Citizens of foreign countries living in the United
States” are “[c]ounted at the U.S. residence where they
live and sleep most of the time.” Ibid. (emphasis omit-
ted). Foreign citizens visiting the United States (such
as individuals on a vacation or business trip) are not
counted under the Residence Criteria. Ibid. For the
2020 census, individuals are being enumerated through
(1) census-questionnaire responses online, by mail, or
 4

by phone; (2) in-person visits by enumerators; (3) proxy

responses given by individuals such as a neighbor or
landlord; (4) high-quality administrative records from
other federal agencies; and (5) potentially, imputed data
from the same area (used as a last resort to fill data
gaps). New York v. United States Dep’t of Commerce,
351 F. Supp. 3d 502, 521 (S.D.N.Y.), aff ’d in part, rev’d
in part, and remanded, 139 S. Ct. 2551 (2019).
Although field operations for the 2020 census were
originally scheduled to end on July 31, 2020, the Census
Bureau has extended field data collection through Sep-
tember 30, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. See
Press Release, U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Dep’t of Com-
merce, Statement from U.S. Census Bureau Director
Steven Dillingham: Delivering a Complete and Accu-
rate 2020 Census Count (Aug. 3, 2020), https://go.usa.
gov/xGR2C (Dillingham Statement). The Census Bu-
reau “intends to meet a similar level of household re-
sponses as collected in prior censuses, including out-
reach to hard-to-count communities.” Ibid. In separate
litigation, there are plaintiffs seeking to prevent the
Census Bureau from winding down its field operations
until October 31, 2020. See, e.g., National Urban
League v. Ross, No. 20-cv-5799 (N.D. Cal.).
2. On July 21, 2020, the President issued a Memo-
randum to the Secretary of Commerce regarding the
exclusion of illegal aliens from the apportionment pop-
ulation base determined under the 2020 census. 85 Fed.
Reg. 44,679 (July 23, 2020). The Memorandum states
that “it is the policy of the United States to exclude from
the apportionment base aliens who are not in a lawful
immigration status under the Immigration and Nation-
ality Act, as amended, to the maximum extent feasible
 5

and consistent with the discretion delegated to the ex-

ecutive branch.” Id. at 44,680 (citation omitted). The
Memorandum directs the Secretary to submit to the
President two tabulations in the Secretary’s report.
One is an enumeration “tabulated according to the
methodology set forth in” the Residence Criteria. Ibid.
The second consists of “information permitting the
President, to the extent practicable,” to carry out the
stated policy of excluding illegal aliens from the appor-
tionment “to the maximum extent of the President’s dis-
cretion under the law.” Ibid.
The Census Bureau is still evaluating the extent to
which, as a practical matter, administrative records
pertaining to immigration status can be used to identify
and exclude illegal aliens from the apportionment pop-
ulation count, see Exec. Order No. 13,880, 84 Fed. Reg.
33,821 (July 16, 2019), and is currently formulating a
methodology for potentially accomplishing that, see Dil-
lingham Statement (“A team of experts [is] examining
methodologies and options to be employed for this pur-
pose. The collection and use of pertinent administrative
data continues.”).
3. On July 24, 2020, appellees—a group of States
and localities and a separate group of non-profit
organizations—filed complaints challenging the Memo-
randum on various constitutional and statutory bases;
the district court consolidated the cases. See App., in-
fra, 4a, 20a-21a. At appellees’ request, a three-judge
district court was convened pursuant to 28 U.S.C.
2284(b). See App., infra, 21a, 110a-111a.
4. On September 10, 2020, the district court granted
partial summary judgment to appellees, held that the
Memorandum violates federal law, and entered declar-
atory and injunctive relief. App., infra, 1a-104a.
 6

a. The district court began by holding that appellees

satisfied Article III’s requirements to seek relief. App.,
infra, 24a-68a. Although the district court thought that
appellees’ first theory of harm from the Memorandum
—based on a hypothetical future change to apportionment
—was likely too speculative, it held that appellees had
standing based on their second theory of harm: that the
Memorandum would “chill” participation in the census.
Id. at 38a. The court concluded that “in the wake of the
Presidential Memorandum, some number of people will
not participate in, and thus not be counted in, the cen-
sus” because (1) various individuals are afraid of provid-
ing the federal government with information about their
citizenship status and (2) illegal aliens may see no rea-
son to participate if they think they ultimately may not
be counted. Id. at 47a; see id. at 30a-35a. The court
determined that this “chilling effect” would harm the
State and local government appellees by degrading cen-
sus data used for apportioning certain federal funds and
for other purposes, and was harming the non-profit or-
ganizations because they were diverting resources to
correct misunderstandings regarding the Memorandum.
Id. at 47a-59a. The court further held that those injuries
were fairly traceable to the Memorandum, rejecting the
government’s argument that the causal link was based
on disinformation about the Memorandum and general
fear among immigrant communities. Id. at 59a-63a.
The district court then concluded that a judgment in
appellees’ favor would redress their harm by “re-
duc[ing] to some extent their risk of suffering injuries
relating to the census.” App., infra, 65a (internal quo-
tation marks omitted). The court so held notwithstand-
ing that any person purportedly chilled by the Memo-
randum from responding to the census would not and
 7

could not know whether the court’s judgment prohibit-

ing the Secretary from complying with the Memoran-
dum would be reversed on appeal after the census re-
sponse period closed but before the Secretary actually
sent his report to the President. Id. at 67a-68a.
b. Turning to the merits, the district court held that
the Memorandum violates 2 U.S.C. 2a and 13 U.S.C. 141
by purportedly calling for an apportionment that is not
“based on the results of the census alone.” App., infra,
74a (capitalization and emphasis omitted). The court
read those statutes as requiring that the Secretary “re-
port a single set of numbers”—one tabulation of the to-
tal population of each State—based on “the data from
the decennial census,” and that “once the final decennial
census data is in hand, the President’s role is purely
ministerial.” Id. at 75a (citations and internal quotation
marks omitted). In the court’s view, the Memorandum
violates those requirements because the second re-
quested tabulation “will necessarily be derived from
something other than the census itself, as the 2020 cen-
sus is not gathering information concerning citizenship
or immigration status.” Id. at 78a. The court so held
notwithstanding that the Census Bureau has long used
administrative records, with this Court’s blessing, as
part of the decennial census. Id. at 81a n.15.
The district court also held that the Memorandum
violates 2 U.S.C. 2a(a) by purportedly “defining ‘the
whole number of persons in each State’ to categorically
exclude illegal aliens residing in each State.” App., in-
fra, 83a. The court recognized that this statutory phrase
is identical to the terms of the Fourteenth Amendment,
which in turn echoes language in Article I’s Apportion-
ment Clause, but it declined to examine the history of
 8

those constitutional provisions to determine the mean-

ing of their terms at the times they were adopted. Id.
at 87a. The court instead looked to what it perceived to
be legislators’ “understanding of the constitutional lan-
guage” in 1929, when Congress adopted 2 U.S.C. 2a.
App., infra, 87a. Relying largely on legislative history
concerning proposals to exclude all aliens from the ap-
portionment base, the court concluded that the Presi-
dent lacks “discretion to exclude illegal aliens on the ba-
sis of their legal status, without regard for their resi-
dency.” Id. at 92a; see id. at 87a-90a.
c. The district court determined that, because the
Memorandum violates federal law, the President’s ac-
tions were ultra vires and appellees are entitled to sum-
mary judgment. App., infra, 93a-94a. Finding the
permanent-injunction factors satisfied, id. at 94a-100a,
the court enjoined all defendants other than the Presi-
dent “from including in the Secretary’s report to the
President * * * any information concerning the num-
ber of aliens in each State ‘who are not in a lawful immi-
gration status,’ ” id. at 99a (citation omitted). The court
also entered a declaratory judgment stating that the
Memorandum is unlawful. Id. at 100a-102a.
REASONS FOR NOTING PROBABLE JURISDICTION
The district court erred in holding that appellees sat-
isfy Article III’s requirements and that the Memoran-
dum violates federal law. Its decision contravenes the
relevant statutes, this Court’s decisions, and historical
practice. If not promptly corrected, the decision will
harm the ability of the Secretary of Commerce to pro-
vide a complete report to the President by the Decem-
ber 31, 2020, statutory deadline. This Court should note
probable jurisdiction or summarily reverse.
 9

The district court erred at the outset in holding that

the relief awarded will likely redress a cognizable Arti-
cle III injury to appellees that is fairly traceable to the
Memorandum. There is a fundamental mismatch be-
tween the court’s award of relief in the future (prohib-
iting the Secretary from including information in his re-
port to the President) and a speculative present injury
(the Memorandum’s alleged “chilling effect” on partici-
pation in the census). Most important, and as the court
appeared to recognize (App., infra, 46a-47a), even as-
suming that the Memorandum is chilling participation
in the census, that alleged injury will no longer exist
once field data collection ends (currently scheduled for
September 30); the judgment thus will be moot before
it ever actually takes effect to constrain the Secretary’s
December 31 report. That alone is sufficient basis to
vacate the judgment, at least once field data collection
ends.
That defect underscores why the relief is not likely
to redress the asserted injury at all. Given that the re-
lief may be reversed for mootness or other reasons be-
fore the Secretary provides his report to the President,
it is implausible that it would provide sufficient cer-
tainty in the present to any person who otherwise would
be “chilled” by the Memorandum from participating in
the census. Neither appellees nor the court have pro-
vided a basis to find that there are any individuals, let
alone a material number, who would otherwise be de-
terred by the Memorandum but now are willing to par-
ticipate in the census, merely because of the court’s
judgment and despite the realistic prospect that it may
be reversed on appeal. Indeed, appellees have failed to
show that the Memorandum is actually causing a
“chilling effect” injury in the first place, as that alleged
 10

harm rests on a chain of contingencies that is far too

speculative and attenuated to satisfy Article III.
In any event, the district court also erred in its
merits holdings. Congress has vested discretion in the
Secretary to determine, subject to the President’s
supervision and direction, how to conduct the decennial
census—and the Executive Branch has long exercised
that discretion by considering administrative records
and data in addition to that obtained by the census
questionnaire. See Franklin v. Massachusetts, 505
U.S. 778, 794-795, 797-799 (1992). That is what the
Memorandum instructs the Secretary to do here. In
holding that this use of administrative records would
somehow cause the apportionment no longer to be
“based on the results of the census alone,” App., infra,
74a (capitalization and emphasis omitted), the district
court fundamentally misunderstood the statutory
framework governing the decennial census, subjected
the government to an unworkable and illogical standard
that has never before been imposed in the history of the
census, and contravened this Court’s precedent. Indeed,
the district court acknowledged that, in Franklin, “over-
seas personnel * * * were counted using administrative
records rather than a questionnaire,” id. at 81a n.15, yet
provided no coherent explanation as to why the use of
administrative records here is nevertheless impermis-
sible.
Similarly, under the constitutional and statutory
provisions governing apportionment, it has long been
understood that the phrase “persons in each State”
means “inhabitants” (or “usual residents”) and also
vests discretion in the Executive Branch to ascertain
how that indeterminate standard applies to particular
categories of persons with debatable ties to a State. See
 11

Franklin, 505 U.S. at 804-806. Here, there is ample his-

torical and structural evidence supporting the Presi-
dent’s policy determination that the standard does not
apply to all aliens living within a jurisdiction without the
sovereign’s permission to settle there. Contrary to the
district court’s conclusion, legislative history from 1929
does not establish the remarkable proposition that Con-
gress broke new ground by requiring the President to
include within the apportionment base for congres-
sional representation all aliens living in this country in
ongoing violation of federal law.
Because the district court’s erroneous judgment in-
terferes with the Secretary’s ability to meet the Decem-
ber 31, 2020, statutory deadline while executing the
President’s policy decision, this Court should summar-
ily reverse or note probable jurisdiction. For the same
reason, the government is separately filing a motion to
expedite the appeal, has sought a stay pending appeal
from the district court, D. Ct. Doc. 171 (Sept. 16, 2020),
and intends to seek a stay pending appeal from this
Court if the district court denies that request. 2

2
Although the three-judge district court was properly convened
and entered an appealable order, see pp. 1-2, supra, this Court could
avoid any questions in that regard by alternatively construing this
jurisdictional statement as a petition for a writ of certiorari before
judgment and granting it. Cf. Department of Commerce v. New
York, 139 S. Ct. 2551, 2565 (2019) (considering the inclusion of a cit-
izenship question on the census questionnaire after granting a writ
of certiorari before judgment); D. Ct. Doc. 170 (Sept. 16, 2020) (gov-
ernment’s protective notice of appeal to the U.S. Court of Appeals
for the Second Circuit); App., infra, 103a n.21 (district court like-
wise alternatively issuing its judgment as a single-judge court).
 12

I. APPELLEES FAIL TO SATISFY ARTICLE III’S

REQUIREMENTS
The decision below contains numerous Article III er-
rors that each independently justifies a reversal, and all
of which stem from a basic mismatch between the or-
dered remedy and the identified injury. Most im-
portant, the judgment will become moot before it ever
has any constraining legal effect on the government. As
discussed in more detail below, this alone is a sufficient
basis for summary reversal, and the related Article III
errors made by the district court confirm the need for
this Court’s prompt intervention.
A. Under Article III, a plaintiff must establish three
elements: (1) a concrete and particularized injury-in-
fact, either actual or imminent; (2) a fairly traceable
causal connection between the injury and defendants’
challenged conduct; and (3) a likelihood that the injury
will be redressed by a favorable decision. Lujan v.
Defenders of Wildlife, 504 U.S. 555, 560-561 (1992).
Where, as here, a plaintiff seeks prospective relief, the
injury element requires the plaintiff to demonstrate
that the alleged injury is “certainly impending,” or at
least that “there is a substantial risk that the harm will
occur.” Susan B. Anthony List v. Driehaus, 573 U.S.
149, 158 (2014) (citation and internal quotation marks
omitted). And the redressability element requires the
plaintiff to demonstrate that “prospective relief will
remove the harm” or that the plaintiff “personally
would benefit in a tangible way from the court’s
intervention.” Warth v. Seldin, 422 U.S. 490, 505, 508
(1975). Article III’s standing requirements must be
satisfied at the outset of the case and throughout the
entire litigation, including on appeal. Arizonans for
Official English v. Arizona, 520 U.S. 43, 67 (1997).
 13

B. The district court’s theory of Article III juris-

diction, see App., infra, 47a-59a, rests on a multi-step
sequence of events. First, appellees assert that there
are a material number of aliens who still have not res-
ponded to the census questionnaire but who would do so
before census field operations close were it not for the
“chilling effect” of the Memorandum—even though the
Memorandum does not purport to change the question-
naire or the field data-gathering process, the question-
naire is not collecting information on citizenship or
immigration status, and any data it does collect cannot
be shared with immigration enforcement. Second,
appellees assert that the lack of participation will not be
accounted for by other means during the census enu-
meration (for example, proxy responses given by other
individuals such as a neighbor or landlord, adminis-
trative records from other agencies, and possibly impu-
tation). Third, appellees assert that the degradation in
census data will have an appreciable adverse impact on
them with respect to funding, apportionment, or re-
districting. And finally, appellees assert that relief
prohibiting the Secretary from complying with the
Memorandum in his December 31 report to the Presi-
dent will likely redress the Memorandum’s “chilling
effect” on census participation before field operations
close—notwithstanding that such relief cannot current-
ly protect “chilled” individuals from the risk that the
relief may well be reversed on appeal before the Sec-
retary will send his report to the President.
That theory reflects a fundamental mismatch be-
tween the court’s award of relief in the future (prohib-
iting the Secretary from including information in his re-
port to the President) and a speculative present injury
 14

(the Memorandum’s alleged “chilling effect” on partici-

pation in the census). That mismatch gives rise to mul-
tiple independent Article III defects.
1. Most fundamentally, the district court’s judgment
will become moot before it ever goes into effect. Even
assuming that the Memorandum is chilling participa-
tion in the census, that asserted injury will necessarily
cease once census field data collection ends, as no one
will be responding to census questionnaires or follow-
up operations. But while the Census Bureau will end
field data collection on September 30, 2020 (or possibly
October 31, see p. 4, supra), the district court’s relief
will take effect only when it prohibits the Secretary
from including the requested information in his report
to the President on December 31.
Thus, before the relief awarded ever actually takes
effect to constrain the government’s conduct, there will
be no injury to redress at all—and no basis, at a mini-
mum, for continuing the relief past the conclusion of
census field operations. Cf. O’Shea v. Littleton, 414
U.S. 488, 495-496 (1974) (“Past exposure to illegal con-
duct does not in itself show a present case or contro-
versy regarding injunctive relief * * * if unaccompa-
nied by any continuing, present adverse effects.”). In-
deed, the district court itself recognized that once field
data collection “end[s],” appellees’ “arguments about
harms to the census count itself would * * * become
moot.” App., infra, 46a-47a; cf. Genesis Healthcare
Corp. v. Symczyk, 569 U.S. 66, 72 (2013) (“If an inter-
vening circumstance deprives the plaintiff of a personal
stake in the outcome of the lawsuit, at any point during
litigation, the action can no longer proceed and must be
dismissed as moot.”) (citation and internal quotation
marks omitted). Although the court nevertheless
 15

awarded relief based on those very harms, that inevita-

ble mootness will at the very least be sufficient basis to
vacate the court’s judgment. See United States v. Mun-
singwear, Inc., 340 U.S. 36, 37 (1950).
2. In addition, the fact that the district court’s relief
will inevitably become moot before it ever has any con-
straining legal effect on the government reveals a
deeper Article III problem. Absent “relief [that] will
redress the alleged injury” by altering a defendant’s un-
lawful conduct, the court’s legal determination is “the
same thing as an advisory opinion.” Steel Co. v. Citizens
for a Better Env’t, 523 U.S. 83, 101, 103 (1998). Here,
the court’s judgment will not and cannot provide re-
dress because any possible injuries will have been real-
ized well before the relief ever goes into effect. Indeed,
because the relief ultimately may well be reversed on
mootness or other grounds before the Secretary reports
to the President, it is implausible that the relief cur-
rently would provide sufficient comfort to any person
otherwise “chilled” by the Memorandum from partici-
pating in the census.
For the entire time field operations continue and
aliens have to make the choice about whether to respond
to the census, it will remain uncertain whether the relief
prohibiting the Secretary from complying with the
Memorandum will actually be in effect on December
31—because the order will remain under review on
appeal. Insofar as any alien has been chilled from
participating in the census by the Memorandum—
notwithstanding that the Memorandum in no way
penalizes participation—it is implausible that the
district court’s relief alone would be likely to eliminate
that chill. Any such alien would remain well aware that
the President still “intends to vindicate [his] policy
 16

determination before [this] Court” on appeal and then

“implement [that] policy decision” in his statement to
Congress. The White House, Statement from the Press
Secretary (Sept. 18, 2020), https://go.usa.gov/xGQh2.
At a minimum, neither appellees nor the district court
have provided any evidence to conclude that a material
number of otherwise-chilled aliens are likely to become
un-chilled by a district court decision subject to a
realistic prospect of appellate reversal. See Lujan, 504
U.S. at 566 (“Standing is not an ingenious academic
exercise in the conceivable.”) (citation and internal
quotation marks omitted). 3
The district court rejected that redressability objec-
tion based on the misimpression that it would imply a
court could never enjoin a future act. See App., infra,
67a-68a. In typical cases, future acts are enjoined to re-
dress a future injury, and so the prospect of appellate
reversal in the interim is immaterial to redressability:
so long as the future relief is ultimately affirmed, it will
prevent the future injuries. In this unusual case, by
contrast, the future relief purports to redress only pre-
sent injury from a “chilling effect.” But the prospect of
appellate reversal in the interim renders it implausible
that it will actually redress any chill now. Neither the
district court nor appellees cited any precedent for find-
ing redressability in these unique circumstances.

3
For similar reasons, even if the district court’s relief were to lead
the non-profit appellees to stop diverting their resources to coun-
teract the Memorandum’s asserted effect on census participation,
see App., infra, 35a-38a, 57a-59a, that would not satisfy Article III.
They “cannot manufacture standing by choosing to make [and then
cease] expenditures” based on speculation about how third parties
may react to the government’s conduct and the court’s relief. Clap-
per v. Amnesty Int’l USA, 568 U.S. 398, 402 (2013).
 17

3. In fact, the Memorandum’s alleged “chilling ef-

fect” on census participation is too speculative to consti-
tute cognizable Article III injury in the first place. The
“highly attenuated chain of possibilities” that appellees
rely on, see pp. 13-14, supra, does not “satisfy the re-
quirement that threatened injury must be certainly im-
pending.” Clapper v. Amnesty Int’l USA, 568 U.S. 398,
410 (2013). Even if some individuals would be “chilled”
from responding to the questionnaire based on the
Memorandum, neither the district court nor appellees
provided any non-speculative basis to find a sufficient
likelihood that the second and third steps of the chain
will materialize—that lack of participation will not be
accounted for by other means and that degradation in
census data will have a legally relevant impact. And as
for the threshold step, it is far more speculative than the
premise that this Court accepted in Department of
Commerce v. New York, 139 S. Ct. 2551 (2019), which
involved whether a question on the census question-
naire regarding citizenship could reduce census partic-
ipation. See id. at 2565-2566. Here, in contrast, the al-
leged “chilling effect” is not premised on an actual ques-
tion on the census—or any changes to the questionnaire
or field data collection—but rather on a statement from
the President regarding how he intends to tally the total
base number for apportionment following the conclu-
sion of census field data collection.
C. In light of the fatal Article III problems with the
district court’s judgment, this Court should summarily
vacate it—either immediately or at least once field data
collection ends. A prompt vacatur will prevent harm to
the government by ensuring that the Secretary is able
to submit his report to the President in compliance with
the December 31, 2020, statutory deadline, including
 18

both tabulations requested by the Memorandum. It will

also avoid any need for this Court to expedite consi-
deration of this appeal for resolution before December
31. Conversely, as discussed, it will cause no injury to
appellees, as any “chilling effect” is not currently being
redressed by the district court’s judgment—and in any
event there will be no activities to “chill” once census
field data collection ends.
To the extent that appellees wish to challenge the ac-
tual apportionment that occurs in 2021, such a challenge
is properly brought after the President submits the ap-
portionment to Congress. Appellees then can file a new
suit if they claim to be injured, and the courts can re-
view the statutory and constitutional validity of the ap-
portionment and order relief if appropriate. That would
accord with this Court’s normal approach: to decide
such cases post-apportionment, when the actual appor-
tionment figures are known, and any purported injuries
are no longer speculative. See, e.g., Utah v. Evans,
536 U.S. 452, 458-459 (2002); Wisconsin v. City of New
York, 517 U.S. 1, 10-11 (1996); Franklin, 505 U.S. at
790-791; United States Dep’t of Commerce v. Montana,
503 U.S. 442, 445-446 (1992).
II. THE PRESIDENTIAL MEMORANDUM DOES NOT VIO-
LATE FEDERAL STATUTES GOVERNING THE CENSUS
AND APPORTIONMENT
A. The District Court’s Holding That The Memorandum
Requires Using Information That Is Not Based On The
Census Contravenes The Statutory Framework,
Longstanding Practice, And This Court’s Decisions
The district court erred in holding that using admin-
istrative records to implement the Memorandum’s pol-
icy would mean that the apportionment was no longer
“based on the results of the census alone.” App., infra,
 19

74a (capitalization and emphasis omitted). The Secre-

tary undoubtedly may choose to make use of adminis-
trative records as part of the form and content of con-
ducting the census tabulation of the number of persons
in each State—especially when, as here, he is instructed
to do so by the President, as the user of the Secretary’s
report under the statutory scheme and the supervisor
of the Secretary in the constitutional scheme.
1. As this Court has confirmed, “[t]he text of the
Constitution vests Congress with virtually unlimited
discretion in conducting the decennial ‘actual Enumer-
ation,’ [and] * * * Congress has delegated its broad au-
thority over the census to the Secretary.” Wisconsin,
517 U.S. at 19 (citations and footnotes omitted). In par-
ticular, while Congress directed the President to ascer-
tain each State’s apportionment base “under the * * *
decennial census of the population,” 2 U.S.C. 2a(a), it
gave the Secretary the authority, subject to the Presi-
dent’s direction and supervision, to take the “decennial
census of population * * * in such form and content as
he may determine,” 13 U.S.C. 141(a). Here, the Memo-
randum has directed the Secretary, as part of conduct-
ing the census and preparing his report, to supplement
data gathered from the census questionnaires with data
from administrative records concerning the immigra-
tion status of census respondents.
This Court in Franklin explicitly rejected the asser-
tion that the Secretary’s initial choices as to the con-
tents of his report must be deemed the one true “decen-
nial census.” See App., infra, 75a. Franklin confirmed
that the President may instruct the Secretary to “re-
form the census,” including by changing the data con-
sidered when enumerating individuals. 505 U.S. at 797-
798. “[T]he ‘decennial census’ ” thus “still presents a
 20

moving target, even after the Secretary reports to the

President,” and “[i]t is not until the President submits
the information to Congress that the target stops mov-
ing.” Ibid. Accordingly, the district court erred in hold-
ing that the Secretary’s tabulation based on the Census
Bureau’s Residence Criteria contains the only “results
of the census.” App., infra, 79a. Franklin makes clear
that the President has full authority to direct a different
approach—just as the Secretary may overrule the sub-
ordinate Census Bureau, see Wisconsin, 517 U.S. at 23
(“[T]he mere fact that the Secretary’s decision over-
ruled the views of some of his subordinates is by itself
of no moment in any judicial review of his decision.”).
The district court also believed that “once the final
decennial census data is in hand, the President’s role is
purely ‘ministerial.’ ” App., infra, 75a (citation omitted).
Based on that premise, the court concluded that the
President has an extremely limited role in determining
the base population for apportionment. See id. at 74a-
78a. Again, that reasoning flatly contradicts Franklin.
There, the Court made clear that the President’s role is
ministerial only insofar as applying the mathematical
formula for apportioning representatives, after he has
exercised discretion in supervising the Secretary’s de-
termination of the appropriate population base:
The admittedly ministerial nature of the apportion-
ment calculation itself does not answer the question
whether the apportionment is foreordained by the
time the Secretary gives her report to the President.
To reiterate, § 2a does not curtail the President’s au-
thority to direct the Secretary in making policy
judgments that result in “the decennial census”; he
is not expressly required to adhere to the policy de-
cisions reflected in the Secretary’s report.
 21

Franklin, 505 U.S. at 799 (emphasis added).

2. Pursuant to the Executive Branch’s discretion,
the decennial census has never tallied the total popula-
tion for the apportionment based solely on question-
naire responses, and it has often taken into account in-
formation from administrative records to correct or
supplement the field data collection process. For the
first 170 years of American census taking, no census
questionnaire for self-response existed because all enu-
meration was done in person. See New York v. United
States Dep’t of Commerce, 351 F. Supp. 3d 502, 520
(S.D.N.Y.), aff ’d in part, rev’d in part, and remanded,
139 S. Ct. 2551 (2019). And for the 2020 census, individ-
uals have been and will be enumerated through a vari-
ety of means in addition to census-questionnaire re-
sponses. See pp. 3-4, supra.
The history of the census contains numerous exam-
ples of the practice of using administrative records or
similar data when tabulating a State’s population for
purposes of apportionment. For example, “[i]n the 1990
and 2000 censuses,” the counts of overseas members of
the armed forces, federal civilian employees, and their
dependents living with them—which were at issue in
Franklin—“were obtained from federal departments
and agencies and were principally based on adminis-
trative records.” U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Dep’t of
Commerce, 2020 Census Detailed Operational Plan for:
20. Federally Affiliated Count Overseas Operation
(FACO) 3 (May 28, 2019) (emphasis added), https://go.
usa.gov/xGR2r; see Franklin, 505 U.S. at 794-795. Sim-
ilarly, the Census Bureau has filled gaps in enumeration
data with imputed data that does not result directly
from questionnaire responses. For example, during the
 22

2000 census, the Census Bureau imputed a variety of in-

formation about unresponsive addresses from similar
addresses that had been personally surveyed by enu-
merators during field operations. See Evans, 536 U.S.
at 458-459.
It is thus commonplace for the Census Bureau to use
data other than that collected as part of the question-
naire responses or other field operations (such as non-
response follow-up), and any other approach would be
unworkable and degrade the quality of the census. An
enumeration based solely on questionnaire responses
would be underinclusive because it would fail to enu-
merate a variety of individuals who reasonably may be
considered inhabitants (e.g., those who refuse to re-
spond and those who are temporarily outside the United
States). Such a limited enumeration would also be over-
inclusive because there would be no way for the Census
Bureau to correct mistakes or take account of factual
developments (e.g., a response that accidentally counts
a foreign tourist as a resident or mistakenly reports res-
idents who moved after April 1 at their current address
rather than their address on census day).
3. Indeed, the district court acknowledged that the
1990 census at issue in Franklin used “administrative
records rather than a questionnaire” to count overseas
personnel in the first place (not merely to allocate them
among the States). App., infra, 81a-82a n.15. But the
court failed to explain its conclusory assertion that the
administrative records used in Franklin were “part of
the census itself,” ibid., but the administrative records
that would be used under the Memorandum are “some-
thing other than the census itself,” id. at 78a.
Insofar as the court suggested that the President
here has directed the Secretary to go beyond the census
 23

questionnaire whereas the Secretary in Franklin had

independently chosen to do so at the outset of the cen-
sus process, that distinction is immaterial given Frank-
lin’s holding that the President may direct the Secre-
tary’s exercise of policy judgment in conducting the
census. And insofar as the court suggested that admin-
istrative records may be used to add people to “the cen-
sus” for whom there were no questionnaire responses
(as in Frankin), but may not be used to remove people
from “the census” who were improperly included in
questionnaire responses (as in the Memorandum), that
is a distinction without a difference under the statute’s
delegation of authority to the Secretary to determine
the “form and content” of the census. 13 U.S.C. 141(a).
B. The District Court’s Holding That The President Lacks
Any Discretion To Exclude Illegal Aliens From The Ap-
portionment Base Conflicts With Text, History, And
Precedent
The district court also erred in holding that 2 U.S.C.
2a(a)’s directive to report “the ‘whole number of per-
sons in each State’ ” deprives the President of any “dis-
cretion to exclude illegal aliens on the basis of their le-
gal status.” App., infra, 92a. As the court acknowl-
edged, in the apportionment context, the phrase “ ‘per-
sons in each State’ ” has long been understood to cover
only a State’s “ ‘inhabitants,’ ” a term whose application
“call[s] for ‘the exercise of judgment.’ ” Id. at 83a-84a
(citation omitted). And as text, history, and precedent
reveal, the term “inhabitants” does not completely bar
the President from exercising discretion to exclude ille-
gal aliens.
1. a. Section 2a(a)’s directive that the President’s
report include “the whole number of persons in each
 24

State” (excluding untaxed Indians), 2 U.S.C. 2a(a), re-

peats verbatim the Fourteenth Amendment, see U.S.
Const. Amend. XIV, § 2, which in turn modified Article
I’s Apportionment Clause to end the infamous three-
fifths compromise, see U.S. Const. Art. I, § 2, Cl. 3. And
“if a word is obviously transplanted from another legal
source,” it generally “brings the old soil with it.” Hall
v. Hall, 138 S. Ct. 1118, 1128 (2018) (citation omitted).
The phrase “persons in each State” has never been
understood in the apportionment context to cover all
persons physically in the country on census day, such as
foreign tourists. See, e.g., Timothy Farrar, Manual of
the Constitution of the United States of America § 405,
at 403 (1867) (“ ‘The whole number of persons in each
State’ cannot mean everybody on the soil at the partic-
ular time.”). Rather, the person must be an “ ‘inhabit-
ant’ ” or “ ‘ usual resident’ ” of the State, as that is “the
gloss” that has historically been given to the phrase
“ ‘persons in each State’ ” in this context. Franklin, 505
U.S. at 803-804 (brackets and citation omitted).
That construction is consistent with the Clause’s
drafting history. See Franklin, 505 U.S. at 804-805 &
n.3. The draft Constitution submitted to the Committee
of Style required Congress to “regulate the number of
representatives by the number of inhabitants, accord-
ing to the rule hereinafter made for direct taxation,”
which in turn rested on “the whole number of free citi-
zens and inhabitants * * * and three fifths of all other
persons not comprehended in the foregoing description,
(except Indians not paying taxes).” 2 The Records of the
Federal Convention of 1787, at 566, 571 (Max Farrand
ed., 1911) (Federal Convention). Consistent with that
background, James Madison repeatedly explained in
The Federalist that apportionment would be based on
 25

the number of each State’s “inhabitants.” E.g., The

Federalist No. 54, at 369 (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961); see
id. No. 56, at 383; id. No. 58, at 391.
Although the Committee of Style changed the draft
language to provide that apportionment should be
based on each State’s population “determined by adding
to the whole Number of free Persons, including those
bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding In-
dians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons,” U.S.
Const. Art. I, § 2, Cl. 3, it “ ‘had no authority from the
Convention to alter the meaning’ of the draft Constitu-
tion,” Evans, 536 U.S. at 474 (citation omitted). Accord-
ingly, the first enumeration act—titled “an act provid-
ing for the enumeration of the inhabitants of the United
States”—directed “the marshals of the several districts
of the United States” to count “the number of the inhab-
itants within their respective districts.” Act of Mar. 1,
1790, § 1, 1 Stat. 101.
The understanding that the apportionment base was
limited to “inhabitants” was incorporated into the Four-
teenth Amendment, which modified the Apportionment
Clause to turn on “the whole number of persons in each
State, excluding Indians not taxed,” U.S. Const. Amend.
XIV, § 2. As a member of the committee that drafted
the Amendment explained, this revision was meant to
fully include former slaves in the apportionment base
but otherwise “adhere[] to the Constitution as it is.”
Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 359 (1866) (Rep.
Conkling). The first census following the Fourteenth
Amendment’s ratification was thus conducted in accord-
ance with the same procedures that had been used for
the 1850 census, see Act of May 6, 1870, ch. 87, 16 Stat.
118, which had required “all the inhabitants to be enu-
merated,” Act of May 23, 1850, ch. 11, 9 Stat. 428.
 26

b. Although the phrase “persons in each State” thus

clearly refers to “inhabitants,” the term “inhabitant” is
itself an indeterminate one. See Federal Convention
216-217 (recording Madison’s acknowledgement that
“ ‘inhabitant’ ” was a “vague” word). Consistent with
that indeterminacy, this Court has given the Executive
Branch significant latitude in defining who constitutes
an “inhabitant” for apportionment purposes. In Frank-
lin, the Court upheld the Executive Branch’s decision
to end its longstanding practice of excluding federal
personnel overseas from the apportionment bases of
their home States. 505 U.S. at 806. As the Court ex-
plained, the Executive Branch had “made a judgment,
consonant with, though not dictated by, the text and his-
tory of the Constitution,” that such individuals “had re-
tained their ties to the States,” ibid., even though that
overseas population had been excluded from their
States’ apportionment bases since 1790 (with two excep-
tions in 1900 and 1970), id. at 792-793.
The Memorandum here reflects a similar judgment.
During the Founding era, no single definition resolved
the circumstances when an alien constituted an “inhab-
itant.” Rather, as John Adams explained to a European
correspondent, “[d]ifferent States have different defini-
tions of this word,” and “every stranger who has been
in the United States, or who may be there at present, is
not an inhabitant.” Letter from John Adams to M. Du-
mas (Nov. 3, 1784), reprinted in 8 John Adams &
Charles Francis Adams, The Works of John Adams,
Second President of the United States 214 (1853). At a
minimum, one had to establish a fixed residence within
a jurisdiction and an intent to remain there. See, e.g.,
ibid. (noting that “[t]he domicil and the ‘animus hab-
itandi’ is necessary in all” definitions); 1 Noah Webster,
 27

An American Dictionary of the English Language 110

(1828) (defining “inhabitant” as a “dweller; one who
dwells or resides permanently in a place, or who has a
fixed residence, as distinguished from an occasional
lodger or visitor”) (capitalization omitted); Bas v.
Steele, 2 F. Cas. 988, 993 (C.C.D. Pa. 1818) (No. 1088)
(Washington, Circuit Justice) (concluding that a Span-
ish subject who had remained in Philadelphia as a mer-
chant for four months “was not an inhabitant of this
country, as no person is an inhabitant of a place, but one
who acquires a domicil there”). That baseline helps ex-
plain the exclusion of certain categories of aliens in pre-
vious apportionments, such as those temporarily resid-
ing here for vacation or business as well as certain for-
eign diplomatic personnel. See, e.g., J.A. at 80, 103,
Franklin, supra (No. 91-1502); cf. Franklin, 505 U.S. at
805 (discussing history confirming that an American
diplomat stationed overseas could still qualify as an “in-
habitant” of his home State) (citation omitted).
But with respect to aliens specifically, the term “in-
habitant” could be understood to further require a sov-
ereign’s permission to remain within the jurisdiction.
Notably, Emmerich de Vattel defined “inhabitants, as
distinguished from citizens,” as “strangers, who are
permitted to settle and stay in the country.” 1 Em-
merich de Vattel, The Law of Nations, Ch. 19, § 213
(1760). As this Court has observed, Vattel was the
“founding era’s foremost expert on the law of nations,”
Franchise Tax Bd. v. Hyatt, 139 S. Ct. 1485, 1493
(2019), and “[t]he international jurist most widely cited
in the first 50 years after the Revolution,” United States
Steel Corp. v. Multistate Tax Comm’n, 434 U.S. 452, 462
n.12 (1978). Unsurprisingly, prominent figures such as
Franklin, Madison, and Marshall were familiar with
 28

Vattel generally, see ibid., and with his understanding

of “inhabitants” specifically, see, e.g., The Venus, 12
U.S. (8 Cranch) 253, 289 (1814) (Marshall, C.J., concur-
ring and dissenting in part) (quoting Vattel’s defini-
tion); The Federalist No. 42, at 285-286 (James Madi-
son) (discussing provision of the Articles of Confedera-
tion that required every State “to confer the rights of
citizenship in other States * * * upon any whom it may
allow to become inhabitants”) (emphasis added).
That definition of “inhabitants” is also consistent
with this Court’s observation that the concepts of “ ‘in-
habitan[ce]’ ” or “ ‘[u]sual residence’ ” can require “more
than mere physical presence, and ha[ve] been used
broadly enough to include some element of allegiance or
enduring tie to a place.” Franklin, 505 U.S. at 804; see
U.S. Const. Amend. XIV, § 2 (apportioning representa-
tives “among the several States according to their re-
spective numbers”) (emphasis added). Concepts of al-
legiance and enduring ties necessarily place limits on il-
legal aliens’ qualifying as “inhabitants,” given that they
are subject to removal by the government. Accordingly,
the requirement to include each State’s “inhabitants” in
the apportionment base, whether constitutional or stat-
utory, does not completely eliminate the President’s
discretion to exclude illegal aliens.
2. The district court nevertheless deemed the Mem-
orandum facially invalid because, in its view, “the ordi-
nary definition of the term ‘inhabitant’ is ‘one that occu-
pies a particular place regularly, routinely, or for a pe-
riod of time,’ ” and that definition “surely encompasses
illegal aliens who live in the United States.” App., infra,
84a (quoting Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary
601 (10th ed. 1997)). But to conclude that the Presi-
 29

dent’s policy—of excluding illegal aliens “to the maxi-

mum extent feasible and consistent with the discretion
delegated to the executive branch,” 85 Fed. Reg. at
44,680—is unlawful in all of its applications, the court
had to demonstrate that the term “inhabitants” both en-
compasses all illegal aliens and does so unambiguously.
The court did neither.
a. To begin, the district court never explained how
certain categories of illegal aliens living in the country
must be considered “inhabitants” under any relevant
definition. Even a broad one would not require includ-
ing, say, aliens residing in a detention facility after be-
ing arrested while crossing the border, aliens who have
been detained for illegal entry and paroled into the
country pending removal proceedings, or aliens who are
subject to final orders of removal. It is far from evident
that such aliens have an “enduring tie to” a particular
State, Franklin, 505 U.S. at 804, when the government
has detained them upon entry, allowed them into the
country on a conditional basis while considering
whether to remove them, or conclusively determined
that they must be removed. 4
Rather, as this Court recently reaffirmed, aliens “de-
tained shortly after unlawful entry” or who “arrive at
ports of entry—even those paroled [into] the country
for years pending removal—are ‘treated’ for due pro-
cess purposes ‘as if stopped at the border.’ ” Depart-
ment of Homeland Sec. v. Thuraissigiam, 140 S. Ct.

4
These examples likely include significant populations. During
fiscal year 2019, there were over 3.2 million aliens on ICE’s “non-
detained docket,” and over 50,000 aliens in ICE custody on an aver-
age day. U.S. Immigration & Customs Enforcement, Fiscal Year
2019 Enforcement and Removal Operations Report 5, 10 (2019),
https://go.usa.gov/xG8vT.
 30

1959, 1982 (2020) (citation omitted). Similarly, in

Kaplan v. Tod, 267 U.S. 228 (1925), this Court held that
an alien who had been denied admission but paroled into
the country in 1915, where she lived for the next ten
years, had not been “dwelling in the United States” or
“resid[ing] permanently” in the country for purposes of
naturalization. Id. at 230. As the Court explained, she
“could not lawfully have landed in the United States”
because she fell within an inadmissible category, and
“until she legally landed [she] ‘could not have dwelt
within the United States.’ ” Ibid. (citation omitted). In-
stead, she was in “the same” position as an alien “held
at Ellis Island for deportation.” Id. at 231.
The district court provided no reason why longstand-
ing precedents governing whether particular aliens
“dwell,” “reside permanently,” or are otherwise “in” the
United States must be ignored in determining whether
they constitute “inhabitants.” Cf. 1 Webster 110 (defin-
ing “inhabitant” as one who “dwells or resides perma-
nently” in a location) (capitalization omitted). Instead,
the court observed that “many” aliens “intercepted at
the border” or in “removal proceedings” “ultimately ob-
tain lawful status.” App., infra, 86a. But that does not
mean that the President must treat all of them as “in-
habitants” now. The court also brushed off such exam-
ples as irrelevant on the theory that the usual standard
for facial challenges does not apply to a claim that the
“President has exceeded the authority granted to him
by Congress.” Id. at 84a n.16. To the contrary, a facial
challenge contending that a regulation “exceeds” the
statutory “authority” of even a subordinate executive
official must “ ‘establish that no set of circumstances ex-
ists under which the regulation would be valid.’ ” Reno
 31

v. Flores, 507 U.S. 292, 300-301 (1993) (brackets and ci-

tation omitted). The court provided no justification for
its upside-down suggestion that a facial challenge con-
tending that the President exceeded his statutory au-
thority should be held to a less demanding standard.
b. In any event, the district court failed to articulate
why its definition of “inhabitants,” drawn from a 1997
dictionary, is the only one available under 2 U.S.C.
2a(a), which, again, copies the constitutional phrase
“persons in each State.” The court never addressed
that figures such as Marshall, Madison, and Vattel were
aware of a definition of “inhabitants” that turned on the
sovereign’s permission to remain in the country. See
pp. 26-28, supra. The court also did not address this
Court’s reasoning in cases like Kaplan that an alien who
has not effected a lawful entry is not “dwelling” or “re-
sid[ing] permanently” in the country. 267 U.S. at 230.
And while the court acknowledged “that the terms
‘usual residence’ and ‘inhabitant’ have ‘been used
broadly enough to include some element of allegiance or
enduring tie to a place,’ ” App., infra, 85a-86a (quoting
Franklin, 505 U.S. at 804), it gave no explanation for
how every illegal alien necessarily has such a connection
to the United States. At most, it assumed that the term
“usual,” viewed in isolation, referred exclusively to fre-
quency of residence. But the term also connotes regu-
larity. See, e.g., Webster’s New International Diction-
ary of the English Language 2807 (2d ed. 1942) (defin-
ing “usual” as “customary; ordinary”; synonymous with
“regular”); 1 & 2 Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the
English Language (6th ed. 1785) (defining “[u]sual” as
“customary,” defined in turn as “[c]onformable to estab-
lished custom, according to prescription”). And it is far
from evident that those who adopted the Constitution,
 32

the Fourteenth Amendment, or 2 U.S.C. 2a(a) would

have thought there was anything “usual,” “customary,”
or “regular” about aliens living in the country in contin-
ual violation of federal law’s prescriptions.
Rather than “delve into the meaning of the terms ‘in-
habitant’ and ‘usual residence’ at the time of the Found-
ing or of the Reconstruction Amendments,” the district
court looked to the legislative history surrounding
2 U.S.C. 2a(a) to discern its drafters’ “understanding of
the constitutional language” in 1929. App., infra, 87a-
88a & n.17. The court gave no reason for departing from
the presumption that when “a word is obviously trans-
planted from another legal source,” it “brings the old
soil with it.” Hall, 138 S. Ct. at 1128 (citation omitted).
And anyway, the court failed to identify evidence indi-
cating that in 1929, Congress conclusively settled that
all illegal aliens were “inhabitants” or “usual residents”
for apportionment purposes.
The district court merely observed that the 1929
Congress (like the Framers of the Fourteenth Amend-
ment) had rejected amendments to exclude all aliens
from the apportionment base, and that the Senate’s leg-
islative counsel had opined that such an exclusion would
be unconstitutional. App., infra, 87a-88a; cf. Cong.
Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 10 (1865) (Rep. Stevens).
That legislative history, however, does not answer
whether the 1929 Congress prohibited the President
from excluding illegal aliens from the apportionment
base. Although aliens who are “permitted to settle and
stay in the country,” Vattel Ch. 19, § 213, may well qual-
ify as “inhabitants,” that in no way resolves the question
here: whether aliens who are not permitted to settle,
and remain subject to removal by the government, nev-
ertheless are “inhabitants” of, with an “enduring tie to”
 33

and a “ ‘usual residence’ ” in, the United States. Frank-

lin, 505 U.S. at 804. If the 1929 Congress meant to man-
date that congressional representation be allocated on
the basis of aliens who remain in the country in ongoing
defiance of federal law, it presumably would have given
a clearer indication of such a remarkable step than
merely copying into the U.S. Code the constitutional
text “persons in each State,” which had never been un-
derstood to compel such a result.
The district court also relied on Executive Branch
statements from the 1980s opining that the exclusion of
illegal aliens from the apportionment base would be un-
lawful. App., infra, 90a-91a. But those assertions did
not rest on any sustained historical analysis of whether
all illegal aliens are necessarily “inhabitants” as that
term was originally understood. They also predated
this Court’s decision in Franklin, which confirms that
physical residence is neither necessary nor sufficient
for inclusion within the apportionment base: the Exec-
utive has significant discretion in determining whether
individuals possess the necessary “ties to the States” to
“be counted toward their States’ representation,” 505
U.S. at 806, even in the face of divergent historical prac-
tice, see id. at 792-793. Contrary to the district court’s
suggestion, nothing in Franklin or in logic supports a
ratchet in which the Executive may exercise discretion
to “include” individuals not physically living in a State
who still could reasonably be deemed to be “inhabit-
ants” there, but not to “exclude” individuals physically
living in a State who still could reasonably be deemed to
lack status as “inhabitants” there. App., infra, 86a.
 34
CONCLUSION
The Court should note probable jurisdiction or sum-
marily reverse.
Respectfully submitted.
JEFFREY B. WALL
Acting Solicitor General
JEFFREY BOSSERT CLARK
Acting Assistant Attorney
General
HASHIM M. MOOPPAN
Counselor to the Solicitor
General
SOPAN JOSHI
Senior Counsel to the
Assistant Attorney General
NICOLE FRAZER REAVES
BRINTON LUCAS
Assistants to the Solicitor
General
SEPTEMBER 2020
 APPENDIX A

UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT

FOR THE SOUTHERN DISTRICT OF NEW YORK

20-CV-5770 (RCW) (PWH) (JMF)

STATE OF NEW YORK, ET AL., PLAINTIFFS
v.
DONALD J. TRUMP, IN HIS OFFICIAL CAPACITY AS
PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, ET AL.,
DEFENDANTS

Filed: Sept. 10, 2020

OPINION AND ORDER

Before: RICHARD C. WESLEY, United States Circuit

Judge, PETER W. HALL, United States Circuit Judge,
JESSE M. FURMAN, United States District Judge

BACKGROUND.............................................................6
A. The Constitutional and Statutory Scheme .........6
B. The Use of Census Data ......................................8
C. The Citizenship Question Litigation and
Its Aftermath.....................................................10
D. The 2020 Census ................................................12
E. The Presidential Memorandum ........................15
F. This Litigation ...................................................17
SUMMARY JUDGMENT STANDARD ....................19
STANDING AND RIPENESS...................................20

(1a)
 2a

A. The Law of Standing .........................................21

B. Facts Relevant to Standing...............................25
C. Standing Analysis ..............................................36
1. Injury in Fact .................................................40
a. Degradation of Census Data .....................41
b. Diversion of Resources ..............................46
2. Traceability .....................................................50
3. Redressability.................................................53
4. Conclusion .......................................................57
D. Prudential Ripeness ..........................................58
THE MERITS..............................................................62
A. Apportionment Must Be Based on the
Results of the Census Alone .............................63
B. The Apportionment Base Cannot Exclude
Illegal Aliens Who Reside in a State ................69
C. Conclusion ..........................................................77
REMEDIES .................................................................79
A. Injunctive Relief ................................................79
B. Declaratory Relief .............................................84
CONCLUSION ............................................................85
PER CURIAM.
The Constitution provides that “Representatives shall
be apportioned among the several States according to
their respective numbers, counting the whole number of
persons in each State.” U.S. Const. amend. XIV, § 2.
To enable that apportionment, it mandates that an “ac-
tual Enumeration” be conducted “every . . . ten
Years, in such Manner as [Congress] shall by Law di-
rect,” an effort commonly known as the decennial cen-
sus. Id. art. I, § 2, cl. 3. Congress has delegated the
 3a

task of conducting the census to the Secretary of Com-

merce, who is required to report “[t]he tabulation of to-
tal population by States” to the President. 13 U.S.C.
§ 141(a)-(b). The President, in turn, is required to
transmit to Congress “a statement showing the whole
number of persons in each State . . . as ascertained
under the . . . decennial census of the population,
and the number of Representatives to which each State
would be entitled” using a mathematical formula “known
as the method of equal proportions.” 2 U.S.C. § 2a(a).
Throughout the Nation’s history, the figures used to de-
termine the apportionment of Congress—in the lan-
guage of the current statutes, the “total population” and
the “whole number of persons” in each State—have in-
cluded every person residing in the United States at the
time of the census, whether citizen or non-citizen and
whether living here with legal status or without.
On July 21, 2020, however, the President announced
that this long-standing practice will no longer be the case.
In a Presidential Memorandum issued on that date (and
entered into the Federal Register two days later), the
President declared that, “[f]or the purpose of the reap-
portionment of Representatives following the 2020
census”—which, as of today, is still ongoing—“it is the
policy of the United States to exclude from the appor-
tionment base aliens who are not in a lawful immigration
status.” Excluding Illegal Aliens From the Apportion-
ment Base Following the 2020 Census, 85 Fed. Reg.
44,679, 44,680 (July 23, 2020) (ECF No. 1-1) (the “Pres-
idential Memorandum”). 1 To implement this new pol-
icy, the President ordered the Secretary of Commerce

1
Unless otherwise noted, all docket references are to
20-CV-5770.
 4a

(the “Secretary”) to provide him two sets of numbers for

each State: first, the total population as determined in
the 2020 census and, second, the total population as de-
termined in the 2020 census minus the number of “aliens
who are not in a lawful immigration status.” Id. The
President left it to the Secretary of Commerce to figure
out how to calculate the number of “aliens who are not
in a lawful immigration status” in each State. But one
thing is clear: that number would not come from the
census itself, as the 2020 census is not collecting infor-
mation regarding citizenship status, let alone legal im-
migration status in this country, and the 2020 census will
count illegal aliens according to where they reside.
In these consolidated cases, filed only three days af-
ter the Presidential Memorandum, two sets of Plaintiffs
—one, a coalition of twenty-two States and the District
of Columbia, fifteen cities and counties, and the United
States Conference of Mayors (the “Governmental Plain-
tiffs”) and the other, a coalition of non-governmental or-
ganizations (the “NGO Plaintiffs”)—challenge the deci-
sion to exclude illegal aliens from the apportionment
base for Congress on the ground that it violates the Con-
stitution, statutes governing the census and apportion-
ment, and other laws. On August 7, 2020, they filed a
motion for summary judgment or, in the alternative, a
preliminary injunction. Plaintiffs allege that the Pres-
idential Memorandum will cause, or is already causing,
two forms of irreparable harm. First, noting that the
Presidential Memorandum itself identifies a State—be-
lieved to be California—that would stand to lose two or
three seats in the House of Representatives if illegal al-
iens are excluded from the apportionment base, they ar-
gue that the Memorandum will result in the loss of seats
in the House. Second, they argue that the Presidential
 5a

Memorandum is having an immediate impact on the cen-

sus count—which is still ongoing—and that that, in turn,
is resulting, and will result, in various forms of injury.
Defendants—the President, Secretary of Commerce
Wilbur L. Ross, Jr., Director of the U.S. Census Bureau
Steven Dillingham (the “Director”), the United States
Department of Commerce (the “Department”), and the
Bureau of the Census (the “Census Bureau”)—oppose
Plaintiffs’ motion and filed a cross-motion to dismiss, ar-
guing that the Court lacks jurisdiction to entertain Plain-
tiffs’ claims and that the exclusion of illegal aliens from
the apportionment base is a lawful exercise of the Pres-
ident’s discretion with respect to the conduct of the cen-
sus and apportionment.
For the reasons that follow, Plaintiffs are entitled to
summary judgment. The Presidential Memorandum
violates the statutes governing the census and appor-
tionment in two clear respects. First, pursuant to the
virtually automatic scheme established by these inter-
locking statutes, the Secretary is mandated to report a
single set of numbers—“[t]he tabulation of total popula-
tion by States” under the decennial census—to the Pres-
ident, and the President, in turn, is required to use the
same set of numbers in connection with apportionment.
By directing the Secretary to provide two sets of num-
bers, one derived from the decennial census and one not,
and announcing that it is the policy of the United States
to use the latter in connection with apportionment, the
Presidential Memorandum deviates from, and thus vio-
lates, the statutory scheme. Second, the Presidential
Memorandum violates the statute governing apportion-
ment because, so long as they reside in the United States,
illegal aliens qualify as “persons in” a “State” as Con-
gress used those words.
 6a

On those bases, we declare the Presidential Memo-

randum to be an unlawful exercise of the authority grant-
ed to the President by statute and enjoin Defendants—
but not the President himself—from including in the
Secretary’s report to the President any information con-
cerning the number of aliens in each State “who are not
in a lawful immigration status under the Immigration
and Nationality Act.” Presidential Memorandum, 85
Fed. Reg. at 44,680. Because the President exceeded
the authority granted to him by Congress by statute, we
need not, and do not, reach the overlapping, albeit dis-
tinct, question of whether the Presidential Memoran-
dum constitutes a violation of the Constitution itself.
The merits of the parties’ dispute are not particularly
close or complicated. Before getting to the merits, how-
ever, we must confront a question that is closer: whether
we have jurisdiction to even consider the merits.
It is axiomatic that federal courts are courts of lim-
ited jurisdiction and may consider the merits of a case
only if the case is of the sort traditionally amenable to,
and resolvable by, the judicial process. That requires
a plaintiff seeking relief in federal court to demonstrate
that it has “standing” to bring suit and that its claims
are ripe for decision. Here, if the sole harm that Plain-
tiffs alleged were the harm to their apportionment inter-
ests, they might not satisfy the requirements of standing
and ripeness, as the Secretary has not yet taken any
public action in response to the Presidential Memoran-
dum and could conceivably conclude that it is not feasi-
ble (or lawful) to exclude illegal aliens from the appor-
tionment base. But Plaintiffs allege—and have proved
—that they are suffering, and will suffer, more immedi-
ate and certain injuries by virtue of the harm that the
 7a

Presidential Memorandum is causing to the accuracy of

the census count itself. In light of those injuries, we
conclude that we have jurisdiction to grant Plaintiffs the
relief they are seeking.
BACKGROUND
The following background facts, drawn from the ad-
missible materials submitted by the parties and materi-
als of which the Court may take judicial notice, are un-
disputed except where noted. See, e.g., Vt. Teddy Bear
Co. v. 1-800 Beargram Co., 373 F.3d 241, 244 (2d Cir.
2004). 2
A. The Constitutional and Statutory Scheme
Article I of the Constitution requires that an “actual
Enumeration” of the population, known as the decennial
census, be conducted “every . . . ten Years, in such
Manner as [Congress] shall by Law direct.” U.S.
Const. art I, § 2, cl. 3. The primary purpose of this
enumeration was to apportion congressional represent-
atives among the States “according to their respective
Numbers.” Id. The number of Representatives ap-
portioned to each State determines, in turn, that State’s
share of electors in the Electoral College. See id. art.
II, § 1, cl. 2; see also 3 U.S.C. § 3. For the first eighty
years of the Nation’s history, the States’ “respective
Numbers” were calculated according to the formula set
forth in the Constitution’s infamous “Three-Fifths
Clause,” which provided that the “actual Enumeration”
established by the census would be arrived at by “add-
ing to the whole Number of free Persons . . . , and
excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other

2
We discuss facts relevant to the issues of standing and ripeness
below.
 8a

Persons”—“all other Persons” being people then held as

slaves. U.S. Const. art I, § 2, cl. 3. In 1868, that pro-
vision was modified by the Fourteenth Amendment,
which provides that “Representatives shall be appor-
tioned among the several States according to their re-
spective numbers, counting the whole number of per-
sons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed.” U.S.
Const. amend. XIV, § 2 (emphasis added). 3
The modern census is governed by the Census Act,
which Congress most recently amended in 1976. See
Act. of Oct. 17, 1976 (the “Census Act” or the “Act”),
Pub. L. No. 94-521, 90 Stat. 2459 (codified in scattered
sections of 13 U.S.C.). Section 141(a) of the Act
broadly delegates to the Secretary the duty to “take a
decennial census of population as of the first day of April
of such year . . . in such form and content as he may
determine.” 13 U.S.C. § 141(a). The Act then man-
dates that “[t]he tabulation of total population by States
under subsection (a) of this section as required for the
apportionment of Representatives in Congress among
the several States shall be completed within 9 months
after the census date”—in this case, January 1, 2021—
“and reported by the Secretary to the President of the
United States.” Id. § 141(b). Within a short time
thereafter—in this case, between January 3 and Janu-
ary 10, 2021—“the President shall transmit to the Con-
gress a statement showing the whole number of persons

3
For practical purposes, the “Indians not taxed” proviso was ren-
dered moot by the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924, Pub. L. No.
68-175, 43 Stat. 253 (codified as amended at 8 U.S.C. § 1401(b)),
which declared that all Native Americans born in the United States
are citizens.
 9a

in each State, excluding Indians not taxed, as ascer-

tained under the . . . decennial census of the popu-
lation, and the number of Representatives to which each
State would be entitled under an apportionment of the
then existing number of Representatives by the method
known as the method of equal proportions, no State to
receive less than one Member.” 2 U.S.C. § 2a(a). The
Clerk of the House of Representatives must, in turn,
“send to the executive of each State a certificate of the
number of Representatives to which such State is enti-
tled” within fifteen days of the President’s statement.
Id. § 2a(b). With limited exceptions not relevant here,
the Census Act strictly prohibits disclosure—even to
other federal agencies—of any data or information
concerning individual respondents to the census. See
13 U.S.C. §§ 8-9; New York v. U.S. Dep’t of Commerce,
351 F. Supp. 3d 502, 523 (S.D.N.Y.), aff ’d, 139 S. Ct. 2551
(2019).
B. The Use of Census Data
Although the “initial”—and core—“constitutional pur-
pose” of the census was to “provide a basis for appor-
tioning representatives among the states in the Con-
gress” (and, in turn, allocating members of the Electoral
College), the census has long “fulfill[ed] many important
and valuable functions for the benefit of the country.”
Baldrige v. Shapiro, 455 U.S. 345, 353 (1982). As the
Supreme Court has observed, it “now serves as a linch-
pin of the federal statistical system by collecting data on
the characteristics of individuals, households, and hous-
ing units throughout the country.” Dep’t of Commerce v.
U.S. House of Representatives, 525 U.S. 316, 341 (1999)
(internal quotation marks and citation omitted). In-
deed, “[t]oday, policy makers at all levels of government,
 10a

as well as private businesses, households, researchers,

and nonprofit organizations, rely on an accurate census
in myriad ways that range far beyond the single fact of
how many people live in each state.” New York v. Dep’t
of Commerce, 351 F. Supp. 3d at 519 (citation omitted).
Among other things, the data are now used not only for
apportionment, but also “for such varied purposes as
computing federal grant-in-aid benefits, drafting of leg-
islation, urban and regional planning, business planning,
and academic and social studies.” Baldrige, 455 U.S.
at 353 n.9.
In New York v. Department of Commerce, the court
described many of the varied uses beyond congressional
apportionment to which the federal, state, and local gov-
ernments put census data, which Plaintiffs reiterate in
this case. See 351 F. Supp. 3d at 596-99, 610-13. To
provide a few examples here:
• The federal government relies on census data to
allocate vast sums of money among and within
States. In fiscal year 2016, for example, at least
320 such programs allocated about $900 billion
using census-derived data. See id. at 596.
• State governments—including those among the
Governmental Plaintiffs here—mandate the use
of census data to draw intrastate political dis-
tricts. See id. at 594-95, 612; House of Repre-
sentatives, 525 U.S. at 333 n.4, 334; see also, e.g.,
ECF No. 76-11 (“Brower Decl.”), ¶ 16-18 (Min-
nesota); ECF No. 76-37 (“Rapoza Decl.”), ¶ 5
(Rhode Island).
• State law requires the use of census data for var-
ious purposes, ranging from the allocation of
 11a

governmental resources and imposition of ex-

penses among local governments to the setting
of utility fees and official salaries. See New
York v. Dep’t of Commerce, 351 F. Supp. 3d at
612-13 (citing various state statutes).
• State and local governments—including those
among the Governmental Plaintiffs here — rely
on census data, including granular local-level
“characteristic data,” to perform essential gov-
ernment functions. New York City, for exam-
ple, makes important decisions about how to al-
locate public services in reliance on demographic
data derived from the census, as when its De-
partment of Education redraws school zone
boundary lines, ECF No. 76-21, (“Salvo Decl.”),
¶ 15; when its Department of Health deploys re-
sources based on its best understanding of the
age, race, and Hispanic origin characteristics
within particular communities, id. ¶ 14; and
when its Population Division uses age data to
target services for aged individuals, id. ¶ 16.
Thus, inaccuracies in federal census data would affect
state and local governments—and, by extension, their
residents—in many ways, only some of which would be
measurable. Critically, in many instances, that would be
true even if the total population counts were not materi-
ally affected—because of the importance of accuracy at
the local or subgroup level. 4

4
Although less relevant here, accurate census data is also critical
to others, including scholars and private-sector businesses. See,
e.g., Br. of Amici Curiae 16 Businesses & Business Organizations at
 12a

C. The Citizenship Question Litigation and Its After-

math
This is not the first time issues relating to the 2020
census have been brought in this District. On March
22, 2018, the Secretary announced that he had decided
to include “a question about citizenship on the 2020 de-
cennial census questionnaire,” claiming “that he was
acting at the request of the Department of Justice
(DOJ), which sought improved data about citizen voting-
age population for purposes of enforcing the Voting
Rights Act.” Dep’t of Commerce v. New York, 139
S. Ct. 2551, 2562 (2019). Shortly thereafter, two groups
of plaintiffs—including most, if not all, Plaintiffs here—
filed suit in this District, alleging that the decision to in-
clude the citizenship question violated the Constitution
and the Administrative Procedure Act (“APA”), 5 U.S.C.
§§ 701 et seq. On January 15, 2019, after an eight-day
bench trial, Judge Furman issued detailed findings of
fact and conclusions of law, holding that the Secretary’s
decision was arbitrary and capricious, contrary to
law, and pretextual. New York v. Dep’t of Commerce,

3, ECF No. 103-1 (“Businesses Amicus”) (“The Census provides crit-

ical data that informs decision-making in both the private and public
sectors. . . . Consequently, government action that threatens
the accuracy of Census data directly harms the businesses nation-
wide that rely on that data.”); M ARGO J. ANDERSON, THE AMERI-
CAN CENSUS: A S OCIAL HISTORY 260-61 (2d ed. 2015) (describing
how “[s]ocial scientists in university settings, in businesses, or in
stand-alone research organization [have become] the market” for
census data in the modern era). For instance, businesses rely on
census data “to make a variety of decisions, including where to put
new brick-and-mortar locations, how to market their products, and
how to predict which products will be successful in a given market.
. . . All of these things depend on the availability of accurate Cen-
sus data.” Businesses Amicus 2.
 13a

351 F. Supp. 3d at 516; see id. at 635-64. He vacated

the Secretary’s decision and enjoined its implementa-
tion. See id. at 671-80. The defendants filed a notice
of appeal and a petition for certiorari before judgment
in the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court granted
their petition and then affirmed on the ground that the
Secretary’s stated rationale was pretextual. See Dep’t
of Commerce v. New York, 139 S. Ct. at 2573-76.
Thereafter, on consent, Judge Furman entered a per-
manent injunction barring the Secretary from asking
persons about citizenship status as part of the 2020 de-
cennial census. See Order at 2, ECF No. 653, New
York, No. 18-CV-2921 (JMF) (S.D.N.Y. Aug. 7, 2019).
Shortly after the Supreme Court affirmed Judge
Furman’s judgment, the President responded with an
Executive Order aimed at “compil[ing]” citizenship data
“by other means.” Collecting Information About Citi-
zenship Status in Connection With the Decennial Cen-
sus, Exec. Order No. 13,880 § 1, 84 Fed. Reg. 33,821,
33,821 (July 16, 2019). The Executive Order directed
“all executive departments and agencies” to provide to
the Department “the maximum assistance permissible,
consistent with law, in determining the number of citi-
zens and non-citizens in the country, including by
providing any access that the Department may request
to administrative records.” Id. § 3 at 33,824. The Ex-
ecutive Order explained that data identifying citizens
would, among other things, “help . . . generate a
more reliable count of the unauthorized alien population
in the country,” which “would,” in turn, “be useful . . .
in evaluating many policy proposals.” Id. § 1 at 33,823.
Noting that the Supreme Court’s decision in Evenwel v.
Abbott, 136 S. Ct. 1120 (2016), had “left open the ques-
tion whether ‘States may draw districts to equalize
 14a

voter-eligible population rather than total population,’ ”

the Executive Order also explained that citizenship data
could be used by states “to design State and local legis-
lative districts based on the population of voter-eligible
citizens.” Id. § 1 at 33,823-24. The Executive Order
said nothing about using citizenship data for purposes of
congressional apportionment. Similarly, in remarks
he made when announcing the Executive Order, the
President made no mention of using citizenship data in
connection with congressional apportionment. See Re-
marks on Citizenship and the Census, 2019 DAILY COMP.
PRES. DOC. 465 (July 11, 2019), https://www.govinfo.gov/
content/pkg/DCPD-201900465/pdf/DCPD-201900465.
pdf.
D. The 2020 Census
On February 8, 2018 the Census Bureau promulgated
the “Residence Rule” establishing the residence criteria
for the 2020 census. See Final 2020 Census Residence
Criteria and Residence Situations, 83 Fed. Reg. 5525
(Feb. 8, 2018) (the “Residence Rule” or the “Rule”).
“The residence criteria are used to determine where
people are counted during each decennial census.” Id.
at 5526. “[G]uided by the constitutional and statutory
mandates to count all residents of the several states,”
the Rule explains,“[t]he state in which a person resides
and the specific location within that state is determined
in accordance with the concept of ‘usual residence,’
which is defined by the Census Bureau as the place
where a person lives and sleeps most of the time. . . .
This concept of ‘usual residence’ is grounded in the law
providing for the first census, the Act of March 1, 1790,
expressly specifying that persons be enumerated at
 15a

their ‘usual place of abode.’ ” Id. Applying these cri-

teria, the Rule explains that all “[c]itizens of foreign
countries living in the United States” are to be
“[c]ounted at the U.S. residence where they live and
sleep most of the time,” with the exception of “[c]itizens
of foreign countries living in the United States who are
members of the diplomatic community” (who are
counted at the embassy, consulate, United Nations’ fa-
cility, or other residences where diplomats live) and
“[c]itizens of foreign countries visiting the United States,
such as on a vacation or business trip” (who are not
counted at all). Id.at 5533. Notably, during the notice-
and-comment process, the Census Bureau considered a
comment “express[ing] concern about the impact of in-
cluding undocumented people in the population counts
for redistricting because these people cannot vote.”
Id. at 5530. But the Census Bureau decided to “retain
the proposed residence situation guidance for foreign
citizens in the United States,” reiterating that “[f ]oreign
citizens are considered to be ‘living’ in the United States
if, at the time of the census, they are living and sleeping
most of the time at a residence in the United States.”
Id. (emphasis added).
The Census Bureau relies on various means to obtain
census data, beginning with a questionnaire to which
households are asked to self-respond and ending with a
set of procedures known as “Non-Response Follow-Up”
operations. See New York v. Dep’t of Commerce, 351
F. Supp. 3d at 521. The 2020 census count “officially
began in the rural Alaskan village of Toksook Bay” on
January 21, 2020. U.S. Census Bureau, Important
Dates, U.S. CENSUS 2020, https://2020census.gov/en/
important-dates.html (last visited September 7, 2020).
Census operations were in full swing by mid-March,
 16a

when the Census Bureau was confronted with the un-

precedented challenge of the COVID-19 pandemic. On
April 13, 2020, the Secretary and the Director an-
nounced that, due to the pandemic, the Census Bureau
would temporarily suspend field data collection activi-
ties; seek a 120-day extension from Congress of the
deadline “to deliver final apportionment counts”; and
“extend the window for field data collection and self-re-
sponse to October 31, 2020, which will allow for appor-
tionment counts to be delivered to the President by
April 30, 2021.” U.S. Department of Commerce Secre-
tary Wilbur Ross and U.S. Census Bureau Director Ste-
ven Dillingham Statement on 2020 Census Operational
Adjustments Due to COVID-19, U.S. CENSUS BUREAU
(Apr. 13, 2020), https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-
releases/2020/statement-covid-19-2020.html. In the
following months, representatives of the Census Bureau
reiterated on multiple occasions that additional time was
required to complete the apportionment count and de-
liver it to the President. 5

5
See, e.g., U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, OPERATIONAL PRESS BRIEFING
-2020 CENSUS UPDATE 21 (July 8, 2020), https://www.census.gov/
content/dam/Census/newsroom/press-kits/2020/news-briefing-program-
transcript-july8.pdf (statement of Albert Fontenot, Assoc. Dir. for
Decennial Census Programs) (explaining that the Bureau was “past
the window of being able” to produce the apportionment count by
December 31, 2020); see also, e.g., Nat’l Conf. of Am. Indians, 2020
Census Webinar: American Indian/Alaska Native, YOUTUBE
(May 26, 2020), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F6IyJMtDDgY
&feature=youtu.be&t=4689 (statement of Tim Olson, Assoc. Dir.
For Field Operations) (explaining that “[w]e have passed the point
where [the Bureau] could even meet the current legislative require-
ment of December 31. We can’t do that anymore. We’ve passed
that for quite a while now.”).
 17a

The Census Bureau resumed field operations in May

2020. See U.S. Census Bureau, 2020 Census Opera-
tional Adjustments Due to COVID-19 (“Census Opera-
tions Adjustments”), U.S. CENSUS 2020, https://2020census.
gov/en/news-events/operational-adjustments-covid-19.
html (last visited Sept. 9, 2020). Despite the Census
Bureau’s earlier statements indicating the need for
more time to complete the census, Director Dillingham
announced on August 3, 2020, that the Census Bureau
would end field operations on September 30, 2020, a
month earlier than the previously announced deadline of
October 31, 2020. See Statement from U.S. Census Bu-
reau Director Steven Dillingham: Delivering a Com-
plete and Accurate 2020 Census Count, U.S. CENSUS
BUREAU (Aug. 3, 2020), https://www.census.gov/news-
room/press-releases/2020/delivering-complete-accurate
-count.html; see also ECF No. 62 (“NGO Pls. Compl.”),
¶¶ 10& n.3, 114, 174 n.69. As of today, therefore, the
census is still ongoing—with enumerators conducting
in-person Non-Response Follow-Up work to ensure that
any household that did not self-respond to the census is
nonetheless counted as part of the “actual Enumera-
tion.” See Census Operations Adjustments; see also
ECF No. 34 (“Gov’t Pls.’ Compl.”), ¶ 130 & n.20. In
fact, there is some doubt about the date on which these
efforts will end and the counting will stop. On Septem-
ber 5, 2020, the Honorable Lucy H. Koh, United States
District Judge for the Northern District of California,
entered a temporary restraining order enjoining the
Census Bureau from “implementing the August 3, 2020
[plan] or allowing to be implemented any actions as a
result of the shortened timelines in the August 3, 2020
[plan].” Nat’l Urban League v. Ross, No. 20-CV-5799
(LHK), 2020 WL 5291452, at *4 (N.D. Cal. Sept. 5, 2020).
 18a

A preliminary injunction hearing is scheduled in that

case for September 17, 2020. See id.
E. The Presidential Memorandum
In the meantime—that is, with the census count still
being conducted—on July 21, 2020, the President issued
the Presidential Memorandum, titled “Excluding Illegal
Aliens From the Apportionment Base Following the
2020 Census.” Presidential Memorandum, 85 Fed.
Reg. at 44,679. In it, the President declared that, “[f ]or
the purpose of the reapportionment of Representatives
following the 2020 census, it is the policy of the United
States to exclude from the apportionment base aliens
who are not in a lawful immigration status . . . to
the maximum extent feasible and consistent with the
discretion delegated to the executive branch.” Id. at
44,680. “Excluding these illegal aliens from the appor-
tionment base,” the President posited, “is more conso-
nant with the principles of representative democracy
underpinning our system of Government. Affording
congressional representation, and therefore formal po-
litical influence, to States on account of the presence
within their borders of aliens who have not followed the
steps to secure a lawful immigration status under our
laws undermines those principles.” Id. Additionally,
the President asserted that “[i]ncreasing congressional
representation based on the presence of aliens who are
not in a lawful immigration status would also create per-
verse incentives encouraging violations of Federal law”
and that “States adopting policies that encourage illegal
aliens to enter this country and that hobble Federal ef-
forts to enforce the immigration laws passed by the Con-
gress should not be rewarded with greater representa-
tion in the House of Representatives.” Id. Referring
 19a

to one State with “more than 2.2 million illegal aliens”

—apparently California, see ECF No. 75 (“Pls.’ Rule
56.1 Statement”), ¶ 4—the Presidential Memorandum
noted that “[i]ncluding these illegal aliens in the popula-
tion of the State for the purpose of apportionment could
result in the allocation of two or three more congres-
sional seats than would otherwise be allocated.” Pres-
idential Memorandum, 85 Fed. Reg. at 44,680.
To implement this new “policy of the United States,”
the President directed the Secretary to provide him with
two sets of data. First, the Presidential Memorandum
mandates that, “[i]n preparing his report to the Presi-
dent under section 141(b) of title 13, United States Code,
the Secretary shall take all appropriate action, con-
sistent with the Constitution and other applicable law,
to provide information permitting the President, to the
extent practicable, to exercise the President’s discretion
to carry out the policy.” Id. Second, “[t]he Secretary
shall also include in that report information tabulated
according to the methodology set forth in Final 2020
Census Residence Criteria and Residence Situations,
83 FR 5525 (Feb. 8, 2018).” Id. (emphasis added). In
other words, to the extent “feasible” or “practicable,”
the Secretary is now required to include two sets of
numbers for each State in his report to the President
under Section 141(b) of the Census Act: first, the total
population as determined in accordance with the Resi-
dence Rule, which includes citizens of foreign countries
“living in the United States,” without regard for the le-
gal status of such persons in this country, Residence
Rule, 83 Fed. Reg. at 5533; and second, the total popu-
lation minus the number of “aliens who are not in a law-
ful immigration status.” Presidential Memorandum,
85 Fed. Reg. at 44,680.
 20a

F. This Litigation
On July 24, 2020—only three days after the Presiden-
tial Memorandum—both the Governmental Plaintiffs
and the NGO Plaintiffs filed their initial complaints. See
ECF No. 1; 20-CV-5781, ECF No. 1. 6 In their now-
amended Complaints, Plaintiffs contend that the Presi-
dential Memorandum violates the Constitution’s Enu-
meration Clause, as modified by the Fourteenth Amend-
ment; is motivated by discriminatory animus toward
Hispanics and immigrant communities of color, in viola-
tion of the equal protection component of the Fifth
Amendment’s Due Process Clause; coerces state and lo-
cal governments and denigrates the equal sovereignty
of the States in violation of the Tenth Amendment; vio-
lates the constitutional separation of powers by usurp-
ing the authority Congress delegated to the Secretary;
constitutes an ultra vires violation of 2 U.S.C. § 2a and
13 U.S.C. § 141; violates the APA; and violates the Cen-
sus Act’s prohibition on the use of statistical sampling
for purposes of congressional apportionment, see 13
U.S.C. §§ 141, 195. They seek a declaration that the
Presidential Memorandum is unlawful, an injunction
prohibiting Defendants from taking any action to imple-

6
At least six other cases in four other Districts have been
filed challenging the Presidential Memorandum. See Compl., Com-
mon Cause v. Trump, No. 20-CV-2023 (D.D.C. July 23, 2020);
Compl., Haitian-Ams. United, Inc. v. Trump, No. 20-CV-11421
(D. Mass. July 27, 2020); Compl., City of San Jose v. Trump, No.
20-CV-5167 (N.D. Cal. July 27, 2020); Compl., California v. Trump,
No. 20-CV-5169 (N.D. Cal. July 28, 2020); Compl., Useche v.
Trump, No. 20-CV-2225 (D. Md. July 31, 2020); Second Am.
Compl., La Union Del Pueblo Entero v. Trump, No. 19-CV-2710
(D. Md. Aug. 13, 2020).
 21a

ment or further the Memorandum, and writs of manda-

mus compelling the Secretary and the President to trans-
mit figures that do not exclude illegal aliens based on
immigration status.
The cases were initially assigned to Judge Furman
alone, who consolidated them pursuant to Rule 42(a)(2)
of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. ECF No. 43,
at 1. On August 5, 2020, Judge Furman held an initial
pretrial conference by telephone. During the confer-
ence, Plaintiffs advised that they intended to immedi-
ately file a motion for summary judgment (or, in the al-
ternative, a preliminary injunction), and Defendants ad-
vised that they intended to file a motion to dismiss.
ECF No. 79 (“Aug. 5, 2020 Tr.”), at 11, 27, 36-38; see also
ECF No. 37 (“Joint Pre-Conference Ltr.”), at 6. Not-
ing that Plaintiffs disclaimed the need for any discovery
in connection with their motion for summary judgment
or a preliminary injunction, Judge Furman set an expe-
dited schedule and cautioned that, “[i]f defendants be-
lieve[d]” upon seeing Plaintiffs’ motion papers “that there
is any need for discovery,” they were required “to con-
fer” with Plaintiffs “immediately and then submit a joint
letter.” Aug. 5, 2020 Tr. at 46.
At Plaintiffs’ request, and without objection from De-
fendants, Judge Furman filed a formal request on Au-
gust 7, 2020, for the appointment of a three-judge dis-
trict court pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 2284(b). See ECF
No. 68; see also ECF Nos. 58, 65. On August 10, 2020,
the Honorable Robert A. Katzmann, then the Chief
Judge of the Second Circuit, designated Judges Wesley
and Hall to serve as the other members of a three-judge
 22a

panel to hear these cases. See ECF No. 82. Thereaf-

ter, the panel adopted the scheduling order previously
entered by Judge Furman alone. See ECF No. 86.
Pursuant to that scheduling order, Plaintiffs filed
their motion on August 7, 2020. See ECF No. 74. Plain-
tiffs seek summary judgment (or, in the alternative, a
preliminary injunction) on only some of their claims,
namely that the Presidential Memorandum violates the
Enumeration Clause and Fourteenth Amendment and
constitutes an ultra vires violation of the statutes gov-
erning the census and apportionment. See ECF No. 77
(“Pls.’ Mem.”), at 10-40. Plaintiffs’ motion is supported
by declarations of both fact and expert witnesses. See
ECF No. 76 (“Colangelo Decl.”); ECF No. 149 (“Gold-
stein Decl.”).
In response, Defendants did not ask to depose Plain-
tiffs’ declarants or request discovery of any kind; nor did
they seek a hearing. Instead, on August 19, 2020, they
filed their opposition to Plaintiffs’ motion and a cross-
motion to dismiss. See ECF No. 117. To the extent
relevant here, they argue that the Court lacks jurisdic-
tion to hear Plaintiffs’ claims because they are unripe
and Plaintiffs lack standing; that the Enumeration Clause
and ultra vires claims fail because the decision to ex-
clude illegal aliens from the apportionment base is a law-
ful exercise of the President’s discretion with respect to
the census and apportionment; that Plaintiffs are not en-
titled to injunctive relief because they cannot show ir-
reparable harm; and that the President is not a proper
defendant. See ECF No. 118 (“Defs.’ Mem.”). On Au-
gust 28, 2020, the motions became fully briefed, see ECF
No. 154 (“Defs.’ Reply”), and on September 3, 2020, the
Court held oral argument by telephone.
 23a

SUMMARY JUDGMENT STANDARD

Summary judgment is appropriate where the admis-
sible evidence and pleadings demonstrate “no genuine
dispute as to any material fact and the movant is entitled
to judgment as a matter of law.” Fed. R. Civ. P. 56(a);
see also Johnson v. Killian, 680 F.3d 234, 236 (2d Cir.
2012) (per curiam). A dispute over an issue of material
fact qualifies as genuine “if the evidence is such that a
reasonable jury could return a verdict for the nonmov-
ing party.” Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S.
242, 248 (1986); accord Roe v. City of Waterbury, 542
F.3d 31, 35 (2d Cir. 2008). The initial burden of estab-
lishing that no genuine factual dispute exists rests upon
the party seeking summary judgment. See Chambers
v. TRM Copy Ctrs. Corp., 43 F.3d 29, 36 (2d Cir. 1994).
If the moving party shows a prima facie entitlement to
summary judgment, “the burden shifts to the nonmovant
to point to record evidence creating a genuine issue of
material fact.” Salahuddin v. Goord, 467 F.3d 263, 273
(2d Cir. 2006).
In ruling on a motion for summary judgment, a court
must view all evidence “in the light most favorable to the
non-moving party,” Overton v. N.Y. State Div. of Mil. &
Naval Affs., 373 F.3d 83, 89 (2d Cir. 2004), and must “re-
solve all ambiguities and draw all permissible factual in-
ferences in favor of the party against whom summary
judgment is sought,” Sec. Ins. Co. of Hartford v. Old Do-
minion Freight Line, Inc., 391 F.3d 77, 83 (2d Cir. 2004).
To defeat a motion for summary judgment, the non-mov-
ing party must advance more than a “scintilla of evi-
dence,” Anderson, 477 U.S. at 252, and demonstrate
more than “some metaphysical doubt as to the material
facts,” Matsushita Elec. Indus. Co. v. Zenith Radio
 24a

Corp., 475 U.S. 574, 586 (1986). The non-moving party

“cannot defeat the motion by relying on the allegations
in [its] pleading, or on conclusory statements, or on
mere assertions that affidavits supporting the motion
are not credible.” Gottlieb v. County of Orange, 84 F.3d
511, 518 (2d Cir. 1996) (internal citation omitted).
STANDING AND RIPENESS
As noted, Plaintiffs move for summary judgment on
two grounds: that Defendants’ decision to exclude ille-
gal aliens from the apportionment base violates the
Enumeration Clause and the Fourteenth Amendment of
the Constitution; and that it exceeds the authority granted
by Congress in the statutes that govern the census and
congressional apportionment. See Pls.’ Mem. 10-40.
Before reaching the merits of either argument, how-
ever, we must address Defendants’ contention that we
lack jurisdiction. See, e.g., Steel Co. v. Citizens for a
Better Env’t, 523 U.S. 83, 88-89 (1998) (noting that sub-
ject-matter jurisdiction cannot be assumed and is a
“threshold question that must be resolved . . . be-
fore proceeding to the merits”).
Defendants argue and move to dismiss on the ground
that we lack jurisdiction for two reasons: because
Plaintiffs fail to establish that they have standing to sue
and because their claims are not yet ripe. Where, as
here, the question is whether a plaintiff’s injury is suffi-
ciently “real and concrete rather than speculative and
hypothetical, the ripeness inquiry merges almost com-
pletely with standing.” Thomas v. Anchorage Equal
Rights Comm’n, 220 F.3d 1134, 1138-39 (9th Cir. 2000)
(citation omitted); accord Susan B. Anthony List v.
Driehaus, 573 U.S. 149, 157 n.5 (2014); Nat’l Org. for
Marriage, Inc. v. Walsh, 714 F.3d 682, 688 (2d Cir. 2013)
 25a

(quoting Simmonds v. INS, 326 F.3d 351, 357 (2d Cir.

2003). Thus, courts often address them together under
the single umbrella term of “standing,” see, e.g., Susan
B. Anthony List, 573 U.S. at 157 n.5; Nat’l Org. for Mar-
riage, 714 F.3d at 689 n.6, and we will do the same here.
But there is a second, arguably distinct form of ripeness
doctrine that Defendants invoke: prudential ripeness,
which concerns whether a case that might qualify as a
bona fide case or controversy is nevertheless better de-
cided later. See, e.g., Stolt-Nielsen S.A. v. Animal-
Feeds Int’l Corp., 559 U.S. 662, 670 n.2 (2010) (“Ripeness
reflects constitutional considerations that implicate Ar-
ticle III limitations on judicial power, as well as pruden-
tial reasons for refusing to exercise jurisdiction.” (in-
ternal quotation marks and citation omitted)). We will
begin with the issue of standing —the toughest issue in
this case—and then turn briefly to prudential ripeness.
A. The Law of Standing
Article III of the Constitution limits the “judicial
Power” of the United States to “Cases” and “Controver-
sies.” See U.S. Const. art. III, § 2. This means that
all suits filed in federal court must be “cases and contro-
versies of the sort traditionally amenable to, and re-
solved by, the judicial process.” Steel Co., 523 U.S. at
102. One way courts implement that requirement is by
ensuring that “at least one plaintiff” in any federal case
has “standing.” Dep’t of Commerce v. New York, 139
S. Ct. at 2565; see also Rumsfeld v. Forum for Acad. &
Institutional Rights, Inc., 547 U.S. 47, 52 n.2 (2006)
(noting that, in a case with multiple plaintiffs, “the pres-
ence of one party with standing is sufficient to satisfy
Article III’s case-or-controversy requirement”). Stand-
ing, in turn, is measured by a “familiar three-part test,”
 26a

which requires a plaintiff to show (1) “an injury in fact,

(2) that is fairly traceable to the challenged conduct of
the defendant, and (3) that is likely to be redressed by
a favorable judicial decision.” Gill v. Whitford, 138
S. Ct. 1916 (2018) (quoting Spokeo, Inc. v. Robins, 136
S. Ct. 1540, 1547 (2016)). The plaintiff must make this
showing “in the same way as any other matter on which
the plaintiff bears the burden of proof, i.e., with the
manner and degree of evidence required at the succes-
sive stages of the litigation.” Lujan v. Defs. of Wild-
life, 504 U.S. 555, 561 (1992). To prevail on a motion
for summary judgment, therefore, “mere allegations of
injury are insufficient. Rather, a plaintiff must estab-
lish that there exists no genuine issue of material fact as
to justiciability. . . . ” House of Representatives,
525 U.S. at 329; see Lujan, 504 U.S. at 561 (stating that,
on summary judgment, a plaintiff “can no longer rest on
such ‘mere allegations,’ ” as at the pleading stage, “but
must ‘set forth’ by affidavit or other evidence ‘specific
facts’ ” that demonstrate standing. (quoting Fed. R.
Civ. P. 56(e)).
Injury in fact is “the first and foremost of standing’s
three elements.” Spokeo, 136 S. Ct. at 1547 (internal
quotation marks, alterations, and citation omitted).
“To establish injury in fact, a plaintiff must show that he
or she suffered an invasion of a legally protected inter-
est that is concrete and particularized and actual or im-
minent, not conjectural or hypothetical.” Id. at 1548
(internal quotation marks and citation omitted). Sig-
nificantly, an injury “need not be actualized” to satisfy
Article III. Davis v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 554 U.S.
724, 734 (2008). Instead, a “future injury” can suffice,
so long as it is “certainly impending, or there is a sub-
 27a

stantial risk that the harm will occur.” Susan B. An-

thony List, 573 U.S. at 157 (internal quotation marks
and citation omitted); see also Clapper v. Amnesty Int’l
USA, 568 U.S. 398, 414 n.5 (2013) (noting that plaintiffs
need not “demonstrate that it is literally certain that the
harms they identify will come about”); House of Repre-
sentatives, 525 U.S. at 332-33 (finding standing “on the
basis of the expected effects . . . on intrastate redis-
tricting”—namely, that certain jurisdictions were “sub-
stantially likely . . . [to] suffer vote dilution”). Ul-
timately, the injury-in-fact requirement is meant to “en-
sure that the plaintiff has a personal stake in the out-
come of the controversy.” Susan B. Anthony List, 573
U.S. at 158 (internal quotation marks and citation omit-
ted).
The second element requires proof that the plaintiff’s
injury is “fairly traceable” to the defendant’s challenged
conduct. Put differently, “there must be a causal con-
nection between the injury and the conduct complained
of—the injury has to be fairly traceable to the chal-
lenged action of the defendant, and not the result of the
independent action of some third party not before the
court.” Lujan, 504 U.S. at 560 (internal quotation
marks, alterations, and citation omitted). Importantly,
“[p]roximate causation is not a requirement of Article
III standing, which requires only that the plaintiff’s in-
jury be fairly traceable to the defendant’s conduct.”
Lexmark Int’l, Inc. v. Static Control Components, Inc.,
572 U.S. 118, 134 n.6 (2014) (emphases added); see also
Rothstein v. UBS AG, 708 F.3d 82, 91 (2d Cir. 2013)
(“[T]he ‘fairly traceable’ standard is lower than that of
proximate cause.”). Accordingly, “Article III ‘requires
no more than de facto causality.’ ” Dep’t of Commerce
v. New York, 139 S. Ct. at 2566 (quoting Block v. Meese,
 28a

793 F.2d 1303, 1309 (D.C. Cir. 1986) (Scalia, J.)). Re-
latedly, for an injury to be “fairly traceable” to a defend-
ant’s conduct, that conduct need not be “the very last
step in the chain of causation.” Bennett v. Spear, 520
U.S. 154, 168-69 (1997). Indeed, as the Supreme Court
explained in finding that the plaintiffs challenging the
decision to add a citizenship question to the census had
standing, when a “theory of standing” relies “on the pre-
dictable effect of Government action on the decisions of
third parties,” traceability is satisfied. Dep’t of Com-
merce v. New York, 139 S. Ct. at 2566. This may be so
“even when the decisions are illogical or unnecessary.”
New York v. U.S. Dep’t of Homeland Sec., 969 F.3d 42,
59 (2d Cir. 2020).
Third and finally, a plaintiff’s injury must be “re-
dressable” by the relief sought — that is, “it must be
likely, as opposed to merely speculative, that the injury
will be redressed by a favorable decision.” Lujan, 504
U.S. at 561 (internal quotation marks and citation omit-
ted). “[T]he very essence of the redressability require-
ment” is that a request for “[r]elief that does not remedy
the injury suffered cannot bootstrap a plaintiff into fed-
eral court.” Steel Co., 523 U.S. at 107. But if there is “a
likelihood that the requested relief will redress the
[plaintiff ’s] injury,” the requirement is satisfied. Id. at
103; see also Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Env’t
Servs. (TOC), Inc., 528 U.S. 167, 185-86 (2000) (“[F]or a
plaintiff who is injured or faces the threat of future in-
jury due to illegal conduct ongoing at the time of suit, a
sanction that effectively abates that conduct and pre-
vents its recurrence provides a form of redress.”). No-
tably, the redressability requirement does not require a
plaintiff to show that the relief sought will remedy all
injuries alleged. Instead, “ ‘the relevant inquiry is
 29a

whether . . . the plaintiff has shown an injury to himself

that is likely to be redressed by a favorable decision.’ In
other words, a plaintiff satisfies the redressability re-
quirement when he shows that a favorable decision will
relieve a discrete injury to himself. He need not show
that a favorable decision will relieve his every injury.”
Larson v. Valente, 456 U.S. 228, 243 n.15 (1982) (cita-
tions omitted) (quoting Simon v. E. Ky. Welfare Rights
Org., 426 U.S. 26 (1976)). Nor need the plaintiff prove
that judicial relief will remedy an injury entirely. It is
enough that the “risk [of the alleged harm] would be re-
duced to some extent if [the plaintiffs] received the relief
they seek.” Massachusetts v. E.P.A., 549 U.S. 497, 526
(2007); cf. Church of Scientology of Cal. v. United States,
506 U.S. 9, 13 (1992) (“Even though it is now too late to
prevent, or to provide a fully satisfactory remedy for,
the [injury], a court does have power to effectuate a par-
tial remedy.”).
B. Facts Relevant to Standing
Plaintiffs press two categories of harm: (1) “harms
stemming from the exclusion of undocumented immi-
grants in the apportionment count”; and (2) “harms
caused by the Memorandum’s deterrent effect on census
participation.” Pls.’ Reply 29. With respect to the
first category, the Presidential Memorandum’s express
goal is to stop “[a]ffording congressional representation,
and therefore formal political influence, to States on ac-
count of ” their illegal alien population. Presidential
Memorandum, 85 Fed. Reg. at 44,680. In particular,
the Memorandum itself anticipates that excluding ille-
gal aliens from the apportionment count could reduce
the number of representatives in States with large im-
migrant populations, noting explicitly that in “one State
 30a

. . . home to more than 2.2 million illegal aliens,” id.

—apparently, California, see Pls.’ Rule 56.1 Statement
¶¶ 3-4—the inclusion of illegal aliens could “result in the
allocation of two or three more congressional seats than
would otherwise be allocated,” Presidential Memoran-
dum, 85 Fed. Reg. at 44,680. In addition to the Memo-
randum itself, Plaintiffs proffer an expert analysis that
concludes that the wholesale exclusion of illegal aliens
from the apportionment base “is likely to have substan-
tial effects on the population counts of each state” and,
more specifically, “will almost certainly lead Texas to
lose a seat in Congress”; would “likely . . . lead Cal-
ifornia and New Jersey to lose a congressional seat”;
and “could lead other states, such as Arizona, Florida,
New York, or Illinois, to lose seats.” ECF No. 76-58
(“Warshaw Decl.”), ¶ 11.
With respect to the second category of harm, Plain-
tiffs submit a number of declarations—uncontested by
Defendants—demonstrating the Presidential Memo-
randum’s deterrent effect on participation in the decen-
nial census, particularly among noncitizens, immigrants,
and their family members, and, in turn, the adverse con-
sequences that are likely to flow from that deterrent ef-
fect. 7 The Presidential Memorandum deters census

7
Although Defendants do not dispute the facts in Plaintiffs’ dec-
larations, they argue that the declarations are “impermissibly con-
jectural, conclusory, and hearsay.” Defs.’ Mem. 12. Defendants
are correct to point out that we “may consider affidavits and other
materials beyond the pleadings to resolve the jurisdictional issue,”
but “may not rely on conclusory or hearsay statements contained in
the affidavits.” New York v. U.S. Dep’t of Commerce, 315 F. Supp.
3d 766, 780 (S.D.N.Y. 2018) (internal quotation marks omitted).
But Plaintiffs’ declarations are not conclusory insofar as they de-
scribe with concrete detail the specific experience of various non-
 31a

participation for at least two distinct reasons. First,

the Presidential Memorandum engenders fear and dis-
trust among illegal aliens and their families (and, more
broadly, all noncitizens and their families), and deters
these groups from participating in the census out of fear
of providing the federal government with information by
which their citizenship status may be ascertained (and
any resulting adverse consequences). Second, because

governmental and governmental entities. By way of example, sev-

eral NGO Plaintiffs give specific and concrete evidence of the ways
in which their operations have shifted to respond to the Memoran-
dum. See, e.g., ECF No. 76-18 (“Espinosa Decl.”), ¶ 14; ECF No.
76-14 (“Choi Decl.”), ¶¶ 17, 20-21; ECF No. 76-26 (“Khalaf Decl.”),
¶ 15; ECF No. 76-36 (“Oshiro Decl.”), ¶ 12; ECF No. 76-47 (“Torres
Decl.”), ¶¶ 22-23.
Furthermore, although the declarations do contain some inad-
missible hearsay (e.g., where they report information secondhand),
Defendants are incorrect in suggesting that, without it, the declara-
tions are insufficient to support a showing that “the Presidential
Memorandum would have an appreciable effect on the participation
of illegal aliens” in the census. Defs.’ Mem. 14-15. Many of the
statements in Plaintiffs’ declarations recount comments made by im-
migrants in response to the Presidential Memorandum, see, e.g.,
ECF No. 76-17 (“Cullinane Decl.”), ¶ 8; ECF No. 149-3 (“Espinosa
Supp. Decl.”), ¶ 5, which are admissible to prove state of mind, see
Fed. R. Evid. 803(3). Additionally, references in the declarations
to third-party statements are admissible to demonstrate the effect
that these statements had on others—for example, that NGO Plain-
tiffs diverted resources in response to deterred census participation.
See, e.g., United States v. Reed, 639 F.2d 896, 907 (2d Cir. 1981). Fi-
nally, the declarations also contain information about the general at-
mosphere of fear, confusion, and apathy towards the census in vari-
ous communities, information that is based on declarants’ personal
experiences working with and in those communities; this information
is not a “statement” and, thus, not hearsay. See Fed. R. Evid.
801(a). In the discussion that follows, we rely on the declarations
only to the extent they are admissible.
 32a

the Presidential Memorandum announces that it is United

States policy “to exclude from the apportionment base
aliens who are not in a lawful immigration status,” Pres-
idential Memorandum, 85 Fed. Reg. at 44,680—the “pri-
mary purpose of the census,” New York v. Dep’t of Com-
merce, 351 F. Supp. 3d at 561—illegal aliens may decide
not to participate in the census on the theory that they
do not count for any purpose or on the theory that there
is little upside to being counted.
Several agency and non-profit organization leaders
in charge of census outreach programs attest that many
illegal aliens have expressed concern over, or outright
refused to participate in, the census as a result of the
Presidential Memorandum, both because they are ap-
prehensive that the data will be used in immigration en-
forcement and because they perceive their participation
as ultimately futile in light of the President’s explicit ex-
clusion of illegal aliens for the purposes of apportion-
ment. See, e.g., ECF No. 76-4 (“Baldwin Decl.”), ¶ 8;
ECF No. 76-5 (“Banerji Decl.”), ¶ 5; Brower Decl. ¶ 11;
Cullinane Decl. ¶ 8. Other immigrant respondents
have expressed concern that “the Trump Administra-
tion would punish undocumented persons who filled out
the Census by tracking and deporting them.” See, e.g.,
ECF No. 76-30 (“Matos Decl.”), ¶¶ 9-13 (describing Del-
aware-based census advocacy program’s increased need
to quell community fears that, in light of the Presiden-
tial Memorandum, responding to the census will result
in deportation or bar Latinos from obtaining citizen-
ship).
Notably, Plaintiffs’ evidence indicates that the ef-
fects of the Presidential Memorandum are likely to be
felt beyond the illegal alien population. “Excluding
 33a

undocumented immigrants from the apportionment

base will deter Census participation among the broader
immigrant community, including family and household
members of undocumented immigrants who are actually
citizens or non-citizens with legal status.” Espinosa
Decl. ¶ 11; see also Khalaf Decl. ¶ 12 (“[S]ignificant fear
and increased distrust about the Census . . . [is] not
limited to undocumented immigrants or other non-
citizens, but also to family, household members, friends,
and community members of non-citizens, people for
whom the new policy articulated in the Memorandum
has generated fear about responding at all. . . . ”).
Of particular concern is the response in “mixed status
households”—that is, households consisting of illegal al-
iens and residents with lawful status—where concerns
about the security of identifying information being shared
with the federal government are prevalent. See, e.g.,
Espinosa Decl. ¶ 12 (describing a fear among individuals
from mixed status households that “the Presidential
Memorandum’s exclusion of people ‘not in lawful immi-
gration status’ from the census base count indicates that
the Administration will use information from the census
to attempt to identify undocumented immigrants for de-
portation or other adverse consequences”). “Even U.S.-
born citizen Puerto Rican residents are confused” by the
Presidential Memorandum. ECF No. 76-16 (“Colón
Decl.”), ¶ 11.
In addition to this extensive—and undisputed—rec-
ord of fact witness testimony, Plaintiffs provide expert
analyses describing the fear and confusion generated by
the Presidential Memorandum among hard-to-count
communities and the resultant chilling effect on census
participation. See ECF No. 76-56 (“Barreto Decl.”),
 34a

¶ 14 (surveying research on the impact of media mes-

sages on immigrant communities’ trust in government
and the impact of those communities’ trust on census re-
sponse rates and concluding that “the July 21 [Presiden-
tial Memorandum] will reduce participation in the 2020
census, and ultimately will reduce the accuracy of the
2020 census”); ECF No. 76-57 (“Thompson Decl.”), ¶ 3
(concluding that the Presidential Memorandum “will
significantly increase the risk of larger total and differ-
ential undercounts, relative to previous censuses, for the
hard-to-count populations, including immigrant com-
munities”). 8

8
Defendants fault Dr. Barreto for failing to consider a 2019 study
conducted by the Census Bureau, ELIZABETH A. POEHLER ET AL.,
U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, 2019 CENSUS TEST REPORT: A NEW DE-
SIGN FOR THE 21ST CENTURY (Jan. 3, 2020), https://www2.census.
gov/programs-surveys/decennial/2020/program-management/census-
tests/2019/2019-census-test-report.pdf (“2019 Census Test Report”),
which found “no statistically significant difference in overall self-re-
sponse rates” resulting from the inclusion of a citizenship question
on the census questionnaire. Id. at ix; see Defs.’ Mem. 13. But
that study, which is not directly relevant to the issues before us, is
less useful for Defendants than their arguments suggest, as there
are findings that both sides can and do point to in support of their
positions. In fact, the same study did find statistically significant
drops in response rates “in some areas and for some subgroups,” in-
cluding “[t]racts with greater than 4.9 percent noncitizens,” “[t]racts
with greater than 49.1 percent Hispanic residents,” “[t]racts with
between 5.0-20.0 percent Asian residents,” and“[h]ousing units
within the Los Angeles Regional Census Center and New York Re-
gional Census Center boundaries.” Id. at ix-x. Furthermore, “the
results of this [study] [we]re limited to the self-response timeframe
prior to the start of” Non-Response Follow-Up operations, id. at12,
and there is reason to believe that each of Non-Response Follow-
 35a

In short, the record supports a conclusion that the

Presidential Memorandum has created, and is likely to
create, widespread confusion among illegal aliens and
others as to whether they should participate in the cen-
sus, a confusion which has obvious deleterious effects on
their participation rate. See ECF No. 76-1 (“Alvarez
Decl.”),¶ 10 (reporting “an increase in confusion amongst
immigrant communities after” Memorandum was is-
sued); see also Baldwin Decl. ¶ 8; ECF No. 76-9 (“Bird
Decl.”), ¶ 9. As John Thompson, the former Director
of the Census Bureau, predicts, “the effects of the Mem-
orandum on the current macro environment are likely
to be as great if not greater than the addition of a citi-
zenship question.” Thompson Decl. ¶ 23 (emphasis
added); see also Barreto Decl. ¶29. And the Census Bu-
reau’s own advertising initiatives will struggle to ward
off these effects even with “messag[ing] that respondent
information is confidential” and that “[t]he Census Bu-
reau will not share it with any outside entities, including
law and immigration enforcement.” Thompson Decl.
¶ 21.
These deterrent effects have far-reaching ramifica-
tions, including increasing costs for census outreach
programs run by NGOs and governments. Indeed, the
NGO Plaintiffs have already diverted resources from
their other important programs to shore up their census
engagement efforts. For example, Plaintiff FIEL “has
recently had to refocus its programming and commit ad-
ditional resources to its Census work,” and “expects that
it will need to interact with its constituents multiple

Up’s steps would replicate or exacerbate the effects of the net dif-
ferential decline in self-response rates among noncitizen households,
see New York v. Dep’t of Commerce, 351 F. Supp. 3d at 583.
 36a

times to answer questions and try to convince them to

participate in the 2020 Census.” Espinosa Decl. ¶ 14;
see also ECF No. 76-44, (“Sivongxay Decl.”), ¶ 18 (“[A]ddi-
tional one-on-one conversations and relational outreach
are necessary to maintain trust among communities and
census partners to ensure confidence that census infor-
mation will remain confidential and that there are still
important benefits to responding to the census, such as
ensuring receipt of critical federal funding.”). Because
the Presidential Memorandum “dilutes the efficacy” of
the efforts by Plaintiff New York Immigration Coalition
(“NYIC”) to ensure immigrants are counted in the cen-
sus, NYIC will have “to divert resources from other pro-
grammatic areas to conduct additional education and
outreach to get the same number of people to respond
to the Census questionnaire.” Choi Decl. ¶ 17. Spe-
cifically, NYIC has had to “make new materials”; “con-
duct new outreach”; “engage[] in member updates,
press releases, [and] press briefings”; “develop[] mes-
saging and social media campaigns”; and “respond to in-
quiries from local media . . . to assure people” that
every person should respond to the Census. Id. In
other words, “NYIC expects that it will need to interact
with its constituents more times than previously planned
to try to convince them to participate in the 2020 census”
as a result of the Presidential Memorandum. Id. ¶ 20.
It estimates that the organization “will have to increase
staff time and spending devoted to its Census education
and outreach efforts by approximately 20% percent over
previously anticipated levels.” Id. ¶ 21.
Plaintiffs American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Com-
mittee (“ADC”) and ADC Research Institute (“ADRCI”)
have also had to divert resources away from other pro-
 37a

grammatic areas, including critical programs respond-

ing to COVID-19 issues. Khalaf Decl. ¶ 15. In re-
sponse to the Presidential Memorandum’s messaging,
ADC and ADRCI will “increase staff time and spending
devoted [to] its Census education and outreach efforts
by approximately 25[] percent over current levels,” id.
¶ 14, while the national president of both organizations
reports that he “personally spent at least 35 hours on
Census-related work since the release of the [Presiden-
tial] Memorandum” that he would have otherwise spent
on other tasks related to the operation and mission of
both organizations, id. ¶ 15. Plaintiff Ahri similarly
will increase staff time and spending devoted to census
education and outreach by approximately fifteen per-
cent in response to the chilling effects of the Presiden-
tial Memorandum. ECF No. 76-43 (“Seon Decl.”), ¶ 17.
According to Theo Oshiro, Deputy Director at the
non-profit Make the Road New York (“MRNY), the
Presidential Memorandum also “dilutes the efficacy of
[MRNY’s] existing materials and programming, which
requires MRNY to divert resources from other pro-
grammatic areas to strategize around how to make [its]
education and outreach effective and to get the same
number of people to respond to the Census question-
naire” as they would have absent the Memorandum.
Oshiro Decl. ¶ 12. Finally, Plaintiff CASA also has had
to “devote additional resources to addressing the confu-
sion and fear that have resulted” from the Presidential
Memorandum, including having “to reorganize its com-
munication team, reassign staff to Census outreach and
education, and revise and redistribute messaging mate-
rials.” Torres Decl. ¶¶ 22-23.
 38a

The Governmental Plaintiffs have also had to divert

resources from other programs to mitigate the confu-
sion caused by the Presidential Memorandum. Plain-
tiff Illinois, for example, has already had to spend funds
on digital ads specifically designed to address misinfor-
mation about the census, has created printed materials
to be distributed, and has produced social media videos
and other digital communications to reassure the immi-
grant community about the importance of the census.
Alvarez Decl. ¶ 12. Plaintiff Vermont, through its 2020
Complete Count Committee, has—in direct response to
the Presidential Memorandum—provided “mini-grants”
to increase outreach to hard-to-count communities, con-
ducted additional open educational meetings, provided
additional multilingual public service announcements,
and otherwise promoted census participation. ECF
No. 76-10 (“Broughton Decl.”), ¶ 7. Plaintiff Monterey
County will “have to dedicate significant resources to
ensure participation without fear” so that the County re-
ceives its proper census-based funding. ECF No. 76-
28 (“Lopez Decl.”), ¶ 18; see also ECF No. 76-12 (“Bysie-
wicz Decl.”), ¶ 11 (describing efforts by Plaintiff Con-
necticut to encourage full census participation after the
Presidential Memorandum caused “confusion”).
The Memorandum’s chilling effect on census partici-
pation will likely also degrade the census data, harming
state and local governments that rely on the data to
carry out their public functions. As Dr. Joseph Salvo,
Chief Demographer of New York City, explained, “the
July 21, 2020 Presidential memorandum is likely to make
the Census Bureau resort to less-reliable methods, in-
cluding statistical imputation, more frequently in immi-
grant communities than it otherwise would.” Salvo
 39a

Decl. ¶ 12. Specifically, when individuals fail to partic-

ipate in the census themselves, the Census Bureau will
sometimes rely on “proxy respondents,” like neighbors,
landlords, and postal workers. See GLENN WOLFGANG
ET AL., U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, ANALYSIS OF PROXY
DATA IN THE ACCURACY AND COVERAGE EVALUATION 1
(2003), https://www.census.gov/pred/www/rpts/O.5.PDF.
Reliance on proxy responses “degrade[s] the quality of
the data” and its usability, since proxy respondents of-
ten leave some questions unanswered and report infor-
mation less accurately than household respondents.
Brower Decl. ¶¶ 12-13 (discussing, for example, the phe-
nomenon of “age heaping” where data on the age of in-
dividuals tends to be reported in numbers ending in 5 or
0 when a proxy is the respondent because the proxy
merely estimates the age of the individual). Further, if
census data are not available through proxy responses, de-
mographers are forced to resort to data imputation,
which itself is reliable only when calculated using a suf-
ficiently high self-response rate. See ECF No. 76-21
(“Hardcastle Decl.”), ¶ 5. Lower response rates also
increase the margins of error in statistical calculations,
degrading the utility of census response data and re-
stricting Plaintiffs’ ability to rely on the data for, inter
alia, governmental planning purposes. See ECF No.
76-25 (“Kaneff Decl.”), ¶¶ 3-5.
Indeed, degraded census data jeopardizes various
sovereign interests in allocating funds and administer-
ing public works through programs that rely on quality
census data. Connecticut, for example, relies on accurate
characteristic data, meaning data on subgroups within
the population, for a wide variety of purposes, including
deciding where to locate COVID-19 testing sites, the
evaluation of requests for school construction funds, the
 40a

promulgation of affirmative action plans for state agen-

cies using data-driven goals and benchmarks, effective
forecasting for public transit planning, and others. See
ECF No. 76-31 (“McCaw Decl.”) ¶¶ 4-7. Similarly, Dr.
Salvo explains that “[t]he decennial census is the statis-
tical backbone of our country” and that, like Connecti-
cut, New York City relies on accurate characteristic data
about subgroups to make decisions about public health
programs and education investments, as well as emer-
gency preparedness planning and provision of targeted
services for the elderly. Salvo Decl. ¶¶ 13-17.
Other examples abound in the record. In Monterey
County, California, for example, the Department of So-
cial Services is responsible for administering cash and
non-cash programs that, among other things, provide
supplemental food assistance, California’s Medicaid pro-
gram, foster care, adoption and aging assistance, and
temporary assistance to needy families. ECF No. 76-
32 (“Medina Decl.”), ¶ 2. That department relies on ac-
curate census data in making its funding allocation deci-
sions. Id. ¶ 4. Any undercounting of undocumented
immigrants caused by the Presidential Memorandum
will not only “impact the formulas used for funding allo-
cations” for these basic living assistance programs, but
will also result in the loss of federal funding, “which, in
turn, will add extra financial burden on local govern-
ments, resulting in even fewer available resources to as-
sist families with food, housing, health, and other sup-
port and safety net services.” Id.; see also, e.g., ECF
No. 76-33 (“Mohammed Decl.”), ¶¶ 5-6 (describing how
the census directly impacts funding for the City of Pitts-
burgh and “provides the most reliable and complete data
for research, decision making and planning in City gov-
 41a

ernment”); ECF No. 76-39 (“Rodriguez Decl.”), ¶ 3 (de-

scribing how Illinois’s Workforce Innovation and Oppor-
tunity Act Program, which provides services to help cer-
tain populations overcome barriers to employment, de-
pends on accurate census data to identify the targeted
population levels); ECF No. 76-46 (“Sternesky Decl.”),
¶ 5 (“Census data deeply influences the way that [the
New Jersey Housing and Mortgage Finance Agency]
designs and plans for the allocation of housing funds
across the state. For example, the Agency uses in-
come, poverty, employment, housing density, and hous-
ing vacancy data from the Census to direct its annual
$20 million to $25 million allocation of federal 9% Low-
Income Housing Tax Credits (LIHTC). These credits
are then used to leverage roughly a ten-fold influx of pri-
vate investment into equity for development costs to
both high-opportunity and high-need areas of New Jer-
sey.”); ECF No. 76-50 (“Wortman Decl.”), ¶¶ 3, 6 (de-
scribing how Illinois determines funding for each county
based on an “index of need” and how “[u]nderrepresen-
tation of areas with a higher percentage of immigrants
will result in disproportionate levels of funding being al-
located to counties with less demographic diversity”).
Plaintiff Washington State will also be negatively im-
pacted if it is forced to use inaccurate census data.
Washington allocates $200 million “of state shared rev-
enues . . . to counties and cities on a per capita basis
annually” and uses decennial census data for its demo-
graphic estimates and annual population forecasts.
Baldwin Decl. ¶¶ 14, 17. “[B]ad data will certainly lead
to inaccurate distribution of funding within Washington,
impacting all levels of government for a decade.” Id.
¶ 15. “Poor quality census data will [also] harm Wash-
 42a

ington’s ability to carry out the population data func-

tions required by law both in the short term and the long
term.” Id. ¶ 28. In particular, Washington annually
creates a thirty-year population forecast, meaning that
the 2020 census data will be used in forecasting until at
least the 2050 census data is available, if not longer.
See id. ¶ 25. Because “many estimate and forecast
models rely on information about changes in trends over
time,” “[a]n inaccurate census this year will change the
relationships in the data between censuses and make all
future estimates and forecasts based on these trends
less accurate.” Id.
Finally, the undisputed facts in the record also reflect
that judicial relief invalidating the Presidential Memo-
randum would likely reduce the confusion felt by immi-
grant communities and therefore alleviate some of the
injuries being felt by Plaintiffs. For example, Plaintiff
FIEL anticipates that “a court order that stops the ex-
clusion of undocumented immigrants from the census
would make [its] efforts to encourage census participa-
tion easier by allowing [FIEL] to clarify the confusion
and help ease the fear caused by” the Presidential Mem-
orandum, and that “it would take FIEL less time and
fewer resources to convince” the community “to partici-
pate in the census.” Espinosa Supp. Decl. ¶ 3. Relief
would also help Plaintiff MRNY “conduct more efficient
and effective census outreach” because MRNY could
clarify to community members that everyone should, in
fact, be counted. ECF No. 194-4 (“Oshiro Supp. Decl.”),
¶ 5. And relief from this Court would also allow Plain-
tiff Ahri to “publicize the Court’s order to encourage [its]
community to open their doors to census outreach work-
ers, rather than hiding out of confusion or fear and
 43a

avoiding the census completely.” ECF No. 194-5 (“Seon

Supp. Decl.”), ¶¶ 6-7.
C. Standing Analysis
As noted, Plaintiffs allege two types of harm: appor-
tionment harms stemming directly from the exclusion of
illegal aliens from the apportionment base and harms
caused by the deterrent effect on census participation.
We have considerable doubt that the former suffices to
establish jurisdiction. To be sure, if any Plaintiff could
show that, as a result of the Presidential Memorandum,
it was likely to lose one or more seats in the House of
Representatives, it would surely have standing. See,
e.g., House of Representatives, 525 U.S. at 331 (holding
that the loss of a seat or seats in the House of Repre-
sentatives “undoubtedly satisfies the injury-in-fact re-
quirement of Article III standing”). But as of today, it
is not known whether that harm will come to pass, as the
Secretary has not yet determined how he will calculate
the number of illegal aliens in each State or even
whether it is “feasible” to do so at all. Oral Arg. Tr. 35-
37. In the absence of that information, Plaintiffs’ first
theory of harm is likely “too speculative for Article III
purposes.” Clapper, 568 U.S. at 409 (internal quota-
tion marks omitted). Nor, for these purposes, would
there be any harm in waiting until January 2021, when
the impact, if any, of the Presidential Memorandum
would be known, as the Supreme Court has held that an
illegal apportionment can be remedied even after the ap-
portionment process has taken place. See Utah v. Ev-
ans, 536 U.S. 452, 462-63 (2002).
Ultimately, however, we need not, and do not, decide
the issue because we conclude that Plaintiffs’ second
theory of harm—that the Presidential Memorandum
 44a

will have and, indeed, is already having, an effect on the

census count itself—suffices to establish standing. Crit-
ically, this theory of harm does not depend on what, if
anything, the Secretary does in the future to implement
the President’s mandate in the Presidential Memoran-
dum. Instead, it is based on Plaintiffs’ undisputed evi-
dence that the Presidential Memorandum is affecting
the census count in the present. That is, while the ap-
portionment harms may well be too remote and hypo-
thetical to support standing, the harms to the census
count are “certainly impending” and do not depend on
“a highly attenuated chain of possibilities.” Clapper,
568 U.S. at 410. Notably, Defendants do not argue oth-
erwise. Instead, they contend that Plaintiffs’ second
theory of harm is too “speculative” in a different sense:
because Plaintiffs’ evidence is inadequate to prove that
the Presidential Memorandum has caused (or will cause)
anyone to opt out of participating in the census or that
judicial relief would redress that harm. See Defs.’
Mem. 11-19. In defense counsel’s view, Plaintiffs should
be required “to identify some subset of people who
would not have been chilled . . . from answering the
census between April 1st and July 21st, then became
chilled on July 21st after the memorandum was issued,
and then will be unchilled in [the time remaining before
the census ends] by an order of this Court.” Oral Arg.
Tr. 38; see also Defs.’ Mem. 52 (citing lack of “rigorous
survey[s] or statistical stud[ies] measuring whether [the
Presidential Memorandum] . . . has any effect on
response rates within immigrant communities”).
Defendants’ vastly overstate Plaintiffs’ burden.
The law does not require Plaintiffs to submit a random-
ized control trial or other rigorous statistical analysis
 45a

demonstrating beyond peradventure that there are peo-

ple who would have participated in the census but for
the Presidential Memorandum and who would partici-
pate again if we were to grant Plaintiffs the relief they
seek. Nor do Plaintiffs need to submit declarations
specifically identifying such people, let alone submit
declarations from such people. Instead, Plaintiffs need
only demonstrate that “there is no genuine dispute as to
any” fact material to the standing analysis. Fed. R.
Civ. P. 56(a). Notably, in determining whether this
standard has been met, we may rely not only on the dec-
larations submitted by Plaintiffs in support of their mo-
tion, but also on common sense, basic economics, and
reasonable inferences. See, e.g., Friends of the Earth,
528 U.S. at 183-85 (determining that “sworn statements
. . . adequately documented injury in fact” where the
proposition they were offered for was “entirely reason-
able”); Citizens for Responsibility & Ethics in Wash. v.
Trump (CREW), 953 F.3d 178, 198 (2d Cir. 2019) (noting
that a court may rely on “common sense and basic eco-
nomics” in evaluating standing (internal quotation marks
omitted)); Nat. Res. Def. Council v. Nat’l Highway
Traffic Safety Admin., 894 F.3d 95, 104-05 (2d Cir. 2018)
(relying on the defendant agency’s “own pronounce-
ments,” as well as “[c]ommon sense and basic econom-
ics,” to find standing (internal quotation marks omit-
ted)); Carpenters Indus. Council v. Zinke, 854 F.3d 1, 6
(D.C. Cir. 2017) (Kavanaugh, J.) (“When performing
that inherently imprecise task of predicting or speculat-
ing about causal effects [in standing analysis], common
sense can be a useful tool.”); Texas v. United States, 809
F.3d 134, 156 (5th Cir. 2015) (finding that Texas had es-
tablished the necessary causal connection between the
Deferred Action for Parents of Americans and Lawful
 46a

Permanent Residents (“DAPA”) program and a future

injury because DAPA would have “enable[d]” third par-
ties “to apply for driver’s licenses” and there was “little
doubt that many would do so”), aff ’d by an equally di-
vided Court, 136 S. Ct. 2271 (2016) (per curiam).
Requiring Plaintiffs to do more would be particularly
inappropriate here for two reasons. First, “the integ-
rity of the census is a matter of national importance.
As noted, the population count has massive and lasting
consequences. And it occurs only once a decade, with
no possibility of a do-over if it turns out to be flawed.”
New York v. Dep’t of Commerce, 351 F. Supp. 3d at 517;
see Departments of Commerce, Justice, and State, the
Judiciary, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act,
1998 (“1998 Appropriations Act”), § 209(a)(8), Pub. L.
No. 105-119, 111 Stat. 2440, 2480-81 (1997) (“Congress
finds that . . . the decennial enumeration of the pop-
ulation is a complex and vast undertaking, and if such
enumeration is conducted in a manner that does not
comply with the requirements of the Constitution or
laws of the United States, it would be impracticable for
the States to obtain, and the courts of the United States
to provide, meaningful relief after such enumeration has
been conducted.”). Second, Defendants’ own conduct
has forced Plaintiffs’ hands. That is, for reasons that
are unclear, the President waited until July 21, 2020,
when the census was in full swing, to issue his Presiden-
tial Memorandum. Compounding matters, Defendants
announced less than two weeks later that they were end-
ing the census earlier than previously planned. The
combination of the two meant that Plaintiffs had to rush
to court and seek immediate relief; had they waited to
develop more rigorous proof of their standing, their ar-
guments about harms to the census count itself would
 47a

have become moot. Between the sheer enormity of

what is at stake and the fact that Defendants’ own con-
duct gave Plaintiffs only a narrow window in which to
seek effective relief, it would be the height of unfairness
to hold Plaintiffs to the heightened burden of proof that
Defendants endorse.
In light of the undisputed facts in the record, common
sense, and basic economics, we are satisfied that—with
their second theory of harm—Plaintiffs adequately
show injury in fact, traceability, and redressability and
that we have before us an actual case or controversy “of
the sort traditionally amenable to, and resolved by, the
judicial process.” Steel Co., 523 U.S. at 102. Moreo-
ver, Defendants “have failed to set forth any specific
facts showing that there is a genuine issue of standing
for trial.” House of Representatives, 525 U.S. at 330.
1. Injury in Fact
To begin, Plaintiffs have proved that, in the wake of
the Presidential Memorandum, some number of people
will not participate in, and thus not be counted in, the
census. As of August 3, 2020—the day the Census Bu-
reau announced that field operations would end a month
earlier than previously planned, and approximately two
weeks after the Presidential Memorandum was issued
—the Census Bureau had counted only about sixty-
three percent of households in the 2020 census. See
Statement from U.S. Census Bureau Director Steven
Dillingham: Delivering a Complete and Accurate 2020
Census Count, U.S. CENSUS BUREAU (Aug. 3, 2020),
https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2020/
delivering-complete-accurate-count.html. Many of those
not counted are undoubtedly in the “hard to count” pop-
 48a

ulation, which includes immigrant and Hispanic popula-

tions as well as illegal aliens. See New York v. Dep’t of
Commerce, 351 F. Supp. 3d at 577. The record in the
citizenship question litigation and the declarations here
make clear that this population is even “harder” to count
during this census due to widespread concerns, fueled
by the policies and rhetoric of this Administration, that
census data will be used for immigration enforcement
purposes. See id. at 562, 579-83; Colón Decl. ¶ 11;
Oshiro Decl. ¶¶ 12, 14; Seon Decl. ¶ 16; Barreto Decl.
¶¶ 60-62. Plaintiffs’ uncontested declarations and com-
mon sense indicate that the Presidential Memorandum
has compounded, and will compound, these concerns,
and that some number of people in these communities
will choose not to participate in the census and take
steps to avoid being counted. See, e.g., Cullinane Decl.
¶ 8; Espinosa Supp. Decl. ¶ 5. To be sure, on the pre-
sent record, the Court cannot calculate with precision
the number of people that will be so affected. But there
is no doubt that that number is greater than zero, and
there is a substantial likelihood that an appreciable
number of people will be dissuaded from participating in
the census. See Barreto Decl. ¶¶ 60-65.
From these ongoing and direct effects on the census
flow several forms of injury to Plaintiffs and their mem-
bers or citizens. First, insofar as Plaintiffs include or
represent high concentrations of immigrant and His-
panic populations, the effects on the census undoubtedly
create a risk of a net differential undercount that could
result in the loss of political power and federal funds,
two classic forms of Article III injury. See New York
v. Dep’t of Commerce, 351 F. Supp. 3d at 607-08; Carey
v. Klutznick, 637 F.2d 834, 838 (2d Cir. 1980) (per cu-
riam); Barreto Decl. ¶¶ 70-71; Thompson Decl. ¶¶ 13-17.
 49a

Given the time sensitivities inherent in their claims of

census-related injuries—there were little more than two
months remaining for census operations when the Pres-
ident issued the Presidential Memorandum and, less
than two weeks later, Defendants shortened that period
by a full month—Plaintiffs have obviously not had an op-
portunity to perform any sort of empirical study on the
size of the likely effects on the census that would reveal
the likelihood of such injuries. In any event, the likeli-
hood of two other forms of injury are more certain on
the current record: degradation of the quality of, and
ability to have confidence in, census data and diversion
by the NGO Plaintiffs of organizational resources.
a. Degradation of Census Data
First, if a portion of the population does not partici-
pate in the census count, it will inevitably degrade the
quality and accuracy of census data, even if only at the
subgroup or local level. Salvo Decl. ¶¶ 8-12. That is
particularly true if, as is the case here, the people who
are not counted are not evenly distributed across the
population, but are concentrated, either geographically
or demographically. See Barreto Decl. ¶ 83; Thompson
Decl. ¶¶ 15-17, 23. The degradation of census data, in
turn, harms the Governmental Plaintiffs’ ability to allo-
cate resources, such as educational and public health re-
sources, efficiently and effectively. See McCaw Decl.
¶¶ 3-6; Medina Decl. ¶¶ 2-4; Baldwin Decl. ¶¶ 15-28.
Separate and apart from that, it harms confidence in the
census data. See Kaneff Decl. ¶ 5 (“The lower the re-
sponse rate, the larger the margin of error in the demo-
graphic characteristics.”). Crucially, these harms will
occur whether or not there is a net differential under-
 50a

count—meaning that this theory of injury does not de-

pend on connecting the deterrent effect of the Presiden-
tial Memorandum on immigrant households and the like
to a net differential undercount of people who live in
such households. See New York v. Dep’t of Commerce,
351 F. Supp. 3d at 610-11; Salvo Decl. ¶¶ 14-18.
As explained in New York v. Department of Com-
merce, the degradation of census data is a legally cog-
nizable form of injury sufficient to support standing.
See 351 F. Supp. 3d at 610-15. In particular, a State or
local government that relies on the information provided
by the federal government under an existing statutory
arrangement suffers a sufficiently “concrete” and “par-
ticularized” injury for purposes of Article III when the
federal government degrades the quality of that infor-
mation. States are sovereign entities with sovereign
interests in the making and enforcement of their own
laws. See Alfred L. Snapp & Son, Inc. v. Puerto Rico
ex rel. Barez, 458 U.S. 592, 601 (1982); cf. Maryland v.
King, 567 U.S. 1301 (2012) (Roberts, C.J., in chambers)
(concluding that Maryland suffered an injury to its “law
enforcement and public safety interests” from a lower-
court order preventing the State from utilizing DNA
samples for law enforcement purposes pursuant to a
state statute). But they frequently do so in collabora-
tion with, or in reliance on, the federal government—
such is the genius of the federal system, which has his-
torically embraced various creative models of “coopera-
tive federalism.” See, e.g., New York v. United States,
505 U.S. 144, 167-69 (1992); Hodel v. Va. Surface Min-
ing & Reclamation Ass’n, Inc., 452 U.S. 264, 286-89
(1981). States have long relied on federal decennial
census data for countless sovereign purposes, and in-
deed many of the State Plaintiffs here even require the
 51a

use of such data by law; in some instances, it is written

into their state constitutions. See, e.g., Rapoza Decl.
¶ 5 (explaining that the Rhode Island Constitution man-
dates using census data to establish the House and Sen-
ate districts); Brower Decl. ¶¶ 17, 22-23 (explaining that
Minnesota law requires the use of census data to deter-
mine funding for roads and education).
Meanwhile, by virtue of the Constitution and the
Census Act, it is, of course, the federal government’s job
to collect and distribute accurate federal decennial cen-
sus data. See U.S. Const. art. I, § 2, cl. 3; see also Ev-
ans, 536 U.S. at 478 (explaining that the Framers had a
“strong constitutional interest in [the] accuracy” of the
census); Wisconsin v. City of New York, 517 U.S. 1, 20
(1996) (holding that the conduct of the census must bear
a “reasonable relationship to the accomplishment of an
actual enumeration of the population, keeping in mind
the constitutional purpose of the census,” namely, ob-
taining an accurate count of the population in each
State); 1998 Appropriations Act, Pub. L. No. 105-119,
§ 209(a)(6), 111 Stat. at 2481 (“Congress finds that . . .
it is essential that the decennial enumeration of the pop-
ulation be as accurate as possible, consistent with the
Constitution and laws of the United States. . . . ”).
When the federal government degrades the quality of
that data, it therefore inflicts a cognizable injury on the
sovereign interests of reliant States. 9

9
That does not mean that, in every case, a State will have a “right”
to such data—or a right to data of a certain quality—sufficient to
support a valid cause of action to obtain it. But it does mean that a
State suffers a concrete and particularized injury when the federal
government degrades important tools of sovereignty—or takes
those tools away altogether.
 52a

An example may be helpful in illustrating the point.

Suppose a State were to premise certain of its policies
on a person’s lawful presence in the United States—for
example, suppose that it chose to deny certain benefits
to undocumented immigrants or required its law-en-
forcement officials to inquire into the immigration sta-
tus of any person detained in state custody for any rea-
son. “The accepted way” for States “to perform [such]
status checks”—and surely the most reliable—is to con-
tact the DHS’s Immigration and Customs Enforcement
(“ICE”), the federal agency that accepts and responds
to such inquiries from interested States. Arizona v.
United States, 567 U.S. 387, 411 (2012). Now suppose
that ICE were to degrade the quality of its data set,
thereby undermining its usefulness to the State as a tool
for implementing its policy priorities. If this hypothet-
ical State were to challenge the decisions causing the
degradation in immigration-status data, the federal
agency could certainly defend its actions on the grounds
that they were lawful. But could it seriously deny that
the State had suffered a cognizable injury for purposes
of standing? Surely not.
Indeed, ample case law supports the proposition that
a State has a strong sovereign interest in conducting its
own policy, the burdening of which causes an injury in
fact for Article III purposes. One such sovereign in-
terest is a State’s “exercise of sovereign power over in-
dividuals and entities within [its] jurisdiction—this in-
volves the power to create and enforce a legal code, both
civil and criminal.” Alfred L. Snapp & Son, 458 U.S. at
601. Another such sovereign interest—which, in light
of the frequent prohibition on parens patriae suits against
the federal government, see Massachusetts v. Mellon,
262 U.S. 447, 485-86 (1923), is “distinct from . . . the
 53a

general well-being of its residents”—is a State’s “inter-

est in securing observance of the terms under which it
participates in the federal system,” Alfred L. Snapp &
Son, 458 U.S. at 607-08; cf. Maine v. Taylor, 477 U.S.
131, 137 (1986) (“[A] State clearly has a legitimate inter-
est in the continued enforceability of its own statutes.”);
Diamond v. Charles, 476 U.S. 54, 65 (1986) (“Because
the State alone is entitled to create a legal code, only the
State has the kind of ‘direct stake’ . . . in defending
the standards embodied in that code.”).
The Fifth Circuit’s decision in Texas v. United States,
809 F.3d 134, is instructive on this front. In that case,
Texas led a coalition of States in a challenge to the
Obama Administration’s DAPA program. The Court
held that the States had suffered a cognizable injury for
purposes of standing because DAPA would have entitled
its recipients to obtain driver’s licenses under existing
state law and providing those licenses would have come
at a financial cost to Texas. See id. at 155-56. In
denying a stay of the district court’s preliminary injunc-
tion pending appeal, the Fifth Circuit cited Alfred L.
Snapp & Son, explained that Texas possessed a sover-
eign interest in the maintenance of its own legal code,
and held that “Texas’s forced choice between incurring
costs and changing its laws is an injury because those
laws exist for the administration of a state program, not
to challenge federal law, and Texas did not enact them
merely to create standing.” Texas v. United States,
787 F.3d 733, 749 (5th Cir. 2015). The court reasoned
that “if pressure to change state law in some substantial
way were not injury, States would have no standing to
challenge bona fide harms because they could offset
most financial losses by raising taxes or fees.” Id.
 54a

Several months later, the Fifth Circuit affirmed the pre-

liminary injunction on the merits, reiterating and con-
firming its conclusions as to standing. The court held
that “states may have standing based on . . . federal
interference with the enforcement of state law, at least
where the state statute at issue regulates behavior or
provides for the administration of a state program and
does not simply purport to immunize state citizens from
federal law.” Texas, 809 F.3d at 153 (alterations, foot-
notes, and internal quotation marks omitted). Such “in-
trusions,” the court explained, “are analogous to pressure
to change state law.” Id.
Like the state plaintiffs in Texas, many Governmen-
tal Plaintiffs here have enacted their reliance on federal
census data into law—in some cases, as noted, even into
their constitutions. Moreover, as in Texas, “there is no
allegation,” let alone proof, that those jurisdictions en-
acted their laws or ratified their constitutions “to man-
ufacture standing” in these cases. Id. at 159. If the
census data is degraded (or even perceived to be de-
graded), these Plaintiffs will be subjected to a forced
choice: They can use the degraded data, resulting in
worse policy; they can spend money to compensate for
the damage; or they can change their laws to relieve
themselves of the legal obligation to use federal census
data in making and enforcing their laws (which would
presumably necessitate the expenditure of additional
resources to collect data of their own anyway). Such
“pressure[] to change state law constitutes an injury”
within the meaning of Article III. Texas, 787 F.3d at
749; see Texas, 809 F.3d at 153. Accordingly, most, if
not all, of the Governmental Plaintiffs have proved an
imminent injury to their sovereign interests due to the
degradation in quality of census data.
 55a

b. Diversion of Resources
Additionally, the risk that some hard to count popu-
lation will not participate in census results in another
form of injury: the diversion of resources. In Havens
Realty Corp. v. Coleman, 455 U.S. 363, 379 (1982), the
Supreme Court held that an organization can establish
Article III injury in fact by proving “concrete and de-
monstrable injury to [its] activities—with the conse-
quent drain on [its] resources.” See also id. at 379 n.21
(holding that an organization that proves it “has indeed
suffered impairment” in its activities has proved an Ar-
ticle III injury); Nnebe v. Daus, 644 F.3d 147, 157 (2d
Cir. 2011); Ragin v. Harry Macklowe Real Estate Co., 6
F.3d 898, 904-06 (2d Cir. 1993). In particular, “a non-
profit organization establishes an injury-in-fact if . . .
it establishes that it spent money to combat activity that
harms its organization’s core activities.” Centro de la
Comunidad Hispana de Locust Valley v. Town of Oys-
ter Bay, 868 F.3d 104, 111 (2d Cir. 2017) (internal quo-
tation marks omitted). “An organization need only
show a ‘perceptible impairment’ of its activities in order
to establish injury in fact.” New York v. U.S. Dep’t of
Homeland Sec., 969 F.3d at 61 (quoting Ragin, 6 F.3d
898 at 905).
As they did in New York v. U.S. Department of Com-
merce, Defendants appear to suggest that Havens Re-
alty recognizes Article III injuries arising from organi-
zational expenditures only where those expenditures
are made in response to injuries that are themselves suf-
ficiently imminent and impending to satisfy Article III.
See Defs.’ Reply 3; Oral Arg. Tr. 42-43; see also New
York v. Dep’t of Commerce, 351 F. Supp. 3d at 616. Or-
ganizations asserting standing based on the diversion-
 56a

of-resources theory do indeed need to “show that both

the anticipated expenditures and ensuing harm to their
organizations’ activities are ‘certainly impending,’ ” Knife
Rights, Inc. v. Vance, 802 F.3d 377, 389 (2d Cir. 2015)
(quoting Clapper, 568 U.S. at 409), lest these plaintiffs
be permitted to “manufacture standing merely by in-
flicting harm on themselves based on their fears of hy-
pothetical future harm,” Clapper, 568 U.S. at 416. But
that standard does not mean that a plaintiff must allege
a second form of independently adequate injury in fact,
which “would render the category of plaintiffs that could
establish standing under a Havens Realty theory a null
set” and make Havens Realty a dead letter. New York
v. Dep’t of Commerce, 351 F. Supp. 3d at 616. Instead,
however “inexact” the standard may be, “courts are in-
clined to find standing if it can be said that there is no
better time to resolve the issues raised by the parties—
that is, when they will be in no better position later than
now.” Young Advocates for Fair Educ. v. Cuomo, 359
F. Supp. 3d 215, 237 (E.D.N.Y. 2019) (internal quotation
marks omitted).
Plaintiffs satisfy these standards. First, Defend-
ants do not dispute, and the Court has little trouble con-
cluding, that the impairment alleged by NGO Plaintiffs
goes to their core activities. See, e.g., Common Cause
Ind. v. Lawson, 937 F.3d 944, 955 (7th Cir. 2019) (“The
Organizations in this case have shown that Act 442’s ef-
fect on their work goes far beyond ‘business as usual.’
They have done so through concrete evidence showing
that Act 442 is already disrupting their operations.
. . . ”); OCA-Greater Hous. v. Texas, 867 F.3d 604, 610
(5th Cir. 2017) (“The undisputed summary-judgment ev-
idence established that [the plaintiff’s] primary mission
 57a

is voter outreach and civic education, particularly ‘get-

ting out the vote’ among its members.”). Each of the
NGO Plaintiffs is primarily dedicated to serving and ad-
vocating for communities that have traditionally been
undercounted by the census, and each is dedicated to
promoting census participation in these communities.
See Choi Decl. ¶¶ 3-6; Oshiro Decl. ¶¶ 2-5; Espinosa
Decl. ¶¶ 2, 5-7; Khalaf Decl. ¶¶ 4-8; Seon Decl. ¶¶ 2-6;
Torres Decl. ¶¶ 1, 5-11. In fact, several NGO Plaintiffs
partner with the Census Bureau and/or state and local
governments to promote census participation within
these communicates. See, e.g., Torres Decl. ¶ 11; Espi-
nosa Supp. Decl. ¶ 6.
Second, Plaintiffs’ uncontested declarations demon-
strate that the NGO Plaintiffs have diverted resources
in response to the Presidential Memorandum’s chilling
effects on participation in the census and the risks that
poses for their members and their core activities. See
Choi Decl. ¶¶ 14-27; Espinosa Decl. ¶¶ 14-17; Khalaf
Decl. ¶¶ 8-16; Oshiro Decl. ¶¶ 15-17; Seon Decl. ¶¶ 17-19;
Torres Decl. ¶¶ 2, 21-23; ECF No. 149-1 (“Awadeh
Decl.”), ¶¶ 4-5; Espinosa Supp. Decl. ¶¶ 7-8; Oshiro
Supp. Decl. ¶¶ 2, 4; Seon Supp. Decl. ¶ 4. 10 For exam-
ple, Steven Choi, the executive director of Plaintiff New
York Immigration Coalition (“NYIC”), states that his
organization had to develop new messaging and social
media campaigns, and issue new member updates and
press releases, to counter the Presidential Memorandum’s
contradiction of themes that had previously been core to

10
Plaintiffs provide evidence of similar resource diversions by
similarly situated organizations, albeit not Plaintiffs here. See
Banerji Decl. ¶¶ 5-6; Matos Decl. ¶¶ 9-14; Sivongxay Decl. ¶¶ 16-20,
23-24; ECF No. 76-51 (“Aranda-Yanoc Decl.”), ¶ 8.
 58a

NYIC’s census outreach efforts. Choi Decl. ¶ 17.

NYIC expects to increase staff time and spending by
twenty percent over previously anticipated levels to
achieve its census outreach and advocacy goals. See id.
¶ 21. Similarly, Plaintiff Ahri had to develop entirely
new outreach materials, train staffers with new scripts,
and respond to media inquiries; it expects to increase
staff time and spending devoted to these efforts by fif-
teen percent as a result of the Presidential Memoran-
dum. See Seon Decl. ¶¶ 17-19. Meanwhile, Plaintiffs
ADC and ADRCI anticipate increasing staff time and
spending devoted to Census efforts by approximately
twenty-five percent as a result of the Memorandum, see
Khalaf Decl. ¶ 14, and Plaintiff FIEL “anticipates hav-
ing to divert approximately $5,000 from other mission
critical programs and services to the 2020 Census edu-
cation and outreach as a result of the Presidential Mem-
orandum,” Espinosa Decl. ¶ 15.
These resource diversions may not be large in abso-
lute terms, but they constitute a “perceptible impair-
ment” of the NGO Plaintiffs’ activities and thus qualify
as injuries in fact. New York v. U.S. Dep’t of Home-
land Sec., 969 F.3d at 61 (internal quotation marks omit-
ted); see OCA-Greater Hous., 867 F.3d at 612 (“[T]he in-
jury alleged as an Article III injury-in-fact need not be
substantial; it need not measure more than an identifia-
ble trifle.” (internal quotation marks omitted)). In
short, the NGO Plaintiffs “are dedicated to providing an
array of legal and social services to non-citizens and
they have expended significant resources to mitigate the
[Presidential Memorandum’s] impact on those they
serve. In so doing, they have diverted resources that
would otherwise have been available for other program-
 59a

ming, a perceptible opportunity cost that suffices to con-

fer standing.” New York v. U.S. Dep’t of Homeland
Sec., 969 F.3d at 61 (internal quotation marks omitted);
see also Common Cause Ind., 937 F.3d at 952 (“Accord-
ing to the evidence put forward by the Organizations,
Act 442 has created a culture of voter confusion, and it
has already inflicted costs on them.”); OCA-Greater
Hous., 867 F.3d at 612 (“[The plaintiff] went out of its
way to counteract the effect of Texas’s allegedly unlaw-
ful voter-interpreter restriction . . . with a view to-
ward . . . mitigating its real-world impact on [the
plaintiff’s] members and the public . . . an under-
taking that consumed its time and resources in a way
they would not have been spent absent the Texas law.
Hence, the Texas statutes at issue ‘perceptibly im-
paired’ OCA’s ability to ‘get out the vote’ among its
members.”).
2. Traceability
Next, we have little trouble finding that these inju-
ries in fact are fairly traceable to the Presidential Mem-
orandum. Once again, the uncontested record and com-
mon sense satisfy Plaintiffs’ burden. Plaintiffs demon-
strate that the Presidential Memorandum’s chilling effect
on immigrant census participation is at least partially
responsible for a degradation in the quality of census
data. See, e.g., ECF No. 76-24 (“Jimenez Decl.”), ¶¶ 3-
5 (explaining that the Memorandum’s deterrence effect
on immigrant household census participation will cause
an undercount and a subsequent reduction in federal
healthcare, infrastructure, and education funding for
Plaintiff Monterey County); Salvo Decl. ¶ 12 (noting that
the Presidential Memorandum “is likely to make the
 60a

Census Bureau resort to less-reliable methods, includ-

ing statistical imputation, more frequently in immigrant
communities than it otherwise would” which will “re-
sult[] in poorer quality (less accurate) data both in terms
of demographic characteristics as well as the actual
count of persons”). NGO Plaintiffs have also made
clear that the Presidential Memorandum is responsible
for their diversion of resources; in other words, they are
expending resources they would not otherwise precisely
because of the Presidential Memorandum. See, e.g.,
Choi Decl. ¶¶ 20-21; Khalaf Decl. ¶¶ 14-15; Seon Decl.
¶ 17; Oshiro Supp. Decl. ¶¶ 3-4; Torres Decl. ¶¶ 22-23;
Espinosa Supp. Decl. ¶ 4. This undisputed evidence
satisfies Plaintiffs’ burden to demonstrate the “de facto
causality” that Article III demands. Dep’t of Com-
merce v. New York, 139 S. Ct. at 2566 (internal quotation
marks omitted).
In arguing otherwise, Defendants point out that
Plaintiffs’ theory of causation relies in part on the inter-
vening actions of third-party actors, such as Spanish-
language media disseminating information about the
Presidential Memorandum. See Defs.’ Mem. 16. “It
makes little sense,” they argue, “for Plaintiffs to attrib-
ute whatever harm is caused by those independent ac-
tors to the Memorandum itself, particularly if their mes-
sages convey the incorrect impression that the Memo-
randum increases the risk of individuals’ information be-
ing linked to immigration records and those individuals
facing immigration enforcement.” Id. (internal quo-
tation marks and alterations omitted). More broadly,
they assert that Plaintiffs’ injuries are traceable to the
“macro environment” of fear in the immigrant and His-
panic communities that predated the Presidential Mem-
orandum, not to the Memorandum itself. Id. at 15-19.
 61a

These arguments are unpersuasive. For one thing,

they ignore entirely Plaintiffs’ evidence that the Presi-
dential Memorandum has deterred, and will continue to
deter, people from participating in the census because
they conclude “that they don’t see a benefit in filling out
the census form if they will not be counted.” Pls.’ Mem.
43 (internal quotation marks and alterations omitted);
see, e.g., Choi Decl. ¶ 17; Cullinane Decl. ¶ 9; Matos Decl.
¶¶ 11, 13; Oshiro Decl. ¶¶ 10-12; ECF No. 76-38 (“Roche
Decl.”), ¶ 9; Torres Decl. ¶ 19; Espinosa Supp. Decl.
¶¶ 5-6. For such people, the chain of causation between
the Presidential Memorandum and non-participation has
only a single link. Thus, Plaintiffs need not and do not
rely on the dissemination of information by third parties
to establish that certain illegal aliens will plausibly—
even rationally—decide not to participate based directly
on a correct understanding of the Presidential Memo-
randum’s import.
Second, as noted above, the Supreme Court has long
made clear that the defendant’s conduct need not be
“the very last step in the chain of causation.” Bennett,
520 U.S. at 169. Indeed, the traceability requirement
may be met even where several steps on the causal chain
stand between the defendant’s conduct and the plain-
tiff’s injury. Davis v. Federal Election Commission,
554 U.S. 724, for example, involved a challenge to a cam-
paign finance law that increased campaign contribution
limits for any candidate whose opponent’s personal cam-
paign expenditures exceeded his own by a certain amount.
At the time of filing, the plaintiff was at least three steps
away from suffering any concrete harm: He had to spend
a sufficient amount of his own money; his opponent had to
refrain from a comparable level of self-funding; and his
 62a

opponent had to then take advantage of the law by ac-

cepting heightened contributions. Even so, the Court
found that the plaintiff faced a “real, immediate, and di-
rect [injury] . . . when he filed suit.” Id. at 734.
Notably, the Court deemed that assumption valid based
on little more than evidence that “most candidates who
had the opportunity to receive expanded contributions
had done so.” Id. at 735 (emphasis added). Moreo-
ver, the Court did not require proof that the government
conduct had a coercive effect on the third party’s action;
evidence that allowed the Court to predict how the third
party would likely act in response to the government ac-
tion was sufficient. See id.; see also Lujan, 504 U.S. at
562 (noting that, when injury depends on the conduct of
third parties, it is sufficient to show “choices have been
or will be made in such manner as to produce causation
and permit redressability” (emphasis added)); Nat. Res.
Def. Council, 894 F.3d at 104-05 (finding “the agency’s
own pronouncements,” as well as “[c]ommon sense and
basic economics,” supported a conclusion that an “in-
creased penalty has the potential to affect [third par-
ties’] business decisions and compliance approaches” in
a manner that would result in harm to the petitioners
(internal quotation marks omitted)).
In light of these principles and cases, Defendants’ ar-
guments are unpersuasive. At the end of the day, they
are little more than a rehash of Defendants’ arguments
in the citizenship question litigation, which were rejected.
There, like here, Defendants argued that Plaintiffs’ inju-
ries were not “fairly traceable” to their conduct because
the injuries depended on the intervening acts of third
parties influenced by misinformation—namely, that the
federal government could use their census answers for
 63a

law enforcement and immigration enforcement pur-

poses. New York v. Dep’t of Commerce, 351 F. Supp.
3d at 623-24. There, like here, Defendants argued that
Plaintiffs’ injuries were not “fairly traceable” to their
conduct because the injuries were attributable to an in-
dependently existing macro environment of fear perme-
ating the immigrant and Hispanic communities. Id. at
621-22. Yet the Supreme Court rejected those argu-
ments. As that Court reaffirmed, “Article III requires
no more than de facto causality,” a standard that is met
where Government action has a “predictable effect
. . . on the decisions of third parties.” Dep’t of Com-
merce v. New York, 139 S. Ct. at 2566 (internal quotation
marks omitted). Here, as in the citizenship question
litigation, Plaintiffs have proved that their injuries arise
from the predictable effects of Government action, how-
ever rational or reasonable those effects may be.
3. Redressability
Finally, we conclude that Plaintiffs satisfy the re-
dressability requirement as well. To be sure, Plaintiffs
have not proved—and perhaps could not prove—that a
favorable ruling would lead everyone who has decided,
or will decide, not to participate in the census as a result
of the Presidential Memorandum to change course.
But Plaintiffs’ burden is not to show that a favorable
court ruling would fully remedy the injuries that they
have suffered or will suffer. Instead, they need show
only that the “risk [of harm] would be reduced to some
extent if [they] receive[] the relief they seek.” Massa-
chusetts v. E.P.A., 549 U.S. at 526 (emphasis added); see
also CREW, 953 F.3d at 194 (finding the redressability
requirement satisfied because “it logically follows that
relief would redress [the plaintiffs’] injury—at least to
 64a

some extent”); Parsons v. U.S. Dep’t of Justice, 801 F.3d

701, 716 (6th Cir. 2015) (“[I]t need not be likely that the
harm will be entirely redressed, as partial redress can
also satisfy the standing requirement.”).
The Supreme Court’s decision in Massachusetts v.
E.P.A. is instructive. There, Massachusetts and other
States challenged the EPA’s decision not to regulate
four greenhouse gases within the United States. On
appeal, the Supreme Court held that the States had
standing to challenge the EPA’s decision based on their
showing, through “unchallenged affidavits,” that climate
change was caused by greenhouse gases and caused var-
ious harms. 549 U.S. at 522. The Court did so despite
the EPA’s contention that there was no “realistic possi-
bility” that the relief sought “would mitigate global cli-
mate change and remedy their injuries,” particularly
“because predicted increases in greenhouse gas emis-
sions from developing nations” were “likely to offset any
marginal domestic decrease.” Id. at 523-24. The
Court explained:
While it may be true that regulating motor-vehicle
emissions will not by itself reverse global warming, it
by no means follows that we lack jurisdiction to de-
cide whether EPA has a duty to take steps to slow
or reduce it. Because of the enormity of the poten-
tial consequences associated with manmade climate
change, the fact that the effectiveness of a remedy
might be delayed . . . is essentially irrelevant.
Nor is it dispositive that developing countries . . .
are poised to increase greenhouse gas emissions sub-
stantially over the next century: A reduction in do-
mestic emissions would slow the pace of global emis-
sions increases, no matter what happens elsewhere.
 65a

Id. at 525-26 (citation and footnote omitted). Notably,

the Court did not demand empirical proof that the rem-
edy sought would have any marginal effect on global
warming. The causal connection between greenhouse
gases and climate change, combined with the EPA’s “ar-
dent support for various voluntary emission-reduction
programs” (with which the “EPA would presumably not
bother . . . if it thought emissions reductions would
have no discernable impact on future global warming”),
was enough. Id. at 526 (internal quotation marks omit-
ted). Because the relief sought would reduce the risk
of injury “to some extent,” the States had standing. Id.
Here too, Plaintiffs’ uncontested affidavits show that
the relief they seek—a declaration that the Presidential
Memorandum is unlawful and an injunction barring any
effort to implement it—would reduce “to some extent”
their risk of suffering injuries relating to the census.
If anything, the record here provides even more support
for a finding of redressability than the record in Massa-
chusetts v. E.P.A. did. First, as discussed above, Plain-
tiffs have provided proof that there are likely people
who have decided, or will decide, not to participate in the
census for the simple reason that, under the Presiden-
tial Memorandum, they will not count for apportionment
purposes. A court order invalidating the Presidential
Memorandum would redress that harm in a straightfor-
ward manner. See, e.g., Carpenters Indus. Council,
854 F.3d at 6 n.1 (Kavanaugh, J.) (“[I]f a government
action causes an injury, enjoining the action usually will
redress that injury.”). Second, Plaintiffs’ uncontested
declarations provide evidence supporting a finding of re-
dressability. Plaintiff Ahri, for example, explains that
the injunction barring the citizenship question was use-
ful in quelling concerns in the community it serves and
 66a

that an order granting relief in this case would similarly

make its census outreach efforts more efficient and ef-
fective. Seon Supp. Decl. ¶¶ 4-7; see also Oshiro Supp.
Decl. ¶ 5; Espinosa Supp. Decl. ¶ 8. And Plaintiffs sub-
mit an expert report noting that injunctions barring im-
plementation of other immigration-related executive ac-
tions have had “measurable consequences on promoting
trust among immigrant communities and influencing be-
havioral interactions with various aspects of govern-
ment.” See Barreto Decl. ¶¶ 66-69. In short, we find
that Plaintiffs’ requested relief would “likely . . . at
least diminish further instance of ” Plaintiffs’ census-
related harms. CREW, 953 F.3d at 194. Indeed,
“[b]ecause Plaintiffs have successfully alleged” that
these harms are “ongoing, it logically follows that relief
would redress their injury—at least to some extent,
which is all that Article III requires.” Id.
Only two of Defendants’ counterarguments warrant
further discussion. First, Defendants maintain that
Plaintiffs’ census-related injuries would not be reme-
died by a ruling in Plaintiffs’ favor because the alleged
“ ‘macro environment’ of mistrust around immigration”
would remain. Defs.’ Mem. 19. But that is akin to the
argument the EPA made, and the Supreme Court re-
jected, in Massachusetts v. E.P.A.: that granting re-
lief would not remedy the States’ injuries because there
were other, independent causes for those injuries—
namely, the emissions of developing nations—that would
persist. See 549 U.S. at 524. Put differently, the mere
fact that the Presidential Memorandum causes only in-
cremental harms, and that there are other causes of
those same harms, does not defeat a finding of redress-
ability. See id. (“EPA overstates its case. Its argu-
 67a

ment rests on the erroneous assumption that a small in-

cremental step, because it is incremental, can never be
attacked in a federal judicial forum.”).
Second, Defendants suggest that Plaintiffs cannot
show redressability because “appellate review would
likely last well past the end of the conduct of the census.”
Defs.’ Reply 4. Conspicuously, however, Defendants
cite no authority for the novel proposition that the avail-
ability of higher court review and the possibility of re-
versal can render a dispute nonjusticiable. Taken to
its logical conclusion, that argument would suggest that
a plaintiff could never obtain emergency relief in the
face of a looming deadline. Far from rejecting such
claims, courts routinely hear them on an expedited basis
(as we have done here). See, e.g., League of Women
Voters of N. Carolina v. North Carolina, 769 F.3d 224,
247 (4th Cir. 2014) (noting that in the election context,
“once the election occurs, there can be no do-over and
no redress” making “injur[ies] to . . . voters real
and completely irreparable if nothing is done”). Fi-
nally, it bears mentioning that it is Defendants’ own con-
duct that has put Plaintiffs in such a precarious position.
The President could have issued his Presidential Mem-
orandum well before the census began, in which case
Plaintiffs would have had ample time to obtain a defini-
tive ruling on their claims to preempt any chilling effect.
Or he could have waited until census operations were
over, in which case there would have been no risk of the
census-related harms that Plaintiffs seek to remedy.
Instead, for unknown reasons, the President waited more
than a year after the Supreme Court rejected the citi-
zenship question to issue his Presidential Memorandum,
at which point the census was (and still is) in full swing.
It would be perverse to conclude that, through their own
 68a

conduct, Defendants could prevent Plaintiffs from even

obtaining a hearing on their claims.
4. Conclusion
In the final analysis, “the gist of the question of
standing” (and constitutional ripeness) “is whether [the
plaintiffs] have ‘such a personal stake in the outcome of
the controversy as to assure that concrete adverseness
which sharpens the presentation of issues upon which
the court so largely depends for illumination.’ ” Mas-
sachusetts v. E.P.A., 549 U.S. at 517 (quoting Baker v.
Carr, 369 U.S. 186, 204 (1962)). That is, the standing
requirement “preserves the vitality of the adversarial
process by assuring both that the parties before the
court have an actual, as opposed to professed, stake in
the outcome, and that the legal questions presented
. . . will be resolved, not in the rarified atmosphere of
a debating society, but in a concrete factual context con-
ducive to a realistic appreciation of the consequences of
judicial action.” Id. (quoting Lujan, 504 U.S. at 581
(Kennedy, J., concurring). Based on our thorough re-
view of the record—including the uncontested declara-
tions submitted in support of Plaintiffs’ motion—and the
well-established standards for determining whether a
plaintiff has standing, we are confident we have jurisdic-
tion to proceed. 11

11
Defendants do not argue that we should engage in a zone-of-inter-
ests analysis, which the Supreme Court has sometimes described as a
component of “prudential standing.” Lexmark Int’l, 572 U.S. at 127
n.3. Accordingly, they have waived the argument. See Fed. Defs. of
N.Y., Inc. v. Fed. Bureau of Prisons, 954 F.3d 118, 128 (2d Cir. 2020)
(holding, after Lexmark, that the zone-of-interests test is not jurisdic-
tional); see also, e.g., Young v. Conway, 698 F.3d 69, 85 (2d Cir. 2012)
(“It is well-settled that non-jurisdictional arguments and defenses
 69a

D. Prudential Ripeness
As noted, Defendants also invoke the prudential ripe-
ness doctrine. See Defs.’ Mem. 6-10; Defs.’ Reply 1-2.
Unlike standing and constitutional ripeness, prudential
ripeness does not relate to the Court’s jurisdiction. In-
stead, “when a court declares that a case is not pruden-
tially ripe, it means that the case will be better decided
later and that the parties will not have constitutional
rights undermined by the delay.” Simmonds, 326 F.3d
at 357. The “ripeness requirement is designed ‘to pre-
vent the courts, through avoidance of premature adjudi-
cation, from entangling themselves in abstract disagree-
ments over administrative policies, and also to protect
the agencies from judicial interference until an adminis-
trative decision has been formalized and its effects felt
in a concrete way by the challenging parties.’ ” Ohio
Forestry Ass’n, Inc. v. Sierra Club, 523 U.S. 726, 732-33
(1998) (quoting Abbott Labs. v. Gardner, 387 U.S. 136,
148-49 (1967)); see Nat’l Org. for Marriage, 714 F.3d at
691. 12

may be waived. . . . ”). In any event, in light of Lexmark’s obser-

vation that “the zone-of-interests analysis . . . asks whether this
particular class of persons has a right to sue under this substantive
statute” and “whether a legislatively conferred cause of action encom-
passes a particular plaintiff ’s claim,” 572 U.S. at 127 (emphasis added)
(alterations, citations, and internal quotation marks omitted), we
doubt that it has any application here, as the claims on which Plaintiffs
move are constitutional and equitable in nature. See, e.g., Sierra
Club v. Trump, 929 F.3d 670, 700-02 (9th Cir. 2019).
12
In recent years, the Supreme Court has cast doubt on the “con-
tinuing vitality of the prudential ripeness doctrine,” on that ground
that “ ‘is in some tension with . . . the principle that a federal
court’s obligation to hear and decide cases within its jurisdiction is
 70a

“To determine whether to abstain from a case on pru-

dential ripeness grounds, we proceed with a two-step in-
quiry,” evaluating “both the fitness of the issues for ju-
dicial decision and the hardship to the parties of with-
holding court consideration.” Nat’l Org. for Marriage,
714 F.3d at 691 (internal quotation marks omitted).
The first step of the inquiry “is concerned with whether
the issues sought to be adjudicated are contingent on fu-
ture events or may never occur.” N.Y. Civil Liberties
Union v. Grandeau, 528 F.3d 122, 132 (2d Cir. 2008) (in-
ternal quotation marks and alterations omitted). “In
assessing th[e] possibility of hardship, we ask whether
the challenged action creates a direct and immediate di-
lemma for the parties.” Id. at 134 (internal quotation
marks omitted). The two-step inquiry requires consid-
eration, in turn, of three factors: “(1) whether delayed
review would cause hardship to the plaintiffs; (2) whether
judicial intervention would inappropriately interfere
with further administrative action; and (3) whether the
courts would benefit from further factual development
of the issues presented.” Ohio Forestry Ass’n, 523
U.S. at 733.
Considering these factors here, we conclude that the
test for prudential ripeness is “easily satisfied.” Susan
B. Anthony List, 573 U.S. at 167. First, given that Plain-
tiffs’ alleged census-related harms are occurring now,
and can be remedied only if we rule on their claims be-
fore census operations conclude in a matter of days or
weeks, delaying review would cause Plaintiffs grave

virtually unflagging.” Susan B. Anthony List, 573 U.S. at 167 (in-

ternal quotation marks omitted). But because neither the Supreme
Court nor the Second Circuit has abandoned the doctrine yet, we are
bound to consider Defendants’ arguments here.
 71a

hardship. See Chamber of Commerce of U.S. v. Reich,

57 F.3d 1099, 1100 (D.C. Cir. 1995) (per curiam) (finding
a challenge to an Executive Order announcing a policy
of the executive branch ripe where “the injury alleged
. . . [is that] the mere existence of the Order alters the
balance of bargaining power between employers and
employees by creating a disincentive for employers to
hire replacement workers”). Justice delayed would in-
deed be justice denied. Moreover, because there are
no do-overs for the census, the adverse consequences of
that delay could resonate for a decade, until the next de-
cennial census. Second, although Defendants assert in
conclusory fashion that judicial intervention “would in-
appropriately interfere with the Bureau’s ongoing pro-
cess by hindering agency efforts to refine its policies and
to apply its expertise,” Defs.’ Reply 2 (internal quotation
marks omitted), that assertion borders on frivolous.
On its face, the Presidential Memorandum does not pur-
port to regulate the actual conduct of the census, see
Presidential Memorandum, 85 Fed. Reg. at 44,679 (“Ex-
cluding Illegal Aliens From the Apportionment Base
Following the 2020 Census” (emphasis added)), and De-
fendants themselves concede that it “does not affect how
the Census Bureau is conducting its remaining enumer-
ation operations,” Defs.’ Mem. 12. Moreover, as dis-
cussed below, relief can be crafted to minimize, if not
eliminate, interference with administrative action. And
finally, although the standing-related question of wheth-
er or to what extent Plaintiffs would suffer apportionment-
related harms would benefit from further factual devel-
opment, the gravamen of Plaintiffs’ claims—that the Pres-
ident lacks the authority to exclude illegal aliens from
the apportionment base—“presents an issue that is
‘purely legal, and will not be clarified by further factual
 72a

development.’ ” Susan B. Anthony List, 573 U.S. at

167 (quoting Thomas, 473 U.S. at 581).
Thus, we conclude there is no basis to defer consider-
ation of Plaintiffs’ claims on ripeness ground. The fact
that the Presidential Memorandum contains something
akin to a “savings clause”—namely, that it is “the policy
of the United States to exclude” illegal aliens from the
apportionment base “to the maximum extent feasible
and consistent with the discretion delegated to the exec-
utive branch,” Presidential Memorandum, 85 Fed. Reg.
at 44,680 (emphasis added)—does not alter that conclu-
sion. Where, as here, the President’s proclamation “un-
ambiguously commands action” such that “there is more
than a ‘mere possibility that some agency might make a
legally suspect decision,’ ” such a “savings clause does
not and cannot override” the proclamation’s “meaning.”
City & Cty. of San Francisco v. Trump, 897 F.3d 1225,
1240 (9th Cir. 2018) (quoting Bldg. & Const. Trades
Dep’t, AFL-CIO v. Allbaugh, 295 F.3d 28, 33 (D.C. Cir.
2002)). Indeed, savings clauses must be “read in their
context, and they cannot be given effect when the Court,
by rescuing the . . . measure, would override clear
and specific language.” Id. at 1239. In this case, the
President explicitly declares that “it is the policy of the
United States to exclude” illegal aliens “from the appor-
tionment base,” an unambiguous directive that, as dis-
cussed above, is having immediate and ongoing effects.
Moreover, the Presidential Memorandum mandates that
this policy be effected “to the maximum extent” feasible
and consistent with law. Presidential Memorandum,
85 Fed. Reg. at 44,680 (emphasis added). Given that “a
presumption of regularity attaches to the actions of Gov-
ernment agencies,” U.S. Postal Serv. v. Gregory, 534
 73a

U.S. 1, 10 (2001), we must and do presume that the Sec-

retary and the Census Bureau will abide by the Presi-
dent’s directives and work diligently to help exclude il-
legal aliens from the apportionment base to the maxi-
mum extent possible. Whether doing so would be a
lawful exercise of the President’s authority is a pure le-
gal question that can be addressed now.
THE MERITS
In their motion, Plaintiffs seek relief on two grounds:
first, they argue that the Presidential Memorandum vi-
olates Article I and the Fourteenth Amendment to the
Constitution; and second, they contend that it consti-
tutes an ultra vires violation of the laws governing the
census and apportionment. Pls.’ Mem. 1-2. On the
latter front, Plaintiffs insist that the Presidential Mem-
orandum exceeds the powers delegated by Congress in
13 U.S.C. § 141 and 2 U.S.C. § 2a in at least two ways:
(1) because it contemplates calculating apportionment
using tabulations other than those produced by the cen-
sus and (2) because it seeks to exclude illegal aliens from
the apportionment base regardless of whether they are
“persons in” a “State” as those terms are used in Section
2a(a). Id. at 27-36.
Although Plaintiffs urge us to decide both their con-
stitutional claims and their statutory claims, and the
parties focus mostly on the constitutional issues, courts
have long been admonished not to “pass upon a consti-
tutional question although properly presented by the
record, if there is also present some other ground upon
which the case may be disposed of.” Ashwander v.
TVA, 297 U.S. 288, 347 (1936) (Brandeis, J., concurring);
accord Slack v. McDaniel, 529 U.S. 473, 485 (2000);
 74a

House of Representatives, 525 U.S. at 343-44. Accord-

ingly, we begin—and, as it turns out, end—with Plain-
tiffs’ statutory claims. In doing so, of course, “we start
with the text of the statute.” Babb v. Wilkie, 140 S. Ct.
1168, 1172 (2020). “Where the statute’s language is
plain, the sole function of the courts is to enforce it ac-
cording to its terms.” United States v. Kozeny, 541 F.3d
166, 171 (2d Cir. 2008) (internal quotation marks omit-
ted). We may look to legislative history and other tools
of statutory construction if the statutory terms are am-
biguous or “to corroborate and fortify our understand-
ing of the text.” Dig. Realty Tr., Inc. v. Somers, 138
S. Ct. 767, 783 (2018) (Sotomayor, J., concurring).
A. Apportionment Must Be Based on the Results of the
Census Alone
Plaintiffs’ first argument is that the Presidential
Memorandum violates the statutes governing the cen-
sus and apportionment by producing apportionment fig-
ures that are not based solely on the decennial census.
This argument relies on the interplay between Section
141 and Section 2a. Subsection (a) of the former re-
quires the Secretary to conduct the “decennial census of
population.” 13 U.S.C. § 141(a). Subsection (b) then
requires the Secretary to report to the President “[t]he
tabulation of total population by States under subsection
(a) of this section”—that is, under the “decennial census”
—“as required for the apportionment of Representa-
tives in Congress.” Id. § 141(b). Section 2a(a), in turn,
requires the President to transmit to Congress “a state-
ment showing the whole number of persons in each State
. . . as ascertained under the . . . decennial cen-
sus of the population, and the number of Representa-
tives to which each State would be entitled . . . by
 75a

the method known as the method of equal proportions .

. . . ” 2 U.S.C. § 2a(a). By its terms, therefore, Sec-
tion 141 calls for the Secretary to report a single set of
numbers—“[t]he tabulation of total population by States”
under the “decennial census”—to the President. And
Section 2a, in turn, “expressly require[s] the President
to use . . . the data from the ‘decennial census’ ” in
determining apportionment. Franklin, 505 U.S. at
797. That is, once the final decennial census data is in
hand, the President’s role is purely “ministerial.” Id.
at 799.
Legislative history and the longstanding understand-
ing of the Executive Branch itself confirm that the Sec-
retary’s “tabulation,” and the President’s apportionment
calculations, must be based on decennial census data
alone. Significantly, the statutes first took their cur-
rent form in 1929, after a decade-long stalemate over the
method for calculating the reapportionment following
the 1920 census. See id. at 791-92. Congress responded
to this problem by creating an “automatic reapportion-
ment” scheme that would be “virtually self-executing.”
Id. at 792. In particular, the scheme created an “auto-
matic connection between the census and the reappor-
tionment”; indeed, that was “the key innovation of the
Act.” Id. at 809 (Stevens, J., concurring in part and
concurring in the judgment) (emphasis added). The
Senate Report accompanying the bill explained in refer-
ence to the next census:
The census would be taken in November, 1929. One
year later, with these figures in hand, the President
would report the census figures, together with a table
showing how, under these figures, the House would
 76a

be apportioned . . . pursuant to a purely ministe-

rial and mathematical formula. . . . Precisely the
same process would protect reapportionment in each
subsequent decennium.
S. Rep. No. 71-2, at 4 (1929). Along similar lines, the
House Report explained that, under the bill, “the House
is reapportioned in accordance with the tabulation
transmitted by the Secretary of Commerce . . . ; the
tabulations transmitted to Congress are on the basis of
the 1930 census. . . . ” H. Rep. No. 70-2010, at 4
(1929); see also id. at 7 (explaining that the Secretary, to
whom the bill also originally assigned the task of reap-
portionment later assigned to the President, “is left with
no discretionary power. He must use absolutely, with-
out deviation, the population of each State as gathered
and reported by the Director of the Census.” (empha-
sis added)). 13
Similarly, its position in this litigation notwithstand-
ing, the Department of Justice (the “Justice Depart-
ment” or “DOJ”) has long adhered to the view that the
President’s statement to Congress regarding apportion-
ment has to be based solely on the tabulation of total

13
Although we are wary of relying too heavily on floor statements
by members of Congress, it is worth noting that Senator Vanden-
berg of Michigan, the principal sponsor of the bill, reaffirmed that
the legislation required the President “to report the result of a cen-
sus” and to apply the reapportionment formula to “the result of the
census.” 71 Cong. Rec. 1613 (1929) (statement of Sen. Vanden-
berg). Elsewhere, he and Senator Walsh of Montana confirmed
in a colloquy with Senator Swanson of Virginia “that the President
is bound and has no discretion” but “to make the apportionment
according to the census.” Id. at 1845 (statement of Sen. Swanson)
(emphasis added).
 77a

population produced by the census. As the Justice De-

partment explained more than forty years ago in Feder-
ation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR) v.
Klutznick, “every inhabitant of a state the Census counts
is included in the apportionment base. . . . The total
resident population of the states is the apportionment
base.” Defs.’ Reply Mem. & Opp’n at 11, 486 F. Supp.
564 (D.D.C. 1980) (No. 79-CV-3269), 1980 WL 683642, at
*7 (citing H.R. Rep. No. 91-1314 (1970)). 14 Along simi-
lar lines, the Government acknowledged during oral ar-
gument in Franklin v. Massachusetts that “[t]he law di-
rects [the President] to apply, of course, a particular
mathematical formula to the population figures he re-
ceives” and that “[i]t would be unlawful . . . just to
say, these are the figures, they are right, but I am going
to submit a different statement.” Oral Arg. Tr. at 12,
Franklin v. Massachusetts, 505 U.S. 788 (No. 91-1502).
“I think under the law he is supposed to base his calcu-
lation on the figures submitted by the Secretary.” Id.
at 13; see also, Reply Br. Appellants, Franklin, 505 U.S.
788 (No. 91-1502), 1992 WL 672612, at *15 (Apr. 20,
1992) (“[T]he method of equal proportions calls for ap-

14
The House Report to which DOJ cited noted unambiguously
that “the enumerated decennial census population is the basis for
the apportioning of [the House] among the several States.” H.R.
Rep. No. 91-1314, at 3 (1970). Elsewhere, it summarized the three
“elements” of the President’s statement under Section 2a(a): “(1)
The population of each State as determined by the decennial cen-
sus; (2) The existing total number of Representatives (435); and (3)
The apportionment which results from using a mathematical method
known as the method of equal proportions.” Id. at 2 (emphasis
added).
 78a

plication of a set mathematical formula to the state pop-

ulation totals produced by the census.” (emphasis
added)).
In short, this history confirms our reading of the stat-
utes’ plain terms: The Secretary is required to report
a single set of figures to the President—namely, “[t]he
tabulation of total population by States” under the “de-
cennial census”—and the President is then required to
use those same figures to determine apportionment us-
ing the method of equal proportions.
The Presidential Memorandum deviates from, and
thus violates, these statutory requirements. Whereas
the statute calls for the Secretary to include only the
census figures in his report to the President, the Presi-
dential Memorandum mandates that the Secretary pro-
vide a second set of figures as well: namely, the popu-
lation of each State “exclud[ing]” illegal aliens. Presi-
dential Memorandum, 85 Fed. Reg. at 44,680. The
Presidential Memorandum leaves it to the Secretary
how to come up with those figures, but they will neces-
sarily be derived from something other than the census
itself, as the 2020 census is not gathering information
concerning citizenship or immigration status, and the
2020 census itself is counting illegal aliens. See Order
at 1-2, New York v. Dep’t of Commerce, 18-CV-2921
(JMF), ECF No. 653 (permanently enjoining the inclu-
sion of a citizenship question on the 2020 census ques-
tionnaire); see also Presidential Memorandum, 85 Fed.
Reg. at 44,680 (noting that “data on illegal aliens . . .
relevant for the purpose of conducting the apportion-
ment” may be available as a result of Executive Order
13880, which directed executive agencies “to share in-
 79a

formation with the Department of Commerce” regard-

ing “the number of citizens, non-citizens, and illegal al-
iens in the country”). By doing so, the Presidential
Memorandum violates Congress’s mandate to use the
results of the census—and only the results of the census
—in connection with the apportionment process and the
counting of them in the census pursuant the Residence
Rule.
In arguing otherwise, Defendants rely almost exclu-
sively on the Supreme Court’s decision in Franklin, see
Defs.’ Mem. 40-42; Oral Arg. Tr. 48-54, but that reliance
is misplaced. In Franklin, the plaintiffs brought two
discrete challenges, one a constitutional challenge to the
formula used in connection with reapportionment and
one a challenge under the Constitution and the APA to
the conduct of the census—specifically, to the Census
Bureau’s decision to count federal employees serving
overseas as residents of the State listed as their home of
record in their personnel files. See Massachusetts v.
Mosbacher, 785 F. Supp. 230, 233 (D. Mass. 1992). A
three-judge district court rejected the first challenge,
but agreed with the second. See id. at 267-68. On ap-
peal from the latter ruling alone, the Supreme Court re-
versed. With respect to the plaintiffs’ constitutional
claim, the Court held that the Secretary’s judgment
“that many federal employees temporarily stationed
overseas had retained their ties to the States and could
and should be counted toward their States’ representa-
tion in Congress” was “consonant with, though not
dictated by, the text and history of the Constitution.”
Franklin, 505 U.S. at 806. With respect to the plain-
tiffs’ APA claim, the Court held that the decision could
not be challenged because the only final action affecting
the States was the President’s Section 2a(a) statement
 80a

and the President does not qualify as an “agency” for

purposes of the APA. See id. at 796-801. The Secre-
tary’s Section 141(b) report, the Court explained, “car-
ries no direct consequences for the reapportionment”
and, thus, “serves more like a tentative recommendation
than a final and binding determination.” Id. at 798.
While addressing the question of whether the plain-
tiffs could bring a claim under the APA, the Court de-
scribed the interplay between Section 2a and Section
141:
After receiving the Secretary’s report, the President
is to “transmit to the Congress a statement showing
the whole number of persons in each State . . . as
ascertained under the . . . decennial census of
the population.” 2 U.S.C. § 2a(a). Section 2a does
not expressly require the President to use the data in
the Secretary’s report, but, rather, the data from the
“decennial census.” There is no statute forbidding
amendment of the “decennial census” itself after the
Secretary submits the report to the President. For
potential litigants, therefore, the “decennial census”
still presents a moving target, even after the Secre-
tary reports to the President. . . . Moreover,
there is no statute that rules out an instruction by the
President to the Secretary to reform the census, even
after the data are submitted to him. It is not until
the President submits the information to Congress
that the target stops moving, because only then are
the States entitled by § 2a to a particular number of
Representatives.
505 U.S. at 797-98. The Court acknowledged that the
President’s role under Section 2a was “admittedly minis-
terial,” but that “d[id] not answer the question whether
 81a

the apportionment is foreordained by the time the Sec-

retary gives her report to the President.” Id. at 799.
Put simply, the Court concluded, Ҥ 2a does not curtail
the President’s authority”—pursuant to “his accustomed
supervisory powers over his executive officers” —“to di-
rect the Secretary in making policy judgments that re-
sult in ‘the decennial census’; he is not expressly re-
quired to adhere to the policy decisions reflected in the
Secretary’s report.” Id. at 799-800.
Defendants seize on this language to argue that the
President has discretion to define who should be consid-
ered inhabitants—or “persons in each State,” 2 U.S.C.
§ 2a(a); see U.S. Const. Art. I § 2, cl. 3—for purposes of
the census. Presidential Memorandum, 85 Fed. Reg.
at 44,679; see Defs.’ Mem. 40-42; Def. Reply 9-10; Oral
Arg. Tr. 47. That may or may not be true—we address
it below—but it is beside the point for present purposes.
Franklin does not suggest, let alone hold, that the Pres-
ident has authority to use something other than the cen-
sus when calculating the reapportionment; indeed, the
Court did not even consider the plaintiffs’ challenge to
the apportionment. At most, Franklin establishes
that the President retains his “usual superintendent
role” with respect to the conduct of the census—and can
direct the Secretary to make “policy judgments that re-
sult in ‘the decennial census.’ ” Id. at 799-800 (empha-
sis added); see also id. at 797-98 (referring to “amend-
ment of the ‘decennial census’ itself” and “instruction by
the President to the Secretary to reform the census”). 15

15
Thus, defense counsel is wrong in suggesting that the Franklin
Court blessed the use of a tabulation that was based on both the
census and “separate records outside the census.” Oral Arg. Tr.
52. The overseas personnel were counted as part of the census
 82a

But by Defendants’ own admission, that is not what the

President did here. See, e.g., Joint Pre-Conference
Ltr. 5 (“Plaintiffs are not challenging some procedure
that will be used in the actual census, but an apportion-
ment number that will be chosen by the President
after the census is complete.”); Defs.’ Mem. 12 (“[T]he
Memorandum does not affect how the Census Bureau is
conducting its remaining enumeration operations.
. . . ”); ECF No. 120 (Decl. of Albert E. Fontenot, Jr.)
¶ 12 (“The Presidential Memorandum . . . has had
no impact on . . . the Census Bureau’s commitment
to count each person in their usual place of residence, as
defined in the [Residence Rule].”).
In short, contrary to Defendants’ arguments, the
statutory scheme enacted by Congress does not give the
President authority to “choose” any set of numbers he
wants “to plug into the ‘method of equal proportions.’ ”
Defs.’ Mem. 42. Instead, Congress mandated that the
President use a specific set of numbers—those produced
by the decennial census itself—for purposes of the reap-
portionment. By deviating from that mandate, the Pres-
idential Memorandum exceeds the authority of the Pres-
ident and constitutes an ultra vires violation of the stat-
utes.

itself, resulting in a single “tabulation of total population by States”

under the “decennial census.” 13 U.S.C. § 141(a)-(b). That they
were counted using administrative records rather than a question-
naire is of no moment, as Section 141(a) broadly delegates to the
Secretary the authority to conduct the census “in such form . . .
as he may determine.” Id. § 141(a).
 83a

B. The Apportionment Base Cannot Exclude Illegal Al-

iens Who Reside in a State
The Presidential Memorandum also deviates from
Section 2a(a) in defining “the whole number of persons
in each State” to categorically exclude illegal aliens re-
siding in each State. Once again, we begin with the plain
language of the statute. Defendants do not dispute—
in the Presidential Memorandum or in their briefs—
that illegal aliens are “persons” within the meaning of
Section 2a(a), and for good reason. The ordinary
meaning of the word “person” is “human” or “individ-
ual” and surely includes citizens and non-citizens alike.
See Plyler v. Doe, 457 U.S. 202, 210 (1982) (“Whatever
his status under the immigration laws, an alien is surely
a ‘person’ in any ordinary sense of that term.”). More-
over, the U.S. Code is filled with other statutes that
use terms that plainly exclude illegal aliens, such as “cit-
izen” or “alien lawfully admitted.” E.g., 5 U.S.C.
§ 552a(a)(2). “Congress thus distinguishes between a
‘citizen’ and ‘any person’ when it wishes to do so.”
O’Rourke v. U.S. Dep’t of Justice, 684 F. Supp. 716, 718
(D.D.C. 1988) (holding that the phrase “any person” in
the Freedom of Information Act, 5 U.S.C. §§ 551 et seq.,
includes non-citizens); accord Stone v. Exp.-Imp. Bank
of U. S., 552 F.2d 132, 136 (5th Cir. 1977); see also, e.g.,
Suzlon Energy Ltd. v. Microsoft Corp., 671 F.3d 726,
729 (9th Cir. 2011) (holding that “any person” in the
Electronic Communications Privacy Act, 18 U.S.C.
§§ 2510 et seq., “means any person, including foreign cit-
izens”).
Instead, Defendants hang their hats on the four-word
phrase “persons in each State.” Presidential Memoran-
dum, 85 Fed. Reg. at 44,679; see Defs.’ Mem. 2, 29-30;
 84a

Defs.’ Reply 11. That phrase, they argue, has been

construed to mean “inhabitants” or to turn on “usual
residence,” terms that are not self-defining and call for
“the exercise of judgment.” Presidential Memoran-
dum, 85 Fed. Reg. at 44,679. That is true enough. See
Franklin, 505 U.S. at 803-05 (noting that, since 1790,
Congress and the Census Bureau have used words such
as “inhabitant” and “[u]sual residence” to “describe the
required tie to the State” and that defining the metes
and bounds of these terms are not always clear). But
it does not follow that illegal aliens—a category defined
by legal status, not residence—can be excluded from the
phrase. To the contrary, the ordinary definition of the
term “inhabitant” is “one that occupies a particular
place regularly, routinely, or for a period of time.” See
MERRIAM-WEBSTER’ S COLLEGE DICTIONARY 601 (10th
ed. 1997). And however ambiguous the term may be on
the margins, it surely encompasses illegal aliens who
live in the United States—as millions of illegal aliens in-
disputably do, some for many years or even decades. 16

16
Defendants argue that it is Plaintiffs’ burden to show “that there
is no category of illegal aliens that may be lawfully excluded from
the apportionment,” Defs.’ Mem. 39, and suggest that Plaintiffs can-
not meet that burden because some categories of illegal aliens (e.g.,
aliens residing in a detention facility after being arrested while
crossing the border) can be lawfully excluded, see id. at 27. But the
examples Defendants proffer are arguably excluded (or excludable)
based on their “usual residence,” not their legal status. In any
event, Defendants cite no authority for applying the standards for
facial challenges to the constitutionality of statutes to claims, like
those here, that the President has exceeded the authority granted to
him by Congress. Indeed, that arguably gets it backwards: If the
President goes outside the bounds of the authority granted to him
by Congress, a court’s power to grant relief should not depend on
how far outside the bounds he went. Notably, courts considering
 85a

The Presidential Memorandum provides two exam-

ples to support its conclusion that “[t]he discretion del-
egated to the executive branch to determine who quali-
fies as an ‘inhabitant’ includes authority to exclude from
the apportionment base aliens who are not in a lawful
immigration status,” Presidential Memorandum, 85
Fed. Reg. at 44,679, but neither is remotely convincing.
First, the Memorandum notes that “aliens who are only
temporarily in the United States, such as for business or
tourism, and certain foreign diplomatic personnel are
‘persons’ who have been excluded from the apportion-
ment base.” Id. True enough, but that is not based on
their legal status. Instead, it is based on the fact that the
United States is not their “usual residence.” (Indeed,
that is reflected in the Residence Rule.) Second, the
Memorandum points to the fact that “overseas Federal
personnel have, at various times, been included in” the
apportionment base. Id. Once again, true enough.
(Indeed, that was the issue in Franklin.) But that is
based on the fact that the terms “usual residence” and
“inhabitant” have “been used broadly enough to include
some element of allegiance or enduring tie to a place”
and to “include ‘persons absent occasionally for a con-
siderable time on public or private business.’ ” Frank-
lin, 505 U.S. at 804-05 (quoting 2 THE RECORDS OF THE

similar claims have not approached them in the manner Defendants

propose. See, e.g., Hawaii v. Trump, 878 F.3d 662, 690-92 (9th Cir.
2017) (concluding that a presidential proclamation exceeded the
President’s delegated authority under the Immigration and Nation-
ality Act), rev’d and remanded on other grounds, 138 S. Ct. 2392
(2018); Chamber of Commerce of U.S. v. Reich, 74 F.3d 1322, 1324,
1337-39 (D.C. Cir. 1996) (concluding that an executive order an-
nouncing a “policy of the executive branch” was ultra vires and in-
valid).
 86a

FEDERAL CONVENTION OF 1787, at 217 (Max Farrand

ed., rev. ed. 1966) (statement of James Madison)). It is
simply a non sequitur to suggest, as the Presidential
Memorandum does, that just because the phrase “per-
sons in each State” can be construed to include people
who are “temporarily stationed abroad” but “retain[]
their ties to the States,” id. at 806, it can also be con-
strued to exclude people who indisputably inhabit or re-
side in a State.
Defendants are on no firmer ground in arguing that
illegal aliens can be excluded from “the whole number of
persons in each State,” as that phrase is used in Section
2a, because they “may be removed from the country at
any time.” Defs.’ Mem. 39. A person living in a State
but facing future removal is no less a “person[] in that
State,” Defs.’ Reply 4 (internal quotation marks and al-
teration omitted), than someone living in the State with-
out the prospect of removal. Moreover, many people in
immigration custody or removal proceedings actually
have lawful immigration status, see, e.g., Ragbir v.
Homan, 923 F.3d 53, 57-58 (2d Cir. 2019), and their place-
ment in custody or removal proceedings does not neces-
sarily render them unlawfully present. Notably, data
reveal that immigration judges ultimately allow many
aliens in custody or removal proceedings to remain in
the United States. See Immigration Judges Decide 57
Percent Entitled to Remain in U.S., TRAC IMMIGRA-
TION (Aug. 17, 2016), https://trac.syr.edu/immigration/
reports/435/. And many people initially designated as
“undocumented”—including many intercepted at the
border—ultimately obtain lawful status, such as asylum.
See EXEC. OFFICE FOR IMMIGRATION REVIEW, U.S.
DEP’T OF JUSTICE, STATISTICS YEARBOOK FISCAL YEAR
2018, at 27 (2019),https://www.justice.gov/eoir/file/
 87a

1198896/download. Nothing in Section 2a turns on

such fluctuations and nuances in legal status.
Once again, legislative history and settled practice
confirm our conclusion that “persons in each State”
turns solely on residency, without regard for legal sta-
tus. In looking to legislative history, we look not to the
history surrounding the framing of the Constitution or
the Reconstruction Amendments, even though the words
in the statute mirror those in Article I and the Four-
teenth Amendment. Instead, we look to 1929, when
Section 2a was enacted and the words “whole number of
persons in each State” entered the statutory lexicon.
See Act of June 18, 1929, Pub. L. No. 71-13 § 22, 46 Stat.
21, 26. That is because our task is to interpret the stat-
ute itself, and we do so “in accord with the ordinary pub-
lic meaning of its terms at the time of its enactment.”
Bostock v. Clayton Cty., 140 S. Ct. 1731, 1738 (2020).
That is not to say that the constitutional language is ir-
relevant to our task: The drafters of Section 2a used
the same words as those in the Constitution, so their
understanding of the constitutional language sheds
light on their understanding—and the “ordinary public
meaning”—of the statutory text “at the time of its en-
actment.” Id. But it is their understanding of the
constitutional language, not whether their understand-
ing was correct (on which we need and do not opine),
that matters. Cf. Parker Drilling Mgmt. Servs., Ltd.
v. Newton, 139 S. Ct. 1881, 1890 (2019) (“It is a common-
 88a

place of statutory interpretation that Congress legis-

lates against the backdrop of existing law.” (internal
quotation marks omitted)). 17
Notably, in enacting the 1929 Act that used the
phrase “whole number of persons in each State,” the
Senate and the House both considered and rejected
amendments that would have excluded non-citizens
from the apportionment base. See 71 Cong. Rec. 1907
(1929) (Sen. Sackett proposes amending S.B. 312 to re-
quire the President’s statement to Congress to show
“the whole number of persons in each State, exclusive of
aliens and excluding Indians not taxed”); id. at 2065
(vote on amendment by Sen. Sackett fails); id. at 2360-
63 (House adopts alienage exclusion as amendment to
the apportionment bill); id. at 2448-2455 (House adopts
amendment of Rep. Tilson to remove the previously
adopted alienage exclusion). What is more, opposition
to these amendments was based not only on a view that
“the whole number of persons in each State” should in-
clude every resident of each State, without regard to le-
gal status; it was based also on a view that the Constitu-
tion mandated inclusion of illegal aliens residing in the
United States. Senator David Reed, for instance,
voiced support for an amendment excluding illegal al-
iens from the apportionment base as a matter of policy
but opposed it on grounds of constitutionality and con-
sistent practice. “Every Congress that acted on that

17
For this reason, we need not and do not delve into the meaning
of the terms “inhabitant” and “usual residence” at the time of the
Founding or of the Reconstruction Amendments, or consider wheth-
er the concept of unlawful status was known to the Framers of Arti-
cle I or the Fourteenth Amendment. There is no dispute that the
concept of “illegal aliens” existed in 1929, when Section 2a was en-
acted. See Defs.’ Mem. 36.
 89a

part of Article I of the original Constitution and every

apportionment that was made in reliance upon that arti-
cle,” he explained, “included all free persons literally.
It excluded Indians not taxed and it excluded slaves, but
every apportionment inhabitant[] who” was not a “citi-
zen[] w[as] included.” Id. at 1958. “That construc-
tion,” he noted then, “has been continuous and con-
sistent.” Id.
Further evidence of the understanding of the phrase
“whole number of persons in each State” in Section 2a is
revealed by the opinion of the Senate’s legislative coun-
sel on the issue. “That the fourteenth amendment was
framed with the intention of including aliens,” he wrote,
“is indicated by the rejection by the Congress of pro-
posals to base representation on the number of citizens
and on the number of voters.” Id. at 1822. Consistent
with that understanding, Congress had always included
aliens in the apportionment base:
The practical construction of the constitutional pro-
vision by Congress in its apportionment legislation
has been uniformly in favor of inclusion of aliens.
No exception of noncitizens from the enumeration
has been made under any past apportionment. The
term “persons” necessarily either includes or excludes
aliens; its constitutional meaning can not be changed
by Congress; and the fact that it has from the begin-
ning been construed to include aliens should be con-
clusive if the meaning was open to dispute.
Id. It was “therefore the opinion of [the legislative
counsel’s] office that there is no constitutional authority
for the enactment of legislation excluding aliens from
enumeration for the purposes of apportionment of Rep-
resentatives among the States.” Id. This prevailing
 90a

view makes plain that when Congress directed the Pres-

ident to report the “whole number of persons in each
State,” it understood the phrase to include all who lived
in each State, without regard for legal status, and that it
did not grant to the President discretion to do by Mem-
orandum what it could not do by statute. 18
Not for nothing, until the Presidential Memorandum,
the Executive Branch had also always taken the view
that the 1929 Act, if not the Constitution, prohibited ex-
clusion of illegal aliens from the apportionment base due
to legal status alone. In defending against a 1980 chal-
lenge to including illegal aliens in the apportionment
base, for example, the Department of Justice argued
that “[t]he plain language of [the Act] maintains the
Constitutional requirement of counting all inhabitants
of the states, legal and illegal, for purposes of apportion-
ment. . . . Moreover, the long-established practice
of both Congress and the Census Bureau of reading the
Constitution to require the counting of illegal aliens for
apportionment purposes ratifies this construction.”
Defs.’ Reply Mem. & Opp. Pls.’ Mot. Summ. J. 11, FAIR,
486 F. Supp. 564 (citing Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v.
FCC, 395 U.S. 367, 380-82 (1967)). In 1988, the Justice
Department took the position in a letter to Congress

18
For what it’s worth, later Congresses took similar views. See
FAIR v. Klutznick, 486 F. Supp. at 576-77 (three-judge court) (de-
scribing congressional debates); Stacy Robyn Harold, Note, The
Right to Representation and the Census, 53 WAYNE L. REV. 921,
923 & n.15 (2007) (collecting congressional debates); see also, e.g.,
1980 Census: Counting Illegal Aliens: Hearing on S. 2366 Before
the Subcomm. on Energy, Nuclear Proliferation & Fed. Servs. of
the S. Comm. on Governmental Affairs, 96th Cong. 12 (1980) (Sen-
ator Javits stating that the Constitution requires “the aggregate
number of inhabitants, which includes aliens, legal and illegal”).
 91a

that excluding illegal aliens from the census and appor-

tionment base would be unconstitutional, see Letter
from Thomas M. Boyd, Acting Assistant Attorney Gen.,
to Rep. William D. Ford (June 29, 1988) (reprinted in
U.S. GOV ’T PRINTING OFFICE, 1990 CENSUS PROCE-
DURES AND DEMOGRAPHIC IMPACT ON THE STATE OF
MICHIGAN, 240-44 (1988)), a position it reaffirmed one
year later, see Letter from Carol T. Crawford, Assistant
Attorney Gen., to Sen. Jeff Bingaman (Sept. 22, 1989)
(reprinted in 135 Cong. Rec. S22,521 (daily ed. Sept. 29,
1989)). And the Census Bureau itself has long “inter-
preted its constitutional charge and its statutory man-
date to require counting every person [irrespective of
citizenship status] who has a usual residence in any
State.” Census Equity Act: Hearing on H.R. 2661 Be-
fore the Subcomm. on Census & Population of the
H. Comm. on Post Office & Civil Serv., 101st Cong. 68
(1989) (statement of Michael R. Darby, Under Sec’y of
Commerce for Econ. Affairs) (emphasis added); accord
Letter from Robert A. Mosbacher, Sec’y of Commerce,
to Sen. Jeff Bingaman (Sept. 25, 1989) (reprinted in 135
Cong. Rec. S22,522 (daily ed. Sept. 29, 1989)).
In fact, since 1929 (if not before), the consistent view
of both political branches has been that Section 2a, if not
the Constitution, requires the inclusion of all residents
in the apportionment base, without regard for their le-
gal status. When pressed at oral argument to cite “any
instance, any support . . . in the historical record”
for the proposition that the President has discretion un-
der Section 2a to exclude illegal aliens from the appor-
tionment base, defense counsel came up empty. Oral
Arg. Tr. 46 (“We have not been able to identify any.”).
With admirable candor, albeit some understatement, he
 92a

was compelled to concede that “[P]laintiffs’ best argu-

ment is history, and that cuts the other way.” Id. at 47.
With neither text nor history on their side, the only
thing Defendants have remaining is their assertion that
excluding illegal aliens from the apportionment base is
“more consonant with the principles of representative
democracy underpinning our system of Government.”
Presidential Memorandum, 85 Fed. Reg. at 44,680.
That is certainly a defensible (though contestable) prop-
osition. But it is also irrelevant. The Constitution
gives to Congress the authority to regulate the census
and to reapportion the House. In exercising that au-
thority, and delegating responsibility to the Executive
Branch, Congress adopted a different theory of Govern-
ment, in which the House of Representatives represents
the whole population, not a subset of the population, and
there is “equal representation for equal numbers of peo-
ple.” Wesberry v. Sanders, 376 U.S. 1, 14 (1964). The
President is not free to substitute his own view of what
is most “consonant with the principles of representative
democracy” for the view that Congress already chose.
The statutory command to use the “whole number of
persons in each State” as the apportionment base does
not give the President discretion to exclude illegal aliens
on the basis of their legal status, without regard for
their residency. In declaring that “it is the policy of
the United States” to do so, and commanding the Secre-
tary to take steps to carry out that policy, the Presiden-
tial Memorandum deviates from, and thus violates, Sec-
tion 2a.
 93a

C. Conclusion
In sum, the Presidential Memorandum deviates from,
and thus violates, the statutory scheme in two independ-
ent ways: first, by requiring the Secretary to include
in his Section 141(b) report a set of numbers other than
“[t]he tabulation of total population by States” under the
“decennial census” and contemplating reapportionment
based on a set of numbers other than “the whole number
of persons in each State . . . as ascertained under
the . . . decennial census of the population”; and sec-
ond, by excluding illegal aliens from the “whole number
of persons in each State” that Section 2a(a) requires to
be used as the apportionment base.
As Defendants implicitly concede, it follows that
Plaintiffs are entitled to summary judgment on their
statutory claims pursuant to the ultra vires doctrine, a
cause of action that “is the creation of courts of equity,
and reflects a long history of judicial review of illegal
executive action, tracing back to England.” Armstrong
v. Exceptional Child Ctr., Inc., 575 U.S. 320, 327 (2015).
The doctrine provides that “[w]hen an executive acts ul-
tra vires,” as is the case here, “courts are normally avail-
able to reestablish the limits on his authority.” Reich,
74 F.3d at 1328; see also Stark v. Wickard, 321 U.S. 288,
309-10 (1944) (“When Congress passes an Act empower-
ing administrative agencies to carry on governmental
activities, the power of those agencies is circumscribed
by the authority granted. . . . The responsibility of
determining the limits of statutory grants of authority
in such instances is a judicial function entrusted to the
courts by Congress by the statutes establishing courts
and marking their jurisdiction.”); Am. Sch. of Magnetic
Healing v. McAnnulty, 187 U.S. 94, 108 (1902) (“The
 94a

acts of all [executive branch] officers must be justified

by some law, and in case an official violates the law to
the injury of an individual the courts generally have ju-
risdiction to grant relief.”); Mountain States Legal
Found. v. Bush, 306 F.3d 1132, 1136 (D.C. Cir. 2002)
(“Courts remain obligated to determine whether statu-
tory restrictions have been violated.”). In light of that
conclusion, we need not and do not reach Plaintiffs’ con-
stitutional claims, let alone the Plaintiffs’ claims that did
not form the basis for their motion. Thus, Defendants’
motion to dismiss those claims under Rule 12(b)(6) of the
Federal Rules of Civil Procedure is moot.
REMEDIES
Having granted Plaintiffs summary judgment on
their statutory claims, we turn to the issue of remedies.
Plaintiffs seek a permanent injunction prohibiting all
Defendants—including the President himself—from im-
plementing the Presidential Memorandum and a declar-
atory judgment that the Presidential Memorandum is
unlawful. See Gov’t Pls.’ Compl. 44-45; NGO Pls.’
Compl. 88-89.
A. Injunctive Relief
It is well established that plaintiffs “seeking a
permanent injunction must satisfy a four-factor test
before a court may grant such relief.” eBay Inc. v.
MercExchange, L.L.C., 547 U.S. 388, 391 (2006). Spe-
cifically, they must show: (1) that they have suffered an
irreparable injury; (2) that remedies available at law,
such as monetary damages, are inadequate to compen-
sate for that injury; (3) that, considering the balance of
hardships between the plaintiffs and defendants, a rem-
 95a

edy in equity is warranted; and (4) that the public inter-

est would not be disserved by a permanent injunction.
See id. But because “the government’s interest is the
public interest,” where, as here, the government is a party,
the last two factors merge. Pursuing Am.’s Greatness
v. FEC, 831 F.3d 500, 511 (D.C. Cir. 2016); accord Nken
v. Holder, 556 U.S. 418, 435 (2009).
Plaintiffs easily satisfy each factor and, thus, are en-
titled to an injunction. First and foremost, as dis-
cussed above, the census-related harms that Plaintiffs
have demonstrated would be irreparable absent an in-
junction. That is, because there are no census do-
overs, there would be no way to remedy them after the
fact. And even if there were a way to correct for them
after the fact, the harms, by their nature, are difficult, if
not impossible, to measure. See, e.g., Salinger v. Colt-
ing, 607 F.3d 68, 81 (2d Cir. 2010) (“Harm might be ir-
remediable, or irreparable, for many reasons, including
that a loss is difficult to replace or difficult to measure.
. . .”). Making matters worse, the harms caused by an
inaccurate census would be felt for at least a decade, un-
til the 2030 decennial census—if not longer. See, e.g.,
Baldwin Decl. ¶ 25 (explaining that because the State of
Washington relies on thirty-year population forecasts,
which requires “an indicator that goes back in time as
far as you are forecasting forward in time,” the “2020
census data will be used in forecasting until at least the
2050 census data is available, and probably longer”).
For much the same reason, the remedies available at law
would plainly be inadequate. See, e.g., New York v.
Dep’t of Commerce, 351 F. Supp. 3d at 675 (issuing an
injunction and finding that “the degradation of infor-
mation . . . would be irreparable, without any ade-
quate remedy at law”).
 96a

Finally, the balance of the hardships and the public

interest both favor an injunction. Indeed, “[t]here is
generally no public interest in the perpetuation of un-
lawful agency action. To the contrary, there is a sub-
stantial public interest in having governmental agencies
abide by the federal laws that govern their existence and
operations.” League of Women Voters of U.S. v.
Newby, 838 F.3d 1, 12 (D.C. Cir. 2016) (internal quota-
tion marks and citation omitted). Moreover, both the
Supreme Court’s decision in Department of Commerce
v. House of Representatives—affirming the Eastern
District of Virginia’s permanent injunction against the
use of statistical sampling to enumerate the population
in the 2000 census—and the Second Circuit’s holding in
Carey—affirming a preliminary injunction requiring the
Census Bureau to process certain forms and to compare
its list of New York City residents against other govern-
ment records—confirm that the public interest favors
an injunction in these cases. See House of Represent-
atives, 525 U.S. at 344; Carey v. Klutznick, 637 F.2d 834,
839 (2d Cir. 1980). As the Second Circuit noted in
Carey, “the public interest . . . requires obedience
. . . to the requirement that Congress be fairly appor-
tioned, based on accurate census figures. Further-
more, it is in the public interest that the federal govern-
ment distribute its funds, when the grant statute is
keyed to population, on the basis of accurate census
data.” Id.
Defendants’ sole claim of hardship is that an injunc-
tion would “interfere with the Bureau’s ongoing process
by hindering agency efforts to refine its policies and to
apply its expertise.” Defs.’ Reply 2 (internal quotation
 97a

marks and alterations omitted). 19 They do not elabo-

rate further, but it is plain that they are not referring to
the operations of the census itself because, as noted
above, they repeatedly concede that the Presidential
Memorandum does “not in any way affect the conduct of
the actual census.” Id. Thus, Defendants must be re-
ferring to the Census Bureau’s ongoing efforts to figure
out how, if at all, to implement the President’s directive
in the Presidential Memorandum in time to meet the
statutory deadline for the Secretary’s report to the
President. See 13 U.S.C. § 141(b). But it is against
the public interest to comply with an unlawful directive.
And any suggestion that, in the event our decision is re-
versed on appeal, granting an injunction would hinder
the Census Bureau’s efforts to comply with the Presi-
dential Memorandum by the deadline are undermined
by Defendants’ repeated assertions that “an erroneous

19
Referencing a point they made in passing in a footnote in their
opening brief, Defendants also argue for the first time in their re-
ply that an injunction prohibiting the Secretary from transmitting
information would violate the Opinions Clause of the Constitution,
see Defs.’ Reply 11 (citing Defs.’ Mem. 42 n.17), which empowers
the President to “require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal
Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject re-
lating to the Duties of their respective Offices,” U.S. Const. art. 2,
§ 2, cl. 1. A party may not raise an argument in a footnote or for
the first time in reply, so we deem the argument to be waived.
See, e.g., Norton v. Sam’s Club, 145 F.3d 114, 117 (2d Cir. 1998)
(“Issues not sufficiently argued in the briefs are considered
waived. . . . ”); Levine v. Lawrence, No. 03-CV-1694 (DRH)
(ETB), 2005 WL 1412143, at *5 (E.D.N.Y. June 15, 2005) (“[F]ailure
to adequately brief an argument constitutes waiver of that argu-
ment. . . . ”). In any event, ensuring that the Secretary com-
plies with the mandates of Section 141(b)—and, by extension, that
the President complies with the mandates of Section 2a(a)—does
not run afoul of the Opinions Clause.
 98a

or invalid apportionment number can be remedied after

the fact.” Defs.’ Mem. 48. Finally, any such hardship
to Defendants can be mitigated, if not eliminated, by
crafting the injunction—as we do below—to bar only the
inclusion in the Secretary’s Section 141 report of data
concerning the number of illegal aliens in each State and
to allow the Census Bureau to continue its research ef-
forts.
Thus, a permanent injunction is warranted. In an
exercise of our discretion, however, we grant injunctive
relief against all Defendants other than the President.
The parties vigorously dispute whether and under what
circumstances a federal court can grant injunctive relief
against the President. Compare Defs.’ Mem. 44-45,
and Defs.’ Reply 14-15, with Pls.’ Reply 27 & n.13. At
a minimum, however, it is plain that the “grant of injunc-
tive relief against the President himself is extraordi-
nary, and should . . . raise[] judicial eyebrows.”
Franklin, 505 U.S. at 802. Thus, “[a]s a matter of com-
ity,” if nothing else, “courts should normally direct legal
process to a lower Executive official even though the ef-
fect of the process is to restrain or compel the Presi-
dent.” Nixon v. Sirica, 487 F.2d 700, 709 (D.C. Cir.
1973) (en banc) (per curiam). That is particularly true
where the court can grant complete relief without en-
joining the President, as is the case here. See, e.g.,
Franklin, 505 U.S. at 802 (“[W]e need not decide whether
injunctive relief against the President [i]s appropriate,
because we conclude that the injury alleged is likely to
be redressed by declaratory relief against the Secretary
alone.”); accord Evans, 536 U.S. at 463-64. In fact, if
anything, the need to enjoin the President himself is
even weaker here than it was in Franklin and Evans,
which were litigated after the President had transmitted
 99a

his apportionment statement to Congress. For the plain-

tiffs in those cases to obtain meaningful relief, therefore,
the President himself would have needed to calculate a
new apportionment figure and to then submit a new re-
port to Congress. Here, by contrast, enjoining De-
fendants other than the President (and granting a de-
claratory judgment, as discussed below) would provide
Plaintiffs with complete relief, as the President cannot
exclude illegal aliens from his apportionment calcula-
tions in his statement to Congress unless the Secretary
gives him the relevant information in the Section 141 re-
port.
Accordingly, the Court enjoins all Defendants other
than the President from including in the Secretary’s re-
port to the President pursuant to Section 141(b) any “in-
formation permitting the President . . . to exercise
the President’s discretion to carry out the policy set
forth in section 2” of the Presidential Memorandum—
that is, any information concerning the number of aliens
in each State “who are not in a lawful immigration status
under the Immigration and Nationality Act.” Presi-
dential Memorandum, 85 Fed. Reg. at 44,680. Instead,
consistent with the Census Act, the Secretary’s Section
141(b) report shall include only “[t]he tabulation of total
population by States under” Section 141(a) “as required
for the apportionment of Representatives in Congress
among the several States,” 13 U.S.C. § 141(b)—that is,
“information tabulated according to the methodology
set forth in [the Residence Rule],” Presidential Memo-
randum, 85 Fed. Reg. at 44,680. 20 To be clear, as an

20
Separately, there is an active debate over the propriety of “na-
tionwide” or “universal” injunctions. See, e.g., Dep’t of Homeland
 100a

exercise of its discretion, the Court does not enjoin De-

fendants from continuing to study whether and how it
would be feasible to calculate the number of illegal al-
iens in each State. That ensures that in the event that
a higher court disagrees with our ruling (prior to the
Section 141(b) deadline), the Secretary will be able to
comply with the Presidential Memorandum in a timely
fashion.
B. Declaratory Relief
In addition, we grant Plaintiffs’ request for declara-
tory relief. The Declaratory Judgment Act vests fed-
eral courts with discretion to “declare the rights and
other legal relations of any interested party seeking
such declaration, whether or not further relief is or
could be sought.” 28 U.S.C. § 2201(a); see Wilton v.
Seven Falls Co., 515 U.S. 277, 282 (1995). In exercising
that discretion, courts must consider (1) whether the
judgment will serve a useful purpose in clarifying or set-
tling the legal issues involved; (2) whether a judgment
would finalize the controversy and offer relief from un-
certainty; (3) whether the proposed remedy is being
used merely for procedural fencing or a race to res judi-
cata; (4) whether the use of a declaratory judgment

Sec. v. New York, 140 S. Ct. 599, 600-01 (2020) (Gorsuch, J., concur-
ring); Trump v. Hawaii, 138 S. Ct. 2392, 2425-29 (2018) (Thomas, J.,
concurring); see also Memorandum from the Attorney General to
Heads of Civil Litigating Components & United States Attorneys,
U.S. Dep’t of Justice, Litigation Guidelines for Cases Presenting
the Possibility of Nationwide Injunctions (Sept. 13, 2018), https://
www.justice.gov/opa/press-release/file/1093881/download. That de-
bate has no relevance to this case, for many of the same reasons that
it had no relevance in the citizenship question litigation. See New
York v. Dep’t of Commerce, 351 F. Supp. 3d at 677-78. Not surpris-
ingly, therefore, Defendants do not even raise the issue.
 101a

would increase friction between sovereign legal systems

or improperly encroach on the domain of a state or for-
eign court; and (5) whether there is a better or more ef-
fective remedy. Dow Jones & Co. v. Harrods Ltd., 346
F.3d 357, 359-60 (2d Cir. 2003). “The existence of an-
other adequate remedy does not preclude a declaratory
judgment that is otherwise appropriate,” Fed. R. Civ. P.
57, and we may grant declaratory relief “whether or not
further relief is or could be sought,” 28 U.S.C. § 2201(a);
see also Powell v. McCormack, 395 U.S. 486, 518 (1969)
(“[A] request for declaratory relief may be considered
independently of whether other forms of relief are ap-
propriate.”).
In our view, a declaration that the Presidential Mem-
orandum is unlawful “would serve a useful purpose here,
settle the legal issues involved, finalize the controversy,
and offer [Plaintiffs] relief from uncertainty.” Niag-
ara Mohawk Power Corp. v. Hudson River-Black River
Regulating Dist., 673 F.3d 84, 105 (2d Cir. 2012). In-
deed, an unambiguous declaration that the Presidential
Memorandum is unlawful because the President does
not have the authority to exclude illegal aliens from the
apportionment base would serve the further useful pur-
pose of “reasurr[ing] people they will be counted for the
purpose of determining . . . congressional seats and
electoral votes,” Espinosa Supp. Decl. ¶ 8, thereby di-
rectly addressing the chilling effect on census participa-
tion that the Memorandum has caused. Cf. Foretich v.
United States, 351 F.3d 1198, 1215 (D.C. Cir. 2003) (“[A]
declaration will remove the imprimatur of government
authority from [the illegal a]ct. . . . ”). Such a dec-
laration is particularly useful given that, for the reasons
we discussed above, we decline to enjoin Defendants
 102a

from taking steps to research whether or how the Pres-

idential Memorandum could be implemented. That is,
an unambiguous judicial declaration that the Presiden-
tial Memorandum is unlawful would help ensure that the
chilling effects on participation in the census are miti-
gated to the maximum extent possible.
CONCLUSION
There is no dispute that the President has “accus-
tomed supervisory powers over his executive officers,”
Franklin, 505 U.S. at 800, and thus retains some discre-
tion in the conduct of the decennial census and resulting
apportionment calculation. Nevertheless, where the
authority of the President (or other members of the Ex-
ecutive Branch) to act is derived from statutes passed
by Congress, the President must act in accordance with,
and within the boundaries of, the authority that Con-
gress has granted. For the reasons discussed above, we
conclude that the President did not do so here and that
the Presidential Memorandum is an ultra vires violation
of Congress’s delegation of its constitutional responsi-
bility to count the whole number of persons in each State
and to apportion members of the House of Representa-
tives among the States according to their respective
numbers under 2 U.S.C. § 2a and 13 U.S.C. § 141. Ac-
cordingly, Plaintiffs’ motion for summary judgment with
respect to their statutory ultra vires claims is GRANTED,
Defendants(other than the President) are ENJOINED
as set forth above, and the Presidential Memorandum is
DECLARED unlawful. We need not and do not reach
the merits of Plaintiffs’ other claims and need not ad-
dress their request, in the alternative, fora preliminary
injunction. Finally, Defendants’ motion to dismiss for
 103a

lack of jurisdiction is DENIED and their motion to dis-

miss for failure to state a claim is DENIED as moot. 21
The Clerk of Court is directed to terminate ECF
Nos. 74 and 117 and to close this case. SO OR-
DERED.

21
We believe that this matter was properly heard by a three-judge
panel for the reasons set forth in Judge Furman’s request to then-
Chief Judge Katzmann for the appointment of such a panel. See
ECF No. 68. Nevertheless, mindful that the issue is not clear-cut
and that the Second Circuit has determined that it is jurisdictional,
see Kalson v. Paterson, 542 F.3d 281, 286-87 (2d Cir. 2008), we follow
the lead of prior three-judge panels by certifying that Judge Fur-
man, to whom these cases were originally assigned, individually ar-
rived at the same conclusions that we have reached collectively.
See Swift & Co. v. Wickham, 382 U.S. 111, 114 n.4 (1965) (noting with
approval that “[t]his procedure for minimizing prejudice to litigants
when the jurisdiction of a three-judge court is unclear has been used
before” (citing Query v. United States, 316 U.S. 486 (1942))); FAIR
v. Klutznick, 486 F. Supp. at 578 (three-judge court) (“District Judge
Gasch additionally certifies that he individually arrived at the same
conclusion that we collectively reached . . . out of abundant cau-
tion, so that in the event we are mistaken, an appeal can still be ex-
peditiously taken in the appropriate forum.” (internal quotation
marks and citation omitted)); cf. Massachusetts v. Mosbacher, 785
F. Supp. 230, 238 n.6 (D. Mass.) (three-judge court) (“Because the
author of this opinion is the single district judge to whom this case
was initially assigned, this opinion stands as certification that the
author has individually arrived at the conclusions expressed collec-
tively in the opinion and the judgment of this three-judge court.”),
rev’d on other grounds sub nom. Franklin v. Massachusetts, 505
U.S. 788 (1992).
 104a

Dated: Sept. 10, 2020

New York, New York

/s/
RICHARD C. WESLEY
United States Circuit Judge
/s/
PETER W. HALL
United States Circuit Judge
/s/
JESSE M. FURMAN
United States Circuit Judge
 105a

APPENDIX B

UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT

FOR THE SOUTHERN DISTRICT OF NEW YORK

20-CV-5770 (RCW) (PWH) (JMF)

STATE OF NEW YORK, ET AL., PLAINTIFFS
v.
DONALD J. TRUMP, IN HIS OFFICIAL CAPACITY AS
PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, ET AL.,
DEFENDANTS

20-CV-5770 (RCW) (PWH) (JMF)

(Consolidated)
NEW YORK IMMIGRATION COALITION, ET AL.
v.
DONALD J. TRUMP, IN HIS OFFICIAL CAPACITY AS
PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, ET AL.,
DEFENDANTS

Filed: Sept. 10, 2020

FINAL JUDGMENT AND PERMANENT INJUNCTION

Before: RICHARD C. WESLEY, United States Circuit

Judge, PETER W. HALL, United States Circuit Judge,
JESSE M. FURMAN, United States District Judge
Pursuant to the Court’s Opinion and Order of Sep-
tember 10, 2020, it is ORDERED, ADJUDGED, and
DECREED as follows:
 106a

FINAL JUDGMENT
Final judgment is entered for Plaintiffs and against
Defendants on Plaintiffs’ claims arising from an ultra
vires violation of 2 U.S.C. § 2a and 13 U.S.C. § 141
(namely, the Fifth Claim for Relief in the Governmental
Plaintiffs’ Amended Complaint and Count Two in the
NGO Plaintiffs’ Amended Complaint).
DECLARATION AND PERMANENT INJUNCTION
The July 21, 2020 Memorandum on Excluding Illegal
Aliens from the Apportionment Base Following the 2020
Census (the “Presidential Memorandum”), announcing
that it is the policy of the United States to exclude from
the apportionment base aliens who are not in a lawful
immigration status, is DECLARED unlawful as an ul-
tra vires violation of Congress’s delegation of authority
to conduct the decennial census and apportionment cal-
culation pursuant to 2 U.S.C. § 2a and 13 U.S.C. § 141.
The Secretary of Commerce in his official capacity,
the Director of the Census Bureau in his official capac-
ity, the U.S. Department of Commerce, and the U.S. Cen-
sus Bureau, and any successors to those offices, together
with their agents, servants, employees, attorneys, and
other persons who are in active concert or participation
with the foregoing, see Fed. R. Civ. P. 65(d)(2), are PER-
MANENTLY ENJOINED from including in the Secre-
tary’s report to the President pursuant to Section 141(b)
any information permitting the President to exercise the
President’s discretion to carry out the policy set forth in
section 2 of the Presidential Memorandum—that is, any
information concerning the number of aliens in each
State who are not in a lawful immigration status under
the Immigration and Nationality Act.
 107a

SO ORDERED.
Dated: Sept. 10, 2020
New York, New York

/s/
RICHARD C. WESLEY
United States Circuit Judge
/s/
PETER W. HALL
United States Circuit Judge
/s/
JESSE M. FURMAN
United States Circuit Judge
 108a

APPENDIX C

UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT

FOR THE SOUTHERN DISTRICT OF NEW YORK

20 Civ. 5770 (JMF)

STATE OF NEW YORK, ET AL., PLAINTIFFS
v.
DONALD J. TRUMP, IN HIS OFFICIAL CAPACITY AS
PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, ET AL.,
DEFENDANTS

20 Civ. 5781 (JMF)

NEW YORK IMMIGRATION COALITION, ET AL.,
PLAINTIFFS
v.
DONALD J. TRUMP, IN HIS OFFICIAL CAPACITY AS
PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, ET AL.,
DEFENDANTS

Filed: Sept. 18, 2020

NOTICE OF APPEAL

Notice is hereby given that all defendants in the

above-named cases hereby appeal to the Supreme Court
of the United States from the final judgment entered
on September 10, 2020. This appeal is taken under
28 U.S.C. § 1253.
 109a

Respectfully submitted,

JEFFERY BOSSERT CLARK

Acting Assistant Attorney General

AUDREY STRAUSS
Acting United States Attorney for the
Southern District of New York

ALEXANDER K. HAAS
Branch Director

DIANE KELLEHER
BRAD P. ROSENBERG
Assistant Branch Directors

/s/ DANIEL D. MAULER

DANIEL D. MAULER
(VA Bar No. 73190)
ELLIOTT M. DAVIS
(NY Reg. No. 4596755)
Trial Attorneys
U.S. Department of Justice
Civil Division, Federal Programs Branch
1100 L Street, NW
Washington, DC 20005
Phone: (202) 616-0773
Fax: (202) 616-8470
E-mail: [email protected]

Counsel for Defendants

 110a

APPENDIX D

UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT

FOR THE SOUTHERN DISTRICT OF NEW YORK

20-CV-5770(JMF), 20-2630
STATE OF NEW YORK, ET AL., PLAINTIFFS
v.
DONALD J. TRUMP, IN HIS OFFICIAL CAPACITY AS
PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, ET AL.,
DEFENDANTS

[Filed: Aug. 10, 2020]

DESIGNATION OF THREE-JUDGE PANEL

PURSUANT TO 28 U.S.C. § [2284](b)

ROBERT A. KATZMANN, Chief Circuit Judge:

Having received a request from United States Dis-
trict Judge Jesse M. Furman to appoint a three-judge
panel to hear the above-mentioned matter pursuant to
28 U.S.C. §2284(b)(1), I hereby designate United States
Circuit Judge Richard C. Wesley and United States Cir-
cuit Judge Peter W. Hall to serve as members of the
Court to hear and determine the action.
 111a

IT IS SO ORDERED.
10th day of Aug., 2020
New York, New York

/s/ ROBERT A. KATZMAN

Chief Circuit Judge
 112a

APPENDIX E

UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT

FOR THE SOUTHERN DISTRICT OF NEW YORK

20-CV-5770 (JMF)
STATE OF NEW YORK, ET AL., PLAINTIFFS
v.
DONALD J. TRUMP, IN HIS OFFICIAL CAPACITY AS
PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, ET AL.,
DEFENDANTS

Filed: Aug. 7, 2020

REQUEST TO THE CHIEF JUDGE OF THE U.S.

COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE SECOND CIRCUIT
FOR APPOINTMENT OF A THREE-JUDGE PANEL
PURSUANT TO 28 U.S.C. § 2248(b)

JESSE M. FURMAN, United States District Judge:

On July 21, 2020, President Donald J. Trump issued
a memorandum (the “Presidential Memorandum”) an-
nouncing that “it is the policy of the United States to
exclude from the apportionment base aliens who are not
in a lawful immigration status” and directing the Secre-
tary of Commerce to “take all appropriate action, con-
sistent with the Constitution and other applicable law,
to provide information permitting the President, to the
extent practicable, to exercise the President’s discretion
to carry out th[is] policy.” Excluding Illegal Aliens
 113a

From the Apportionment Base Following the 2020 Cen-

sus, 85 Fed. Reg. 44,679, 44,680 (July 23, 2020). Plain-
tiffs in these consolidated cases challenge the Presiden-
tial Memorandum on various constitutional and statu-
tory grounds. See ECF Nos. 34, 62. Among other
things, Plaintiffs in 20-CV-5781 (the “NYIC Plaintiffs”)
allege that the Presidential Memorandum violates 13
U.S.C. § 195, which provides that, “[e]xcept for the de-
termination of population for purposes of apportion-
ment of Representatives in Congress among the several
States, the Secretary shall, if he considers it feasible, au-
thorize the use of the statistical method known as ‘sam-
pling’ in carrying out the provisions of this title.” ECF
No. 62, ¶ 252 (emphasis in original) (quoting 13 U.S.C.
§ 195); see also id. ¶¶ 11, 16, 181, 251, 253-62.
On August 5, 2020, Plaintiffs filed a letter-motion re-
questing that this Court notify the Chief Judge of the
United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit
that a three-judge court should be designated to hear
these cases, pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 2284. See ECF
No. 58. Last night, Defendants filed a letter stating
that they “do not oppose” the request. ECF No. 65.
To the extent relevant here, Section 2284 mandates that
a “district court of three judges” be convened “when an
action is filed challenging the constitutionality of the
apportionment of congressional districts.” 28 U.S.C.
§ 2284(a). More specifically, it provides that, “[u]pon
the filing of a request for three judges, the judge to
whom the request is presented shall, unless he deter-
mines that three judges are not required, immediately
notify the chief judge of the circuit.” Id. § 2284(b)(1).
The Second Circuit has held that Section 2284 is juris-
dictional. See, e.g., Kalson v. Paterson, 542 F.3d 281,
286-87 (2d Cir. 2008).
 114a

Plaintiffs’ request is GRANTED, substantially for

the two reasons set forth in their letter-motion. First,
although a challenge to the conduct of the decennial cen-
sus alone does not necessarily fall within the statute’s
scope, even where it may have an effect on apportion-
ment, see, e.g., Fed’n for Am. Immigration Reform
(FAIR) v. Klutznick, 486 F. Supp. 564, 577 (D.D.C.
1980), the Presidential Memorandum does not purport
to change the conduct of the census itself. Instead, it
relates the calculation of the apportionment base used
to determine the number of representatives to which
each state is entitled. To the extent that Plaintiffs
challenge the constitutionality of the Presidential Mem-
orandum, therefore, it would seem that they are chal-
lenging “the constitutionality of the apportionment of
congressional districts.” 28 U.S.C. § 2284(a); see
Massachusetts v. Mosbacher, 785 F. Supp. 230, 234-38
(D. Mass.) (distinguishing, for purposes of three-judge
requirement, between challenges to “precursors to the
ultimate apportionment decisions” and “direct chal-
lenge[s] to apportionment itself”), rev’d on other grounds
sub nom. Franklin v. Massachusetts, 505 U.S. 788 (1992);
FAIR, 486 F. Supp. at 577-78 (explaining the three-
judge requirement was intended to cover cases that “di-
rectly affect state reapportionment”). At a minimum,
the issue is close, and the Court cannot definitively con-
clude that “three judges are not required,” which is
enough to trigger the notification requirement. 28
U.S.C. § 2284(b)(1) (emphasis added).
Second, and in any event, the NYIC Plaintiffs allege
a violation of 13 U.S.C. § 195 on the ground that the
Presidential Memorandum requires “the use of the sta-
tistical method known as ‘sampling’ ” in connection with
 115a

“the determination of population for purposes of appor-

tionment of Representatives in Congress among the
several States.” 13 U.S.C. § 195; see ECF No. 62,
¶¶ 11, 16, 181, 251-62. Congress has provided a private
right of action to enforce that provision and has dictated
that any action brought under the provision “shall be
heard and determined by a district court of three judges
in accordance with section 2284 of title 28, United States
Code.” Departments of Commerce, Justice, and State,
The Judiciary, and Related Agencies Appropriations
Act, 1998, Pub. L. No. 105-119, §§ 209(b), (e)(1), 111 Stat.
2440, 2481-82 (1997) (“1998 Appropriations Act”) (codi-
fied at 13 U.S.C. § 141 note). The 1998 Appropriations
Act further provides that “[i]t shall be the duty of a
United States district court hearing an action brought
under this section . . . to advance on the docket and
to expedite to the greatest possible extent the disposi-
tion of any such matter.” Id. § 209(e)(2), 111 Stat. at
2482 (codified at 13 U.S.C. § 141 note).
Accordingly, and substantially for the reasons set
forth in Plaintiffs’ letter-motion, the Court respectfully
requests that the Chief Judge of the United States
Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit promptly ap-
point a three-judge panel to preside over the claims pre-
sented by this litigation. Should the Chief Judge of the
Second Circuit need any additional information or have
any inquiries, this Court is available at any time.
 116a

RESPECTFULLY SUBMITTED.

Dated: Aug. 7, 2020

New York, New York

/s/ JESSE M. FURMAN

JESSE M. FURMAN
United States Circuit Judge
 117a

APPENDIX F

1. U.S. Const. Art. I, § 2 provides:

The House of Representatives shall be composed of
Members chosen every second Year by the People of the
several States, and the Electors in each State shall have
the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most nu-
merous Branch of the State Legislature.
No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have
attained to the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven
Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not,
when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he
shall be chosen.
Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned
among the several States which may be included within
this Union, according to their respective Numbers,
which shall be determined by adding to the whole Num-
ber of free Persons, including those bound to Service for
a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three
fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration
shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting
of the Congress of the United States, and within every
subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they
shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives
shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each
State shall have at Least one Representative; and until
such enumeration shall be made, the State of New
Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachu-
setts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations
one, Connecticut five, New-York six, New Jersey four,
 118a

Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Vir-

ginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and
Georgia three.
When vacancies happen in the Representation from any
State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs
of Election to fill such Vacancies.
The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker
and other Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Im-
peachment.

2. U.S. Const. Art. II, § 2, cl. 2-3 provides:

He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Con-
sent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two
thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nom-
inate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the
Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Minis-
ters and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all
other Officers of the United States, whose Appoint-
ments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which
shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by
Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as
they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts
of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.
The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies
that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by
granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of
their next Session.
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3. U.S. Const. Amend. XIV, § 2 provides:

Representatives shall be apportioned among the several
States according to their respective numbers, counting
the whole number of persons in each State, excluding
Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any
election for the choice of electors for President and Vice
President of the United States, Representatives in Con-
gress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or
the member of the Legislative thereof, is denied to any
of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one
years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any
way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or
other rime, the basis of representation therein shall be
reduced in the proportion which the number of such
male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male cit-
izens twenty-one years of age in such State.

4. 2 U.S.C. 2a provides:
Reapportionment of Representatives; time and manner;
existing decennial census figures as basis; statement by
President; duty of clerk
(a) On the first day, or within one week thereafter,
of the first regular session of the Eighty-second Con-
gress and of each fifth Congress thereafter, the Presi-
dent shall transmit to the Congress a statement showing
the whole number of persons in each State, excluding
Indians not taxed, as ascertained under the seventeenth
and each subsequent decennial census of the population,
and the number of Representatives to which each State
would be entitled under an apportionment of the then
existing number of Representatives by the method
 120a

known as the method of equal proportions, no State to

receive less than one Member.
(b) Each State shall be entitled, in the Eighty-third
Congress and in each Congress thereafter until the tak-
ing effect of a reapportionment under this section or
subsequent statute, to the number of Representatives
shown in the statement required by subsection (a) of this
section, no State to receive less than one Member. It
shall be the duty of the Clerk of the House of Represent-
atives, within fifteen calendar days after the receipt of
such statement, to send to the executive of each State a
certificate of the number of Representatives to which
such State is entitled under this section. In case of a
vacancy in the office of Clerk, or of his absence or ina-
bility to discharge this duty, then such duty shall de-
volve upon the Sergeant at Arms of the House of Repre-
sentatives.
(c) Until a State is redistricted in the manner pro-
vided by the law thereof after any apportionment, the
Representatives to which such State is entitled under
such apportionment shall be elected in the following
manner: (1) If there is no change in the number of
Representatives, they shall be elected from the districts
then prescribed by the law of such State, and if any of
them are elected from the State at large they shall con-
tinue to be so elected; (2) if there is an increase in the
number of Representatives, such additional Repre-
sentative or Representatives shall be elected from the
State at large and the other Representatives from the
districts then prescribed by the law of such State; (3) if
there is a decrease in the number of Representatives but
the number of districts in such State is equal to such de-
 121a

creased number of Representatives, they shall be elec-

ted from the districts then prescribed by the law of such
State; (4) if there is a decrease in the number of Repre-
sentatives but the number of districts in such State is
less than such number of Representatives, the number
of Representatives by which such number of districts is
exceeded shall be elected from the State at large and the
other Representatives from the districts then pre-
scribed by the law of such State; or (5) if there is a de-
crease in the number of Representatives and the num-
ber of districts in such State exceeds such decreased
number of Representatives, they shall be elected from
the State at large.

5. 13 U.S.C. 141(a)-(b) provides:

Population and other census information
(a) The Secretary shall, in the year 1980 and every
10 years thereafter, take a decennial census of popula-
tion as of the first day of April of such year, which date
shall be known as the “decennial census date”, in such
form and content as he may determine, including the use
of sampling procedures and special surveys. In con-
nection with any such census, the Secretary is author-
ized to obtain such other census information as neces-
sary.
(b) The tabulation of total population by States un-
der subsection (a) of this section as required for the ap-
portionment of Representatives in Congress among the
several States shall be completed within 9 months after
the census date and reported by the Secretary to the
President of the United States.