Old Class 9-10 General Science English PDF

Prescribed as a Textbook for classes IX & X from the 1997 Session
by the National Curriculum and Textbook Board
Secondary General Science

For classes IX & X
Authors of the Bangla Text

Dr. Md. Anwarul Haque
M. Shafiullah
Md. Nazim Uddin
Dr. Satyabrata Roy
Dr. Kshanada Mohon Das
Translated by:
Prof. Md. Tofazal Hossain Sarker
M. Rafiqul Islam
Dr. Md. Shafiqur Rahman
Prof. Sunit Kumar Bhadra
Prof. Jahan Ara Begum
National Curriculum and Textbook Board, Dhaka.

Published by
The National Curriculum & Textbook Board
69-70, Motijheel commercial Area, Dhaka
[All rights reserved by the Publisher]
Frist Print : 1997

Revised Edition : 2007
Revised Edition : December 2010
Revised Edition :
Computer Typest
Perform Color Graphics (Pvt.) Ltd
Cover
Md. Abdul Halim
Design
NCTB, Dhaka.
For free distribution from academic year 2010 by the Government of Bangladesh
Printed by :
Preface
Education is the key to development. A progressively improved education system largely
determines the pace and the quality or national development. To reflect the hopes and
aspirations of the people and the socio-economic and cultural reality in the context of the post
independent Bangladesh, new textbooks were introduced in the beginning of the 1980s
folIowing the recommendations of the National Curriculum and Textbook Committee.
In 1994, in accordance with the need for change and development, the textbooks of lower
secondary, secondary and higher secondary were revised and modified. The textbooks from
classes-VI to IX were written in 1995. In 2000, almost all the textbooks were rationally
evaluated and necessary revision were made. In 2008 the Ministry or Education formed a Task
Force for Education. According to the advice and guidance of the Task Force, the cover,
spelling and information in the textbooks were updated and corrected.
To make assessment more meaningful and in accordance with the need of the curriculum,
Creative Questions and Multiple Choice Questions are given at the end of each chapter. It is
hoped that this will reduce the dependency of students on rote memorisation. The students will
be able to apply the knowledge they have gained to judge, analyse and evaluate real life situation.
Progress of civilisation depends on the progress of science. Our daily life is closely
dependent on science. Important topics of science has been indanded in this book. It is hoped
that students of Humanities and Business Studies can gain knowledge about the popular and
life related subjects of science from study of this book.
This book of General Science for classes IX & X is the english version of the original
textbook entitled 'Shadharan Biggan' written in Bangla.
We know that curricalum development is a continuous process on which textbooks are
writeen. Any logical and formative suggestions for improvement will be considered with
care. On the event of the golden jubilee of the Independence of Bangladesh in 2021, we want
to be a part of the ceaseless effort to build a prosperous Bangladesh.
In spite of sincere efforts in translation, editing and printing, inadvertent errors and omissions
may be found in the book. However our efforts to make it more refined and impeccable will
continue. Any constructive suggestion towards its further improvement will be gratefully
considered.
I thank those who have assisted us with their intellect and efforts in the writing, editing and
rational evaluation of this book. We hope that the book will be useful for the students for
whom it is written.
Prof. Md. Mostafa Kamaluddin

Chairman
National Curriculum and Textbook Board
Dhaka.
Contents
Chapter Subject Page

Chapter 1 The World of Science 1
Chapter 2 Population and Environment 9
Chapter 3 Nutrition, Food and Food Habit 29
Chapter 4 Minerals 43
Chapter 5 House Building Materials 52
Chapter 6 Energy 66
Chapter 7 Fuel 71
Chapter 8 Cellular Structure of an Organism 82
Chapter 9 Diversities in plants 93
Chapter 10 Plant Physiology 106
Chapter 11 Diversity of Animals 146
Chapter 12 Variegation of Human Body 166
Chapter 13 Sound 202
Chapter 14 Electricity and Its Use in House 209
Chapter 15 News Communication 226
Chapter 16 Cleaning Materials 238
Chapter 17 Cosmetics 245
Chapter 18 Fibres and Fabrics 257
Chapter19 Colouring Materials 269
Chapter 20 Ecology 273
Chapter 21 Disaster Management and Bangladesh 288
Chapter One
The World of Science
Science has contributed immensely to human civilization. With the help of science we
have obtained colossal knowledge about the universe and great power to control the
environment. Science and technology have enabled us to provide plenty of food,
housing and long healthy life to all.
Science has given us new things, information about source of energy, and has set up
quickest communication and transportation. Scientific inventions and technological
innovations have been changing man's lifestyle and outlook everyday.
Some wonderful inventions of modern science and technology are- satellite, space
craft, artificial heart transplantation, gene technology, transistor & computer; atomic
energy and use of solar energy.
Science and Scientist
The term science implies organized knowledge obtained from the observation of the
animals and materials around us. This specialized information has been enriching
human knowledge. In fact, knowledge of the unknown universe is science.
Many of us observe the diversity of events which occur around and in our
environment. But there are some people who do not give up their enquiry after
observing it, but seek to find out an answer why and how the events occur or try to
reveal the mystery of the universe through regular process of experiments. Dedicated,
inquisitive and creative men who always work for the welfare of mankind are called
scientists. Generosity, modesty, firmness in the search for truth, creativity, tolerance
and above all philanthropy are the characteristics of a scientist. Their contribution to
the service of mankind cannot be denied. Innumerable people of the world are
indebted to the scientists. So, they deserve respect of all.
Scientific Method of Working
The scientific working procedure is the process which the scientists use to solve a
problem. With this procedure the subtle mathematical arguments, elaborate analysis,
invention of machines, controlled observation, creation of theories etc. complicated
actions are related. Scientists follow these steps as specialists. Side by side we also
notice that a common man also follows the scientific working procedure. As for
example, an innovative farmer may be called a scientist. In order to grow 'Boro' rice a
farmer may face some problems. He can realize that all the problems cannot be solved
at a time. He earmarks one problem and begins to work in order to solve it. His
2 Secondary General Science
earmarked first problem is how to increase production. Identification of a problem

before starting work is called fixation of problem. First of all two questions arise in
the mind of the farmer-
- Does the yielding of paddy increase by applying chemical fertilizer ?
- Does the yielding increase if more fertilizer is used ?
In order to seek a solution of these problems, the farmer goes to visit an exhibition of an
agricultural farm. There he finds that the application of fertilizer on the land increases
the yielding of paddy. He comes to know more about this after talking with some
experienced farmers. This way to procure information is called 'collection of data'.
By analysing the collected data, the farmer learns :
- that production increases when chemical fertilizer is used.
- that production is more if much fertilizer is used.
Arriving at a decision by analysing the collected data is called hypothesis.
The farmer plans an experiment in order to verify the truth of his hypothesis. First he
selects three pieces of land of the same kind and same measurement. He makes them
ready for cultivation in the same way. He sows paddy seeds in each piece of land at the
same time. He reaps crops at the same time giving same nursing to three pieces of land.
After experiment he gets the following result :
By using one bag of fertilizer in the first piece of land, the farmer gets a great quantity
of paddy.
By using half a bag of fertilizer he gets almost the same quantity of paddy.
In the third piece of land he did not use any fertilizer. He gets much less quantity of paddy.
From this experiment he realizes that-
Production increases with chemical fertilizer. So, his first hypothesis is correct. His
hypothesis that more fertilizer gives more production is not correct. Fixed quantity of
fertilizer should be used in a land of definite size.
The experiment on the third piece of land without using fertilizer is called controlled
experiment. Here the farmer cultivated the land without using fertilizer in order to
compare the experimental results. He takes the final decision on the basis of the data
received from his experiments. Thus he may take or reject or modify his hypothesis.
Thus the enthusiastic farmer has followed a scientific procedure. He now understands
how much fertilizer is needed to grow 'boro' in a particular piece of land in a
particular season. We may call this farmer a scientist.
The World of Science 3
The farmer first identifies his problem and has arrived at a solution through a
successful process. To arrive at a fixed decision a scientist has to identify a problem,
make a hypothesis, perform the experiment, analyse the result.
This special attitude and the system which the scientists follow and proceed in their
way to discovery is called scientific working procedure.
Importance of the Culture of Science
Development and progress of science are indispensable for mankind. Food, clothing,
housing, medicine, education, agriculture, industry, transportation, communication,
exchange of information, management of information, procurement of natural
resources and their preservation, space-research etc.-in all these areas, culture of
science is essential. Nature has come under human control as a result of continuous
success of science in all these fields. New successes of science has to be brought
about in order to protect the huge population and to face the unknown future. Some
examples of scientific success of the last few centuries are presented below.
During the middle of the 18th century in England new mills and factories were
established with the help of steam engine and various kinds of machine. This era is
called the age of industrial revolution. With advanced transport system goods can be
distributed easily. As a result, demand for the goods and their sale increased. Scientific
inventions were accelerated. Thus, in physics atomic theory, quantum theory and
theory of relativity emerged.
Immense advancement in air travel, space travel, atomic energy, electronics has
opened a new horizon for human civilization. Man has set up artificial satellites in the
space in order to acquire various knowledge about space. As a result man has set foot
on the moon's surface and rockets move from the planet to planet.
Again artificial satellites have made remarkable contribution to weather forecasting
and easy communication.
Use of electronic equipments and computers have made human life easy, beautiful and
enjoyable. Advancement of medical science in the treatment of patients, invention of
penicillin, improvement of current medicine to destroy insects, fungus, production of
medicines for procreation of plants and animals, use of microbes for preparing preventive
medicine, application of new technique in food-processing are all gifts of science.
With the help of science mechanical plough or tractor, pump for irrigation, spraymachine
for spraying medicine to kill harmful insects, insecticides have been invented.
Biochemistry and cell theory have been making efforts to overcome and cure cancer
on the basis of knowledge of the chemical action and structure of a cell. Gene theory
related to generation of species has been developed. It is now possible to produce high
quality and quantity of jute and paddy.
Improvement of crop and livestock depends on initial selection of crops and animals of
advanced variety and bringing about generation expansion. As a result knowledge of
good food and maintenance of health have improved and life expectancy has increased.
Livestock has improved through cross-breeding of local and non-local cows which
can adjust under unfavorable circumstances.
Hence, learners have to be made curious about material and animal world. In order to
improve science, to maintain balance of nature, to grow more crops, to maintain a
long healthy life, to make human life happier, the young generation should devote
more and more to the culture of science.
Science and Technology for the Development of Civilization
The use of science in some form or other began at the early stage of civilization.
Various inventions of science took place; some out of necessity, some out of curiosity
and often accidentally. In the primitive age man used to eat uncooked meat and was
ignorant about the use of cloth. In course of time fire was discovered and he learnt to
eat cooked food. In the absence of cloth he used to wear leaves and bark of trees. Use
of stone and metal like iron etc. began in later stage. When he learnt to make weapon
by sharpening blunt stone, the technological era began. The words 'science' and
'technology' are used widely now-a-days and they are the key to development of any
country and any nation. But what is the difference between science and technology?
The scientists investigate and make research about various objects and incidents of
nature- as a physicist, a chemist, a botanist, a zoologist does. On the other hand a
technologist uses the discovery of science for human welfare, as a doctor, or an
engineer or a weather scientist does. A doctor treats a patient with the help of
knowledge, medicine, equipment etc. discovered by science. Still question arises, do
science and technology contribute only to the welfare of mankind ? In answer to this
question it can be said that science and technology create new problems along with
doing human welfare. Yet, most of the problems involving science and technology
were created due to their misapplications, most of which can be avoided by their
proper use.
Due to development of medical science man is getting rid of many diseases. In some
countries, the food production is not increasing at par with the increase of population.
As a result they are facing food shortage and their standard of living is not improving.
We must remember that due to inappropriate application of technology, environment
is being polluted and wastage of wealth and energy is taking place. Under the
circumstances, we have to tackle these problems through proper application of science
and technology so that they may not crop up again.
Branches of Science
It has become possible to get solutions of many problems of matter and animal
through experiments, observation and research. The periphery of man's knowledge has
extended a lot. So for the sake of convenience of searching knowledge, science has
been arranged in different branches. Among them, two main branches are physical
science and biological science. In physical science, properties of matter, influence of
energy on matter and their interaction are discussed. All the experiments, observations
and researches of matter and energy are included in this branch. Two fundamental
branches of physical science are physics and chemistry. In fact, various successes
achieved in different branches of physical science are playing key role in the
development and growth of other branches of science. One of the important branches
of science is biological science. This is the oldest branch of natural science. Plant and
animal are the main topics of discussion of biology. Man has to know about plant and
animal first for the sake of living in this world. This primary knowledge is the main
objective for studying biology. Structure of all animals including man and plant, their
working principle, adaptation, evolution, genetics etc. are discussed in biology. For
the convenience of acquiring knowledge it has been divided into two fundamental
branches-Botany and Zoology. Classification of science is shown below:
The world of Science
Physical Science Biological Science
Physics Chemistry Botany Zoology
Interrelation Among Different Branches of Science

The way science was divided into different branches in older time is valid still now.
But when scientists in modern age carry on research work on any subject, they
seldom abide by this division. When a cytologist carries research on cell he applies
advanced biochemical technique. When physics and biology are studied together, it is
possible to have better knowledge of life force, movement of life and its propagation.
Again, it becomes possible to solve many complex problems of biology with the help
of mathematics.
To search knowledge, one branch of science accepts and applies technological skill from
one or more branches of science. Even the scientists engaged in research work about the
different aspects of the same subject, work together to achieve a common goal.
Measuring Instrument
It is of extreme necessity that the measurements of science should be correct and
accurate. It is not sufficient to know the presence of a substance by instruments, its
quantity should be known definitely in most of the cases. This man is very tall, water
of this bucket is very hot, the train is running fast, the paddy seedlings are not growing
rapidly, this stone is very heavy, such superficial knowledge is not useful to scientists.
So various measuring instruments have been made to determine the distance, weight,
time, temperature etc. Scale, balance, clock, ammeter, voltmeter etc. are examples of
measuring instruments.
System and Unit of Measurements
To measure something, the quantity to be measured such as length, mass are to be
compared with some standard quantity. This standard length is the unit of length, and
standard mass is the unit of mass. Among the various kinds, quantities with which the
scientists mainly work are length, mass and time. To measure these quantities
scientists use mainly metric system. The chief advantage of metric system is that all
calculation can be made in decimal. For this, the system is being used today even for
general work in most of the countries. For measurement in metric system two types of
unit-metre-killogram-second (M.K.S) and centimetre-gram-second (C.G.S) are used.
M.K.S system has been taken internationally as the measuring system for all kinds of
quantities and is called S.I or system international.
Length : The unit of length in S.I is metre. The distance between two fixed points on
rod made of alloy of platinum and irridium (90:10) at a temperature of 273 Kelvin
i.e.at zero degree celcius kept in the office of the "International Bureau of Weight and
Measures" in Paris, capital of France is called metre. One hundredth part of a metre is
called one centimetre (cm). One thousandth part of a metre is celled one millimetre
(mm). Again a killo means thousand times; so one killometre indicates one thousand
metres and 1 mile is nearly equal to 1.61 killometres. Say, a rod is 2.5 metre long;
This means that this rod is two and a half times longer than unit of length, 1 metre.
Mass : The unit of mass in S.I. is killogram. The mass of a solid cylinder made of
alloy of platinum and irridium preserved in the office of "International bureau of
weight and measures" in Paris city of France is considered as standard of mass unit.
General people call it one killo or one kg. One thousandth part of one killogram is
called one gram (g). One hundred killograms make one quintal and one thousand
killograms is equal to one metric ton. Say, a thing weighs 100 kg, this means its mass
is 100 times greater than the unit mass, one killogram.
Time : The S.I. unit of time is second. 60 seconds make a minute and 60 minutes
make an hour and 24 hours are equal to one day. This system of measuring time was
devised in ancient Babylon.
Volume : In metric system, volume is measured in cubic metre. A body of one metre
long, one metre wide and one metre height has volume of one cubic metre; it is also
written as (metre)3. Sometimes cubic centimetre (i.e. l cm long, l cm wide, l cm height)
is used as unit of volume and is written as (centimetre)3 or (cm)3. The volume of a
liquid is usually expressed in litre. One litre is equal to 1000 cubic centimetre,
commonly called 1000 cc.
Exercise
Multiple Choice Questions

1. Of the following which is the unit of MKS system?
(a) Kilogram
(b) Gram
(c) Centimetre
(d) Millimetre
2. The more closely related branches of science are
(i) electronics, biochemistry and cytology.
(ii) Breeding, horticulture, Grape cultivation.
(iii) microbiology, optical science, quantum theory.
Which one is correct ?
(a) i (b) i and ii
(c) ii (d) ii and iii
3.
cm
What is the distance (in millimetre) between point A and point B.

(a) 55.50 (b) 55.00
(b) 52.50 (d) 50.00
4. Of the following procedures, which will you select in case of research works by
scientific method ?
(a) Identification of problem hypothesis experimentation and result
Data collection Conclusion.
(b) Identification of problem experimentation and result hypothesis
Data collection Conclusion.
(c) Identification of problem Data collection hypothesis
experimentation and result Conclusion.
(d) Identification of problem hypothesis Data collection
experimentation and result Conclusion.
Creative Questions
By the grace of science and technology, we have achieved the present civilization.
With the new inventions by the scientists and technologists and as a result of their
applications in human welfare the world is rapidly changing and the unimaginable
mystery of creation is being unveiled.
(a) What is science ?
(b) Write two (points of) differences between a scientist and a technologist.
(c) Describe how a physician uses the discovery of science for the benefit of the
mankind.
(d) 'The use of science and technology for the development of civilization is
essential for us' - Analyse.
Chapter Two
Population and Environment
Impact of population increase on natural environment:

Many problems are arising recently as a result of rapid population growth of the
world. The adverse effect of population increase is causing a great loss of natural
environment including the social environment. As a result in some cases the normal
living of plants and animals is hampered and in some cases being threatened.
The population growth has direct detrimental effect on the following areas of natural
environment:
(a) Effect on soil, air, plants and water
(b) Effect of population increase on natural cycles
(c) Green house effect
(d) Incurable diseases and
(e) Effect on awareness of environment conservation
The description and discussion on how population growth affects the above
subjects are presented below:
(a) Effect of population growth on soil, air, plants and water
1. Soil
Soil is the vast natural purifier of the world. Its special feature is that it clears the
abandoned decaying matters and transforms them into soil but if in some places the
quantity of such decaying matter exceeds the purifying power of soil then soil cannot
completely purify them. Such situation arises in some areas if dense population grows
due to lack of space. The soil is polluted by the accumulation of waste matter which
is not well purified in the soil and causes pollution of surrounding air and water.
2. Impact of population growth on air:
The impact of rapid population growth on the atmosphere has been increasing day by
day. We get necessary oxygen from the atmosphere for our breathing but for the
additional population huge amount of atmospheric oxygen is consumed by the fuel of
additional vehicles and industries. At the same time huge amount of carbon dioxide is
added to the atmosphere. From a study, it is found that to produce in a day the
quantity of oxygen consumed in burning one gallon of petrol, ten trees are required.
You have read earlier that plants release oxygen in the air during their food
manufacture by the process of photosynthesis.
3. Impact of population growth on plants:

We have to increase cultivable land to fulfill the enormous demand of food by the
increasing population. For the preparation of their houses and furniture and supply of
fuel, we have to collect wood. For this reason, today forests are destroyed on a large
scale. It is estimated that during the last 40 years about 40 percent of the forests have
been destroyed in the temperate zone of the world. As a result of destruction of trees,
there is absence of rainfall and drought occurs in different places of the world. Do you
know what the value of a plant is ? No, it is not two or three hundred taka. It is found
from a survey in 1987 that if the useful services a tree rendered for man immediately
before cutting down are converted into wealth, its value would be two lac taka. That
means, to cause rainfall, to save the environment from pollution, to protect from
drought, storm, soil erosion etc the contribution of a tree is worth two lac taka. Yet we
destroy such precious plants due to rapid population growth.
4. Impact of population growth on water:
The increased population has affected the aquatic ecosystem, which is constituted by
rivers, canals, pools and seas. The quantity of world's stored water is 141 billion cubic
litres, but only 2% of it is fresh water. Again 87 per cent of this fresh water is in the
form of ice glacier, underground water, soil moisture and in different forms in the
atmosphere. Only 2000 cubic kilometre of water is for use of human beings. But the
demand of fresh water has increased due to rapid growth of population in the world.
For fulfilling the demand of food supply of increased population, in many regions of
the world the demand of water for irrigation has increased very quickly. As a result of
industrialization the demand for use of water in industries has also increased. As a
result, the scarcity of fresh water increases, which again increases the process of
pollution. Water is being polluted continually due to solid and liquid domestic and
industrial wastes. In this subcontinent the polluted water of the Ganges is spreading
epidemic diseases in one hand, and on the other hand the soluble wastes increase the
boiling point of water and reduce evaporation. As a result rainfall becomes less.
(B). Impact of population growth on the natural Cycles:
From the very beginning of the creation there is a good reciprocal exchange relationship
between living and non-livings things. All the matters for living organisms such as
plants and animals are coming from physical environment of the non-living world.
These exchange occurs through natural cycles of some materials. These cycles occur in
nature spontaneously. Some of these important natural cycles are:
1. Carbon cycle
2. Nitrogen cycle
3. Water cycle
Population and Environment 11
The balance of these cycles are severely disturbed due to the rapid growth of
population. As a result the environment of the world is also being damaged alarmingly.
1. Carbon cycle
The basic element of life is protoplasm. Its most essential element is carbon. Three
principal sources of carbon are-atmosphere, carbonate rocks on the earth's surface and
coal and petroleum. From these sources carbon comes to the living world through
various chemical processes. Then the (Atmosphere)
Bu
carbon compounds are oxidized by air rni
ng
through the process of respiration in s i s CO2 eru & Vo
e pti lca
th
Ch
on nic
yn
e
the living body and producing s n g
mi
t o r n i
o , bu
ca
Ph
Bio-chemical reaction
tion eccay combi
l
necessary energy for living beings, p i r a d
nation
s ,
Re death
Respiration
release carbon in the form of carbon Coal,
Oil and
dioxide into the air. Again due to Plants Death and decay Carbonate
burning of coal, petroleum and natural
y
gas for various purposes, carbon
ca
de
a nd
dioxide is produced which again D e at
h
Animals
returns into the air. This cyclic
process of carbon transformation is
Fig: Carbon Cycle
called the carbon cycle.
Impact of population growth on carbon cycle:
Pure air is essential for our survival. Pure air generally contains 0.03 per cent of
carbon dioxide. Up to 3 percent of carbon dioxide in the air is not harmful but
carbon dioxide above this percent creates problem for breathing for man and if the
quantity of carbon dioxide exceeds 25 percent in the air, not to speak of man, no
animal can survive. Where this situation prevails, every moment carbon dioxide is
increasing in the atmosphere. In addition to this carbon dioxide is also released from
the air. At present 600 crores of people live in this world. From this calculation,
every day 120 crore pounds of carbon dioxide is added to the air and with the
growth of population of the world the quantity of carbon dioxide is also increasing
day by day in an alarming rate. Again every year 1500 crore tons of carbon dioxide
is mixed in the air as a result of burning of coal, petroleum and natural gas in
houses, industries and vehicles. Thus day by day the density level of carbon dioxide
is increasing in the atmosphere.
Generally the amount of carbon dioxide added in the air is again taken by green plants
for photosynthesis. By this process the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
should be balanced, but to fulfill the demands of the additional population the trees
are cut down. As a result the rate of removal of carbon dioxide is decreased and as
such the density level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increasing day by day. Its
effect is very fatal because carbon dioxide absorbs the harmful sun rays when they are
radiated back from earth. As a result, the temperature of atmosphere increases.
According to an estimate by the scientists, atmospheric carbon dioxide has increased
from 283 p.p.m (parts per million) to 330 p. p.m during the past 100 years from 1860 to
1960, as a result of population growth of the world. This enhances the world's average
temperature by 1.8 oC. The world population has been doubled during the last 40 years
and as such the rate of increase of temperature has reached a more alarming stage.
According to the scientists, as a result the ice of the polar region will be melted and
will increase the level of water of the sea. If the temperature increases at such a rate, it
is estimated that the ice-berg of Antarctica will be melted in future and as a result vast
portion of the earth will be submerged under water.
2. Nitrogen cycle: Nitrogen
(Atmosphere)
Nitrogenous compound protein is De
essential for nutrition of plants and cid N2 ath
r i ca ) Denitr and
Ni t ing ifyi dec
g htn ng ay
animals. Basic element of protein is (L i be
cte
Death and decay
nitrogen and the main source of
ria
Symbiotc
Death and decay

nitrogen is air. The nitrogen of the air is Soil Animal
Nit
transferred into plants and animal (Ni ric ac
trif id
Ni
Ab
yin
tri
bodies through various processes. The g

so
fy
rp
ing
tio
nitrogen again returns to the atmosphere becter

of ia)
n
nit otein
rat plant le Pr
after the death and decay of plants and e etab
Veg
animals. In this way the balance of
Fig: Nitrogen cycle
nitrogen is maintained in nature.
Impact of rapid population growth on Nitrogen cycle:
The food production is to be increased due to enormous population growth. Throughout
the world for this the use of nitrogenous fertilizer is also increasing. During the decade
of eighties only the production of this fertilizer has been increased by 100 per cent.
This fertilizer is distributed in nature in various ways. Afterwards it is decomposed to
nitric oxide and returns to the air. This nitric oxide destroys the ozone layer of the
atmosphere. This permits the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun enter into the earth. As
a result of this a type of skin cancer may increase, may reduce the disease resistance of
the body and may develop cataract which ultimately turns into blindness.
3. Water cycle:
Clou
ds d
n an l
Raiow fal
Life prosesses sn
Plants
Animals
Evaporation
Rain and
snow fall
Water above ground

Under ground water
Fig: Nitrogen cycle
No life can exist without water. Water is essential not only for the formation of living body
or for digestive processes but also has great influence on weather and climate. The water of
the vast hydrosphere of the world, the oceans, seas, rivers and other water bodies turns into
vapour continuously by the heat of the sun, which reaches the atmosphere. This water
vapour becomes cold, condensed and again returns to the earths' surface as rain or snow-
fall.
Impact of population growth on water cycle:
The influence of water on environment is unlimited. Water is directly controlling the
climate. Excess of rainfall occurs when the atmospheric humidity increases. As such
environment becomes cool and allows good agriculture and helps in the creation of forests
and reduces the outbreak of diseases in human habitation.
We know that a large quantity of water which the plants take is released into the atmosphere
which increases the humidity of air. Due to this excess of rain-fall occurs in forest regions
or plant dominated areas. Besides, these plants keep the environment cool by releasing
oxygen and absorbing temperature increasing carbon dioxide through the process of
respiration. As a result the water vapour from oceans and seas becomes cold and condensed
and causes rain.
The water cycle is very active due to the plants but the plants are being cut down on a large
scale for increasing cultivable land and for urbanization facilities of the excessive growing
population. For this atmospheric humidity is reduced causing less rains. Some of the
spontaneously active natural cycles discussed here, such as carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle and
water cycle, are affected due to excessive growth of population throughout the world. It can
be said more accurately that, due to growing population and consequent urbanization and
destruction of plants, human race has reached the verge of ruin. So in order to keep the
universe suitable for living, we have to resist the high rate of population growth urgently.
Simultaneously refraining from cutting down trees and taking afforestation programme in a
planned way may possibly save the living world from destruction.
Green House
Many of you may know what green house is. Green house is a house made of glass.
This house is used for planting trees in it. In cold countries many plants die due to
severe cold. To save and grow necessary plants in severe cold green house is built.
You know that glass is non-conductor of heat. Heat cannot pass through glass easily
but light can pass through glass very
easily. As the walls and the roof of
green house are made of glass, light
ray can easily enter the house through
the glass. As a result the plants can
easily grow inside the green house.
On the other hand, outside cold
cannot enter into it or the heat inside
the house cannot come out. As a
result inner side of a green house
Fig: Green house
remains hot.
Greenhouse effect:
You know that sunlight and heat keep the earth hot. This light and heat come
through the atmosphere and warm up the earth's surface. Again it re-radiates some of
this heat back into space. For this the earth is not heated too much. Surrounding
atmosphere of the earth absorbs some heat and as such the earth can not be very cold
by radiating heat.
If the quantity of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere is increased, the ace
s urf
th
situation will not remain like this. At Ear
the time of radiation of earth's heat
much quantity of it is absorbed by
the atmospheric carbon dioxide. As a
Refracted heat
result of increase in atmospheric
temperature, the heat of the earth
also increases. The inner heat of the
Fig: Refracted heat from earth to space
green house can not
come out through the glass and it remains hot. Similarly earth's heat can not pass
through the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere. As a result the earth becomes warmer.
In harmony with green house the

scientists call this natural
phenomenon greenhouse effect. The
impact of greenhouse effect on
human habitation is very dangerous.
You know that vast ice is Carbon dioxide layer
accumulated at the two poles of the Fig: Carbon dioxide layer heated the atmosphere by
earth all the time. preventing heat radiation
If the atmospheric temperature increases, the polar ice will begin to melt and as a
result the water level of the seas will increase. Most of the low-laying areas of the
earth will go under water though at present these are dry. Moreover many islands,
many coastal countries and cities will go under sea water. Most of the areas of
Bangladesh will go under deep water of the Bay of Bengal. Lives and habitation will
be endangered. But man is responsible for the greenhouse effect. You already know
that enhancement of atmospheric carbon dioxide causes green house effect yet men
are increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide in various ways. We generally use
firewood, coal, kerosene, petrol, natural gas etc as fuel. We get heat and energy by
burning fuel but simultaneously burning fuel also produces huge amount of carbon
dioxide. With the increase of population the use of fuel is also increasing. We are
destroying forests by cutting down trees to meet the demand of fire wood and timber
for various purposes. You know that the vegetation and forests play a very important
role for maintaining the ecological balance of nature. Plants use huge quantity of
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for their food preparation and release oxygen into
the atmosphere. Due to this plant activity neither oxygen is decreased nor carbon
dioxide is increased in the atmosphere. The balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in
nature is maintained.
Carbon dioxide
Oxygen
Fig: Maintaining of balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

According to the environmental scientists 25 per cent of the total area of a country
must be forest, otherwise it would be difficult to maintain natural balance. In
Bangladesh only about 9 per cent land area is forests. In 1974 the forest area was 16.7
percent but this forest is not sufficient for maintaining environmental balance. With
the increase of population, this very small amount of forests is also decreasing day by
day. Certainly the government has undertaken projects for extensive expansion of new
forest areas. The expansion of forest areas can not cope with the galloping growth of
population. If this situation prevails there will be no forest area in Bangladesh in near
future.
We use kerosene, petrol, diesel etc. as fuel of vehicles. Coal is used as fuel for running
industries and production of electricity. These fuels are derived from fossils and hence
these are called fossil fuels. As a result of burning of fossil fuels huge quantity of
carbon dioxide is produced. Increase of population increases the number of vehicles
and industries for which the quantity of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere also
increases.
From this discussion you can surely understand that men are polluting the
environment in various ways to fulfill their demands. If there is further population
growth, more environmental pollution will occur. We all want to live in a pollution-
free environment. So we all have to be more active to check the environmental
pollution. If we can control population growth, it is possible to check environmental
pollution to a large extent.
Incurable Disease
AIDS is the abbreviated form of four words-Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome,

while HIV is the abbreviated form of three words-Human Immunodeficiency Virus.
HIV is the cause of AIDS. HIV gradually destroys the original immune system of the
body. Thus any disease (e.g., pneumonia, TB, diarrhoea etc.) very easily attacks an
AIDS affected person. Medical Science has not yet successed in discovering an
antidote or effective medicine for AIDS. As a result, premature death is the ultimate
consequence of an AIDS affected person. So, AIDS is known as a deadly disease.
Symptoms of AIDS do not appear in the body the moment HIV enters into the human
body. Exactly when will the symptoms of AIDS appear in a person after HIV enters
into the body differs according to the physical condition of the person and the region.
However, it is believed that the duration of time form HIV infection to development of
AIDS is generally from 6 months to a few years and in some cases 5-10 years or even
more. The significance of this long incubation period is that during this time, an HIV
infected person (who do not develop symptoms of AIDS physically or who is
apparently healthy) may unknowingly transmit HIV into the body of another healthy
person.
Major Symptoms of AIDS:
AIDS has no specific symptoms. However, the symptoms observed are of the other
disease that attacks the HIV infected person. Mentionable among those symptoms are:
(1) rapid loss of body weight, (2) loose motion for long time (more than two months),
(3) frequent fever of excessive sweating during the night, (4) feeling of excessive
tiredness, (5) dry cough etc.
It needs to be mentioned that if more than one of these symptoms are observed in any
individual, then it would not be taken for granted that the person has developed AIDS.
However, it these symptoms appear in any individual, he will have to seek the advice
of an experienced and skilled physician without delay and will have to be sure about
HIV infection through blood test.
How is HIV Transmitted?
HIV does not spread through air, water, food or normal touch in the body. HIV lies
much in some specific fluids (blood, semen, breast milk) of the human body. As a
result, HIV can spread thoough the exchange of these fluids of the human body. The
specific ways of HIV transmission include:
1. Through transfusion of the blood of an HIV/AIDS infected patient;
2. Use of infected needle or syringe;
3. Transplantation of any organ of an infected person;
4. From an HIV/AIDS infected mother (during pregnancy, delivery) and
breastfeeding) to her baby;
5. Through immoral and unsafe sex.
Prevention of HIV/AIDS
We can take steps for prevention of AIDS by knowing about the ways of transmission
of HIV and creating awareness about the same. Steps for prevention of AIDS may
include:
1. Following religious and social dictums in our behaviours properly
2. Before receiving blood or transplantation of organ, it must be tested whether
the blood is HIV positive;
3. Always using new needle/syringe for injection, and sterilized for operation
instruments.
4. Avoiding immoral and unsafe sex;
5. An HIV infected mother should seek the advice of a medical doctor in case
she wants to take a baby or for brestfeeding the baby;
6. Taking advice of a Physician without delay, if there is any STD/STI, (Sexually
Transmetted disease)/ (Sexually treasmitted infection):
AIDS Prevention: Saying 'No'
Saying 'no' is a good strategy in preventing HIV/AIDS. Adolescents and youth are
often guided by emotion, not by reason. In facing the real life problems, sometimes
many people are required to say 'no' in order to establish their own opinion. This is a
very difficult task for the young people.
It may so happen that one learner gets a proposal from her/his classmate or close friend
that might instigate him/her for sexual act or influence him/her to become drug addict.
The learner wants neither to accept this proposal under any circumstances nor cut off
the friendship. Under this situation, the learner will have to say 'no', once and every
time. The classmate/friend and others may apply force on her/him. But he/she must
have determination. For saying 'no', one will have to: (1) show reason, (2) raise the
harmful aspect of the proposal, (3) express the firmness of his/her stand and say 'no'.
Young Boys and Girls are at Risk of Contracting HIV/AIDS

Since death is the ultimate consequence of this disease and it has no remedy, everybody,
particularly the young boys and girls, should be especially conscious and careful about
it. It is learnt from the recent situation of HIV/AIDS of different countries that half of
all newly HIV infected people are of 15-24 years. On the other hand, the girls/women of
this age are at higher risk of contracting HIV than the boys/men. The major reasons are:
(1) poor status of women in the socio-economic structure, (2) girls are less aware of
HIV/AIDS than boys, (3) harassment of women by men due to gender discrimination,
(4) inability of women to resist attempts at establishing unsafe sexual relationship, (5)
special physical characteristics of women, and (6) curiosity about sex and unsafe sexual
relationship etc. Like girls, young boys are also at a high risk of contracting HIV. In
order to remain safe from HIV/AIDS, boys and girls will need to be educated as well as
the family and the society will need to be conscious for their protection. Otherwise, the
entire nation will face a horrible situation.
Sex Diseas and HIV.
STD and STI are the abbreviated forms of the words 'Sexually Transmitted Diseases'
and 'Sexually Transmitted Infections' respectively. These diseases or infections
generally spread through unsafe sex. Some STD/STI may spread through other ways
than sex. STD/STI are either viral or bacterial. Major types of these diseases are:
gonorrhea, syphilis, chlamydia, HIV, genital herpes and warts, hepatitis-B, etc.
Principal symptoms of these diseases include: sores/ itchy feeling in or around the sex
organs, pain or burning feeling when urinating, discharge from the sex organs, etc.
There is a close relationship between STD/STI and transmission of HIV. Those who
are suffering from any kind of STD/STI have many times higher risk of contracting
HIV than others.
Nursing of an AIDS Affected Person
We know the consequence of the deadly disease AIDS. An AIDS affected person does
not infect another person very easily and does not lose her/his ability to work as soon
as he/she is affected. So, we need to remember that an AIDS affected person is not
detached from the society. She/he will need to be encouraged to lead a normal life.
Therefore, our duties towards them would be:
1) To deal with the AIDS affected persons sincerely and in friendly manner
2) To try to keep the AIDS affected persons mentally happy and to be caring about them
3) To provide equal opportunities to the AIDS victims like all others
4) Not to deprive the HIV/AIDS affected persons from usual activities

5) To arrange for their necessary treatment by their family and other members of the
society.
HIV/AIDS: Global Situation and Bangladesh
AIDS is such a fatal disease that it reduces the life expectancy of man and impedes
economic growth of a country. AIDS has emerged as one of the major obstacles to
human civilization and development. According to the latest statistics of the UNAIDS
- The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS - the number of people living
with HIV/AIDS by the end of 2007 was over three crores [1 crore= 10 millions]. Of
them, nearly 25 lakhs people were newly infected with HIV in 2007 only and about
21 lakhs [1 million= 10 lakhs] people died of AIDS in the same year. About 11000
people are being infected with HIV every day globally.
Worldwide, HIV/AIDS has spread in an alarming way. Almost the entire African
Continent is seriously affected by HIV/AIDS. It is rapidly spreading in East Europe
and the Caribbean region. But Asian countries also have no reason to remain
unconcerned. Including our neighbouring countries India and Myanmar, widespread
expansion of HIV/AIDS is also being observed in China, Cambodia, Vietnam, Nepal,
Indonesia, and Thailand. Though the HIV/AIDS situation in Bangladesh has not yet
reached an alarming stage, even then we have no scope to remain indolent on this
issue because of the global situation, especially regional situation. We will have to
take appropriate steps before this country becomes risky. Currently, the overall
prevalence of HIV infection among the high risk groups (drug users, female and male
sex workers and their clients, homosexuals, professional blood donors, mobile
population, etc.) in Bangladesh is less than one percent (<1%). According to the
information obtained from the Government in 2007, probable number of HIV infected
people in Bangladesh is nearly 7500, the number of identified HIV infected cases is
1207 the number of people developing AIDS is 365 and the number of deaths from
AIDS is 123. That is, HIV/AIDS is prevalent in Bangladesh too. The rate of HIV
infection among the drug users who share the same needle and syringe for injection
has reached a near epidemic stage. In Bangladesh, 333 cases of new HIV infected
persons have been detected in 2006 only. Under this situation, we will have to be alert
about AIDS right now and appropriately take the steps for prevention of HIV.
Population Data Collection

Before discussing the population of a country or a region it is at first necessary to
know some information about that population. Such as, how many people live there,
how many of them are males, how many are females, what is their age structure, how
many are taking birth each year, how many people die? Besides, it is also necessary to
know their social, economic even their physical conditions. For this data are collected
in different ways. These are-
1. Census
2. Compulsory registration
3. Sample survey
The direct way to know how many people live in a country is to count each and every
one. Actually this is done in a census. Of course, along with counting people the
above mentioned data are collected. Census is done at a certain time after every 10
years. In Bangladesh first census was done in 1974, then in 1981, 1991 and 2001
census were done.
Every day some babies are born and some people are dying. Some people are leaving
the country or a region and some are coming in from outside. The way of listing them
is compulsory registration. Population data of any time between two censuses could
be known through this registration. Census and registration are expensive procedures.
So, now-a-days sample survey method is also used. In sample survey the people of
certain areas are counted instead of counting all people of the country and from this
an idea can be got about the population of the whole country. Naturally there is
possibility of some errors. Error could be reduced if care is taken at the time of
selecting the sample areas so that they can represent the whole country. To have an
idea of the population of the locality where you live, you may easily make a survey.
Tables have to be used for collecting data. A sample table is given below:
1. Name of the head of family :
Profession :
Income :
Age :
Educational qualifications :
Religion :
Marital status :
2. Number of family members :

Name Age Relation Education Income
(a)
(b)
(c)
Zero population growth rate:
You know that the ratio of the total number of births of alive children in a year to the
number of population at the middle of the year is called crude birth rate. This ratio is
generally multiplied by 1000. That is.
The number of births of living babies in a year
Crude Death Rate = x1000
The number of population at the middle of the same year
B
= x1000
P
Similarly,
The number of deaths in a year
Crude Death Rate = x1000
The number of population at the middle of the same year
D
= x1000
P
When, B = Number of births of living babies in a year
D = Number of deaths in a year
P = Number of population at the middle of the same year
The difference between crude birth rate and crude death rate is called natural growth
rate of population. But there is another way of population increase and decrease of a
country, which is called migration. At times many people of a country migrate to
another country. Again some also come from other countries. For example, many
people from Bangladesh are going to Middle East or to Western countries. Going out
of the country is called emigration and coming in from other countries is called
immigration. Net migration can be calculated by subtracting immigration from
emigration. And population growth rate is calculated by adding or subtracting the net
migration rate to or from natural population growth. If number of emigration is less
than that of immigration, it is to be added, that is, population growth rate will be
higher than natural growth rate.
If the migration rate is not worth mentioning, population growth rate and natural
growth rate will be the same. In such a case, if in a particular year the number of
births and the number of deaths become equal then the population growth rate will be
zero. This is called zero population growth rates. In countries like Bangladesh where
emigration is higher than immigration, zero population growth rates might be

maintained though the number of births is higher than that of deaths. On the other
hand, in a country like the United States where immigration is higher than emigration,
to maintain the zero population growth rate birth rate should be less than death rate.
Now-a-days the aim of all the countries is to achieve zero population growth rate.
Many developed countries, by this time, have almost reached the goal.
Population Pyramid
It is not sufficient to know only the total population of a country. It is also important to
know how many of the population are males, how many are females, how many of
them are of a particular age group and within an age group how many are males and
females. All these facts constitute the population structure, different traits of population
viz. birth rate, death rate, working population, dependent population etc. can be known
from this structure. Populations below 15 years of age and above 64 years are not
workable, that is dependent on others. So, in a country where people of these two age
groups are more, the dependence ratio is higher in that country (The ratio of dependent
population and workable population is called dependence ratio.) If the number of
females of fertile age (15-49 years) group is higher, birth rate will also be higher. These
characteristics of population can be known from population structure. Population
pyramid is the graphical representation of the number of males and females and their
age groups. To draw this diagram the whole population is divided into age interval of 5
or 10 years viz. 0-4, 5-9, 10-14 etc. or 0-9, 10-19, 20-29 etc.
United State of America - 1980
Age
+ Bangladesh 1974
75 Age
70
65
60 75 - 79
70 - 74
55 65 - 69
50 60 - 64
45 55 - 59
40 50 - 54
45 - 49
35 40 - 44
30 35 - 39
25 30 - 34
25 - 29
20 20 - 24
15 15 - 19
10 10 - 14
5 5 -9
0 -4
10,000 male5,000 0 5,000 Female 10,000 Male Female

Thousand Population in percentage
Fig: Population Pyramid

The length of the bar also represents the proportional percentage of age groups.
Generally, numbers of females are shown at the right side of the centre and that of
males at the left. In this way according to age groups the bars are serially stacked
upwards from the bottom. Generally age intervals are shown perpendicularly at the
centre of the bars. Again age groups may be shown at the right or left side of the bars.
In the diagrams the population pyramid of Bangladesh and the United States of
America are shown.
The population pyramid of Bangladesh looks like the pyramid of Egypt to some
extent. So, this figure is called pyramid. It is seen from the population of Bangladesh
that people of 0-10 age group are more which means that the birth rate is higher. On
the other hand, population above 64 years of age is lower which means death rate is
also high. Before this century almost all the countries of the world had such high birth
and death rates. As a result the population pyramids of almost all the countries were
the same. At present both birth rate and death rate have decreased in developed
countries. As a result the shape of population pyramid has changed to some extent. It
can be understood by observing the population pyramid of the United States that in
the USA the number of children up to 5 years of age is comparatively less, which
means that the population growth rate is low. Again, the population ratio of above 64
years of age is higher in comparison with that of Bangladesh, which means death rate
is also low. Such low rates of birth and death is, now-a-days, the desire of all the
countries. It is again seen from the pyramid of the USA that the number of females
above 64 years is higher than that of males. From this it is proved that life expectancy
of females is higher than that of males in the USA.
The opposite picture is seen from the population pyramid of Bangladesh, that is, life
expectancy of males is higher then that of females. The number of males and females
of a country under 15 years and above 64 years may be determined from the
population pyramid from which dependence ratio can be calculated. For example, it
can be found out from the population pyramid of Bangladesh that 45 per cent of the
population are below 15 years of age and 5 percent are above 64 years, who belong to
dependent group. The remaining 50 percent of the population are between the ages of
15-64 years, who constitute working group. So, the dependence ratio is 50:50 or
which means one person is dependent on every earning member. Comparatively it can
be found out from the population pyramid of the USA that 23 percent of their total
populations are under 15 years and 11 percent are above 64 years. Remaining 66
percent are earning people. Therefore the dependence ratio in the USA is 34:66 or
0.52. This ratio is much less than that of Bangladesh, almost half.
Demographic Transition:
The population of the world is continually changing. The rate of this change is not
always the same in all the countries. Up to 1600 AD this rate was very low. But from
then it began to increase. It is seen from the table below that in 1650 AD the population
of the world was only 50 crore which became double in 1850 that is, it required 200
years in doubling the population. Then it required 80 years to double the population
that is, 200 crore, later on that population also became double to 400 crore only in 45
years. At present the world population is about 600 crore. In 100 years from 1891 to
1991 the population of Bangladesh has increased about four times. Change of
population from 2.65 crore to 11.15 crore is accomplished by a special process.
Table : World Population

Year Population Remarks
(in crore)
1650 50
1850 100 It took 200 years to let the population be double
1930 200 " 80 years to let the population be double
1960 300
1975 400
1986 500 " 45 years to let the population be double
2001 613.70
This process is called Demographic Transition. Demographic transition can be divided

into three phases. In the first phase, both birth rate and death rate are very high. In the
second phase initially death rate decreases but birth rate does not decrease
proportionately. As a result the natural population growth rate becomes very high. At
the end of this phase birth rate also begins to decrease though the death rate remains
almost constant. In the third phase both birth and death rates decrease and become
almost equal. As a result the natural growth rate also decreases. Demographic
transition of the developed countries has been represented in the figure. In the first or
phase 'A' as both birth and death rates remain high, natural growth rate of population
remains low. This means that total population does not increase so much.
Up to the nineteenth century in almost all the countries and at present in the continent
of Africa this situation prevails. At the beginning of the second or phase 'B' death rate
decreases rapidly but birth rate remains almost constant. As a result the population
growth rate increases suddenly. This is also called population explosion. Due to
advancement of science and technology, medical science, agriculture etc. the death
rate begins to decrease. The diseases which cause epidemics resulting in loss of lives
of many people, such as cholera, small pox, typhoid, plague etc. having been
controlled, the life span of humans begins to increase. At that time a country becomes
industrialized, developed in agriculture and urbanization expands. As the infant death
rate decreases, the tendency of having more children in a family decreases. As a result
birth rate also decreases slowly and at the end of this stage birth and death rates both
become low. In the third or stage 'C' birth and death rates decrease and become steady.
As a result population growth rate also decreases. Even at times, it becomes almost
zero. This situation prevails in most of the developed countries of Europe and
America. In this stage standard of living becomes high. Man becomes healthy and
span of life becomes lengthy.
40
Per thousand
30
20
10 Death rate
A B C Birth rate
0
Time
Fig: Demographic transition
The second phase or phase B is called the phase of demographic transition. The first
phase is pre-transition and the third one is post-transition phase. At present all the
countries of Asia except Japan are in different positions in the transition phase. The
position of Bangladesh is also at the end of this phase.
Solution of Population Problem:
The population of Bangladesh is more compared to her wealth and its influence can
be observed in all the spheres of human life. This vast population is creating problems
you already knew in your earlier classes. Let us discuss briefly the solution of those
problems. The problem of population growth can be solved in two ways, (1) keeping
the members of a family within desirable number and (2) in countries where the
number of immigration is high, it is necessary to control immigration to check the
population growth. What sort of steps would be taken to control population growth
depends on social, economic, political and religious conditions of the country. For
industrialized, agro-based, developed and developing, literate and less-literate
societies, the steps would be different. The United States is a developed country and
the people are literate. So the people themselves are conscious and eager to keep their
family members to a desirable number. As the number of immigration to the United
States is higher, it is being controlled. The problems of India, Pakistan or Bangladesh
are different. These are developing countries. Most of the people are illiterate and
believe in different religions. To discourage having more children in a family in
Bangladesh laws have been passed prohibiting the marriage of girls below 18 years of
age and boys below 21 years. In Bangladesh primary education has been made
compulsory by making laws. If the people of the country become literate they will be
inspired to keep the family members to a desirable number.
Exercise
1. What is the amount of water resource reserve in the world?
(a) 141 billion cubicmetre
(b) 141 million cubicmetre
(c) 141 trillion cubicmetre
(d) 141 thousand cubicmetre
2. What is the main reason of the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?
(a) Decreasing of the number of trees
(b) Increasing of the number of vehicles (transports)
(c) Increasing of population at random
(d) Decomposition of the carbonate rock from the surface of the earth.
3. The gross birth-rate of the city of Khulna was 20% in the middle of 2007 and
the number of the new born child in the year was 20,000.
What was the total population of the city at the end of 2007 ?
(a) 10 lac (b) 40 lac
(c) 20 lac (d) 50 lac
4. What is the best way of protecting mankind from HIV?
(a) Encouraging to follow the religious rules of permission and prohibition.
(b) Comprehensive publicity of the HIV-related information.
(c) To control free mixing of the male and female.
(d) Not to use the same syringe and needle by more than one person.
From the following pyramid diagram, answer the question no. 5 and 6
Bangladesh 1974
Age
75 - 79
70 - 74
65 - 69
60 - 64
55 - 59
50 - 54
45 - 49
40 - 44
35 - 39
30 - 34
25 - 29
20 - 24
15 - 19
10 - 14
5 -9
0 -4
Male Female
Population in percentage
5. Regarding Bangladesh, which conclusion of the following can be made from

the above pyramid diagram ?
(a) The reliable population is low, the death rate is high, the birth rate is low and
the country is developing.
(b) The reliable population is high, the birth rate is high, the de'ath rate is high,
the country is developing.
c) The reliable population is high, the birth rate is low, the death-rate is low, the
country is developed.
(d) The reliable population is low, the birth rate is low, the active population is
high and the country is poor.
6. If the population pyramid of age group between 15 and 60 were of almost equal
breath, Bangladesh would be
(i) a developed country
(ii) a poor country
(iii) a developing country
Which one is correct ?
(a) i (b) ii
(c) iii (d) i, ii and iii
Creative Questions
Mr. Ajmal took some blood in his body as a part of treatment. Suddenly he noticed
that his body weight was reducing and he had been suffering from dry cough and he
also found that his face, eyes, eye-lids and nose were swollen. Under the situation he
has been admitted into a hospital. After some examination and testing the doctors
informed him of the fact that he had been suffering from such a disease the treatment
of which was not yet discovered. His colleagues came to learn the facts. They started
to avoid Mr. Ajmal.
(a) What is the name of the disease from which Mr. Ajmal has been suffering?
(b) Why it is called life threatening disease?
(c) Explain why the behaviour of the colleagues of Mr. Ajmal is not acceptable?
(d) A country like Bangladesh is vulnerable to such an infectious disease. Give
your opinion.
Chapter Three
Nutrition, Food and Food Habit
What is food?
We see various objects in this world. These objects can mainly be divided into two
parts, such as inorganic or non-living objects and organic substances. Except carbon
dioxide, the compounds which contain carbon are called organic compounds, for
example proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleoproteins, nucleic acids etc. Those organic
compounds are considered as food which are used for the formation of animal body,
for repairing and replacement of worn-out tissues and producing energy.
Functions of food:
1. Food helps the growth of the body and replacement of worn-out tissues.
2. Food produces heat and energy in the body.
3. Food controls the internal functions of the body and keeps it healthy, strong
and active.
Definition of nutrition:
Nutrition is an overall physiological process by which living organism takes and
digests food, absorbs digested food and incorporates in the cells, repairs worn-out
tissues, produces energy and defecates the undigested food.
Components of food:
On the basis of components, food can be classified into different categories. More
than one component are present in most food materials and can perform one or more
functions because it is made up of a number of chemical substances. These chemical
substances are known as the components of food. The number of food materials
consisting only of one component is very few, for example, sugar, mustard oil, fish,
meat, egg, milk, flour etc. are mixed foods i.e. more than one food components are
present in these food materials. The food containing any of the components in greater
amount is considered as the food of that component. For example fish, meat etc, are
foods containing mainly protein. To fulfill the deficiency of proteins we take this type
of food. The principal component of foods like rice, flour, potato etc. is carbohydrate.
Therefore, these are foods rich in carbohydrates.
In this way according to components the food can be mainly classified into three
classes:
(1) Proteins: Necessary for growth and repair and replacement of worn-out tissues.
(2) Carbohydrates: Help to produce energy.

(3) Fat and lipid substances: Produce heat and energy.
Besides these, three types of other components are also necessary for the body.
(1) Vitamins: Develop resistance against diseases and help to stimulate different bio-
chemical reactions.
(2) Mineral Salts: Takes part in different biological processes.
(3) Water: Controls the qualities of the cells by maintaining water balance in the body
and contains cell organelles and maintains balance of heat.
Structure, nature, source, function and deficiency symptoms of food:
1. Proteins: Proteins contain four basic elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen. Sometimes phosphorus, iron and other elements may also be present in
protein. Protein is the complex compound of amino acids. When proteins are digested
the molecules are broken up into simple absorbable amino acids.
Source of Protein food:
Protein is obtained in abundance from
both animal and plant kingdoms. On
the basis of sources, proteins are of Pulse Milk
two types:
(1) Animal Proteins: The proteins
which are obtained from animals are
called animal proteins, for example- Fish Curd
fish, meat, egg, milk, cheese, etc. Fig: Some Protein foods
(2) Plant Proteins: The proteins which are obtained from plants are called plant
proteins; for example, pulses, nut, gram, pea, etc.
Daily requirement of Protein
Depending on age and sex the daily requirement of protein varies. The growth of our
body continues till 25 years of age. During this period, the necessity of protein is
maximum. An adult healthy and active man needs 65 gm of protein daily and a
woman needs 55 gm. For children of 6 to 9 years, 40-50 gm of protein is needed. The
quantity of protein should be more in the diet of growing children.
Functions of Protein:
1. The chief function of protein is to help building up the cells of the body. The bones
and muscles, different organ-systems, blood cells etc. are mostly made up of protein.
Nutrition, Food and Food Habit 31
2. Metabolism is continuously going on in our body cells. As a result after a certain

period of time the cells lose their activities and are damaged. Protein plays a vital
role in building up of new cells.
3. The antibodies prevent diseases of the body. Protein plays a major role in
producing antibodies.
4. The enzymes of the body such as-pepsin, trypsin etc. and the hormones are made
up of protein.
5. Protein helps in the formation of hemoglobin in the blood. Hemoglobin is a
compound of protein.
6. Protein produces energy through cellular metabolism.
7. Protein is essential for healthy mental development. Mental disease may occur in
children for deficiency of protein.
The results of deficiency of protein in food:
Protein is the best component for building up of the body and conserving it. Due to
deficiency of protein in the diet of children retardation of growth, loss of weight of the
body, paleness of skin and hair and bad temper may be caused. Simultaneously the
children may also become mentally sick. Generally children of 2-4 years suffer from
kwashiorkor disease due to protein deficiency in the diet. In this disease the children
suffer from retardation of growth, stomach ailment, erosion of muscles and oedema.
In adults protein deficiency reduces the immunity of the body against diseases.
Anemia, marasmus etc. diseases develop. Deficiency of protein increases the rate of
giving birth to dead children, abortion, premature births etc. among the mothers of the
poor society.
2. Carbohydrates:
The amount of carbohydrate is maximum among our daily foodstuffs. Rice, bread, flat
rice, fried rice etc. are this type of food. All carbohydrates are composed of three basic
elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. On the basis of chemical structures,
carbohydrates are divided into three types, such as:
(a) Monosaccharide: Carbohydrates having one molecule, for example, glucose,
fructose etc. are found in nectar and juice of ripe fruits.
(b) Disaccharide: Carbohydrates consisting of two molecules; for example sucrose,
maltose, lactose etc. are present in sugar, sugarcane and various vegetable.
(c) Polysaccharide: Carbohydrates consisting of many molecules of monosaccharide,
for example, starch, glycogen etc. This type of carbohydrate is found in
abundance in rice, flour, seeds, vegetable etc. In plants carbohydrate is stored as
starch and in animal bodies it is found as glycogen, particularly in the liver.
Source of carbohydrates:
Our daily necessary carbohydrates generally come from plants, (Figure 3.2) for
example- rice, wheat, potato, vegetable, seeds etc. Very small amount of carbohydrate
is obtained from the liver and kidney of fishes and animals.
Function:
1. The main function of carbohydrate
is to provide heat and energy to the
body.
2. It helps to burn fatty substances. Rice Potato
3. Carbohydrate protects us from a

disease called ketosis.
4. Excessive carbohydrate is stored as
glycogen in the body. In case of Wheat Sugar
deficiency of carbohydrate glycogen
Fig: 3.2 Some carbohydrate foods
produces energy in the body.
5. Carbohydrate helps the body in the intake of proteins, vitamins and mineral salts.
6. Cellulose prevents constipation.
Results of deficiency of carbohydrates in food
1. Due to deficiency of carbohydrate the process of burning of fatty substances
cannot be fully completed. Thus a toxic substance is produced within the body
and a disease called ketosis is developed.
2. If there is shortage of carbohydrate in food, the stored glycogen and at last the
stored fat and protein break down to produce energy. This causes loss of body
weight, increase of appetite, weakness of the body and reduction of the working
power of the body.
Fats:
Among food stuffs lipids provide the maximum heat and energy to the body. Fats are
composed of fatty acids and glycerol. Digested fats are converted into fatty acids and
glycerol. The fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed by the lymphatic vessels of the
small intestine.
On the basis of the sources, the fatty substances can be classified into two groups such as:
1. Vegetable fat - It is obtained from plants, examples are coconut oil, mustard oil,
groundnut oil, soyabean oil etc.
2. Animal fat- Fat obtained from animals is called animal fat; examples are ghee,
butter, fat etc.
Food ingredients Pregnant Mother who has given birth
mother (gm) (gm)
Nutrition, Food and Food Habit 41
One meal for a child of 6 months

Food Ingredients Quantity
Hotch-Potch Rice 30gm
Lentil 20 gm
Papaya 20 gm
Young green 15 gm
vegetables
The readily available sources of food components

Food components Readily available sources
Carbohydrate Rice , potato, wheat
Proteins Various small fish, sea fish, dried fish , pulses,
seeds of beans, etc.
Fats / Lipids Ground nut, soyabean, coconut oil, etc.
Vitamins vegetables, hog plum, amloki, kamranga,
banana, guava, wood -appple, jackfruit, etc.
Exercise
1. For deficiency of which ingredients the ketosis disease grows?
(a) Carbohydrate (b) Vitamin
(c) Protein (d) Lipid
2. Protein in food-
(i) Is the best ingredient for building and protecting the body.
(ii) produces energy by taking part in cell metabolism.
(iii) prevents skin diseases and keeps skin smooth.
Which one is correct?
(a) i (b) ii
(c) i and ii (d) ii and iii
3. Of the following, which set of food is called balanced one?

(a) Rice, egg and banana.
(b) Wheat, milk and vegetables.
(c) Polao (rice), ice-cream and grapes.
(d) Potato, bread and rice.
4. The age, profession and body-weight of four persons are given below. The person
of which profession will need maximum amount of calories every day?
Serial number Age (years) Professions Weight (kg)

1 15 Studesnt 40
2 28 Player 55
3 42 Teacher 62
4 45 Doctor 72
a. Student b. Player
c. Teacher d. Doctor
Creative Questions
Keeping late at night Apu makes his lessons. He does not take vegetable at all. At
present he does not see at night. His parents are worried. He was taken to the doctor
who advised him to eat vegetables.
(a) What is vitamin?
(b) Why vitamin is required for body?
(c) From which disease has Apu been suffering? What vegetables are necessary
for him according to doctor?
(d) Explain the role of vegetables in the protection of health.
Chapter Four
Minerals
The minerals have played the most important role in the increasing development of
human civilization starting from the ancient period to the modern age. We have
already known about two thousand minerals from stone salt to gold, silver, copper,
iron, pencil lead, precious stones, diamond etc. Out of these 100 minerals are very
familiar to us while others are very rare. From ancient time men have known that
there are mines under the deep earth's crust. The minerals are to be derived by digging
the earth crust. Iron, aluminium, cement etc. are manufactured from these minerals.
Buildings, houses, fertilizer for agriculture, chemicals for industries-all these are
made from minerals. Now the question is, what are minerals ?
What are minerals ?
In general sense, the substances which are obtained from deep under the earth`s
surface are minerals. In broad sense, the constituents of different rocks are minerals.
In other words different minerals combine together to form rocks. A mineral is a
compound which is formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements
present in the earth's crust. There are also minerals which are made by only one
element such as diamond, gold, sulphur, copper etc. Diamond and gold occur in
nature as element. Sulphur, copper etc. occur in nature as free and combined state.
Source of minerals:
The sources of minerals are inside of the earth. This was the earlier conception. But
at present this concept is not considered true. Some minerals are found to deposit in
the earth's crust, such as iron mineral (hematite), aluminium mineral (bauxite). In
some cases the valuable minerals like coal remain in the earth's crust. These types
of mineral source are called mines in the earth's crust. Again we are to dig bore
deep under the earth's crust to obtain minerals. In many cases minerals are
deposited between the layer of rocks. In south Africa gold mines have been
discovered three kilometres under the earth surface. This source of minerals is
called mine under the earth's crust.
What is Ore ?
We have known that very few substances occur in nature or mines in the free state.
Most of the minerals occur in the form of compounds of more than one element.
To extract a particular element a mineral is to be selected in which the element is

present in sufficient proportion and can be separated and extracted by any easy
process. The mineral from which an element can be extracted easily or economically
in large quantities is called an ore of the element. For example, hematite which is
actually a compound of iron and oxygen occur in mines as hard crystalline and fabric
like substance. The chemical name of it is iron oxide. Iron is extracted from it easily
and economically. So, hematite is an ore of iron. Similarly bauxite is an aluminium
ore. These are the metallic ores.
Like metals, non-metallic ores also occur in the earth's crust, from which the
respective element can be extracted. For instance, beryl is the ore of beryllium, ore of
carbon is graphite, coal etc.
Extraction of metal from ore:
Some ores of element occur in mine in the free state. Among the metals, platinum,
gold, silver and mercury remain in nature in free state in small proportion, while most
of the metals exist as compounds. The compound ores of metals contain metallic
oxides, sulphide, carbonate, sulphate, nitrate etc.
In nature all the ores are mixed with soil, sand and various undesirable impurities.
These impurities are called gauge. Generally the gauge is removed at high
temperature while the ore is decomposed and separated into metal. Electrolysis
process is used to extract some metals. Electrolysis is carried out by connecting two
metal rods dipped into the molten or dissolved ore to the electric source. Some non-
metals are extracted from mines in the free state, such as sulphur, carbon etc.
Iron and Steel:
Iron is a metallic element. The use of iron was known from ancient period of time.
Iron is obtained as mineral of various compounds in the earth's surface. But the
important ores of iron are hematite, magnetite, limonite, siderite and pyrites.
In industry the iron ore is mixed with coke (carbon powder) and lime stone and the
mixture is melted at a very high temperature in a special type of furnace called blast
furnace. As a result, the various impurities of iron are eliminated. Molten iron settles
down at the bottom of the furnace. The molten iron is then cooled in moulds. The iron
thus obtained is called pig iron. During the production of pig iron little carbon
(about 4%) is mixed with it.
Minerals 45
Stag Molten Metal
Fig: 4.1: Blast furnace
The iron obtained after removing this carbon and other impurities is called wrought
iron. Pig iron is hard and brittle but wrought iron is soft. These two types of iron are
not suitable for usable purposes. Therefore, a type of iron with different properties
other than those two types of irons have been made. It is called steel.
Iron containing carbon at the proportion of 0.08 to 1.5% is called steel. The quality of
steel depends on the proportion of carbon in it. The percentage of carbon in steel less
than 0.5 is called soft steel. The percentage of carbon in steel more than 0.5 is called
hard steel. The quality of steel is improved by mixing one or two elements along with
carbon, such as nickel and chromium. Mixed steel does not rust and this steel is called
stainless steel. The surgical equipments are made of this steel. Utensils are also made
of this. Thus in this way by mixing other metals, special types of steel for special
purposes can be made. Hard steel after heating is cooled in water and hammered to
make it malleable. This process is called tempering of steel. For different purposes
different types of tempering are required. For example the steel for cutting iron is
different from the steel for making springs. During tempering the steel is heated at
different temperatures to make steel of different qualities.
Properties of iron and steel :

Pure iron is a bright white metal. It is attracted by magnet. Iron does not react with
dry air. But in moist air a reddish brown layer form in it. This is called rust. The pig
iron contains 2-5% carbon. In wrought iron the presence of carbon is almost less.
Pig iron is hard and brittle. It can be moulded into lumps but cannot be bent or
twisted. It can not be hammered to make some article or can not be welded together.
Wrought iron is not brittle but soft and can be hammered to make sheets, can be
joined together. Steel can be joined by hammering. It can be tempered. It can be used
to make permanent magnet. Different types of steel such as hard, soft, brittle, strong
and stainless steel can be made.
Uses of iron and steel :
The use of iron is manifold among all other metals. Starting from simple pin to big
ships, high rise buildings etc. iron and steel are essential to make all these. In
sewerage system iron pipe and manhole cover etc. are made by pig iron. Wire gauge,
electromagnet, railing, grill, gate etc. are manufactured from wrought iron. The uses
of steel are so manifold that these are beyond description. Different types of steel are
used to manufacture knife, scissors, watch, magnet, plate, glass, engine, railway line,
wheel, machine gun, tanks, bridge, culvert, toys, agricultural equipments, medical
instruments, factory machinery etc. and other uncountable things.
Rusting of iron and steel :
When iron and steel made substances are exposed to air for a long time, a reddish
brown coloured coating is found on it. Gradually this coating layer becomes thick.
After a certain period of time it begins to break like fish scalps. This is called rusting.
Another name of rust is 'Jung'. In presence of moist air iron reacts chemically with
oxygen of air to produce one kind of iron oxide. This compound is actually rust. Rust
destroys colour of iron. Rusted iron materials wear out gradually and become brittle
and finally become useless. It is more economic to prevent rusting of iron materials
than to purchase it new again.
Prevention of rusting :
Usually rusting can be prevented by covering the metal with paints or grease and by
applying oil or grease on the rotating parts of the machine. Thin layer of zinc is coated
on iron materials by immersing it into the molten zinc. Coating of zinc on iron
materials prevent rusting on it. Generally tin cans of powdered milk or other food
packing items are made of iron or steel. Such containers are coated by tin. The method
by which coating of thin layer of zinc on another metal is called galvanizing. A very
fine coating is done on many iron and steel materials through electrolysis. This
process is called electroplating. Coating of nickel, aluminium, gold, platinum etc. can
Minerals 47
also be done on iron by electroplating. This prevents rust on iron and steel. Not only
that, the metal looks more shiny and attractive and it becomes long lasting.
The special steel made by mixing nickel and chromium with iron is known as
stainless steel. It does not attract rusting.
Alloy :
The hard substance formed by homogeneous mixture of two or more metals is called
alloy. For example, by mixing molten zinc with molten copper in any proportion and
after cooling, a hard substance is obtained. This is an alloy. Sometimes it is called
metal alloy. The physical properties of metal alloy are different from those of
constituent metals. That is, in alloys the colour, malleability, ductility, electric
conductivity etc. of constituent metals are changed. The melting point of alloy is
lower than the original metals. Bronze made by mixture of copper with tin, brass is a
mixture of copper with zinc. Stainless steel is also an alloy like bronze and brass.
Aluminium :
Aluminium is the most abundant in the earth's crust among other metals. But
aluminium does not occur in nature in free state. Aluminium occurs in combined state
with other elements. Bauxite is the main ore of aluminium.
Aluminium is a silver bright metal. It has a little bluish tinge. It is very light, its
specific gravity is 2.7. It can be hammered to sheets and into thin wire. It is very good
conductor of heat and electricity. Moist air produces a thin film of the oxide. But it
does not lose its brightness while the oxide protects aluminium from further action of
oxygen. Hence it is not as harmful as rusts on iron.
Aluminium is used to make cover materials for packing of chewing gum, cake,
chocolate and even to make aeroplane bodies. It is widely used to make electric wires,
cables and cooking utensils. Aluminium alloy is used for making aeroplane, motor
car, bridge, door and window frame, toys etc. Duralumin is one of the alloys of
aluminium. Duralumin is made by mixing copper, magnesium, manganese with
aluminium. It is used for making aeroplane.
Besides these, mirror polish, varnish, flash of camera, filament of light bulb are made
of aluminium. A long lasting bright, lustrous and silvery varnish is made by mixing
aluminium powder with varnish oil or linseeds oil.
Non-metal and allotropy:
Ores of different non-metals occur in mines like the ores of the metals which remain
in mines. Some of the ores of non-metals occur in nature in pure and elementary state.
But a special characteristic is found within non-metals. This property of the same
element shows the different physical properties in nature but there is no difference
in chemical properties. In other words some non-metals show differences in

physical properties but in chemical properties they are the same. Such types of
element are known as allotropic elements and this property of elements is called
allotropic modifications.
Carbon is an allotropic element. Carbon exists in nature in different allotropic forms.
Such as diamond, graphite, animal charcoal, coke, wood charcoal, lampblack or soot
etc. These are the allotropic modifications of carbon. Sulphur and phosphorous are
also two allotropic elements. There are four varieties of sulphur and two varieties of
phosphorous which exist in nature.
Graphite and diamond :
Two special allotropy of carbon are diamond and graphite. Both the allotropy of
carbon occur in mines. Under the deep earth at high temperature and pressure for
crores of years, carbon crystallizes to produce graphite and diamond.
Graphite is a grey coloured substance. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity. It
has wide application as electrode. The black rod that we find inside the torch battery
is made of graphite. Graphite is soft and soap like slippery. Due to this it is used as
lubricant or slippery agent in machineries. When rubbed on paper, it makes a black
mark. So it is used in making wood pencil. Graphite is a Greek word which, means I
write. Different types of pencil sticks are made by mixing clay in different proportion
with graphite. The hard and thin pencil lead contains more proportion of clay. Soft
and thick pencil lead contains more proportion of graphite.
Diamond is the hardest of all the natural substances. Most of the diamonds in the
earth are obtained in South Africa. Diamonds can be prepared by artificial way.
Diamonds occur in nature as crystalline form. Usually diamond is transparent and
colourless. It looks lustrous because light rays bent while passing through it.
Applying special technique diamond can be cut into a gradient of multiple planes so
as to increase its brightness.
Diamond is non-conductor of heat and electricity. Original and artificial diamond can
be detected by X-ray. X-ray can pass through the original diamond, but can not pass
through artificial or fake diamond. Diamond is being used as precious gem in the
jewellery from ancient period of time. There is a special type of diamond which is
black in colour. It is called carbonados. This diamond is very hard. It is used for
cutting glass and polish work. Some dyes are also made by diamond powder.
Minerals 49
Coal :
The carbon which is found in nature or mines as non-crystalline or amorphous form is
coal. It is deposited in layers after layers in mines like black rocks. This coal is very
important to produce heat energy.
We are also familiar with some charcoals other than coal. For example, charcoal
formed by burning of wood in presence of insufficient air is called wood charcoal.
This is another allotropic modification of carbon. Animal charcoal and activated
charcoal are the other two allotropic modifications of carbon.
Animal charcoal and activated charcoal :
Destructive distillation of animal bones and blood in a closed container produce
charcoal. This is known as animal charcoal. Animal charcoal is of two types; bone
charcoal and blood charcoal. Through destructive distillation of animal bones, bone
charcoal is obtained. The bone charcoal is treated with hydrochloric acid to produce
ivory black. Similarly blood charcoal is obtained by destructive distillation of blood.
This charcoal can absorb coloured substances from solution for which it is used as
bleaching agent. Animal charcoal is used for refining and decolourizing raw sugar and
ivory-black is used as black pigment.
When wood charcoal is heated at high temperature in presence of limited air is
called activated charcoal. Activated charcoal is generally obtained by heating the
shell of coconut at 850o - 900oC in limited air. Activated charcoal is used in gas-
masks and filter.
Sulphur:
Sulphur was known to man from ancient period of time. Most of the sulphur occurs in
a free state in nature in the pure form. Naturally produced sulphur is crystalline.
Ordinary sulphur is bright yellow in colour. It is insoluble in water but dissolves in
carbon di-sulphide. Sulphur is a non-conductor of heat and electricity. Sulphur is an
allotropic element. It has four allotropic forms which are rhombic sulphur, monoclinic
sulphur, plastic sulphur and white sulphur. Sulphur is a highly active element. It reacts
with almost all metals to produce compounds. It burns in air with blue flame and
produces a very pungent suffocative gas. The name of this gas is sulphur dioxide. The
gas is highly poisonous and germ-killing. It is used as bleaching agent.
Sulphur is the main raw material for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. Gun powder is
produced by mixing sulphur, carbon and potassium nitrate in definite proportion.
Rubber can be made hard, soft and long lasting by heating it with sulphur. This is
called vulcanization. Sulphur is used for preparing disinfectanting medicine. Sulphur
is also used in match industry, dye industry and fertilizer industries. Sulphur dioxide
is used in paper industry.
Phosphorus :
Phosphorus is a non-metallic allotropic element. Phosphorus is a Greek word which
means `luminous'. It glows in the dark due to which it is named phosphorus.
Phosphorus is a very reactive element. Phosphorus exists in nature as compounds. The
main sources of phosphorus are animal bones, yellow portion of egg, milk, curd, fish
etc. even the beans contain phosphorus.
Like sulphur, phosphorus exists in nature in crystalline form. Its crystals are of two
types. That is, it exists in two allotropic forms. These are white phosphorus and red
phosphorus. Phosphorus is translucent and almost soft like wax. When phosphorus is
exposed to air, it glows with a greenish white light. This is the mystery of its glow in
the dark. Phosphorus is insoluble in water. So it is preserved under water in a bottle. It
is highly poisonous. By touching this with hand or if it comes in contact with skin, the
skin is corroded which can not be easily cured. Red phosphorus has no smell and does
not glow in the dark. It does not burn easily and is less poisonous.
Phosphate and super-phosphate fertilizers are manufactured from phosphorus.
Red phosphorus is widely used in match industry. The gun powder or the two sides of
a match box is actually a mixture of red phosphorus and powdered glass. This is
coated with rain tree gum. Mixture of sulphur, antimony sulphide, lead oxide or
potassium chlorate is attached on the top of the match sticks using rain tree gum. Heat
is produced and fire burns when the coated end of the stick is rubbed with coated
portion of the box. A match box is an essential item in our daily life. Hence the
importance of red phosphorus is indescribable.
Exercise

1. Of the following which minerel is derived from aluminium?
(a) Bauxite (b) Limonite
(c) Magnetite (d) Hematite
2. Why rusting does not occur in stainless steel? Because during its preparation
(i) nickcel and chromium are used.
(ii) stainless steel does not react with oxygen.
(iii) stainless steel is galvanized.
Minerals 51

(a) i (b) ii
(c) i and ii (d) i, ii and iii
3. White phosphorous is preserved by soaking in container full of water, because
(i) there is deposition of yellow coating on its surface when it comes in contact
with light
(ii) there is formation of foam due to reaction with water and it catches fire.
(iii) Poisonous inflammation develops when by hand or it comes in contact
with skin.
Which is correct?
(a) i (b) ii
Name Amount of Carbon (%) Brittleness Ductility

Cast iron 2-5 % Brittle -
Wrought iron 0.12 -0.25 Not brittle Ductile
Steel 0.25 -1.5 Not brittle Ductile
Based on the above table, which type of iron do you think suitabie for making
tools for use at your house?
(a) cast iron (b) wrought iron
(c) steel (d) steel and wrought iron
Creative Questions
Rahim is a seasonal worker. He uses in his work knife, chopper, etc. made of iron. In
last Eid Rahim when tried to slaughter his cow observed that his knives, chopper etc.
were destroyed through corrosion. He could not slaughter his cow any more.
(a) Which ingredient is responsible for corrosion of Rahim's knife and chopper?
(b) Explain the basic principle for formation of corrosion on his knife and chopper.
(c) Explain why Rahim's tools of slaughtering cows have become corrosive-
blant and how it could be prevent.
(d) Iron is the suitable metal for preparation of knife and chopper, justify.
Chapter Five
House Building Materials
In ancient times, people lived in the caves. The hunting people lived in groups. Then
the farmers and the herdsmen began to live permanently. They were alert about their
security in every step of their living. For these reasons they wanted safe shelter.
At the beginning of civilization the idea of safe shelter became more clear and strong.
As a result people gained mechanism at house building. Later on, they learnt to make
their house beautiful, dependable and comfortable. At present we, the posterity have
built beautiful and luxurious houses to live in. These houses, may be small cottages or
palace like buildings, give people the following advantages:
a. Opportunity to live safely and without any problem
b. Protection from excessive heat/cold and rainfall
c. Protection from harmful insects and attack of animals
d. Comfortable environment for eating and taking rest
e. Protection from unfavorable climate and natural calamity
f. Safety of personal property
Due to these reasons, the houses are the basic requirements for people. So, we should
know about the materials by which houses are built.
Construction materials:
Different types of material are required for house building. People have to collect all
these materials from different sources before starting to built houses. Out of these
house building materials, bamboo, wood, corrugated tin sheet, cement, bricks, sand
etc. are main. But most of the people of our rural areas live in huts. Almost all these
houses are made of straw, stubbles, golpata, sugarcane leaves etc. And so these
materials are also widely used for making houses.
Classification:
House building materials are classified into three categories on the basis of their
sources of occurrence. These are:-
1. Agricultural or plant sources, such as bamboo, wood, jute sticks, stubbles, palm
leaves, reeds, golpata, hemps, sugarcane leaves etc.
2. Mineral or earthen sources, such as various stones are collected from igneous,
alluvial and converted rocks.
3. Industrial sources, such as cement, bricks, steel sheet and rods, board, limestone etc.
House Building Materials 53
Classification of houses:
School, college, temple, mosque, community centre etc. are the social houses. These
are used for social purposes. People make houses for their living. Considering the cost
of building materials, the houses can be classified into two categories, such as
1. Low cost house:
In making this categories of houses, wood, bamboo, jute sticks, straw, stubbles,
sugarcane leaves, golpata, hemps, reeds, stone, sand, cement, bricks, iron products,
hard board etc. are usually used.
2. High cost house:
Costly materials are used to construct this type of houses. The remarkable materials
used for this purposes are bricks, cement, various steel products, wood, sand, concrete
etc. and also various colouring agents, decorating materials and precious stones.
Characteristics of different building materials:
Some of the characteristics of widely used building materials are mentioned below
in brief:
Bamboo: Bamboo and bamboo products are used to a great extent.
Classification: There are 22 types including 9 species of bamboo are grown in our
country. For example, Talla or Cherai bamboo, Muli bamboo, Jaba bamboo, Ar
bamboo, Baro bamboos etc.
Qualities: Bamboos grow everywhere in our country. These are cheap in price and can
be used directly. It is damaged by insects, termites and various fungi in moist weather.
Maintenance and preservatives:
The traditional method of seasoning a matured bamboo is dipping it in water for 2-3
months. Such type of seasoned bamboo can not be attacked by termites and it is not
damaged easily. Recently scientists have discovered a method to increase the
longevity of bamboo. One type of preservative is prepared by mixing boron,
chromium and copper which kill the fungi and insects.
The proportion of components of prepared preservatives are as follows:
Copper sulphate - 4 kg
Sodium dichromate - 4 kg
Boric acid - 1 litre
The above components are mixed in water to prepare a solution of 100 litres. The
solution is taken in a thick polythene bag and kept in underground tank or in a
plastered tank. Then bamboo or bamboo strips or bamboo mats are immersed in the
solution for 7-8 days to complete the preservation. Now this bamboo is used in
building works after drying. This type of preserved bamboo may be used upto 10-12
years. Besides, the solution can be introduced into the bamboo by pump.
Wood:
Generally trees are divided into two classes, such as-(1) Hard timbered trees and (2)
Soft timbered trees. Hard timbered trees are called deciduous by the botanists. Sal,
gazari, karai etc. are the hard timbered trees. The leaves of these are usually wide and
are shed off regularly. Soft timbered trees are called conifers. The leaves of these trees
are shaped. Mango, blackberry, rain trees etc. are the examples of soft wood trees.
Seasoning of wood:
Generally wood contains moisture. For this reason, sawn planks or any wood products
change their shape and size at the time of use. For this, wood is to be seasoned.
Normally, wood contains 19% moisture. If the percentage of moisture is reduced by
drying then it remains in proper condition at the time of use. The traditional method
of seasoning wood in our country is to immerse it in water for long time. But for this
purpose the scientific process is more effective and in short time wood can be
seasoned in large scale. In this method moisture in wood is reduced by pushing air
through wood adopting a special technique. In this way moisture can be reduced from
15 to 5%. This is the modern technology for seasoning wood. The seasoning is done
in such a way that there is no bending in the wood.
Ply-wood:
Production: Around a central portion, thin wooden planks are joined in such a way
that twisting of nearby two planks lie at right angle to each other. In most of the cases,
ply-wood is produced by joining odd number of wooden layers. The outer side of ply-
wood is called the back, central portion is called the core and others are called cross-
wise layers. To produce ply-wood of soft wood usually same types of wood, is used.
But in the production of hard ply-wood, the cores and cross-wise layers are pasted
with powerful adhesive and then exerted in high temperature and pressure.
Merits and demerits of ply-wood:
The combined thickness of layers, quantity of moisture and defects in the panels
determine whether it will bend or not. If excessive weight are exerted than the
normal, it bends and become useless. Ply-wood manufactured with water proof
materials is not damaged easily in water. Generally ply-wood is long lasting than
normal wooden planks.
Uses and maintenance:

Ply-wood is used in construction work in the foundation and all in other phases. For
making furniture, cabinet, partition, construction aid materials, roof, wall, floor, tank,
boat, sign board etc, ply-wood is used. Different grades of ply-wood should be used
for different purposes by knowing its specifications. Furniture made of ply-wood after
being polished looks very beautiful.
Cement:
Cement is the most essential constituent in construction work. Cement is used as an
adhesive to the concrete materials made for construction. When this cement comes in
contact with water or water vapour it becomes very hard mass. Due to this quality,
cement is an essential constituent in construction of roads, bridges and buildings.
Cement contains different chemical constituents. The mentionable constituents of
cement are: lime, silica, alumina and iron along with small quantities of magnesium
oxide and sulphur trioxide.
Classification of cement:
Cement is classified into two classes viz, (i) Portland cement and (ii) Aluminous
cement.
Portland cement:
Different types of Portland cement are manufactured by mixing of tri-calcium silicate,
di-calcium silicate, tri-calcium aluminate and tetra-calcium aluminoferrite. These four
constituents are mixed with different proportions. Out of these type-10, type-30,type-
40 and type-50 Portland cements are mostly used for various construction works.
Normal cement (type-10) is used for constructing roads, bridges, footpath etc.Type-20
cement is used for heavy concrete works in hot climate areas. Type-30 cement is used
to make it usable quickly. Type-40 cement gains strength slowly. So heavy concrete
work, such as the construction of dam requires this type of cement. This cement is
also suitable for construction of industries.
Aluminous cement:
Alumina, small quantities of lime and silica are the constituents of alumina cement
and so its use is significant. This cement is very suitable for overnight construction of
sewerage or water supply lines. This cement does not lose its strength of bondage by
applying heat and due to this it is used in the construction of household stove or its
foundation. Besides these two main types of cement mentioned above, some other
cements are also used in some specific construction works. The name and uses of
these special types are mentioned below:
1. White Portland cement is used in the white concrete, decorating concrete, partition
wall etc.
2. Forced air Portland cement is used in the construction in snow falling areas, where
snow falls.
3. Water proof Portland cement is white and grey in colour. This is used in the construction
work to resist water.
4. Plastic cement is used in mortar, plaster and white wash work.
5. Masonry cement is used to make high quality mortar.
6. Oil mine cement is used in sealing the oil wells.
7. Expansive cement is used in the case where due to various reasons for construction
of volume occur.
8. In regulated cement the time of coagulation of this cement is controllable.
Concrete:
Concrete is a hard stone made artificially by blending of some inert particles by
mixing of cement with water. Concrete is very important for construction works.
Constituents:
Cement, sands, gravels, crushed stones, cold gangue, clay, slate etc. are used to make
concrete. The stability, strength and weight of concrete depends on the type of
coagulated materials. Pumice stone, gangue, hematite, parelite, barite, limonite,
magnetite, iron and steel fillings etc. are also used to make concrete.
Preparation:
The size, purity, strength and chemical stability of the constituents, which are used for
the preparation of concrete are very important. The planning of concrete depends on
the nature of work. Mixing the constituents after determining the right proportion for
making a concrete is an important job. The constituents are to be mixed in such a way
that they are equally mixed and the paste must stick around the body of each of the
constituents.
Fig: 5.1: Uniformly distributed constituents of solidified concrete

If concrete is to be used for special purpose, then some other materials are to be added
with cement and water. Such as, if concrete is to be solidified quickly, little calcium
chloride should be added with cement and water during mixing.
Curing of concrete:
Curing is to be done in order to confirm that it has properly solidified. For this, to
keep the concrete in humid condition for a few days, water should be poured on the
structure. In this moist condition, if the temperature can be maintained between 10-
25oC, then concrete can acquire desirable strength.
Block:
Production:
Block is used in all construction work. Block may be hollow or solid. A wooden dice
is made as per the size of the block required and then the mixture of concrete is
solidified in the dice to make concrete. Generally different rectangular solid block are
made in this way. In modern technology block can also be made by machine. Dry
mixture is inserted in block making machine. Here block is formed due to vibration
and high temperature. Then it is cured with steam. Different varieties of solid and
hollow blocks can be made by block making machine.
L corner bullnose
a. L corner block b. Bond-beam block c. pillow star block
e. Linteal block f. Chimney block
g. Acoustic block h. Middle block i. Utility block
Fig: 5.2: Blocks of different shapes and sizes

Uses of blocks:
We can see different types of blocks in figure no. 5.2. Some of these are solid and
some of these are hollow. Hollow blocks are used to make the construction light. Solid
blocks are used in heavy construction works. Bull-nose blocks are used in round
corner construction while bond-beam blocks are used for making the wall strong.Thus
the builders employ blocks of different shapes and sizes in order to make their
construction attractive and beautiful.
Bricks:
From the ancient period bricks are familiar as a construction material. Manufacturing
process of brick remains more or less the same. By using modern technology large
bricks can be made in a short time.
Raw materials:
The basic component of brick is clay. But the qualities that are to be contained are
given below:
a. It should possess plastic properties in moist condition, so that blocks of different
shapes may be made.
b. Expansibility of the clay holds the shape of bricks.
c. At high temperature the soil particles must be fused and joined together.
d. The chemical composition of soil will be almost the same, but they will possess
different physical properties.
Production of bricks:
There are different steps for manufacturing bricks. Out of these, the important ones
are- collection and storage of raw materials, preparation of raw materials, making
units of bricks, drying up bricks, setting fire, burning of bricks and cooling, collection
of bricks from brick field and classified separation.
After selection of raw materials i.e the selected clay are mixed well. Then they are
crushed well. The crushing materials are then tempered. After that water is added to
the tempered materials. The quantity of water to be mixed will depend upon the
method of forming units. Clay prepared for hand made bricks is thus placed into dice
and shaped into bricks. The bricks are then dried in the sun.
In a factory, giving shape and drying of bricks and also burning all these are done by
machine. The temperature in the drying and burning units are maintained from 38oC
to 204oC. The process of burning of bricks in brick fields are different. Arranging a
row of bricks, then a row of wood or coal are placed one after another. Then fire is set
after arranging the kiln. Fire burns for a few days.
Bricks may be made shining by spraying different mineral components at the

beginning of drying. After burning well, bricks are taken out from kiln and separated
into different grades.
Classification and uses:
In our country bricks from brick field are graded by the number like 1, 2 etc. The best
quality of bricks are called number one and bricks of little lower quality are number
two. Number one type bricks are used for high grade constructions.
Standard Nominal Giant Nominal
w - 100 w - 150
H - 76 H - 100
L - 200 L - 400
Standard Nominal Nominal

w - 100 w - 76
H - 90 H - 70
L - 300 L - 200
Titan Nominal Norman Nominal

w - 150 w - 200
H - 75 H - 70
L - 360 L - 200
Monark Nominal Norman Nominal

w - 150 w - 100
H - 160 H - 100
L - 400 L - 300
Fig: 5.3: Length(L) breadth (W) and height (H) of standard block.
Bricks are the main materials in all construction works including roads, buildings,
bridges etc. The size of the standard bricks is the same all over the world.
Tile:
The raw materials and manufacturing process of bricks and tiles are almost the same.
Some materials are taken out from the hand clay according to the design and it is
made hollow. Other steps of the manufacturing process are same, but bricks are solid
and tiles are hollow.
Solid Brick
Hollowed
Tiles
Fig: 5.4: Brick and tile

Classification and uses of tiles:

Particular tiles are made for particular work. These are load bearing wall tiles,
partition tiles, back up tiles, furring tiles, fire proof tiles, floor tiles, structural clay
facing tiles and structural glazing tiles.
Horizontal
Vertical
Fire Proof Tiles Backup Tiles Glazing Tiles
Floor Tiles
Fig: 5.5: Different types of tiles
In figure 5.5 we have seen the tiles of various designs. Load bearing wall tiles are
used for constructing weak wall. Partition tiles are used for partition wall. For fire
proof work, fire tiles are used. So, it is seen that particular tiles are made for a
particular purpose.
Iron and steel:
Iron is very familiar to mankind from old age. Iron is very important in modern time
also. Among all the metallic elements iron is used in industries to a large extent.
Minerals of iron occur as different compounds in the earth crust.
Classification of iron:
Pure iron cannot be used in any work. So small proportion of carbon and other
elements are mixed with iron to produce three different types of iron; such as (1) cast
iron (2) wrought iron and (3) steel. Iron is a very important constituent for making
vehicles, machines, tools, buildings, bridges etc. The reserve of iron in the earth is
limited. So it is being recycled everywhere to use it again and again. There was only
one steel mill in our country at Chittagong. Steel was manufactured here from cast
iron imported from abroad.
Uses: Different alloys of steel and their uses are given in the table below:
Name of alloys Uses

1. Nickel steel 1. Used in the construction of motor vehicles,
tank or aeroplanes, plates for protecting
warships and handles of cable propeller.
2. Chrome steel 2. In the construction of pressing machines,
shells for destroying warships etc.
3. Chrome-vanadium steel 3. In the construction of frames of motor
vehicles, gear etc.
4. Manganese steel 4. Stone pressing machines, safety lockers, rail
line, etc are made of manganese steel.
5. Tungsten steel 5. Used in the construction of fast moving
machines and boring machines.
6. Stainless steel 6. Used in manufacturing crockery and utensils.
7. Invar 7. In the manufacture of scales.
Gypsum:
People have been using gypsum in construction work for thousands of years. This
gypsum is hydrated calcium chloride. The chemical formula of gypsum is CaSO4,
2H2O. Gypsum occurs almost in the purest form. It occurs in mines as a mixture with
white clay, lime, stone, silica, iron compounds etc. Its colour may be grey, brown or
reddish brown.
Preparation:
Gypsum minerals are crushed to small particles in mills. Then if it is heated in a
special furnace to 175 oC, 75% of its moisture is removed. This is called hemihydrates
plaster of Paris. Many types of gypsum construction materials are made from this. In
the second method gypsum is crushed into very fine powder in a special type of
machine. This powder is called land plaster. It is then heated up to 165 oC in a
special machine. As a result it becomes completely free from moisture. This is
called plaster of Paris.
Classification and uses:
Two different types of construction materials are made from gypsum. For example -
plaster and board. The names of its products and their uses are shown in tabular form.
Gypsum, plasters and their uses

Name Use
1. Plaster of Paris 1. Used in closing the holes of wall plaster and
manufacturing dice.
2. Kenny's cement 2. Used in sanitation and high humid construction
work.
3. Casting plaster 3. Used in preparing intense and clear line and
extremely smooth surfaces.
4. Hard wall plaster 4. Used for first and second coating of plastered
wall.
5. Cement bond plaster 5. Used below concrete. Above it any final plaster
may be done.
6. Finish plaster 6. Used for final coating on polished surface.

7. Prepared finish plaster 7. Used in drawing art.
8. Acoustical plaster 8. Used for absorption of sound.
9. Joint filler 9. Its paste is used to cover the hole of nail or to

cover the joint of wall board.
10. Texture spray 10. Used to rectify little defects of concrete or

plaster.
Various gypsum board and their uses:
Different boards Uses

1. Wall board 1. Used for partition wall, internal wall,
and to give a cover to ceiling.
2. Partition board 2. Used for partition to make the
partition sound resistant, it is
made double or solid.
3. Decorated gypsum wall board 3. It is fitted with the wall.
4. Backer board 4. To make steel column fire resistant.
5. Gypsum water proof backer board 5. Used in humid places like kitchen,
bath room, laundry etc.
6. External usable gypsum board 6. It is used in outside places.
Glass:
Glass is a transparent, non-crystalline, brittle solid substance. It is non-conductor of
heat and electricity. Usually, glass is a compound of sodium calcium silicates. But in
special cases its constituents may vary. Glass making is an old industry. The Egyptians
knew the process of glass making long before the birth of Jesus Christ. The European,
came to know about this industry from them. Then it spread all over the world.
By the application of modern technology glass industry has been improved a lot. As a
result everything, from drinking pot to bricks of glass are being manufactured. The
aim of using glass in construction work is to allow light inside the room. To control
this light and its heat is also its main object. These types of glass are used in
construction work for a special purpose. The types of glass and their uses are given in
following table.
Names of the different glasses Uses in construction
1. Plate glass 1. In cases where visibility is not important.
2. Reflective glass 2. In situation where inside is not visible from
outside in day time but everything outside is
visible from inside.
3. Tinted plate glass 3. This glass is used in windows of offices and
libraries for decreasing the intensely of light.
4. Heat absorbing plate glass 4. Most of the radiant energy of light is absorbed
by this glass used in schools, hospitals and
offices.
5. Tempered plate glass 5. It is very hard and is used for gymnasium
window and enclosure of hockey field.
6. Pattern glass 6. Used for room partition, office partition bath
rooms and bath tubs.
7. Brilliant coloured glass 7. It is opaque, used in partition wall, front side
of stores, show-room, laboratories and
industries.
8. Stratified safety glass 8. Used in vehicles and transport industries and
also in construction.
9. Transparent mirror glass 9. Windows in houses, or small rooms, nursery
hospitals, safety window of banks, police
outposts and departmental stores.
10. Insulating glass 10. Used as heat resistance.
11. Glass blocks 11. To increase the illumination inside the
buildings functional glass is used. If focuses
light towards rooms. In architectural
application decorative blocks are used. It
increases beauty when used in internal wall
or dividing walls.
12. Solid glass bricks 12. It allows light without any dispersion.
Construction of this type of bricks is safe and
dependable.
Exercise

1. What type of glass is used for thermal resistance?
(a) Heat absorbing glass (b) Insulating glass
(c) Solidified glass (d) Absolute glass brick
2. For preservation of bamboos, what is the ratio of boron, chromium and copper in
the chemical mixture.
(a) 4: 4 : 2 (b) 4: 1 : 4
(c) 1 : 4 : 4 (d) 4: 2 : 1
3. What sort of steel is suitable for making cooking pots?
(a) Nickel steel (b) Chrome steel
(b) Tungsten steel (d) Stainless steel
4. Of the following, which order is correct for preparation of bricks in the brick-field?
(a) Collection of raw materials and storage preparation of raw materials
unit formation of bricks drying of bricks firing burning and
cooling of bricks collection of bricks from brick field selection.
(b) Collection of raw materials unit formation of bricks firing
drying of bricks collection of bricks selection.
(c) Preparation or raw materials drying of bricks firing burning
and cooling of bricks collection of bricks.
(d) Collection of raw material and storage unit formation of bricks
selection collection of bricks burning of bricks.
5. Ingredients for making cement are-
(i) lime, silica, alumina, iron
(ii) lime, iron, silica, mud
(iii) alumina, gypsum, copper, silica
(a) i (b) ii
Creative Questions
Mr. Karim put some wood for soaking in the pond near by. Seeing the woods for so
many days in water, his son asked him about the use of the soaked woods. He
informed his son that the woods would be used in house building purpose. Bamboos
can also be seasoned like woods. In addition, he also informed his son that seasoning
may also be done with the use of chemicals. He showed his son a volume of 400 litre
of chemical mixture he made for the purpose.
(a) What is seasoning ?
(b) Why woods were soaked in pond by Mr. Karim? What would happen if these
were not soaked with water ?
(c) Calculate the amount of copper sulphate, sodium dichromate and (boric) acid
for preparation of 400 litre chemical-mixture.
(d) Make a comparative study of seasoning between bamboo and wood.
Chapter Six
Energy
In many natural phenomena, like flashes in the sky, thundering in a cloudy day,
Tsunami in the sea, wave formation in sea and river etc. we see revelation of energy.
We also notice influence of energy in our movement, in our daily work, in the running
of mills and factories, and in storm and earthquake when our life is in distress. The
cow draws plough, the boatman sails boat, goods are produced in factories; energy is
involved in each of them.
In physics energy is defined precisely. To know energy we are to understand force and
work. We can pull a spring to increase its length or we can move a body at rest. These
are done by force. Actually a force is an external agency which changes or tends to
change the state of rest or of motion of a body. Many of us synonym force and energy
but in physics, they carry different meaning. When the application of force on a body
shifts its position in the direction of force, then we say some work has been done by
the force. Product of force and displacement of the body in the direction of force then
measures the quantity of work done. Application of force on a rigid wall does no work
as force applied there can not displace the wall. Work done when a stone is raised
from ground to the top of a building is calculated by multiplying force by the height
of the building. The total energy spent for this is known from the work done.
Therefore the total amount of work that a man or an engine can do is the measure of
energy. Work and energy is measured by same unit; their dimension is also the same.
In S.I system the unit of work is joule, so is the unit of energy.
Millions of years ago, there were forests on this earth. Coal is the transformation form
of these forests under the earth. Due to transformation of earth crust these forests went
under earth and by excessive pressure and temperature change, they turned into coal.
But when the trees were alive they took food from ground, heat from sunrays and
grew naturally. So, it is seen that in coal solar energy is stored in as chemical potential
energy. Burning of coal produces steam which then rotates turbine and produces
electricity that we use to light our house. Therefore we understand that the sun is the
fundamental source of energy.
Kinds of energy
We see energy in various forms such as, heat, light, sound, electricity, magnetism,
chemical and mechanical energy. Again mechanical energy is of two kinds- (a)
potential energy (b) kinetic energy.
Influence of energy on the life of man is immense. Starting from beginning to the end
of life he needs energy for walking, working, playing etc. We get this energy from our
Energy 67
food. There it remains as chemical energy. Coal, wood, cake of cow dung, gas etc. all
are source of chemical energy. By burning of these sources of energy in oven, or in
engine we obtain energy to do work.
Electrical energy is making our lives easy and comfortable. Hydro-electric project
applies energy of water current to produce electrical energy. Here a turbine rotates by
the energy of water current and produces electricity. Kinetic energy of wind current is
used to sail boat and wind mill.
Solar energy and energy of sea waves are considered now-a-days as an unlimited
source of renewable energy. Recently a British scientist installed machine to produce
electrical energy from sea-waves. To dry cloth or to dry paddy sunshine is being used
from time immemorial.
Transformation of energy: We mentioned above various forms of energy. These
forms are interrelated. Any form of energy can be transformed into other forms. This
is known as transformation of energy. We mention below some examples of energy
transformation.
1. From heat to mechanical energy : Heat produces 'water vapour to run steam
engine. Here heat is transformed into mechanical energy. .
2. From electricity to heat and light : As electric current passes through an electric
bulb, it heats the filament of the bulb and produces light. In the process electrical
energy is transformed first to heat, then to light.
3. From light to electric energy: When light falls on a photo-electric cell, it
produces electricity. Here light energy is transformed into electrical energy.
4. From sound to mechanical energy: Using ultrasonic sound wave (sound of very
high frequency) high precession machinery is cleaned. This is an example of
sound energy converting into mechanical energy.
5. From electricity to heat and chemical energy: In electric heater and iron, heat
is produced from electrical energy. In electric cell electricity is stored here as
chemical energy.
6. From atomic energy to mechanical energy: Atomic power driven submarine is
used in war. This is an example of transformation of atomic energy into
mechanical energy.
7. From magnetic energy to mechanical energy: Huge electromagnet is used as a crane
to lift heavy loads. Here magnetic energy is transformed into mechanical energy.
Conservation of energy : Energy can not be created or destroyed, only it can be
transformed from one form to another and sum total of energy in this universe is
constant. This is called law of conservation of energy.
Solar energy: Energy from the sun is considered now-a-days a store house of renewable
energy. The radiant sun rays carry to earth huge energy. The mechanism of storing this
energy has been found. Solar cell is such a device. During day a place where sun rays
fall for a long time, parabolical mirror collects and concentrates rays to heat a specially
made boiler. Thus water is converted into steam to drive turbine to produce electricity. In
solar furnace placed at the base of Pyrenees mountain a range temperature of 3800
Celsius has been achieved. Now-a-days, for cooking solar cooker is used.
Atomic energy : Billions of years ago, at the start of the universe heavy elements
were created. In the formation of their atom huge amount of energy was stored in
and is still there. If they are broken into fundamental particles the stored energy will
be released. This energy can be used if we control the process. Now how can we
break a small particle like atom? Scientists at the start of 20th century found out a
way to break atom. They found that bombarding by particles smaller than atom, like
neutron, atom can be split into its constituent particles. For this, heavy uranium atom
(atomic number 92) was bombarded by neutron. The atom split into two small parts
and yielded three neutrons along with huge amount of energy. This energy is the
atomic energy.
Demand of energy: Whatever man does for living and for development of his fate, he
needs energy. For agriculture, industry or for any production system use of energy is
indispensable. Generally expenditure of energy per head is taken as the index of
development of a country. Now-a-days, we see tremendous efforts of national
development in all spheres. So demand for the use of energy is increasing. We state
below some reasons for this demand.
a. Increasing population demands increasing rate of expenditure of energy.
b. Developing countries build more buildings, roads and highways, more mills and
factories; more vehicles are being used. All these building works and care of
transports need more energy.
c. Men build big palatial buildings for living; they use radio, TV, computer, VCR
etc. in increasing number. So their energy consumption is increasing.
d. The business, works and communication are increasing day by day. So the use of
energy is increasing also.
Use and protection of energy: We use energy in all spheres of life. We need energy
to live also to develop our life style. We can not do without energy. Energy is
connected with our existence.
We see that fossil fuel is a great source of energy. But this source is not unlimited.
One day it will all be exhausted. Therefore men are searching for new sources of
Energy 69
energy. Renewable energy about which we talked earlier seems to be a probable

source. But until we find a limitless source of energy we must be conscious and thrifty
about using energy. It is our moral obligation to minimise wastage and misuse of
energy. Following steps in this regard may be taken:
1. We should think about energy as not a personal thing but a national wealth.
2. Radio, TV, lamp, fan etc. are only to be used when necessary. Unnecessary uses
are to be discouraged.
3. A faulty vehicle or machine misuse energy. So they are to be repaired timely. If
they are irrepairable, they should be left unused.
4. A transport engine must not be turned on unnecessarily. It consumes energy for
nothing.
5. We must prevent our personal and national wastage through conservation of
energy.
Exercise

1. Solar energy is
(a) mechanical energy. (b) renewable energy.
(c) atomic energy. (d) chemical energy.
2. Which work is being done by chemical energy?
(a) Mechanical work (b) Electrical work
(c) Production of sound (d) Driving of engine
Answer question no. 3 and 4 from the following information:
One kind of electric cell is being experimentally used in Mirzagonj area of Patuakhali
district to meet the demand of electricity. With special arrangement electricity may be
produced by the influence of sunlight from this type of cell placed under open sky.
3. What is the name of the cell used experimentally in Mirzagonj?
(a) Ordinary cell (b) Solar cooker
(c) Solar cell (d) Laclance cell
4. At this stage
(i) solar energy is converted into electrical energy.
(ii) heat energy is converted into electrical energy.
(iii) flow of air is converted into electrical energy.
Which one of the following is correct?

(a) i (b) i and ii
(c) ii and iii (d) ii, iii and iii
Dinajpur is a district situated in the extreme north of Bangladesh. Boro Pukuria is a
region of this district. The underground coal mine is situated here. Huge amount of
coal is extracted from here every day.
In the light of the above information, answer question no. 5 and 6.
5. What type of region Boro Pukuria was in ancient time?
(a) Marshy land (b) Desert
(c) Human habitation (d) Forest
6. In case of underground coal what kind of energy has been transformed?
(i) Chemical energy from electrical energy.
(ii) Chemical energy from solar energy.
(iii) Heat energy from chemical energy.
(a) i (b) ii
Creative Questions Object
h - 20 Metre
F - Force
Answer the following quesions from the above diagram.

(a) What is force?
(b) What amount of work is being done to raise the object or material on the roof?
Express it by an equation.
(c) Calculate the amount of work done if 50 units of force is applied in raising the
object to roof.
(d) Give an analysis for the transformasion of energy if the object is released
from the roof.
Chapter Seven
Fuel
We use heat for cooking. Heat also plays a role in driving vehicles, production of
electricity etc. How do we get this heat? We get heat by burning charcoal, straw etc.
Isn't it? We use oil, petrol, kerosene, bamboo, charcoal, dried leaves of plants etc. as
fuel. All these fuels are organic substances because they are either from plants or
from animals.
Fossil fuel
How have coal, oil, petrol and kerosene been obtained from living organisms? Due
to severe earthquake, some natural calamity, or any other reasons trees and plants and
animals fell underneath the soil crores of years ago. Fossils are the remains of
animals and plants. These fossils in solid or liquid form are raised from the mines
and are used as fuels. These are called fossil fuels. Discussions about some fossil
fuels are given below:
Coal :
The trees that grew millions and millions of years ago died and decayed. The remains
of their bodies are mixed with mud and silt and sedimented in layers. Then due to
earthquake or any other natural catastrophe, they were pressed under the earth. Due to
changes in temperature and pressure underneath the earth they remains gradually
transformed into coal, which is known as impure carbon.
Raising of Coal:
Coal is available in mines thousands of feet below the surface of the earth. For
production or raising of this coal a very deep hole is dug in the earth. Then the labours
go into the mine, with the help of machine cut coal and load the trolley. The trolley is
pulled up by a lift machine. Thus coal of different qualities is lifted from coal mines.
Coal is used as fuel for cooking. Electricity is generated by the generator by turning
the turbine with the steam produced by coal. Earlier large quantity of coal was used to
drive steam engines, trains etc. There is limited reserve of coal. Once coal is raised
from a mine, no new coal is formed there. That is why, it is necessary to control its
use and prevent its wastage. Coal has been discovered in the northern region of our
Bangladesh. The process has been started for raising coal from the coalmine of
Barapukuria. Recently more coal reserve has been discovered in Dighinala, a village
of Dinajpur.
Mineral Oils :
Scientists assume that, when the remains of animal and plant bodies are covered very
deep underneath mud and silt, in course of time these undergo destructive distillation
due to tremendous temperature and pressure of the interior of the earth. Petroleum is a
mixture of compounds formed by carbon and hydrogen. Natural gas is also formed in
the same process. Its main constituent is methane.
Production :
Due to variation in internal structure of the earth, petroleum is deposited in between
two impenetrable layers. Sometimes this oil remains floating on water. Geologists
determine the structure of the internal rocks of the earth, and then conduct many
attractive experiments to detect the presence of oils. They make geological survey by
causing explosion at a little depth of the earth and prepare maps indicating different
information. Studying this geological map, the scientists can more or less infer the
presence of mine. Then they carry on more experiments by digging the earth. These
types of experiment are of course expensive. Hence, special considerations are given
on the results of the initial experiments. If it is understood from the initial
experiment that oil mining will be profitable, only then they proceed to dig deeper
well inside the earth and make arrangements for raising oil.
Impermeable
Layer of stones
Oil
Saline water
Impermeable
layer
Fig: 7.1 The Composition of rocks under the surface of earth
Separation of Constituents of Oil :

Petroleum raised from mines has many constituents. Among them the main and
important constituents are various hydrocarbons formed by combination of carbon
and hydrogen. These components are separated by fractional distillation plants in a
refinery and refinery gas, petrol, kerosene, diesel oil, lubricating oil and bitumin are
obtained as mixtures of more than one hydrocarbons. Their uses are mentioned in the
table below:
Fuel 73
Table - 1
Constituents Uses
Refinery gas Sold in bottles in the market and used for
manufacturing commercial plastic
Petrol Used as fuel of motor vehicles and in the manufacture of chemicals
Kerosine Household use
Jet petrol Used as fuel of aero planes
Diesel oil and fuel In manufacturing petrochemicals, wax, polish etc and
oil used as fuel of ship and as the furnace oil of heavy industries
Bitumin Used in constructing roads, roofs of houses and in
manufacturing water proof materials
Natural gas:
There is plenty of natural gas reserve in the mines of our country. At present, gas is
being raised from the mines of Haripur, Bakharabad and Titas. Gas can easily be
transmitted by pumping through pipes from one place to another. In many countries
liquid gas is marketed in cylinders.
All the compounds can be divided into two types viz. organic and inorganic
compounds. All organic compounds contain carbon. Natural gas and oil are organic
compounds. These are formed of carbon and hydrogen mixed in different proportion.
Their general formula is Cn H2n+2 . You may have seen will-o-the-wisp in dark nights
in pools and marshy lands and become frightened of ghosts. In fact, it is not the act of
ghosts. When methane gas released from rotten organic substances comes in contact
with oxygen of the air, sometimes gives fire because it is highly combustible. This is
known as will-o-the-wisp.
Raising mineral oil and supply:
Gas mines are searched out by geological survey. If the presence of gas is detected
somewhere, holes are dug deep into the earth and pipes are inserted and gas is raised.
It is a complex engineering process. Then pipes and branch pipes are connected for
gas supply to distant places. The supply pipe must be completely air tight. Thus, the
fuel gas reaches the kitchen or industries.
Uses of Mineral gas and oils:
Besides different uses of mineral oils mentioned in table-1, mineral gas is used in
cooking and manufacture of fertilizers. Shoots used for manufacture of ink and black
rubber is synthesized from mineral gas. Methyl alcohol, formaldehyde etc. are
manufactured from mineral gas. Plastic, Formica, medicine, dyes, and liquids for
preserving dead bodies are manufactured from formaldehyde. Nylon, plastic
materials, and different explosives are also manufactured from mineral oils.
Reserve and Collection of Mineral Gas and Oil:
Natural gas reserve in Bangladesh is about 3.4 × 1012 cubic meters, which will be
exhausted within next 20/25 years if its use continues at the present rate. Recently
very limited quantity of mineral oil reserve has been detected in Bangladesh. Fossil
fuel reserves are very limited not only in our country but also in the whole world. In
course of time, these will be exhausted. So we are to be cautious about collection and
use of these.
Prevention of wastage of mineral gas and oil:
It has been mentioned earlier that large quantity of mineral gas and oil is used as fuel.
But very often we notice their wastage and misuses. We can prevent fuel wastage in
the following ways:
1. Closing the key of the gas burner after cooking.
2. Drying of wet clothes on gas stoves should be stopped.
3. Engine of the vehicles should be stopped on the way for short stoppage.
4. Engines of the vehicles should be free from defects, because defective engines
consume more fuel. We should remember natural gas and oil are very valuable
assets, as it is one of the main sources of energy. It is our moral duty to preserve
this asset.
In search of alternative sources of energy
Among the natural sources of energy, oil, gas, coal etc. obtained till now are going to be
exhausted due to continuous use. Atomic energy though appears as a promising source,
its initial cost and the risk of danger and the monopoly influence of the big powers have
kept it out of the reach of developing small countries.
Our natural gas is an invaluable resource. But it is not renewable. We can no more
depend on a source, which is not renewable. About 3 crore and 90 lac tons of traditional
fuels are used every year for cooking food for about 14.66 crore people of our country.
Of these fuels wood, straw, cow dung etc. are biodegradable substances. These help
increase fertility of the soil. But as a consequence of burning of these for cooking, the
soil is being deprived of organic fertilizer, micronutrients and the fertility of the soil is
decreased. One survey revealed that, organic cycle is 65 percent in the soil in China, but
in our country, it is only 11 percent.
Wood is mostly used as traditional fuel in cooking. Consequently not only our forest
resources are being destroyed but also a great calamity is befalling our climate.
Fuel 75
Considering all these aspects, efforts are being exerted continuously to find out
alternative sources in this great sector of fuel. In the meantime, the scientists have
devised biogas technology and they have been able partly though to use solar energy.
Sea-current and wind also have appeared as sources.
Biogas
You can see people cooking food in gas burners in Dhaka, Chittagong etc. towns, can't
you? This gas is known as Titas gas or Bakharabad gas. Haripur in Sylhet is the place
where we got it for the first time. These are natural gas. Arrangements may be made
to prepare similar gas from decaying plants and excreta of various animals. This types
of gas is known as biogas.
Bio means life. Animals and plants are living. Hence their bodies or substances
secreted from their bodies are degradable. If cow-dung, leaves, straw etc are mixed
with water and kept in absence of air, fermentation occurs with the help of a kind of
bacteria. As result a kind of colourless gas is produced which is highly combustible.
60-70 percent of it is methane gas.
Biogas Production:
Biogas production technology is very simple and interesting. The process that
produces biogas is called biogas plant. Two types of biogas plants are in use
throughout the world, viz:
1. Floating Dome Biogas Plant
2. Fixed Dome Biogas Plant
The types of biogas plant is selected on the basis of easy availability of construction
materials, their cost, durability and advantages of maintenance etc. Excreta of cow,
buffalo, goat, sheep and poultry dropping , garbages, water hyacinth or aquatic plants are
used as raw materials. Besides, human excreta are also used for the production of biogas.
Inlet tank
Gas outlet pipe
Gas holder
Slurry level
Outlet well
Soil Surface
Digester
Fig: 7.2 : Floating Dome biogas Plant

Fig 7.2 shows a Floating Dome Biogas Plant with the name of its main parts. Its two
parts are the main. The lower part is called digester and the part in which gas is stored
is called gas holder. Cow-dung or any other material is mixed in a definite proportion
with water and kept in inlet tank and the mixture enters the digester through the inlet
pipe. Here fermentation occurs and gas is produced. The produced gas is stored in the
floating dome partly immersed in the slurry. The holder rises as the gas increases in it.
This holder dome is generally made of metallic substances. This model uses liquid
slurry as raw materials. The gas stored in the holder dome is transferred to the place of
use through a pipe. Raw materials entered into the digester, degrade in absence of air,
release gas and go to the well on the right side. This residue is used as valuable
organic fertilizer.
The floating dome biogas plant does not remain efficient for more than three to five
years. Its gas holder is made of M.S sheet and hence it becomes rusty causing
holes. These become useless because transport and welding facilities are not
available in villages.
Fixed Dome Biogas Plant
Floating dome biogas plant has less durability and is expensive. For this fixed dome
biogas plant has been devised.
Intet tank
Gas valve
Soil Surface
Soil Surface
Hydraulic
chamber
Gas chamber
Digester
Fig: 7.3 : Fixed Dome Biogas Plant
The figure 7.3 shows a Fixed Dome Biogas Plant with the name of its different parts.
Its whole part is constructed with bricks, sand and cement. Its construction cost is less
while it lasts longer. It continues to be active for more than 20 years if it can be
constructed perfectly airtight. Its dome is also constructed specially with bricks, sand
and cement. At the centre of the dome a gas valve is fitted conveniently to connect a
pipe leading to the place of use.
Fuel 77
G.I pipe of 1.27 cm

1.27 cm 7.5 cm
Surface diameter 1.27 cm
Surface Surface
12.5 cm 60 cm
Surface
15 cm
diameter
5 cm
7.5 cm
210 cm
Fig: 7.4 (A)
12.5 cm
12.5 cm
60 cm
20 cm
Surface Surface
150 cm
Surface Cutting scene A& B
Surface
60 60
60
160 cm
B
115
80 cm
150 cm
Fig: 7.5 (B)

Fig 7.4: In A and B details of constructing a biogas plant which is able to supply fuel needed
for a family of 7-8 members are shown.
This sort of plant does not have any separate gas holder. Consequently slurry goes
down the digester and makes room for gas. Its pressure also increases with the
increase of volume of gas. It is constructed totally under earth and because of that it
does not waste any space. This model of plant is suitable for using solid, liquid and
slurry form of raw materials.
Construction of Gas Plant
Digester is the important part of a biogas plant (Fig. 7.4). A biogas plant is designed
to provide the fuel needed for cooking and lighting of a family consisting of 7-8
members. It may be constructed in a circular well 2.5 meters in diameter and 2.2
meters depth making the centre of the bottom like an arch. An open passage is
provided with the inlet pipe to the entry well in the left side and the hydraulic
chamber in the right.
Process of construction of digester and hydraulic chamber

One G.I pipe of 1.27 cm in diameter and 25 cm in length is to be fixed vertically to
the upper part of the dome for release of gas. Gas valve is to be constructed at the
upper end of this pipe. In order to make it perfectly air tight the portion from the
upper end of the opening of hydraulic chamber to the upper surface of the dome is to
be constructed in a special manner.
The hydraulic chamber (Figure 7.4B) is a rectangular tank. It is constructed according
to a special measurement. An opening or a gate is provided so that the used up slurry
can go out. The upper surface of the hydraulic chamber is covered with a slab.
At the mouth of the inlet pipe lies the tank made of thick bricks. The interior of this
tank is to be plastered well. After construction of the digester, hydraulic chamber and
the tank at mouth of the inlet pipe, the surroundings of the plant are covered with soil
in such a manner that the upper portion of the dome also lies under soil.
Operating the Plant
At the time of operating the plant 1.5-2.0 tons of raw materials, which are degradable,
like the poultry droppings, cow dung and human excreta are needed. This raw
materials and clear water are mixed in definite proportions, in case of cow dung the
proportion being 1:1 and these are allowed to enter the well slowly through the inlet
pipe. Care should be taken so that earthen clod, stones, sand, straw of big size do not
enter. If the plant is not completely filled up, the rest has to be filled with water.
Maintenance
Biogas technology, operation and maintenance of a biogas plant are very easy. We can
obtain regular supply of gas by observing the following rules:
1. Care must be taken so that earthen clod, stones, bricks or wood do not get into the
plant at the time of charging.
2. If on any occasion, the inlet pipe is blocked, a thin and straight bamboo is to be
inserted and stirred. Care must be taken so that the wall or bottom of the well is
not hurt.
3. If water accumulates inside the pipe, the nearest end is to be opened and water is
to be removed.
4. The plant is to be charged every day. Otherwise the gas supply will fall, and if it
is not charged for a long time, there is possibility of its inlet pipe to be closed.
Fuel 79
Uses of biogas
This gas can be used just like Titas gas.
1. This gas is used for cooking. This gas does not produce any smoke and so the
cooking utensils remain clean.
2. Mantle can be lit to illuminate rooms just like a 'hazak' light.
3. Electricity can be produced by running a generator to operate radio, TV,
refrigerator, VCR etc.
4. Irrigation of agricultural land can be done by running a pump.
5. Vehicles can run with the help of this gas.
Advantages of using biogas
The manifold advantages of using biogas are mentioned below.
General advantages
a) It is a clean fuel gas.
b) It helps to give improved organic fertilizer.
c) If helps to preserve pollution free environment.
d) Maintains healthy and clean environment.
Financial and other advantages
a) As a result of the refuses being used in the plant, after obtaining gas the residue is
an organic fertilizer of high quality. Organic substances, Nitrogen, Phosphorus,
Potassium and micronutrients are preserved in it. This fertilizer is of a very high
quality. This fertilizer can be used for cultivation of mushroom, fishes, earthworms,
pearl etc.
b) The refuses that pollute the environment are used in the biogas plant as raw
materials and are converted into fertilizer free of any bad smell. The harmful
germs of the refuses are also almost destroyed. As a result, the biogas technology
helps to control environmental pollution and maintain a healthy environment.
c) At present, plants, straw, stubbles, cow dung etc. are burnt as fuels for cooking
food items. Consequently, soil is being deprived of natural fertilizers. It we use
biogas technology, this enables to get organic fertilizers through maintaining
organic cycles.
Fuel demand
More than about 3 crore 90 lac tons (170 crore maunds) of fuels are used every year in
our Bangladesh having a population of about *14.66 crore. Of these almost all are
wood, straw, stubbles, dry cow dung etc. As a result of the use of these traditional
* Source : Bangladesh Statistical Pocket Book-2009.
fuels, our forest resource is going to be exhausted, the soil is losing fertility and
environment is threatened with danger. The rate of our population growth is very high.
We will be in great difficulties in meeting up the fuel demand of this increasing
population. We must consider how to face this fuel crisis.
Biogas technology in solving fuel crisis
The number of cattle heads in Bangladesh is about 22 million. Thay give about 220
million kg of cow dung daily. It is possible to produce about 2.97 ×109 cubic metre of
gas from cowdung at the rate of 0.037 cubic meter per kg per year. This gas has the
calorific value equal to 1.52×106 tons of kerosene or 3.04×106 tons of coal. Besides, it
is possible to produce huge amount of gas from human excreta, poultry droppings,
night soil of goat, sheep etc., rubbish, water hyacinth, or aquatic plants. If each and
every family of our country can be connected with biogas plant, 1.03×109 cubic
meters of gas can be produced every year only from human excreta.
Need for maintenance
Biogas technology can lessen greatly the difference between urban and rural life. If
we can arrange for production of biogas, clean fuel, nice light for illuminating houses,
and electricity for running TV will be available even in remote villages. Adoption of
this technology will reduce the pressure on our forest resources. It will be possible to
maintain balance of environment, to grow more crops, and over all, we will be able to
leave a nice and clean environment for our future generation. So, to adopt biogas
technology, to expand it and to maintain it are of immense importance.
Exercise

1. Of the following, which is fossil fuel?
(a) Mineral oil (b) Cow dung
(c) Jute stick (d) Dry leaves
From the following paragraph give answer of the question nos. 2, 3 and 4.
In case of cooking with a view to preparing food for the 15 crores of people in our
country, wood, cow dung, gas, dry leaves, etc. are being used as conventional fuels the
major portion of which is decomposable and helpful in increasing the fertility of the
soil. Besides, gas is also obtained from these decomposable substances. About 0.037
cubic metre gas is obtained from one kg of cow dung.
Fuel 81
2. Calculate the amount of biogas from 220 million kg cow dung obtained annually
from the Cows, Buffalos of Bangladesh.
(a) 2.97 x 107 cubic metre (b) 2.97 x 108 cubic metre
(c) 2.97 x 109 cubic metre (d) 2.97 x 1010 cubic metre
3. Biogas is economical for cooking, because
(i) it can be produced from faeces and urine (of animals).
(ii) it can be produced from stool and urine of human excrete.
(iii) it can be produced by decomposing different parts of the plants.
(a) i and ii (b) ii and iii
(c) i and iii (c) i, ii and iii
4. If biogas is used
(i) there will be scarcity of organic fertilizer
(ii) pollutions free environment will be obtained
(iii) economical development will take place.
(a) i (b) ii
(c) i and iii (d) ii and iii
Creative Questions
Being advised to implement a project for production of electricity from biogas plant
Mr. Rahim set up a plant cable to produce 10 KW electricity. Jarina Begum, his
neighbour, receives electric connection for 2 fans of 75 W and 4 bulbs of 100 W.
Jarina Begum has to pay Tk 5 for each unit of electricity.
(a) What do you mean by biogas?
(b) How does biogas acts as environment friendly?
(c) How much money Jarina Begum had to pay as electric bill for the month of
June 2007?
(d) Emphasing the economical and environmental aspects, give justification of
the counsel for receiving electricity project from biogas plant.
Chapter-Eight
Cellular Structure of an Organism
There are different organisms throughout the world. The natural environment is
composed of these living and non-living objects. Again, the living objects comprise
both the plant and the animal kingdoms. This huge living kingdom influences human
life in many ways. There are many similarities as well as differences between plants
and animals. After all, the bodies of well-organized living organisms are composed of
cells. They take food, respire, and excrete waste products from the body. Both have
birth and death. Both respond to various stimuli like light, heat, cold, touch etc.
Growth of the body occurs in both. Both increase in number by the process of
reproduction. So, we must have clear idea regarding the characteristics of living
organisms, prior to have knowledge about structure.
General characteristics of living organisms
Each living organism has some general characteristics. These characteristics help in
distinguishing living things from non-living ones. The different aspects of life can
be observed through their activities. In order to live, plants and animals do many
things and thus influence each other. Though plants and animals show differences
between their reciprocal activities, they have some fundamental similarities among
them, for example -
Respiration:
In respiration, the potential energy stored within the organic food material in the
living cells is transformed into kinetic energy by burning with help of oxygen. This
energy is utilized for various metabolic functions of life.
Nutrition:
The basis of diverse activities of an organism is energy. Food supplies this energy to
the body. In food the energy is stored in the form of potential energy. Hence, all
organisms have to take food in order to maintain life.
Excretion:
Metabolic processes are continually going on in the body of living organism. The
waste products produced as a result of metabolism are removed from the body by
excretion. Sometimes, in plant's body, the waste products are stored in insoluble form.
Growth:
As a result of intake of food energy is stored in the body and body grows and
develops. Protoplasm plays the vital role in growth.
Cellular Structure of an Organism 83
Movement:
Animals can move voluntarily from one place to another. Plants cannot move freely,
but can expand their branches and can also disseminate their seeds and fruits.
Sensitivity:
All organisms respond to stimuli, such as cold, heat, touch, light etc.
Reproduction:
By the process of reproduction all organisms give birth to their offspring and help in
continuity of generation.
Life cycle:
Each organism passes through definite life cycle from birth till death. An organism
takes birth, grows, reproduces and finally dies.
Cellular Structure of an Organism:
Just as a large building is made of numerous small bricks, the body of a full-grown
multicellular organism is also made of numerous cells. In fact, each organism is made
of either one or more minute cells. These cells are centres, where all the functions of
life like respiration, nutrition, excretion, growth, reproduction etc. take place. The
energy needed for performing physiological functions is produced inside the cells by
chemical reactions and so a cell may be called a tiny chemical factory. The cell works
not only to maintain life, but also to maintain the existence of the organism from
generation to generation. So, the cell is the structural and functional unit of living
organism. In fact, a mass of protoplasm enveloped by a living membrane is called cell.
Cell was discovered by Robert Hook in 1665 A.D.
According to its location and function, cells are mainly of two types, viz-(1) Somatic
Cell wall
Cell membrane
Mitochondria
Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum
Micro tubules
Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough)
Nucleoplasm
Chromosome
Nucleolus
Nuclear membrane
Nuclear pore
Golgi body
Ribosome
vacuole
Chloroplast
Lysosome
Fig 8.1: A typical Plant cell

or body cell (2) Sex cell. Somatic cells constitute organs and organ systems, such as
muscle cells, xylem cells etc. Sex cells are produced in sex organs of organisms in
which sexual reproduction occurs, such as, sperm, egg, pollen etc. In sex cell number
of chromosome is half compared to that of the somatic cell. So sex cell is called a
haploid cell. Since the somatic cell has a chromosome number twice as that in a sex
cell, it is called a diploid cell.
Different Parts and Their Functions in a Typical cell:
Though very small in size and volume, a cell is quite complex in structure and
functions. A typical plant cell consists mainly of two parts, cell wall and protoplasm.
The characteristics of different structures and the functions of a typical plant cell is
discussed below:
Cell wall and cell membrane:
Cell wall is the outermost covering of the cell. It is made of non-living cellulose and it
is a unique feature of plant cell. There is no cell wall in animal cell. The very thin
elastic, living membrane that envelopes the cytoplasm is called the cell membrane or
plasma membrane. It controls the movement of substances inside and outside the cell.
Protoplasm:
Protoplasm is the fundamental structural material of a cell. It contains about 75 to 95
percent of water. Nucleus, mitochondria, plastid etc. are found either in floating or
immersed condition in the protoplasm.
Protoplasm is made of organic materials like protein, carbohydrate, lipid etc. Among
the inorganic materials, minerals and water soluble gases are the main. All the
functions of the cell occur in protoplasm. It is generally mobile and capable of
reproduction.
Cytoplasm:
The part of protoplasm surrounding the nucleus is called cytoplasm. It is mainly made
of protein. The organelles which are found in the cytoplasm are discussed below:
Mitochondria:
Mitochondria are the respiratory
organelles of cell. Mitochondria are Outer membrane Cristae Matrix Stalked circular
the only source of energy required for body
metabolic functions of the cell. It is
therefore, called 'power house' of cell.
It plays the major role in oxygen
transport and in conducting the
respiratory function. Mitochondria
may be spherical, rod-shaped or
thread-like. They are scattered in the
cytoplasm of plant and animal cells. Fig 8.2: Mitochondria
Cellular Structure Of An Organism 85
Mitochondria is covered by two envelopes. The outer membrane is smooth while the
inner one is folded in many forms towards the inside of it. These hanging folds are
called cristae. Mitochondria contains 73% protein, 25% lipid and 0.5% RNA. The
semi liquid granular substance found inside the mitochondria is called matrix.
Vacuole:
In the cytoplasm, the fluid-filled space surrounded by a single membrane, is called
vacuole. Water, organic acids, carbohydrate, mineral salts etc. are stored in the vacuoles.
In plant cell, vacuoles are large and occupy a major portion of the cell. In animal cell
the vacuoles are very small in size but numerous. It acts as a reservoir in cell.
Plastid:
The organelles, either coloured or non-coloured, found in plant cells are called
plastids. Plastid is a unique feature of plant cell. Leaves, flowers and fruits have
different colours due to the presence of plastid.
The plastid which contains green chlorophyll is called chloroplast. Leaves are green
for the presence of chloroplasts. Chloroplast contains chlorophyll, carotene and
xanthophyll. Chlorophyll helps in photosynthesis.
Plastid containing pigments other than green (red, yellow) is called chromoplast. It
contains large amount of carotene and xanthophyll. Flowers and fruits are of different
colours due to the presence of chromoplasts. And for this reason, insects and
butterflies are attracted to the flowers and cause pollination.
Colourless plastid is called leucoplast. It is found in the underground part of the plant
(roots, underground stems). It stores food.
Nucleus:
In the protoplasm the most dense, almost round cell organelle is called nucleus.
Nucleus controls all the metabolic functions of the cell.
Nucleus is separated from the
cytoplasm by a thin living membrane.
This living membrane is called
nuclear membrane. The fluid Nuclear membrane
composed of protein, present inside
Nucleolus
the nucleus is called nucleoplasm.
Nucleoplasm
One or more bright dense rounded Nuclear pore
structure in the nucleus is called
Chromosomes
nucleolus. Nucleolus takes part in cell
division. Inside the nucleus are long
thread-like structures called chromosomes.
Fig 8.3: Nucleus
The chromosome is made of numerous; very minute genes or hereditary units. The
chemical constituent of gene is DNA. The different characteristics of an organism like
body shape, volume, colour, sex etc. are transmitted to its offspring's through genes.
Therefore, chromosome is called the bearer and transmitter of heredity.
Nucleus controls all the physiological functions of the cell. A cell cannot survive
without nucleus. So, it is called the centre of life of cell.
Chromosomes in sex determination of children:
There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell of human body. Among them 22 pairs
control the structural organization and physiological functions of the body and the
remaining one pair determines the sex of the child. Both the sex determining
chromosomes in the diploid cells in females are X chromosomes (XX). But in males,
one is X and the other is Y chromosome (XY). While forming eggs in females, each
egg in female, receives one X chromosome along with other chromosomes. But in
males, during the formation of sperms half the sperms receive X chromosome and the
other half receive Y chromosome. If a sperm carrying X chromosome fertilizes the
egg, then the fertilized egg will have XX chromosomes and the child will be female.
On the other hand if a sperm carrying Y chromosome fertilizes the egg, the fertilized
egg will have XY chromosomes and as a result the child will be male.
In our country, mothers are often blamed due to ignorance and superstition, when a
female child is born. But in giving birth to a female child, mothers have no role to play.
Father Mother
Body cell XY XX chromosome
chromosome Diploid XY XX
Diploid Father Mother
Sex Cell spermatozoa Ovum X or X

X or Y haploid
Haploid
xx xx xy xy
Daughter Daughter Son Son
Fig 8.4: Sex Determination
Plant Cell and Animal Cell

There are many similarities between plant and animal cells. However, observation
under microscope reveals some differences between them.
Differences between Plant and Animal Cell
Plant Cell Animal Cell

1. In plant cell outside the plasma 1. Animal cell has cell membrane, but
membrane there is a non-living cell cell wall is absent.
wall made of cellulose.
2. Plant cell generally has plastids. 2. Plastids are absent in animal cell.
3. Since the vacuole is large in plant 3. In animal cell, vacuoles are very
cell, the nucleus lies at one side of small and numerous. So nucleus lies
the cell. at the centre of the cell.
4. In plant cell, carbohydrate is stored 4. In animal cell, carbohydrate is stored
as starch. as glycogen.
5. Centrosome is absent in it. 5. Centrosome is always present in it.
Smooth endoplasmic Retieulum
Cell wall
Cell membrane
Centrusome
Centriole
Golgi body
Nuclear membrane
Cytoplaem
Nucleolus
Chromosome
Mitochondrion
Vacuole
Rough
endoplasmic Reticulum
Chloroplast
Animal cell Plant cell
Fig. 8.5: Plant cell and animal cell
Transformation of cell:
At the beginning each organism is unicellular (fertilized egg). Apart from unicellular
organisms (Bacteria, Amoeba etc.), all plants and animals divide, increase in number,
from the beginning of the unicellular state and develop as a complex and multi-
cellular organisms with different sizes and shapes. This growth of body occurs
through repeated cell divisions. In this way after the formation of numerous cells by
repeated cell division, distribution of labour becomes necessary for performing
various physiological functions. As a result the cells are transformed for suitability of
the various functions, according to which tissue, tissue system, organs, organ systems
of so diverse type of bodies are developed.
In multi-cellular organisms, each type of cell has definite function. Since their functions
are definite, there must be coordination between them. As a result of this coordination,
an internal balance is maintained between tissue and tissue system and overall functions
of an organism are performed property. For this reason an organism performs its
functions precisely and are capable of food-intake, growth and reproduction.
Tissue:
The body of developed organism is composed of numerous cells of different shapes.
To perform physiological functions like movement, respiration, nutrition, defense etc.
the cells of the same shape and nature cluster together. This aggregation of cells is
called tissue. Sometimes, the cells of same type or of different shapes are aggregated
together to form tissue.
In multi-cellular plants, according to the diversity of functions and their power
division; the tissues are of two types.
For example -
(A) Meristematic tissue and (B) Permanent tissue
A. Meristematic tissue:
Tissue composed of cells which have
the power of cell division is called Cell wall
meristemtic tissue. The cells of the Nucleus
meristematic tissue are oval or
Cytoplasm
rectangular and have large nuclei.
Meristematic tissue increases number
of cells by continuous cell division.
In the stellar region of plants a special Fig: 8.6: Meristematic tissue
meristematic tissue called cambium is
present. It lies in a circle between xylem and phloem tissue. It is composed of single
layer of parenchyma tissue between xylem and phloem tissue. Due to the division of
this cambium tissue, new phloem and xylem tissues are formed in the outer and inner
part of the stem respectively. In this way the stem of big trees increases on lateral side,
that is, in diameter. Such growth of plants is called secondary growth. As a result of
secondary growth big trees like mango, black berry, jackfruit etc. grow in diameter.
B. Permanent tissue:
Tissue incapable of cell division, produced from meristematic tissue, is called
permanent tissue. Permanent tissues are mainly of three types 1) Simple tissue, 2)
Complex tissue and 3) Secretory tissue.
1) Simple tissue:
Tissue composed of cells of similar shape and structure is called simple tissue for
example parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma
Fig 8.7: Simple tissue
Parenchyma:
The cells of this tissue are living and round or oval or polyhedral in shape. The cell
wall is thin, uniform and made of cellulose. Nucleus is large in size. The amount of
protoplasm is more and number of vacuoles is great. There are intercellular spaces
between the cells of this tissue. The tender parts of root, leaves and stems of plants are
made of this tissue.
Collenchyma:
The cells of this tissue are slightly elongated and living. The cell wall is unequally
thickened. The corners of the cell walls are much thickened due to accumulation of
pectin. Collenchyma is found in the leaf petioles, leaf veins and pedicel of flowers.
The functions of this tissue is to prepare food and to give necessary firmness to the
different organs.
Sclerenchyma:
The cells of this tissue are elongated and their ends are pointed. They have no
protoplasm. The cell wall is very thick and hard. Sclerenchyma occurs around the
vascular bundle and beneath the epidermis of the plant. The main function of this
tissue is to provide rigidity into different parts of the plant.
2) Complex tissue:
Different types of permanent tissue grouped together and performing the same
function are called complex tissue. They form the vascular tissue system in plants.
Complex tissue is of two types, such as-xylem and phloem.
Xylem: The complex tissue by which water and water soluble minerals are conducted
in the plant body from the soil is called xylem. Xylem and phloem constitue vascular
bundle. This tissue is composed mainly of four different types of tissues-trachied,
trachea, xylem parenchyma. and xylem fibres.
Xylem tube with thick

lignified wall
Large xylem vessel with

lignin covering
Live xylem
parenchyma
Xylem tube with porous wall
Transverse section
Longitudinal
Trachea section
Fig 8.8: Xylem tissue
Phloem:
Through this complex tissue the Sieve plate
organic food materials produced in the
leaves are transported to different parts Sieve tube
Companion cell
of the plant. Phloem is a living tissue.
Phloem acts as a complementary to
xylem in forming the vascular bundle. Phloem parenchyma
The cells of this tissue, though of
different shapes and structures, are
engaged to perform definite functions.
The phloem is composed of sieve
tubes, companion cells, phloem
parenchyma and phloem fibres.
Fig 8.9: Phloem tissue
3) Secretory tissue :
The tissue from which different kinds
Latex tube
of liquid are secreted are called
Latex cell
secretory tissue. Secretory tissues are
of two kinds, namely-
(a) Laticiferous tissue and
(b) Glandular tissue Fig 8.10: Different cells of secretory tissue
Tissue system, Organ, Organ system and organism:

A number of tissues produced from the same source and engaged in the same function
are called tissue system. As for example, xylem and phloem tissue constitute the
vascular tissue system. In order to perform the same type of functions, a number of
tissues or tissue systems aggregate together and constitute an organ, for example
leaves, root, stem etc.
When a number of organs combine together to perform the same type of function, it is
called organ system. For example, the respiratory system in animals is formed to carry
on respiration and is composed of trachea, lungs etc.
A number of organs or organ systems constitute a developed or complex organism for
instance, our human body, body of a mango tree etc.
Exercise

1. The color of flower becomes red, yellow and rosy, because it contains
(a) chromoplast (b) leucoplast
(c) chloroplast (d) nuc1eus
2. In case of animal cell
(i) Carbohydrate is stored as glycogen in animal cells.
(ii) DNA plays role in determining size, color and sex of a body.
(iii) Mitochondria supplies energy for the metabolic functions of the cell.
Which is correct?
(a) i (b) i and ii
(c) ii and iii (d) i, ii and iii
From the following diagram answer the question no 3 and. 4
3. the organelle as shown in the diagram is called centre of life because

(a) Cell cannot live without it.
(b) It controls almost all the works of the cell.
(c) It takes part in producing energy.
(d) It contains plastids.
4. The works of B and C marked portions of the diagram are
(i) Cell division and sex determinations.
(ii) Determination of the color of the body and cell division.
(iii) Determination of color, volume and sex of the body.
Which is correct?
(a) i (b) ii
(c) iii (d) i and iii
Creative Questions
Answer the following questions from the above diagram.

(a) What is cell ?
(b) Why the position of 'A' marked organelle is close to the wall ?
(c) What would happen to the cell if there would be no 'A' marked organelle ?
(d) The 'B' marked organelle is an unparallel characteristic of the cell. Explain.
Chapter - Nine
Diversities in Plants
Plants are invaluable resource of nature. A wide varieties of plants grow all around ,
starting from highest peak of mountains to the bottom of the sea in the world. Even
plants grow in the body of living organisms. They also widely vary in shape and size
as well as in types and nature. Some of them are about 100 metres tall. Whereas some
are so small that they cannot be seen with eyes. All these plants together constitute
the plant kingdom. Plants play an important role in maintaining the balance of nature.
Necessity for Classification:
Human life is thoroughly mixed up with these diverse plants. They are both beneficial
as well as harmful, but the extent of benefit is much greater than that of harm. But our
knowledge about this vast plant kingdom is very limited. Whereas, for achieving
success in agriculture, industry, forestation, conservation of environment programme
etc. utilization of plant resources is indispensable. But for this we need to have
appropriate and technological knowledge about the plants.
It is humanly impossible for one to know or to identify each plant separately because
of their wide diversities in characteristics. But for the sake of our own interest it is
essential to know about all the plants of the plant kingdom. This is why, plant
kingdom is classified into various groups in order to know easily about the
innumerable plants of the plant world. As a result of classification, it is possible to
know easily about all the plants in a group by knowing only a particular plant
belonging to that group. Dividing plants scientifically based on special characteristics
into different groups is known as plant classification.
External and internal structure, life cycle, evolution, habitat, distribution etc. are
important characteristics of each plant species. In view of these, even though there are
differences from one species to another, there are also similarities in some of the
aspects . Thus based on the presence or absence of root, stem or flower, the plant
kingdom is divided into algae, fungi, moss, ferns etc.; based on the characteristics of
stems into herbs, shrubs and trees, based on habitat into xerophytes, mesophytes,
halophytes, hydrophytes etc. and based on life cycle into annual, biennial and
perennial. We have already learnt about these.
On the basis of these in order to know different plants and to apply the acquired
knowledge into practice, the plant kingdom has been divided into the following
groups. The characteristics of each of the group is also described here with examples.
Primitive Plants or Protophyta

Plants belonging to the group of Protophyta are acellular or cellular and microscopic.
They are devoid of any organized nucleus. They are generally of two types, namely
virus and bacteria.
Virus
Virus is the simplest and smallest form of
life on earth. They are so small that they Protein cost
cannot be seen without the help of electron
RNA
microscope. Viruses are of different types .
Among them tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)
(A) Influenza virus
and T2virus or phage virus are well known.
The body of virus is not composed of cell. Protein cost
They have no system for taking food, RNA

excretion, respiration, nutrition etc.
(B) Tobacco mosaic virus
Their bodies do not grow. They are
DNA
dependent on other substances or organisms
for transmission. Most of the characteristics Protein cost
of organisms are absent in virus. But virus (C) Poliomyletis virus
is composed of biochemical substances and
are capable of multiplication inside the
suitable host-body utilizing biochemical DNA
substances of the host. All viruses possess Protein coat
Collar
these two significant characteristics. Hence,
Attachment Fibres
virus is considered as a form of living
entity. Virus is considered as a connecting
(D) T2 Bacteriophage
link between non living and living things.
Fig: 9.1 Different types of virus
Shape and structural features:
Virus may be spherical, needle-shaped, tadpole-shaped or loaf-shaped. Nucleic acid
(DNA or RNA) is contained within their outer coat made up of protein.
T2-phage is a tadpole-shaped virus, It has a head and a tail. The outer covering is
composed of protein and inside the head there is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). A
collar like part is present at the junction of the head and tail, there is a base plate at the
end of the tail and a few long threadlike attachment fibres.
Diversities In Plants 95
DNA
Virus pushes DNA into the
bacterium through the cell
wall
Color New virus-DNA is produced

out of chemical substances in
the bacteria cell.
Protein coat
Capsid
Production of head and tail
for new viruses
New viruses come out

breaking down the bacteria
cell wall
Attchment fibre
Base Plate
Fig .9.2 Structure of T2 virus Fig. 9.3 Multiplication of T2 virus
T2 phage sticks to the body of the host bacteria with the help of attachment fibres.
Then it pushes its nucleic acid from the head through the hollow tail into the body of
the bacterium. The nucleic acid utilizing bacterial cell constituents produces
innumerable new viruses within a very short time (about 30 minutes). Finally, the new
viruses come out by dissolving the cell wall of the bacterium. These new viruses on
getting suitable host bacteria around them, they can also multiply in the same way.
Economic Importance of virus:
Virus is mostly known as a disease producing organism. The following is a list of
diseases caused by virus and their hosts, that is, the names of the organisms.
Diseases Host
Rabies Dog
Ranikhet Chicken
Mosaic disease Tobacco, paddy, jute, papaya etc.
Dwarf or tungro Rice
Influenza, polio, measles, Man
mumps, harpies,
AIDS etc.
As a result of these diseases, plants and animals become sick and may become
disabled or may die ultimately. Vaccination for prevention of these diseases is more
effective than their treatment. The disease causing virus is weakened or killed by
special methods and is used in the preparation of vaccines of measles and polio.
These vaccines help in the development of immunity in the body against the diseases.
Viruses are also directly beneficial to us. Some times the numbers of unwanted
animals can be controlled by using virus. One of such glaring example is the use of
Myxometosis virus for controlling the number of rabbits in Australia. Virus causes
death and decay of innumerable bacteria, protozoa etc. and convert their dead remains
into fertilizers in the soil.
Bacteria:
Though bacteria are larger than viruses, they are much smaller compared to other
organisms and are composed of cell. But they cannot be seen with bare eyes, but can
be seen only with the help of compound microscope. The external morphology of
different type of bacteria are shown is the diagram.
a) Micrococcus b) Diplococcus c) Streptococcus d) Stafylococcus e) Sarcina
f) Bacillus g) comma h) Spirillum j) Spirochete
Fig .9.4 Different types of bacteria.
Experiment: Put a drop of curd in the middle of a glass slide and spread it using the
edge of another slide. Dry the curd by heating the slide over spirit lamp . Then stain
the slide using crystal violet solution. After drying, wash the stain on the slide under
drops of water and then examine the slide under a compound microscope. Now try to
identify Lactobacillus bacteria comparing with the diagram in the book.
In 1665 Leeuwen Hook first discovered different forms of bacteria using lens which
was discovered by himself. He named them tiny organisms.
More than 10-12 crores of bacteria live in one tea-spoonful of fertile soil. Besides,
bacteria can live in water, compost, body of other organism and numerous bacteria are
temporarily present in the air.
Structure of Bacteria: Bacteria are basically unicellular organism with primitive

nucleus. They are mostly spherical, Flagellum
rod-shaped or spiral in shape. But in
Chromosome
some cases 2, 4, 8, 16 or more cells Cell wall
are arranged in a definite pattern in Cytoplasmic
membrance
their body. Even though bacteria are Mesosome
unicellular, their body structure is
unique and different from common Ribosome
plants and animals. It is covered with

a complex cell wall composed of
three layers. Fig 9.5: Structure of bacteria.
Outer most mucilaginous layer is called the slime layer. Under special circumstances
when this layer becomes very thick , then it is called a capsule. Middle layer is the
common cell wall and the innermost layer is the cell-membrane or protoplasmic
membrane. Some bacteria develop flagella (singular-flagellum), thread-like
outgrowths. These flagella originating in the cell and projecting from them through
the cell wall. By their movement in different directions bacteria are capable of
moving. Inside the cell is the protoplast. Their nucleus is not well-organized. Other
organelles, such as chromosome vacuole, plastid etc. and fatty substances are
dispersed in the protoplast.
Reproduction in Bacteria:
Bacteria generally reproduce by binary Mother cell
fission. In this method the nucleus
divides first. Almost simultaneously
the cell wall from two sides in the Nucleus divided into two
middle, starts growing inwardly. This
newly formed cell wall divides the cell Cell membrane inward
into two parts. The two daughter cells projection
thus formed soon attain full size of
bacteria and start dividing again. In Cell wall formed
some bacteria, binary fission is
completed every 20 minutes. In this
way, in a very short time a large Two independent
number of bacteria can be produced Bacteria
from a single bacterium.
Fig: 9.6 Multiplication of bacteria by
binary fission
Economic Importance of Bacteria:
Even though bacteria are commonly known as harmful organism, they are infact
beneficial to human being and environment. Some beneficial and harmful bacteria are
briefly described here.
Beneficial roles among others include soil quality, that is increase of soil fertility,
waste disposal through their decomposition, industrial production such as removing
fur from the skin, production of alcohol, vaccines etc. are specially mentionable.
Besides, bacteria play an important role in separating fibres from jute plant, a major
economic crop of Bangladesh. The bacteria which live in water, enter the jute plant
and dissolve the chemical substances which bind the fibres in the bark and use these
as food. As a result, the fibres are separated.
Bacteria also play some harmful roles. These include, causing diseases like cholera,
typhoid, tuberculosis, diphtheria, pneumonia etc. in human; cholera and other diseases
in domestic animals, rotting of fruits, vegetables, fish, meat etc. and decreasing soil
fertility by releasing nitrogen fixed in the soil as nitrogen gas.
Spores
Thallophyta :
Sporangium
Plants belonging to the thallophyta Columella
Sporangiophore
group are unicellular or multi cellular Mycelium Nucleus
Chlorophyllous or non chlorophyllous,
plants with branches or without
Food substance
branches. Thalloid body is the main Rhizoid
characteristic of these plants, that is,
Pileus
body is not differentiated into roots,
stems and leaves. They are mainly of Gill
two types such as fungi and algae. But Vellum

a kind of symbiotic thallophyta is Stipe
formed by the association of algae and
fungi which is known as lichen. Mycelium
Fungi: Fig. 9.7: Mucor and Agaricus
Fungi are thallophytes, their body is devoid of chlorophyll, so they cannot

manufacture food through the process of photosynthesis. Hence they depend for food
on decaying organic substances or on food produced by other organisms. For example
Mucor (bread mould), Agaricus (mushroom), Puccinia (wheat desease) etc. Fungi
grow in food substances, wooden furniture, leather goods, crowdung, soil and bodies
of other organisms.
Fungi which grow in decaying organic substances and food materials are
saprophytic fungi such as Mucor and Agaricus. And the fungi which grow in the
body of organisms and derive their food directly from them are parasitic fungi such
as Phytophthora.
Agaricus: Agaricus is a saprophytic fungus. They generally grow during the rainy
season in meadows, home yard, and decaying damp soil of forests. The fine thread-
like network of their main body spread far away in all directions under the soil. This
part is the mycelium. Under favourable conditions first small ball like structures grow
from the mycelium. Then these structures grow above the soil surface into an
umbrella like structure. This umbrella like structure is the fruit body. Innumerable
minute spores are produced in this part for propagation of the fungi. Fruit body is used
as delicious food in many countries. This kind of fungus is also now cultivated in
Bangladesh for use as food.
Experiment : Collect Agaricus from the school or home compound and observe
under lens. Try to identify Agaricus by comparing with the diagram of book.
Economic importance: Fungi cause much beneficial and harmful effect to us. Fungi
are used in industries like bread-making, cheese ctc. Valuable antibiotics are produced
from fungi. The most notable of these is the penicillin. Fungi spoil many substances
of use including food stuffs. They cause different diseases of man and plants. Late
blight of potato and brown spot of rice are caused by fungal infection. The fungi are
responsible for causing much losses of economic crops. Besides, fungi are
responsible for causing different kinds of diseases in various organs like skin, liver,
lungs, nose, ear, throat etc. of different animals including man.
Algae: Algae are thallophyte plants. They have chlorophyll in their body. They can
produce food with the help of chlorophyll through the process of photosynthesis, such
as Spirogyra, Chlorella etc. Algae grow in water, soil and stems and leaves of plants.
Spirogyra: They are green thread -
like multicellular and unbranched Pyrenoid
algae. Their body is made of many Cell wall
narrow cells joined end to end. Each
cell contains a spiral chloroplast with Nucleus
chlorophyll and pyrenoids. Starch is

stored in the pyrenoids .
Chloroplast
In each cell the nucleus is suspended
with the cytoplasmic strands.
Spirogyra grow in the water of ponds,
ditches, cannals marshy lands, rivers,
streams etc. Fig 9.8: Structure of Spirogyra
Experiment: Collect some floating green algae in a beaker containing water from a
stagnant water source. Then take threads of algae on a glass slide and examine under a
compound microscope. Try to identify the spirogyra matching with the diagram in the
book.
Economic importance: Algae are both useful and harmful to us. Many algae are used
as food for fishes, cattle and human. Iodine, food stuffs, agar and many other valuable
products are made of algae. Blue green algae increase the fertility of the soil.
Lichen:
Lichen is a special kind of symbiotic plant made up of algae and fungi. The algae
help the fungi in their nutrition through the production of food materials in
photosynthesis, while the fungi help the algae by supplying water and mineral salts
Foliose lichen Fruticose lichen Crustose lichen
Fig: 9.9 Different types of lichens
collected from the host body. The process is called 'symbiosis'. This kind of plants
generally grow on the bark of large trees and rocks. Based on the characteristics of
structure lichens may be divided mainly into there types:
(I) crustose lichen (2) foliose lichen and (3) fruticose lichen
Economic Importance : Lichens help in soil formation. Besides; lichens are used in
the industries of aromatic products, pharmaceuticals, dye products etc.
Embryophyta
Embryo is the principal characteristic of these plants. They produce new plants
through embryo. Fertilization of male and female gametes leads to the production of
the zygote. This zygote later on is converted into the embryo. All the plants belonging
to this group are advance to those in the thallophyta group. All plants other than those
described earlier are embryophyta.
(A) Bryophyta
Plants of this group are comparatively advanced than those of the thallophyta.
Their body may or may not be made up of stem and leaf. But they never produce root.
Instead of roots, they produce hair like fine rhizoids. They grow in shaded damp soil,
old walls, and roofs, bricks, dead stems of trees etc, Example-Moss.
Moss: Capsule
The body of Moss plant is divided into rhizoids, stem Calyptra
and leaves. Leaves grow spirally on the short slender Seta
stem. The entire body including the rhizoids is called Leaf
the gametophyte. Sporophyte is produced at the apex
top of the matured gametophyte. The capsule of the
sporophyte contains spores from which new moss
Rhizoid
plants grow. In favouarable condition moss plants grow
Fig: 9.10: Moss
like a green carpet covering soil, on the mountain slope.
Experiment: Collect a few moss, examine or observe one of these under a
magnifying glass, or simple microscope and compare the structure with the diagram
in the text book.
Economic Importance : Economically Bryophyta are not of much significance.
These plants by growing on the hard substratum under wet environment facilitate the
formation of a soil layer which in turn becomes suitable for the growth of other plants.
That means, they play an important role in the succession of plants. But these plants
by growing on the walls and roofs of buildings cause damage to them.
(B) Pteridophyta or fern like Plants
Plants belonging to the pteridophyta group are advanced than those of the
bryophyta. These plants bear roots, stem and leaves but never produce flower. They
grow in the shaded places on damp soil, old walls and the stems of large trees.
Example-Fern or Dhekishak.
Fern : Fern body is divided into roots, stem and leaves. But the stem is modified into
rhizome which lies horizontally under the soil. Their leaf is compound which at early
stage is coiled like of the dog's tail. Leaves come out from the stem on the soil in the
form of bundles. Leaves are divided into small parts. Each of these small part is called
pinnule. Leaf surface is covered with brown scales.
During summer, kidney shaped
sori grow on the undersurface of
leaves, The spores are produced in
Frond
the sorus, from which new fern Leaf
plants grow. Ferns grow in the
Coild young leaf
damp soil under bushes and on the
Stem
old walls. Adventitious root
Fig: 9.11: Fern plant
Economic Importance: Pteridophyta are economically important. Many good-

looking fern plants are grown for the decoration. Some of these plants are taken as
vegetables by us. Mineral coals are considered to be the fossilised body of ancient
fern plants. But some of these cause great damage by growing on old building and on
trunk of trees.
(C) Flowering plants or Spermatophyta:
Production of flower is the principal characteristics of flowering plants that is,
spermatophytes. Plant body is divided into root, stem and leaf. They can be divided
into two major divisions, such as the gymnosperms (naked seeded plants) and
angiospermes (closed seeded plants).
Gymnosperm: Since there is no
ovary in the flowers, the ovules
remain uncovered and on fertilization
produce seeds. They do not produce
any fruits. So seeds are not covered
by the fruit wall. Examples-Cycas,
Cycas Pinus
Pinus, Thuja etc.
Fig. 9.12: Gymnosperm
Economic Importance: Some of (Naked seeded Plant)
these plants are grown in pots, garden,
park or by the road side as decorative
plant.
Angiosperm: The flowers of the
plants bear ovary and ovules. On
fertilization the ovules are converted
into seeds and the ovary into fruits.
Paddy Coconut Mango
The seeds remain covered in the
Fig. 9.13: Angiosperm
fruits. The angiosperms are of two (Covered seeded plant)
types, such as 1) Monocotyledons and
2) Dicotyledons.
Monocotyledons: There is only one colyledon in the seeds of monocotyledonous
plants. Generally the monocotyledonous p1ants produce adventitious roots and their
leaves have parallel venation. Examples-paddy, sugarcane, coconut etc.
Dicotyledons: In the dicotyledonous plants, there are two cotyledons in the seed.
They produce tap roots system and the leaves have reticulate venation. Examples
Mango, black berry, jackfruit etc.
Economic Importance: Flowering plants are most important to mankind. Because
we obtain most of the daily necessary things from these plants. Our staple food like
rice, bread, biscuit, loaf etc. are obtained from the plants like paddy, wheat etc. We
take fruits like mango, blackberry, jackfruit, guava, plum etc. Brinjal, jinga, patal,
potato etc. are used as vegetables. Cloth is made from cotton and jute. Furniture and
house budding materials are made of the trees like shal, gorjon karoi, teak etc.
Medicine is obtained from the plants like neem, bashak, amloki, haritoki, baihera etc.
Plants like china-rose, rose, gardenia, marigold, dahlia, etc. are planted for flowers.
Paper is manufactured from the wood of Geoa, bamboo, green jute etc. Food,
clothing, shelter, medical treatment that means,the development of human civilization,
have been based basically on the flowering plants.
Tabular diagram of the Plant Kingdom
The different groups, under the plant kingdom described above can be represented by
the following tabular diagram:
Plant kingdom
Protophyta Thallophyta Embryophyta

(Primitive plants (Thalloid body) (Embryo-bearing
Virus Bacteria Fungi Lichen Algae
Bryophyta Pteridophyta Spermatophyta

(Flowering plants
Gymnosperm Angiosperm
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
Through above description and experimentations, we have been able to acquaint

ourselves with some plants of different groups. We can identify plants as per the tabular
diagram after collecting plants specimens from the surrounding environment and
arranging them in groups on the basis of their characteristics. At the same time, we can
understand the various roles of plants in socio-economic activities, such as agriculture,
industries, trade and commerce, forestation and maintaining the balance of nature. We
can also understand other potentialities of plants and apply further for our benefit.
Exercises

1. Which is absent in the plants belonging to pteridophyta?
(a) Root (b) Stem
(c) Flower (d) Leave
2. Of the following, which plants are monocot?

(a) Jack fruit and coconut (b) Sugarcane and paddy
(c) Mango and black berry (d) Cycus and pynus
3.
Of the diagram shown, which is lactobassilus bacteria?

(a) A (b) B
(c) C (d) D
Three statements are given below

(i) Bacteria is used in increasing fertility of the soil and separating hair from skin.
(ii) Virus is responsible for rabies.
(iii) An antibiotic penicillium by name is produced from fungus.

(a) i (b) i and ii
Creative Questions
Flagellum
Nuclear Material
Cell wall
Ribosome
(a) What is the name of the organism shown in the diagram?

(b) Write two differences between its cell wall and cell wall of the plant cell?
(c) Describe with diagram how this organism reproduces?
(d) Describe, in brief, the four benficial aspects of the organism.
Chapter Ten
Plant Physiology
Plant requires metabolic energy for carrying out various physical and physiological
activities. They obtain this energy from food. In this chapter we will learn how and
from where plants obtain the principal constituents of food such as water and carbon
dioxide essential for synthesis of food, how in green leaves carbohydrate food is
synthesized by chlorophyll in presence of sunlight from different raw materials, how
the prepared food in the leaves are distributed to all the organs and the cells through
phloem tissues and how cells obtain metabolic energy from the carbohydrate food
required for carrying out various physiological functions and how reproduction takes
place in plants.
Absorption of Water and Mineral Salts by Plants
Plant body is composed of different kinds of chemical substances. But water
constitutes the largest proportion of the plant body. All these chemical constituents are
produced in the body by the various physiological processes. Again, mineral salts are
required for synthesis of different chemical substances such as carbohydrate, protein,
oil etc. Plants are required to absorb the primary constituents of these chemical
substances from the environment. That is why, plants absorb water and mineral salts
from the soil through roots. But lower class of plants absorb water by osmosis,
through the body surface or by some root like organs.
Plant Nutrients
Plants absorb various mineral salts from the environment for maintaining life process
and reproduction, as well as for repairing the losses and for growth. These are known
as plant nutrients and the mineral salts are called the nutrient elements.
Different Nutrient Elements And Their Significance
Chemical analysis of different types of plants have shown that for most of the plants
total sixteen elements are essential for their normal nutrition. Among these ten
elements such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, iron, phosphorous, sulphur,
potassium, calcium and magnesium are required comparatively in higher proportion.
So these are known as macro-elements. While six other elements such as manganese,
copper, zinc, molybdenum, boron and chlorine are required in traces. So, these are
called micro-elements.
Different mineral elements are essential for various physiological functions of plants
in varying quantities. Because different mineral elements perform special functions in
Plant Physiology 107
various organs. That is why, the normal nutrition of plant is hindered due to the
absence or shortage of any one of the above mentioned sixteen elements.
The following table shows the significant roles played by ten nutritional elements and
the nutrient deficiency symptoms caused by shortage or lack of these elements in
plants.
Table: Roles and deficiency symptoms of ten mineral nutrients
Mineral nutrients Roles/functions Nutrient Deficiency
symptoms
1. Carbon Constituent of all organic Hamper photosynthesis and
compounds. synthesis of biological
compounds.
2. Nitrogen Formation of chlorophyll, Hamper formation of
nucleic acid and protein. chlorophyll, cell division
and growth of cells.
3. Oxygen Formation of all organic Hamper formation of
substances including protoplasm and all other
protoplasm organic compounds, as well
as impair respiration and
causes death of plants.
4. Hydrogen Formation of protoplasm Hamper physiological
and all other organic processes and formation of
compounds. all organic substances.
5. Phosphorus Formation of nucleic acid, Dropping of immature

co-enzyme and other leaves, flowers and fruits;
organic substances. development of brown spots
Acceleration of the growth on leaves and fruits and
of root and ripening of fruit. impairing the growth of
plants.
6. Sulphur Synthesis of protein, Hamper protein synthesis,

formation of chlorophyll, cell division and production
cell division and production of fruits. Leaves turn yellow
of fruits. and drop prematurely.
7. Potassium Formation of protoplasm, Retard plant growth and

cell division, and promoting development, delaying
production of flower, fruit formation of flower and
and root formation. fruit; spot on the edges and
tips of leaves.
8. Calcium Formation of cell wall, helps Spot on the edges/margins

in neutralizing poisonous of leaves. Causes
effects on carbohydrate deformation and death of
metabolism and nitrogen leaves and buds. Drying of
metabolism. apical shoots of plants.
9. Magnesium Major constituent of Causes chlorosis in between

chlorophyll. Facilitate the fine veins of leaves.
carbohydrate metabolism, Causes dropping of leaves
synthesis of fats and untimely.
promote respiration
10. Iron Constituent of chlorophyll, Develop chlorosis of the
helps in photosynthesis. leaves through destruction
of chlorophyll. Occasionally
the entire leaf is turned
colourless.
Different types of plant nutrients are absorbed from soil and atmosphere. Among the
macro and micro nutrients only oxygen and carbon-dioxide are directly absorbed from
the air and hydrogen is obtained through water. All other nutrients are absorbed by the
root hairs from the soil in the form of their respective ions. But some algae and
bacteria can directly absorb nitrogen from air.
Generally plant nutrients are available in the fertile soil. Soil fertility increases by the
decomposition and mixing of the remains of dead plants and animals in the soil.
Fertility of cultivated lands can also be increased by adding cowdung. In fact, a lot of
nutritive elements are added to the soil through the death and decay of plants and
animals as well as through the decay of their excretory products.
Repeated cultivation and grazing reduces fertility of land which may be replenished,
that is, the proportion of plant nutrient elements can be increased by adding artificial
or chemical fertilizers.
Organs for Absorption of Water and Mineral Salts
For better understanding of the mechanism of absorption of water and mineral salts by
plants, one must have a clear idea about the external and internal structural features
of the root apex. Root hairs grow just behind the tip of the root. These root hair absorb
water and minerals from the soil. If a cross section of root is examined under
compound microscope, it is evident that a cell of the outer single-layered epidermis
extends outwardly into a long hair-like structure, called the root hair. At the centre of
the steler region lies the
Root hair
Endodermis
Epidermis
Conducting tissue
Fig: 10.1: Root system and cross section of root
vascular or conducting tissue system, which transports water and mineral salts to
stems, and leaves.
Root hair cells are living, their cell wall is thin and the cell membrane is semi
permeable. Water enters the root hair cell by the process of osmosis and the mineral
salts by diffusion through the semi permeable cell membrane.
Osmosis
When two solutions of different concentration are separated by a semi permeable
membrane, the solvent from the dilute solution moves through the semi permeable
membrane to the solution of higher concentration. The process is called osmosis.
The process continues until the concentration of two solutions are equal.
In fact osmosis is a physical process. In plants since osmosis happens under the
control of protoplasm, it is a physiological process. Plants absorb water from soil
through the process of osmosis. We need to know well, the process of osmosis first for
understanding the mechanism of water absorption in plants by osmosis.
If dried grapes are immersed in water, they become swollen and the water tastes
sweet. If the swollen grapes are put into highly concentrated solution of sugar, they
will shrink again. Why does it happen so? In fact, it happens as a result of osmosis.
Cells of grapes contain concentrated solution of sugar. Moreover every cell is
surrounded by a thin semi permeable cell membrane beneath the cell wall. In the
concentrated solution of sugar in the cells of grapes, the number of water molecules is
less than that of sugar molecules. But the number of water molecules is much higher
in the water of the pot in which the dried grapes are placed. That is why, water
molecules from the pot enter the cells of grapes and the sugar molecules from the
grape cells pass to the pot water. As a result, the grapes are swollen and the pot water
tastes sweet. If the swollen grapes are again put into concentrated solution of sugar,
they will shrink again. Because in this case, the number of water molecules in the
sugar solution of the pot is less than that of the solution of sugar in the grape cells, so
water comes out from the grape cells to the solution in the pot.
The process of osmosis can be easily verified or proved at home or in the school.
Experiment on Osmosis
Materials: A few intact dried grapes, a small glass pot and some water.
Procedure: Take reasonable quantity of water in the pot. Then put a few dried grapes
in the water.
Observation: Observe the condition of grapes immersed in the water, after two hours.
It would be observed that the grapes have swollen.
Conclusion : It proves that as a result of osmosis water molecules from the pot
entered the grapes, so they become swollen up.
Dried grapes Cup Water
Fig. 10.2 Experiment of osmosis with dry grapes

Absorption of Water
The intake of water by plants from the environment by the process of osmosis is
called absorption. Absorption is also a physiological process. Lower forms of plants
absorp water by osmosis through their body surface or through some root like
structures. But higher class of plants absorb water by osmosis through root hairs.
If a cross section of a root with the root hairs is examined under a compound
microscope a continuous connection of conducting cells between the root hair and the
central pith would be revealed. In addition, every living cell contains vacuole, full of
cell sap. Generally the cell sap is more concentrated than the soil solution. Again the
cell sap has a higher concentration gradient from the root hair to the pith region. So,
due to osmosis water from less concentrated soil solution enters first into the vacuole
of the root hairs with more concentrated cell sap. Later on, in the same process water
gradually reaches from the root hairs to the endodermis cells. And under the influence
of root pressure water from endodermis enters the xylem vessels and goes to different
parts of the plant body.
Root hair
Soil particles
Capillary water
Epiblema
Cortex
Endodermis
Xylem vessel
Fig. 10.3 Absorption of water by root hairs

Diffusion
Diffusion is a physiological process in which molecules of the substances pass from
the region of higher concentration to the region of lower concentration. This process
of diffusion continues until the concentration of molecules is uniform althrough. If

'atar' or any other scented material container is kept open in any corner of a closed
room, after some time, its scent could be felt from other corners of the room. Similarly,
if one or two spoon of red syrup is slowly poured into a jug of water, it would be
observed that, even without any stirring, the entire water of the jug has gradually
turned into pale red. Why did so happen? It so happened because of diffusion.
The rate of diffusion depends on the difference of the concentration of molecules. If
the difference in the concentration of molecules is greater, the rate of diffusion will be
higher. Again, if the difference in concentration is less, the rate of diffusion will be
lower. Of course, the surface through which diffusion occurs should be large as far as
possible. Diffusion takes place in plants through cell surface. The body of
multicellular plants is composed of innumerable small cells. Although individual cell's
surface area is very small collectively they constitute a very large diffusion surface
area. In fact, the root absorbs mineral salts by the process of diffusion.
Absorption of Minerals
There are enough mineral salts in the soil solution. Compared to that, the
concentration of mineral salts in the root hair cells are more .
So, minerals from the concentrated mineral salt of the soil area enters the root hair
through diffusion. As a result, as in the Fig. 10.4 the concentration of mineral salts
increases in the cell no. 1 than the neighboring cells. That is why the mineral salts
from its concentrated area, i.e. cell no. 1 passes to the cell no. 2. Through successive
repeatation of the cell to cell diffusion, mineral salts gradually pass from cell no. 1 to
cell no. 2, cell no. 2 to cell no. 3, 3 to 4 and so on. And this process of diffusion
continues until the mineral salts enter the conducting xylem vessels through which
they reach at the top of the stem . Accordingly, a continuous chain or flow of mineral
salts from the root to the branches and leaves of the shoot system is established.
Endodermis Epidermis Capillary water
Xylem veasel
Cortex
Root hair Soil particles
Fig. 10.4: Absorption of mineral salts by root hairs

Transpiration and Transport

Water first enters in the root hair from the soil by the process of osmosis; from there it
gradually passes from cell to cell and enters into the conducting tissues of the root.
Thus at one stage water reaches the mesophyll cells of the leaves. Here we will learn,
how water from the root reaches the leaves, how excess water is given off from plants
in the form of water vapour and how the carbohydrate food prepared in the leaves is
transported to different parts or organs of the plant.
Transpiration
The process of giving off excess water in the form of vapour through different
openings in the aerial parts of terrestrial plants for physiological reasons, under the
control or influence of living cells is known as transpiration.
Organs of Transpiration
There are innumerable minute pores in the lower epidermis of dorsiventral leaf.
These pores are called stomata. The pore of each stoma is guarded by two special
epidermal cells. These cells are known as guard cells (Fig. 10.5). Most of the
transpiration (80-90%) occurs through the stomata. This type of transpiration is
called stomatal transpiration. The upper transparent layer on the upper epidermis in
known as cuticle. Some water vapour from plants is also given off through the
cuticle, which is called the cuticular transpiration. Moreover, in some plants
transpiration also takes place through the lenticels in the stems. This is known as
lenticular transpiration. During the process of transformation of stem epidermis into
the cork or phellem, some openings or pores are formed surrounded by loose mass of
cells. These are called lenticels.
Mechanism of Transpiration
Stomata generally remains open Cuticle
during day light and closed during the Upper epidermis
darkness in night. When stomata Chlroplasts
remain open air enters the leaf Palisade parenchyma
through the stomata and reaches the
mesophyll cells. Since the surfaces of
mesophyll cells are always moistened, Spongy parenchyma
they can easily absorb carbon-dioxide Air chamber
from the air through the process of Lower epidermis

diffusion. On the other hand, water Cuticle
from these cells under the influence Stoma
Guard cell
of temperature and the differences in
the diffusion pressure is converted Fig. 10.5 Cross section of a leaf
into water vapour. Then the water Lenticel

Complemetary cell
vapour is transported through the Cork
O2
intercellular spaces to the air CO2
chambers beneath the stomata, from

which it escapes to outside air
through stomata. This process of
giving out of water in the form of
vapour from living cells of plant is
known as transpiration. Plants absorb
almost the same quantity of water
Fig. 10.6 Cross section of stem
from soil which they lose through
transpiration.
The water lost from the cell wall of the mesophyll tissue is made up by absorbing
water from the xylem tissues inside the veins of leaf. This is how a continuous flow
of water is maintained from the root hair to the leaves through xylem tissues of the
stem.
Experiment to show the liberation of water in the form vapour during
transpiration:
Select a healthy plant with sufficient leaves grown in a pot. Keep the soil wet in the
pot . Carefully cover a portion of the shoot system with branches and leaves with a
clear polythene bag and tighten its mouth with the stem so that the passage of air in
and out is stopped. After about half an hour it would be observed that droplets of
water have deposited on the inner surface of the transparent polythene bag. This has
happened because of the escape of water in the form of vapour from the wet
mesophyll cell walls into the air as a result of physiological process. Therefore, it is
proved that water is given off in the form of vapour by the plants during the process
of transpiration.
Water vapour coming

out from the leaf
Water raising through stem

Transparent polythene bag
Tub
Water raising through root
Fig. 10.7 Experiment on giving off of water during transpiration

Transport system: Transfer of

soluble inorganic and organic Leaf
chemical substances in the plant is

known as transport. The special type
of tissue system present in different Stem
organs of the plants for transport of Soil surface
materials is known as transport

Root
system or transport mechanism. The
xylem tissue present in the stem
transport water and mineral salts from
root to the leaves, and the
carbohydrate produced in leaves
Fig. 10.8 Connection of conducting tissues in
through photosynthesis is transported root and stem with those of leaves
along with water by phloem tissue to
different parts of the plant. For better understanding of these upward and downward
movements of sap, one need to have thorough knowledge about the internal structure
of root, stem and leaves.
Vascular Tissue.
There are conducting tissue made up of xylem and phloem, present in the stele of
root, vascular ring of stem and in the veins of leaves.
Here the xylem vessels are joined end to end and thus they together constitute a
narrow tube extending through root, stem and leaves. Of course, the xylem vessels are
dead. Phloem tissue surrounds the xylem tissue. Sieve tubes of phloem are also joined
end to end to form tube like xylem vessels. Phloem tissues are living. Water and
minerals are transported from root to the leaves through the xylem tubes, or vessels,
where as food prepared in the leaves are transported to the different parts of plant
body through the phloem tubes.
Ascent of Sap
The mechanism of ascending of water from the root to the stem, leaves and other
aerial parts of plant is known as the ascent of sap. Scientists have so far failed to
ascertain as to how and in what method water from root ascent and reaches the leaves.
Even though many plant scientists consider osmosis, capillarity of xylem, root
pressure etc. as the cause of ascending of sap, but this could not been proved
experimentally.
The general conception about the ascent of sap is the first absorption of water from
soil by root hairs. Then through successive cell to cell osmosis water reaches the cells
of endodermis. These living endodermal cells forces the water into the xylem vessels.
This is known as root pressure. The loss of water in transpiration from leaves creates
a deficit of water in the capillaries of the xylem vessels, thereby creating a pull of
water for rising to the leaves. The minerals salts absorbed through the root hairs are
also carried up along with water through the stem.
Experiment with Peperomia Plant to Demonstrate Ascent of Sap Through Xylem
Tissues
The phenomenon of absorption of water and mineral salts by xylem tissues of plants can
be demonstrated by a simple experiment. Carefully take out a fresh Peperomia plant
from soil with roots. Put the root of the plant into water for some time so as to allow
removal of soil attached to it. Peperomia plant is transparent and light green in colour.
Then immerse the root system into a
beaker of water, coloured red by
adding two drops of red ink. Observe
the initial colour of the plant. After Peperomia plant
half an hour, it will be observed that
the stem and leaves of the plant have
turned red, because the root has
absorbed red water and passed this to
Beaker
the stem and leaves. If a cross section
of the stem is now examined under a Red solution
compound microscope the xylem

vessels will be seen turned into red
because these contain red water. Fig. 10.9: Experiment on ascent of sap
with Peperomia plant
Transport of Food
Transport of carbohydrate food prepared in leaves and young green stems to different
parts of the body is called transport of food. Plants need food for survival, growth and
maintenance. Phloem tissues transport cabohydrate food prepared in leaves through
photosynthesis to different parts of the plant. The living cells in the phloem tissue are
involved in the transport of food. That is why, food transport in plant is a physiological
and an active process which takes place only in living plants.
Significance of Transpiration
Transpiration is very important for plants. Transpiration carries out various important
functions in plants such as absorption and ascent of soil sap (soil solution), transport
of mineral salts to the leaves, increase in concentration of cell sap, increasing
sweetness of fruits, absorption of water for photosynthesis etc. Besides, transpiration

increases air humidity, keeps the environment cool and promotes rainfall. But
sometimes transpiration causes harm too. If the rate of transpiration is higher than the
rate of absorption of water, plant will droop and die due to want of water. Plants
constantly absorb water from soil to compensate water loss through transpiration, as a
result energy is wasted.
The relationship between transpiration and irrigation in the cultivated land is
inseparable. Generally plants absorb almost equal quantity of water from soil which
is lost through transpiration. Soil water gradually reduces because of continuous
absorption by plants and loss through transpiration. This situation becomes more
acute during summer, because of high temperature. If such situation of water loss
from the soil is not replenished through rain or irrigation, plants dry up and die. On
the proper handling or maintenance of these two processes the production of crop is
closely related and for this reason irrigation in the crop field is very important.
Photosynthesis
Energy required for carrying out different physiological functions by plants and
animals are obtained from carbohydrate food, which is produced during
photosynthesis. The primary source of carbohydrate food for animals are the green
plants. Different animals obtain their carbohydrate food directly or indirectly from
green plants through varieties of food chains and food webs. We will know here how
the primary food producers, that means the green plants produce carbohydrate food.
The physiological process by which plants produce carbohydrate (glucose) by
chlorophyll in presence of light energy utilizing carbon dioxide and water and
liberating oxygen as a by-product is known as photosynthesis This process is
represented by the following generalised chemical equation:
Light energy
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O+ 6O2
carbon dioxide water Chlorophyll glucose water oxygen
Photosynthetic Organ
Most of the photosynthesis occurs in green leaves. So leaf is called the natural factory
for synthesis of carbohydrate. Carbohydrate food is also produced in this way in the
young green stems. A thorough knowledge about the internal structure of leaf is
necessary for understanding the process of photosynthesis. Here only the cells of the
leaves which are directly associated with photosynthesis, are discussed briefly.
Xylem Cuticle
Upper epidermis
Palisade mesophyll
Chloroplasts
Spongy mesophyll
Lower epidermis
Guard cell Phloem

CO2
O2
Fig: 10.10 Cross section of a leaf
If a cross section of a leaf is examined under a compound microscope, it becomes

evident that leaves are composed of a number of layers of cells. The uppermost layer
is called the upper epidermis. A kind of waxy substance is produced by these cells
which forms a layer on the surface of the upper epidermis. This waxy layer reduces
dehydration of cells. The layers of cells in the middle are together called mesophyll
layer. The mesophyll layer is divided into two layers, such as (1) palisade mesophyll
and (2) spongy mesophyll. Both of these layers are composed of simple parenchyma
tissue. Palisade parenchyma cells are rich in chloroplast, and so most of the
photosynthesis takes place in this layer. Spongy parenchyma cells are loosely
arranged and so, they have enough intercellular spaces in between them. Air can move
through these intercellular spaces allowing the cells to absorb carbon-dioxide and to
release oxygen produced during photosynthesis from the leaves.
Lower epidermis is the outer layer in the ventral surface of a leaf. Generally stomata
occur in the lower epidermis. Through the stomata air enters the leaves and reaches
the inner cells. Stomata remains open during day time for photosynthesis to occur, as
a result air can enter the leaves. Photosynthesis does not take place at night, so
stomata remains closed. Two guard cells of a stoma regulates the opening and closing
of the stomata pore. Guard cells contain chlorophyll, so, photosynthesis takes place
during day time and as a result the stomata gets open.
Mechanism of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a complicated process, in which carbohydrate is produced after a
series of chemical reactions. This process is divided mainly into two phases, such as
- light phase and dark phase.
CO2
Glucose
Chloroplyll
Water
CO2
Water
Fig: 10.11 Light and dark phases of photosynthesis
Light Reactions: In the light phase, chlorophyll absorbs light energy which is used
to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. Oxygen goes out through the
stomatal pore and diffuses in the air. Hydrogen molecules take part in the subsequent
reactions of photosynthesis.
Dark Reactions: Hydrogen produced in the light reaction, after a series of successive
complicated reactions, reacts with carbon-dioxide and produces simple carbohydrate.
These carbohydrates are subsequently converted into various complicated
carbohydrates as required by plants. Even though these reactions may occur during
day time, they do not require light energy. For storage in plant body carbohydrate
produced in photosynthesis is changed to insoluble starch.
Source Of Oxygen Released In Photosynthesis
Oxygen produced in photosynthesis comes from water used in photosynthesis but not
from carbon dioxide. This has been proved by using radio isotope of oxygen.
Experiment on Photosynthesis
(1) Experiment on production of starch in photosynthesis:
Materials: A fresh leaf, spirit lamp, methylated spirit, iodine, beaker etc.
Method: Boil a fresh leaf taken from sunlight in water until it softens. Then boil the
leaf in methylaled spirit so that all chlorophyll comes out of the leaf. In order to avoid
chance of catching fire in the spirit, the boiling should be carried out putting the
container in a water bath. Then after proper washing the boiled leaf in water immerse
it in dilute iodine solution.
Observation: It will be observed that the leaf has turned blackish blue.
Conclusion: Starch has been produced in the leaf as a result of photosynthesis.
(2) Experiment on the release of oxygen in Photosynthesis

Materials: A beaker, test tube, glass funnel, Deposited oxygen
a quantity of water, and some aquatic plants
or weeds, such as Hydrilla.
Water
Method: Set the equipment and material as Bubble
in the diagram of the textbook and put in the Test tube
sun. Gas will be collected in the test tube by Beaker
pushing down the water gradually. When 4- Funnel
5 centimetre of the test tube is filled with Hydrilla plant
gas, remove the test tube carefully and then

examine the gas by putting an ignited
wooden stick on its mouth. Fig. 10.12: Experiment to demonstrate that
oxygen is evolved in photosynthesis
Result: The ignited stick bursts into flames.
Conclusion: Oxygen is released in the process of photosynthesis.
Importance of Photosynthesis
The source of all energy in the world is the Sun. All living organisms use solar energy for
carrying out various physiological functions. But the solar energy cannot be used as such
directly, this has to be first converted into chemical energy. Only green plants on earth can
convert solar energy into chemical energy which can be used.
This conversion of energy takes place through the process of photosynthesis. The light
energy from the sun is stored in the form of chemical energy in the carbohydrate produced
in the green plants. This energy is released by breaking down of carbohydrate food during
respiration in the living organisms, which is used for their various physiological functions.
Atmospheric oxygen is indispensable for our life or survival. Organisms use oxygen in
respiration for releasing energy from food which is essential for physiological functions.
Carbon-dioxide is produced as a by-product of respiration. In nature, if living organisms
would continue respiration only, then oxygen would be exhausted, and the amount of
carbon-dioxide would increase to such an extent that sustaining life would have been
impossible. Green plants maintain the balance of oxygen and carbon-dioxide in the
atmosphere by producing oxygen and using carbon-dioxide in photosynthesis. From this it
can be easily assumed that green plants are very significant for human being. Green plants
are the primary producer of food. So, if production of carbohydrate in photosynthesis is
increased, more food would be available for herbivorous and carnivorous animals. This
will increase their production, which is required for the growing population.
Scientists have proved that out of the total solar energy reaching the earth, only 1-2%
is used, depending on situation, for production of carbohydrate in photosynthesis.
That is, there is enough light energy for plants which if used properly, more
carbohydrate can be produced.
CO2
H20
Respiration
Photosynthesis
Synthesis of Release of energy through
carbohydrate break down of food
Oxygen
food
Carbohydrate
Fig: 10.13: Balance of oxygen and carbon-dioxide in the atmosphere
Plant Respiration
Even though plants do not move like men and other animals, they also need energy.
Because energy is required for carrying out of various chemical and physical activities
which take place in every living cell of plants. Again since plants go on growing
through out their life, they need to produce new cells for growth of the body.
Constituents of cells such as, cellulose, protein, nucleic acids etc. are to be produced
for making new cells. Energy is needed for production of these materials. Energy is
also required for maintenance of old cells. Production of flowers and fruits for
reproduction also require energy. Even energy is required for transport of
carbohydrate food, produced in photosynthesis to other organs of the plants. Here we
will learn how plants obtain their energy from food through respiration.
Respiration
The process of breaking down of organic food (carbohydrate, protein etc.) through
oxidation in presence of enzyme by oxygen in living cells with the release of energy
and production of carbon-dioxide and water as by-product is called respiration. The
energy released in respiration is used in energy consuming functions of the organisms.
Respiratory Organ
In every living cell of the plants respiration continues 24 hours day and night.
Respiration takes place in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of cells. But mitochondria
in the cells are the principal organs for respiration.
Respiratory Substrate
The organic compounds which are broken down to simpler substances through
respiration are called respiratory substrates. Carbohydrate, protein, fat and organic
acids are used as the respiratory substrates.
Types of Respiration
Respiration is principally of two types, such as aerobic respiration and anaerobic
respiration. Respiration which uses atmospheric free oxygen is known as aerobic
respiration and respiration which takes place without utilization of atmospheric

oxygen is called anaerobic respiration. Compared to aerobic respiration less energy is
released in anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic Respiration
Generally respiration means aerobic respiration. In higher plants it is the normal
respiration. During aerobic respiration atmospheric oxygen enters the cells and gets
dissolved in water. This dissolved oxygen completely oxidizes the respiratory
substrate and liberates more energy (ATP). If glucose is the respiratory substrate, the
entire process can be represented by the following generalized equation.
Enzyme
C6H12O6+602 6C02 + 6H20 + Energy (ATP)
Glucose oxygen Carbon- water

dioxide
Glucose is a kind of high energy compound. If 180 gram glucose (gram molecular
weight or mole) is completely oxidized 2830 kilo joules (686 kilo calories) energy
is produced.
The complicated biochemical process of respiration takes place through a series of
sequential reactions, each of which is regulated by specific enzyme. However, the
entire respiratory process is divided into two principal phases, such as - glycolysis and
Krebs cycle. In the first phase, one molecule of glucose (6 carbon carbohydrate
compound) on oxidization produces two molecules of pyruvic acids (3-carbon
compound). In the second phase, each of the 3 carbon pyruvic acid is converted into
three molecules of carbon-dioxide, that means, a total of 6 molecules of carbon-
dioxide are produced out of one molecule of glucose. In addition to these 6 molecules
of water and a definite amount of metabolic energy (ATP) and heat are produced.
Glycolysis Krebs cycle
(Occurs in cell cytoplasm) (Occurs in mitochondria)

302
Pyruvic acid +3CO2+3H2O Energy
Glucose ATP
302 (686 Kilo
Pyruvic acid +3CO2+3H2O
calories)
6 carbon
compound One carbon
3 carbon compound
compound
Fig: 10.14 Oxidation of glucose in aerobic respiration

The first phase of respiration is known as the glycolysis and the second phase is the
Krebs cycle. The glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell and the Krebs
cycle occurs in the mitochondria. A number of energy carrier compounds known as
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) are produced during respiration which are used by the
cell as the source of energy.
Experiment on Aerobic Respiration
Select 200 germinating gram seeds for this experiment. Take out 100 seeds and boil them
so that the embryos are killed and seeds can no longer carry on respiration. When the
boiled seeds are cooled, put 100 boiled seeds in one thermo flask and 100 living seeds
in another thermo flask and seal their mouths with cotton plug. Insert one thermometer
through the cotton plug into each of the two thermo flask. Keep the two flasks for 4-5
days in a safe place. Everyday observe the temperature of each of the flasks.
The flask which contains the boiled Thermometer
seeds will show only the room
Cotton plug
temperature of the day. But the flask
containing the germinating seeds will Thermoflask
show temperature higher than the

room temperature of the day.
Therefore, it is proved that in Gram seed
respiration of germinating gram seeds Boiled Living

seeds seeds
heat is produced as by-product. Fig: 10.15 Aerobic Respiration of
germinationg gram seeds
Anaerobic Respiration
It is a process of liberating energy from food without the use of atmospheric free
oxygen. In this process food instead of completely breaking down, is incompletely
oxidized producing a number of intermediate products, like ethanol. Because of
incomplete break down of the food, less energy is produced in anaerobic respiration
than aerobic respiration.
Except some lower species of plants, like bacteria and fungi, only a few organism can
live entirely on anaerobic respiration. Only a few higher forms of plants can
temporarily carry on anaerobic respiration while the land around their root system is
flooded with water.
Yeast is an unicellular fungal plant in which anaerobic respiration is a normal process,
produces carbon-dioxide and ethanol as intermediate product out of carbohydrate
food. Through anaerobic respiration the process of production of ethanol by yeast is
known as fermentation. Ethanol is used in different industries, as disinfectant on skin
before pushing injection and as fuel in the spirit lamp. Presently ethanol is mixed with
petrol for reducing the cost of fuel. Yeast is mixed with dough making the bread
porous and swollen, sugar mixed in the dough is oxidized in anaerobic respiration
into carbon-dioxide. This carbon-dioxide inside the bread makes it soft and porous.
Anaerobic respiration can be represented by the following generalized equation
Anaerobic repiration
C6H12O6 2 C2H5OH +2CO2 + Energy (ATP)
Glucose Enzyme Ethanol Carbon-dioxide
However, if additional oxygen is supplied to the intermediate products, ethanol on
complete oxidation will liberate remaining energy, carbon-dioxide and water.
Experiment on production of carbon-dioxide during anaerobic respiration.
Materials: 10-12 germinating gram seeds, one broad test tube, one small beaker, one
clamp with stand, one forceps, some caustic potash and some mercury will be
required for this experiment.
Procedure: Take some mercury in the beaker. Fill up the test tube with mercury. Now
close the mouth of the test tube with the thumb and carefully put into the mercury in
the beaker upside down. Then put the beaker by the side of the stand and carefully fix
the test tube with clamp so that there is a gap between the bottom of the beaker and
the mouth of the test tube.
Now remove the outer coating of the germinating gram seeds. Insert the seeds into the
test tube with the help of forceps. The seeds will float in the mercury and collect at
the end of the test tube. While setting experiment care should be taken so that air
cannot enter into the test tube.
Gas
Germinating gram sceds
Mercury
Test tube
Clamp stand
Beaker
Fig. 10.16 Anaerobic respiration of germinating gram seed.
Observation : If observed after two hours it will be seen that some gas has collected
at the end of the test tube after displacing the mercury down.
Proof: At this stage if some caustic potash is inserted into the test tube with the help
of the forceps, it will immediately absorb the gas, and the mercury will rise and fill
up the test tube again. This proves that the gas produced in the test tube is carbon-
dioxide.
Comparison between aerobic and anaerobic respiration:
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

1. More effective, more energy is 1. Less effective, less energy produced.
produced.
2. Higher types of organisms, such as 2. Some smaller, lower types of
banyan tree, elephant which require organisms, such as yeast, fungi, tetanus
more energy and respire by aerobic bacteria respire by anaerobic process.
process.
3. Produces lot of energy on oxidative 3. Food is not completely oxidized or
breakdown of food. broken, energy is retained in the by-
product. In most of the cases by-
products are used in industry.
4. Occurs in the cytoplasm and 4. Occurs only in the cytoplasm.
mitochondria of cell.
5. Atmospheric oxygen is required. 5. Atmospheric oxygen is not required
6. Carbon-dioxide, water and energy are 6. At the end of the reaction carbon-
produced at the end of chemical dioxide, ethanol and energy (less) are
reactions. produced.
Significance or Necessity of Respiration

Significance or necessity of respiration to living organisms is immense. Respiration
continues day and night in every living cells of plants and animals and liberate energy
on the breakdown of food.
Carbon-dioxide (CO2) produced as a by-product of respiration is utilized in
photosynthesis. Again oxygen produced in photosynthesis is used in respiration. This
is how respiration and photosynthesis ensure the continuity of life on the earth
through maintenance of the balance, between oxygen (20.71%) and carbon-dioxide
(0.03%) in the atmosphere.
The energy required for carrying out various physiological processes such as
growth, reproduction, maintenance of body etc. by living organisms is supplied

through respiration.
Plant Growth and Development
Growth is a natural process of living organism which takes place within the body as a
result of metabolic activities. The shape and size of the body changes as a result of
growth and development. There is a time limit of this growth for each of the animals.
But there is no such time limit for growth in plants. Of course, after attainment of
maturity, growth is restricted only at the tips or apical regions of roots and shoots. The
stems of dicotyledonous plants go on increasing in girth as a result of secondary
growth. Do we know how this growth takes place?
Necessity of Growth
Though growth is a normal characteristics of plants, the rate of growth is not
uniform throughout the body. Through growth plants attain maturity in shape and
size. In natural environment a matured plant can survive better than a seedling. A
young plant easily becomes the prey of grazing animals. Again, if the young plants
are under the tall trees they are deprived of the sun light essential for preparation of
food by photosynthesis. Plants are also to compete for absorption of water and
minerals salts from the soil. To facilitate absorption water and mineral salts from
soil, root spread their branches in all direction. The stem supports leaves, flowers
and fruits. If number of leaves is larger for absorption of sunlight, more food is
prepared. Production of flowers and fruits increase, thereby increases the probability
of reproduction. For these reasons, growth is essential for plants for successful
survival through competition.
Regions of Growth
All parts of the plant body more or less grow. But if observed specially it will be
evident that the rate of growth is more in the apex of root and stem. The rate of growth
of different parts of plants can be determined by a simple experiment.
Experiment: Equipment and materials essential for determining the rate of growth of
plants are some germinating bean seeds, black dye which does not dissolve in water,
a thistle funnel, a bottle suitable for fitting the thistle funnel, black paper and water.
The radicle or the root of the germinating bean seeds have to be marked with the
black dye at equal intervals from the base to the tip. Then the seed is to be put into the
mouth of a thistle funnel so that the root can pass through the tube and the swollen
portion is on the upper side. The tube of the thistle funnel has to be covered with the
black paper, so that light can not directly reach the root.
Germinaing
bean seed
Wet cotton
Thistle funnel
Root
10 10
5
0
5
Water
Bottle
Fig: 10.17: Experiment to determine the region of root growth
If observed after one day, it will be observed that the markings on the root are no
more at equal distance. The region just behind root tip will show comparatively much
increase in the distances between the markings. What is the reason behind ? The
reasons are that growth has taken place in this region, the root has increased in length
and as a result the distances between the markings have increased.
Growing Regions of Root
A growing root can be differentiated into three regions; such as meristematic zone,
zone of elongation and the zone of maturation.
1) Meristematic zone: Most of the root growth takes place in this region. The
meristematic zone is located just behind the root cap. Because of continuous cell
division at this region the root grows.
2) Zone of elongation: The zone of elongation is located just behind the meristematic
zone. Here, new cells produced in the meristematic zone attain maturity by elongating
their cell walls. For this, the cells are to produce additional materials required for the
formation of cell wall and cell membrane, such as cellulose, protein, lipid etc. Since
additional cytoplasmic materials are not produced proportionately, large vacuoles
appear in the cells which have grown.
Vacuole
Fig: 10.18 Mechanism of cell elongation

3) Zone of maturation: The zone of maturation is located just behind the zone of
elongation. Here the new cells attain maturity. The branches of root develop from this
zone. Like root, the growing stem also has similar zones. The different zones in the
growing root and stem have been shown in the following diagram.
Meristematic zone
Zone of
Zone of elongation
maturation
Zone of Zone of elongation

maturation
Meristematic zone
Lateral bud
Root cap
Growing stem Growing root
Fig. 10.19: Different zones in growing root and stem.
Growth of Matured Stem and Root

The mature regions of stem and root only grow in girth. We have learned about the
cambium tissue in the chapter on cellular nature of plants. These are meristematic
cells capable of cell division. They generally produce new cells for production of
xylem and phloem tissues.
Cambium produces new xylem tissues towards the centre and the phloem tissues
towards the periphery. As a result, stem and root grow in girth, that means, go on
increasing in diameter, such as mango, black berry, jackfruit etc. This is called the
secondary growth of plants. The plants (such as the monocotyledonous plants) in
which secondary growth does not take place are generally made up of narrow stem,
such as betelnut, paddy, wheat etc. How plant growth is regulated can be understood
through a simple experiment.
Apical bud
Lateral
bud
Fig. 10.20: Growth of dormant lateral buds after the removal of apical bud.
Experiment: If the apical bud of a growing stem is removed, then after several days it
would be observed that the dormant lateral buds have started growing into branches.
According to plant scientist, the reason is that a phytohormone named auxin is
produced in the apical bud which promotes cell elongation in stem and inhibits the
growth of lateral buds.
This characteristic of apical buds is known as apical dominance. Removal of the
apical bud stops production of hormone in the stem apex, thereby stopping the
elongation of cells of the stem. As a result the lateral buds start growing. For this
reason, instead of the whole potato, the potato tubers are cut into pieces each with one
'eye' before sowing.
Regulating the Direction of Growth
Plants respond to stimuli. Light, water, different chemical substances, heat,
gravitation etc. work as stimuli. The respond of a plant organ to stimuli is known as
tropism. The respond of plant organ towards the stimulus is called positive tropism.
The tropism may be of different kinds:
(a) Phototropism: Since stems grow towards light, they are positive phototropic.
Again, roots grow away from the light,
so they are a negative phototropic.
What is the cause behind it? This can
be explained by the following Light
experiment with the coleoptiles of a

young plant. The first shoot coming
out of a monocotyledonous seed is the
coleoptile. The maize coleoptile grow
by bending towards light. If its tip is A) Normal seedling
B) Tips of seedlings covered with silver foil
covered with thin tin or if the tip is C) Tip or apex of sedlings removed.
removed by a fine knife carefully it
will no more bend towards light. Fig. 10.12: Phototropism
From the above experiment, plant scientists have inferred that a kind of hormone is
produced in the apical bud in presence of light which promotes growth of buds. If the
tip or apical bud is covered or removed the hormone is not produced, as a result
growth stops.
b) Geotropism: During germination of seeds it is observed that the radicle grows
down towards the soil, and the stem grows up opposite to the soil. This is a positive
geotropism for root. But for stem, it is a negative geotropism.
Stem
Root
2) Seedling in horizontal condition

1) Seedling in normal 3) Stem bend upward and
condition (Vertical) root bent downward
Fig. 10.22: Geotropism
C) Hydrotropism: Plant root grows towards water and the stem grows away from the
water. This is why, root is positively hydrotropic. It has been observed by keeping
water near the seedling that the root instead of growing directly downward bends
towards water.
d) Chemotropism: Growth in respond to chemical substance is known as
chemotropism. The growth of pollen tubes towards ovules into the ovary through the
style under the stimulus of a chemical substance secreted by the ovary is an important
example of chemotropism.
e) Thigmotropism: Bending response to the stimulus of lateral contact is called
thigmotropism. The movement of sweet gourd, bean, bottle gourd plants towards the
support are good examples of thigmotropism.
Influence of Light and Heat on Plants
Influence of light and heat on seasonal growth and yield of plants is of highly
significant. Light and heat vary widely in different seasons and from country to
county. As a result different types of seasonal plants and flowers, fruits grow in
different seasons in different countries. In countries of the cold regions especially
Soviet Union and Europe and some parts of America, this situation becomes extreme.
Growth of short-day plants stops in the coldest or ice-cold months in these countries.
Again with the advent of summer, plants grow faster in the long day hot weather and
produce flowers and fruits before the commencement of winter. Extremes of these
kinds are rare in our country.
(a) Photoperiodism: Influence of the length of light-darkness or of day-night on
flowering in plants is known as photoperiodism. Based on relationship of light period
on the production of flowers, the flowering plants are of three types, such as
24
(1) short-day plants,
(2) long-day plants, and 6
18
(3) day-neutral plants.
(1) Short-day plants: These plants 12
(a) Short day plants (Mustard)
require daily on average 8 to 12 hours
continuous light for flowering. 24
Examples of this kind of plants are
Aman paddy, mustard, dahlia etc. In 18 6
the advent of short-days of winter

these plants start bearing flowering 12
(b) Long day plants (Jute)
buds which later develop into flowers
24
and fruits.
(2) Long-day plants: These plants 18 6
require daily on average 12 to 16
12
hours of continuous light for (c) Day neutral plants (Cotton)
production of flower buds, such as Fig. 10.23: Photoperiodism (black part represent dark
jute plants. period and white part light period)
(3) Day- neutral plants: These plants are not dependent on the light and dark period
for production of flower bud, that means, they are independent of light dark.
Examples of these kinds of plants are cotton, gourd, chilli, papaya etc.
Importance of Photoperiodism
Economically photoperiodism is of great significance. By applying this method crops
of one season can be grown in another season. As a result, crops can be grown in
suitable time thereby saving them from different types of natural calamities like flood,
cyclone, hailstorm, diseases etc. Moreover, production and marketing of crop of one
season in another season brings more profit. Photoperiodism is largely practiced in
agriculture in many countries-The United States of America, United kingdom, the
Netherland, Sweden, Denmark etc. So, in these countries vegetables like cabbage,
cauliflower, lettuce, bean etc. and various other agricultural products are available in
all the seasons.
B. Vernalization
The seeds of crop plants of the countries in the temperate and tropical regions are kept
for 3-4 weeks respectively in low (0oC) and high (45oC) temperature treatment before
sowing, they are found to produce flowers earlier than the plants grown from
the seeds which were not treated with heat. From this, it can be understood that the
application of required temperature treatment to seeds before sowing reduces the time
required for flowering. That means, temperature determines the time required for
flowering in plants. This process of hastening of flowering in plants by low or high
temperature treatment before sowing is known as vernalization.
In fact temperature influences life cycle of plants in various ways. Plants in cold
countries are capable of sustaining life in very lower temperature. Even though plants
can generally survive under temperature below the freezing point, growth does not
take place during that time. But with increase of temperature metabolic activity
resumes at certain level, photosynthesis takes place and growth of plant starts.
Accordingly, a critical temperature level, affects flowering in many plants. The time of
harvesting 'Aus' and 'Boro' paddy is also determined by the changes in temperature.
Flowering and grain formation in boro paddy take place with the rise in temperature,
but there must be a low-temperature level just prior to flowering and fructification.
Hence, receiving of low temperate at certain stage in the life cycle of plants or seeds
to bring about flowering is called vernalization.
The process of vernalization: It has not been clearly known or understood as to how
temperature affects flowering. According to the Russian scientist Cajlachjan (1936)
a kind of hormone known as florigen is responsible for flowering in plants whose
effectiveness is dependent on concentration of another hormone called vernalin. If
seeds get appropriate temperature treatment before sowing, the production of
vernalin is accelerated. As a result, effectiveness of florigen is enhanced thereby
expediting the flowering.
Vernalization process is specially applicable in case of the biennial carrot plants in the
temperate regions. The carrot plants grown from seeds, store food in the tap root
during the first year. Even after death of the plants in winter the tap root survive,
remains unaffected under the soil. Vernalization takes place in these roots during the
lower temperature of winter. New plants grow from these roots in the second year
utilizing stored food in the root, grow rapidly and flower.
In the cold countries most of the seeds do not germinate until they are vernalized
under such low temperature. This process facilitates the survial and continuation of
progeny by withholding germination of seeds under unfavourable weather of winter
and by allowing germination under favourable conditions. The temperature induced
these activities are linked with the production of hormones.
Significance of Vernalization: Vernalization is very important. Most of the countries
in the cold regions have brought about revolutionary advancements in their
agricultural practices through the application of vernalization principle. Normal
agricultural practices in these countries are not possible because of severe cold
weather and hailstorm almost throughout the year. Because of these, countries of the
cold regions arrange crop production within the few months of favourable weather by
applying vernalization principles. Under these practices plants of one country can be
easily adapted to unfavourable weather of another country.
There is good prospect for revolutionizing our agricultural system by applying
vernalization principles. Under these practices, crops such as paddy, jute etc. can
be grown in the shortest possible time and can be saved from the unfavourable
impact of drought, water logging, flood, diseases etc. On the other hand, the same
land can be used for multiple cropping. But for these initiative, endeavour and
research are essential.
Use of Artificial Hormone
We know that hormone is behind the growth of plants. Plants growth can be expedited
by spraying artificial hormones. But plants which will be capable of absorbing more
hormone will grow faster than others. The essence of this relationship between plants
and hormones is applied in using many hormones as herbicides. While spraying
special types of hormones in the crop fields, weeds with large leaves absorb more
quantity of hormone than the crop plants with narow leaves, and consequently die
because of unusual growth. Crop plants absorbing lesser quantity of hormone survive
and the soil become free of weeds. The extent of the use of hormone for suppressing
the growth of weeds is very limited in our county. A hormone named 2,4-D is
sometimes applied depending on the circumstances.
Hormone is also used in the artificial propagation or reproduction. The easiest method
to produce plants with the characteristics of mother plants is cutting or grafting. But
grafting is rather time consuming since it takes longer time for producing roots at the
cut portion. In this case, very good results can be achieved by using hormone. If the
cut portion of plant is immersed in the hormone solution roots grow fast.
Plant Reproduction or Propagation
Reproducing a similar plant from another plant is known as reproduction. Plant
reproductions can be divided into two types, such as- asexual reproduction and
sexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction:
The reproduction which occurs without the fusion of male and female gametes
(fertilization) is called asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is of two types,
such as- reproduction by spores and vegetation reproduction.
Spores: Many plants especially the non-flowering plants reproduce by producing

special types of cells (spores). Plants like fungi, algae, moss, ferns etc. produce spore
sacs for reproduction. In this spore sac one kind of unicellular spores are produced.
Spore
Sporangium Chloroplast
Columella
Sporangiophore
Cell wall
Mycelium Nucleus
Zygospore
Spirogyra spore
Rhizoid Food substance
Mucor
Fig: 10.24: Different types of asexual reproduction.
From each of the mature spore, new plants are developed under favourable condition.
Vegetative Reproduction
Production of new plants directly or indirectly from the organs other than the
flowers and specially reproductive organs is called vegetative reproduction. The
new plants generally bear the characteristics of mother plants. But in some cases
new plant characteristics can be combined through this method. Vegetative
reproduction takes place in two ways: natural vegetative reproduction and artificial
vegetative reproduction.
Natural Vegetative Reproduction
Different ways of natural vegetative reproduction through common plant organs are
described below :
(1) Fragmentation of body: Here a plant body is divided into fragments, each of
which later develops into an independent plant, such as Spirogyra, Riccia etc.
(2) Root: Reproduction of plants through roots is of two types :
(a) Through normal roots e.g. patal.
(b) Through tuberous roots, e.g. sweet potato. Here root 'eyes' develop into new plants.
(3) Stem tubers: Reproduction of plants through stem occurs in different ways as
follows:
(a) Stolon: Here new plants grow from the nodes of horizontal stem or stolon on the
soil surface e.g. arum, water hyacinth etc.
(b) Rhizome: Plants grow from the buds of the fibrous stem horizontally placed
below the soil surface, e.g. zinger, fern etc.
(c) Phylloclade: The stem of many plants is modified to perform the functions of
leaves. New plants grow from parts of these stems, e.g. cactus.
(d) Tuber: New plants grow from the 'eyes' or buds of tuber, e.g. potato.
(e) Bulb: New plants grow from the lateral and the apical buds of the bulb. e.g. Onion.
4) Leaves: New plants grow from the buds grown on edge or margin of leaf, e.g.
Bryophyllum.
As described above, new plants normally grow from different parts of plants. Plants
produced so, possess the some characteristics of
Offset
Stolon (b) Water hyacinth

(a) Arum
Rhizome Rhizome
(c) Zinger (d) Fern
Bud
Phylloclade
Thorn
(e) Bryophyllum
(f) Cactus
Bud
(g) Sweet potato

(h) Potato
Fig. 10.25: Different kinds of Natural Vegetative Reproduction

mother plants. This method is quite suitable for producing a large number of better
plants exactly like the mother plants. By this method, plants of desired
characteristics are not produced. This method is applied in producing different kinds
of vegetable crops.
Artificial Vegetative Reproduction
In this process new plants are produced artificially from some plant parts. A few of
such artificial vegetative reproductions are described here:
1) Cutting: In this method a branch from a tree is cut and planted into wet soil. The
branch develops into a new plant in a normal way, e.g., rose, variegatum, sugarcane
etc. If hormone is applied, root formation is accelerated in the cutting.
Rooting or layering: In this method root is artificially grown in a portion of a young
stem branch which is later cut along with the root and planted in the soil, such as
layering, rooting etc. In rooting or layering, a low-lying intact branch of plant is
pulled down and a portion of it is covered with soil or humus mixed soil is tied around
the branch with the help of polythene sheet. After root formation the branch is cut
with the root and planted in soil.
Soil mixed with large
Stick quantity of humus
Separated parts
of stem
Fertile soil
Clip Two ends of polythene
bag scaled with gum tape
Fig. 10.26: Rooting and layering
3) Grafting: In this method generally two plants of the same type are grafted together
where stem of one plant is artificially grafted with the branch of another (better type)
plant to produce a new plant. The branch portion is called the scion while the stem
portion is called the root-stock. In this process, at first the head of the root-stock is cut
off with a sharp knife in a definite shape ( such as-'N'-shape). Later the lower part of
the scion is cut in the same shape, and carefully fixed into the cut end of the root-
stock and then tightly tied the two together with cotton thread after applying wax and
fungicides. After the successful grafting the branches and buds from the root are to be
cut off. Such artificial reproduction is possible in lemon types of plants and in mango.
Scion
Polythene bag
Stock
Fig. 15.27: Grafting

4) Budding: In budding, bud from one plant is planted into another plant. First a 'T'-
shaped hole is made with a knife in a suitable place on the bark of the plant in which
the bud from another plant is to be planted. Then take a bud along with the epidermis
with the help of a knife from the plant of which grafting is to be made, cut in the
shape of 'T' and then carefully put the bud into 'T' shaped hole made earlier on the
other plant. Then tie the bud with the stem with a thick thread.
Open cambium
Axial bud Polythene

(Partly tied)
Scion
Stock
Fig. 10.28: Budding
Plant reproduction
(2) Sexual
(1) Asexual
Spore Vegetative
(1) Natural (2) Artificial
Sexual Reproduction:
Reproduction through the union of male and female gametes is known as sexual
reproduction. Here a zygote is formed by the union of male and female reproductive
cells. From this zygote new generation of plants develop. Sexual reproduction in
plants is discussed in detail here:
Sexual Reproductive Organs
Flower is the sexual reproductive organ of higher plants. The male and female
reproductive cells are produced in the flower. Their union results in the production of
zygote which subsequently produces fruits and seeds. Seeds disperse around and
germinate into new plants, thereby propagating the new plants. On maturity these
new plants also produce flowers. In this way, the life cycle of plant continues.
The process of sexual reproduction takes place in several distinct steps. Such as-
pollination, fertilization, production of fruits and seeds, dispersal of fruits and seeds
germination of seeds. Before discussing in detail each of these steps of sexual
reproduction, different parts of a flower are described briefly below:
Typical flower: For better understanding of sexual reproduction of flowering plants,

we should have a clear idea about the structure of a flower.
Calyx: Calyx protects the flower bud inside. These are generally green. Sometimes
they are brightly coloured like the corolla.
Corolla: In cross pollinated flowers the petals are generally brightly coloured to
attract insects for cross pollination. During the collection of nectar from the nectaries
situated at the base of petals the insects bring about pollination in the flowers.
Androecium: A sac like structure at the end of stamen is known as anther. Pollen
grains are produced in pollen sac. The stalk below the anther is the filament. Pollen
grain contains male nucleus. Anther
Stigma
Style
Petals
Sepal
Ovary
Ovule
Flower stalk
Fig. 10.29 Vertical section of a typical flower
Gynoecium: The gynoecium consists of the ovary, style and the stigma. The female
nucleus or the ovum is produced in the ovule within the ovary.
Pollination :
The process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same
flower or other flowers of the same species is known as pollination. Pollination is
generally of two types : self pollination and cross pollination.
Self pollination: The transfer of pollen grain from the anther to the stigma of the
same flower or other flowers of the same tree is called self pollination.
As a result of self pollination hardly
any variation or difference occurs in the
new plants. As such they cannot easily
adjust in changing environmental
conditions. But self pollinated plants
are quite suitable for cultivation,
because they develop flowers and fruits
at one time, so their cultivation and
harvesting of crops are easy.
Fig. 10.30: Self pollination
Cross Pollination: Transfer of pollen

grains from one flower to another
flower in different plant of the same
species is known as cross pollination.
Variations occur in the plants
produced as a result of cross
pollination, which enables plants to
adjust in changing environment. Such
as some plants become taller than
Fig. 10.31: Cross pollination
others as a result of variation.
They are in advantageous position than the short plants in the competition for light
absorption. There is need for a medium for transfer of pollen grains from anther to the
stigma. Generally pollination is brought about by wind, water, insects and different
animals. The types of pollination are named as per the name of the medium which
brings about it.
Wind pollination: Flowers pollinated by wind are called wind pollinated flowers and
this process is called wind pollination. Wind pollinated flowers are generally very
small. Their pollen grains are too light so that they can float in the air. Anthers of
these plants produce innumerable
pollen grains. The stigma of Pollen grains from large
these kind of flowers are feathery anthers are released
like the feathers of birds so as to

capture pollen grains floating in
the air. These flowers do not Pollen grains
require brightly coloured petals float in air
and nectar gland. Paddy, wheat, Pollen grains stick to the

feathery sticky stigma
grass etc. produce this kind of
Fig. 10.32: Wind pollination
flowers.
Insect pollination: Flowers pollinated by insects are known as insect pollinated
flowers and this process is called insect pollination. Insect pollinating flowers are
brightly coloured, scented, and have nectar gland. Because of the bright colour and
scent, insects are attracted to these flowers and while they enter into the flowers to
collect honey, the pollen grains get attached to their body. When the insects visit
another flower of the same species for collecting honey, the pollen grains attached to
their body then stick to stigma of that flower and thereby bringing about pollination.
Flowers of most of the plants are of this type.
Bees carry polen grains

Pollen grains stick to the Pollen grains stick to the
body of bee during stigma while visiting
collection of honey other flower
Fig. 10.33:Insect pollination
Water pollination: In plants like Vailisnaria (Patashewla), Hydrilla (Kata shewla)

etc. pollination occurs through the medium of water and this process is known as
water pollination.
Animal pollination: In some plants like silk cotton, kadam etc. pollination of flower
is brought about by animals like birds, bats, squirrels etc. This type of pollination is
known as animal pollination.
Fertilization Petal
The fusion of male and the female Anther
Sepal
nuclei is called fertilization. In Ovary
Anther
fertilization, the pollen grain falling
on the stigma produces pollen tube
Male gamete
which passes through the style and Tube nucleus
Pollen grain
ovary to the ovules. The number of Stigma
chromosomes in the male nucleus and Style
Ovary
female nucleus is haploid, that is, half Pollen tube
the number of chromosomes in the Endosperm nucleus
Zygote
body cells. As a result, the number of
chromosomes in the zygote produced Fig. 10.34: Fertilization Micropyle
out of their fusion is diploid.
After fertilization the ovary of the flower is generally converted into fruit and the
ovules into seeds. The fruits and seeds, on maturity, are dispersed all around through
different means and thus the plants propagate.
Dispersal of Fruits and Seeds
The scattering of fruits and seeds from the parent plant all around through various
means is known as dispersal of fruits and seeds. The process of dispersal is named after
the name of the agent by which the fruits and seeds are dispersed. The principal means
or media of dispersal are wind, water, explosive bursting of fruits and also animals.
Water current: Fruits such as coconut, palm etc. float in water and are carried far
away with the current of the water. Fruits of Nymphaea, lotus are also dispersed
by water.
Explosion of fruits: Many fruits when matured burst with speed and thereby
scattering the seeds all around.
Examples are Vigna (mashkalai), pea, castor etc.
Animal: Fruits and seeds are dispersed by animals in various ways. Juicy fruits such
as mango, black berry, litchi, plum etc. are carried by men and other animals to long
distances. After eating the fruit the residual portions are left there and help in
dispersal of seeds.
Crows, bats while eating bean, plum, guava, jackfruit etc. seeds are often swallowed
and enter the stomach but these seeds are not digested. The seeds are disposed off by
their faeces. Thus the seeds are disseminated far away. Grass seeds, such as those of
love-thorn (chorekata) stick to the clothes of passerby and are carried far away. Seeds
of this kind are also carried far away being stuck to the skin and fur of many animals.
Importance of dispersal: Generally each flowering plant produces large number of
fruits and seeds. Sufficient land, water, air, light and space are essential for their
successful germination, growth and development. So, dispersal of fruits and seeds are
significant and essential for ensuring proper environment, necessary for propagation
and the survival of species.
Variation in Plants:
We have learned that due to pollination ovule is fertilized and the seeds thus produced
show variations because, the union of the male and female nuclei possessing wide
varieties of characteristics bring about diverse characters in the progeny.
Scientist Gregor Johann Mendel has proved how the paternal characteristics of plant
are transmitted into the offspring through his experiment with pea plants and
discovered a valuable theory.
Mendel carried out his experiment with two pea plants, one being long and the other
dwarf. He made cross-pollination of the plants artificially by transferring pollen grains
from long plant to stigma of dwarf plant, and vice versa for reproduction. He also
took precaution so that pollen grains from other plants cannot reach the stigma. After
sowing the seeds produced in the above cross, he obtained plants which were all tall,
none were dwarf.
After bringing about self-pollination in one of the new plants, he obtained both long
and dwarf plants and the ratio of long and dwarf plants was 3 to 1. Mendel's
Tall Short
Parents
Gametes
F1 Plants (all tall)
Gametes
F2 Plants (Genotype)
F2 Plants (Phenotype)
Tall Short
Fig. 10.35: Mendel's experiment

theory is applied in the breeding of plants and animals. Controlled sexual
reproduction is brought about among the plants or animals of desired characteristics
to produce progeny with diverse characteristics.
Plants and animals of desired characters are produced by breeding among the selected
plants and animals of desired characteristics. At present this method is largely applied
in evolving crops of improved verities.
Artificial Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Some variations occur in the new plants produced from the seeds obtained from the
zygote, formed by the fusion of the male nucleus in the pollen tube and the female
nucleus in the ovule. Plant breeders can also evolve similar types of new plants by
controlling the parent plants which produce the male and female nuclei. After careful
trial, the best ones can be selected. Thus plant breeders can expect that the selected
new varieties of plants will be high-yielding, resistant to diseases or capable of
growing in special environment, such as saline soil paddy, deep water paddy etc. At
least a few of the hundreds of young plants produced through controlled pollination
will possess improved characteristics than their parents. If such desired plants are
found, and after completing the test they are found suitable, then as soon as possible
large number of seeds and plants are produced through the breeding. Again, they can
be propagated by artificial vegetative reproduction.
Mechanism of Artificial Plant Reproduction
The anthers of a bisexual flower are removed before attaining maturity. Then the
flower is covered with a polythene bag and closed at the base. This flower will be
used as the mother plant or female plant for fertilization. Then the pollen grains from
the matured anther of selected plant will be quickly transferred with the help of brush
and spread on the stigma of the prepared female plant. After this transfer of pollen
grains, the flower is to be again covered with the polythene bag.
Anther Pollen grains Stigma
Fig. 10.36: Artificial Sexual Reproduction or Breeding.
As a result of fertilization seeds will be produced from this flower. These seeds will
be grown and among them, plants of desired characters have to be selected. If the
desired plants are obtained, the seeds from these plants are used to produce new plants
and again if the seeds from the produced plants are used repeatedly sometimes there is
a chance of losing the good characteristics of that plant.
For this reason, the use of new seeds, instead of using the seeds of the successive
generations, is helpful for better yield. That is why the plant breeders go on producing
new varieties of plants continuously through breeding among new plants, to maintain
the better characteristics in plants.
Parthenogenesis
Sometimes reproductive cells of some plants, especially the eggs produce embryo
without fertilization and produce new plants. This process of producing new plants by
female reproductive cells or the eggs without fertilization is called parthenogenesis,
such as-Mucor, Spirogyra, banana etc.
Exercise
1. Which of the following is produced as a by product of respiration by the germinated
seeds?
(a) CO2 (b) ATP
(c) O2 (d) C6H12O6
Answer questions no. 2 and 3 from the above diagram

2. Which portion of the above diagram plays primary role for production of fruits.
(a) A (c) C
(b) B (d) D
3. By which process, there is the probability of maximum pollination in this
type of plants?
(a) Self pollination (b) Cross pollination
(c) Wind pollination (d) Insect pollination
4. By insect pollination
(i) honey is collected
(ii) crop production increases
(iii) reproduction of plants is increased.
(a) i and ii (b) ii and iii
(c) i and iii (d) i, ii and iii
Creative Questions
Respiration
Synthesis of Release of energy through

carbohydrate breakdown of food
food
Carbohydrate
(a) What is the name of the process A as shown in the diagram?

(b) Explain how the plants obtain ingredients used in this process A.
(c) Explain how the absence of light influences the chemical reactions in above
process.
(d) Explain the arisen situation if the process would not happen in nature.
Chapter Eleven
Diversity of Animals
This world is the home of various kinds of animals. Animals of various sizes and
shapes ranging from microscopic amoeba to huge bodied blue whale inhabit the
different environments. Though many of these are beneficial to human beings, some
are harmful too. In order to bring this vast animal kingdom to the use of human
beings, or to protect them from their harmful effects, it is essential to know about
these animals. The most convenient way to study the numerous animals is to classify
them. The classification is based on the specific features, and the inter-relationship
and inter-dependency among animals.
Till today, about 1.5 million species of animals have been discovered, and everyday
new species are being identified. Species is the lowest tire of classification. For
example, human, bird, lizard, frog each are different species. Usually the members of
same species have similar characteristics and are able to interbreed and produce fertile
offsprings.
In the history of classification, the names of Aristotle, John Ray and Carolus Linnaeus
are worthy of mention. Linnaeus is called the Father of classification of living things,
as he first scientifically classified the animals into groups and subgroups, and at the
same time he introduced a system of naming animals.
The system of classification established by Linnaeus is called the binomial system of
nomenclature. The name used under this system of classification is also called the
scientific name. Following the classification, the scientific name for human is Homo
sapiens, the national animal of Bangladesh is Panthera tigris, hilsa fish is Tenualosa
ilisha, Indian robin is Copsychus saularis. This naming process creates a standard
way for scientists around the world to communicate about the same organism,
whatever may be the local name in different languages.
Based on different characteristics the animals are classified in different ways.
1. Number of cell: When the body of an animal is formed of only one cell, it is called
unicellular or protozoa; and when formed of more than one cell, an animal is called
multicellular or metazoa. Amoeba and malarial parasite are examples of unicellular
organism, while cockroach, earthworm, fish are examples of multicellular organism.
2. Vertebral column: When an animal has a vertebral column or spinal chord, it is
called a vertebrate. When the vertebral column is absent, an animal is called
Diversity of Animals 147
invertebrate. Amoeba, cockroach, mosquito, snail, marine starfish are invertebrates;

while fish, frog, bat, whale are vertebrates.
3. Notochord: Animals that posses, at least for some time in their lives, a stiff rod
called a notochord, are called chordates. Those without notochord are called non-
chordates. Fish, frog and so on are chordates; while amoeba, earthworm, cockroach,
snail and so on are non-chordates.
Scientists have classified the animal kingdom into more than 30 divisions called
"Phylum". The ten major phyla, along with the nature of the animals, their features,
and importance to human life is discussed below.
1. Protozoa
Animals belonging to phylum protozoa have Vacuole
only one cell. So these are called unicellular

animals. These are so small that they can be
seen only with the help of a microscope.
Protozoa have no differentiation into tissue or
tissue systems, and all organic functions of the
body is carried out by the single cell. They
move with the help of pseudopodia, flagella, or
Nucleus
cilia. Few protozoa move by contraction and
Fig : Entamoeba
relaxation of the body cell.
The habitat of most species is water or moist soil. Most protozoa are free living, but
some are parasitic living on other animals, and cause much harm to the host. There are
about 50,000 species in this phylum.
Example: Amoeba, entamoeba, plasmodium, paramecium, giardia, and so on.
a. Dysentery causing micro-organism
Entamoeba is a simple unicellular animal.
This lives as a parasite in the intestine of
human and cause dysentery. The body is
formed by a nucleus and cytoplasm
enclosed within the cell membrane.
The entamoeba spreads into the
Paramecium environment through the faeces of infected
persons. The organism enters the human
Fig : Paramecium body by contaminated water or vegetables,
and cause dysentery in the intestine. Sometimes more serious condition may occur.
Symptoms of dysentery include pain in the lower abdomen, stool mixed with blood
and mucus.
As a preventive measure to protect oneself from dysentery it is essential that open-air
defecation be avoided, and sanitary latrine used for disposal of faeces. This disease
can be prevented if boiled water or water from tube-wells is drunk; water and
vegetables are protected from being contaminated; and food is protected from flies
and cockroaches. If affected by dysentery, one should take medications on physician's
prescription.
b. Malarial germ: Plasmodium is a unicellular parasitic organism. At one stage of
their life cycle, plasmodium live in the body of vertebrates including human beings,
and the other stage is passed in the body of female anopheles mosquito.
Through female mosquito the sporozoites enter human body. In the liver the
sporozoites multiply, and cause enlargement of the liver. The organism then invades
the red blood cells and multiply there, and eventually break down the cell. At this
stage the infected person has fever. Malaria is a disease characterised by chills, and
periodic bouts of intense fever, with anaemia. When a female mosquito bites an
infected person, the micro-organism enters the mosquito and multiplies there. The
organism then resides in the salivary gland of the mosquito.
Entry
o of ge
it rm in
squ healt
mo hy pe
rson
in
rm
f ge
tr yo
Malaria infected person En
Invasion fo new cell by germ
Germ in red blood cell
Growth
Breakdown of red blood cell
Division of cytoplasm Division of nucleus
Fig : Spread of malarial germ

Prevention of malaria
It is possible to control malaria by the following measures:
a. Destroying mosquitoes
b. Destroying places where mosquitoes breed
c. Protecting oneself from mosquito bites
d. To administer quinine like drug to the patient
on physician's advice
2. Porifera
Animals belonging to the phylum porifera are
usually called sponge. Sponges are mainly
marine, with a few freshwater species. They are Scyfa
strongly adherent to underwater objects. They are multicellular but their body does
not have any specific cellular or tissue arrangement. There are several small pores in
the body wall. Water, oxygen and food materials enter the body through these pores.
The water from inside the body is passed out by a large pore. Sponge is used for
mopping and bathing. Now a day, artificial sponges are commercially cultivated in
many countries. There are about 5000 species in this phylum.
Example: Spongilla, scyfa
3. Cnidaria
Their body is made up of different types of cells. The cells are arranged in two layers.
In between the two layers is a jelly like substance called mesoglia. The inside of the
body is hollow called coelenteron. There is only one opening in the body. Animals of
this phylum are mostly marine, but some are found in fresh water too. Animals of
phylum coelenerata are not of much importance for human beings directly. About
1000 species have been identified.
Example: Hydra, jelly fish, coral, obelia
Hydra Jellyfish Obelia

4. Platyhelminthes
Animals included in this group are commonly known as flatworm. Their body is
flattened like a leaf or ribbon. The digestive system has a mouth but no anus. Flame
cells carryout the excretory functions. Most of the animals of this phylum live as
parasite on other animals, including human. They cause severe harm to the host
organism. About 10,00,000 species have been identified.
Example: Liver fluke, lung fluke, blood fluke, tapeworm
Liver fluke Tapeworm
Tapeworm
Several types of tapeworms are found in human and other vertebrates. The tapeworm
called Taenia saginata is found in human body. This lives as a parasite in human
intestine. The body of tapeworm is elongated like a ribbon. The tapeworm is
characterised by the presence of a pinhead shaped head, or scolex. Their body is
formed of many segments or proglottids. The head is equipped with sucker for
attachment to the intestinal wall of its host. The worms absorb the digested food of the
host through their body surface for survival.
The segments at the rear end of the worm contain eggs. These segments separate from
the main body of the worm and pass out with the faeces of the host animal. During
grazing, a cow ingests these passed out segments, the eggs hatch in the intestinal tract
and release larval forms, which burrow into the intestinal tissue of the host, and are
transported by blood to muscles where they form bladder worm. When bladder worm
is ingested by human beings in raw or half-cooked form, they enter the human
intestine and develop into its adult form. The adult worm survives on the digested
intestinal food of the host, and cause harm to human by tissue damage. The following
steps may be taken to prevent infestation by tapeworm.
a. Eating well cooked cow flesh
b. If infected, to take medication as per physician's advice
Tapeworm infected person
Worm egg spread from stool

to environment
Entry of larva with grass into cow body Entry from cow flesh to human body
5. Nematoda
Animals of this phylum are usually called
roundworm. Many of the nematodes live
independently, while some live as parasite
in the intestine, blood and parts of the
bodies of human and other animals.
Roundworms are cylindrical, tapering
animals consisting of a complete interior
gut that has mouth and anus. About 12,000
species have been identified.
Example: Roundworm, hookworm,
pinworm, filarial nematodes Fig : Roundworm
Roundworm: Roundworm lives as parasite in human intestine. It ingests the digested

food in the intestine of human causing severe harm to the health of the host specially
children. The roundworms give off fertilised eggs that are passed in the environment
through the faeces of the infected person. A hard shell covers the fertilised egg. Under
favourable environmental conditions the eggs mature up to a certain stage and remain
dormant. These eggs reach the intestine of human via food, drink, raw vegetables, and
unclean fingers. In the intestine the eggs hatch into larvae. These larvae pass into the
blood vessels of the intestine, to pass through liver and heart to reach the lungs. In the
lungs the larvae develop into the adult form, and pass through the trachea and
oesophagus to the intestine where they mature and start reproducing. An adult female
roundworm can lay up to 20,000 eggs a day.
Control: The following steps may be taken to prevent infestation by roundworm.

i. Defecate in a sanitary latrine
ii. Thoroughly wash raw vegetables
iii. Keep the food covered
iv. Wash face and hand after defecation, and before handling food
v. On physician's advice take vermifuge at intervals
Hookworm: Hookworms live as endo-parasite in the intestine of human. It sucks
blood from the walls of the intestine to derive its nutrition, leading to anaemia of the
host. The fertilised eggs of hookworm are passed in the faeces and contaminate the
environment. The larvae that emerge from the eggs pierce the skin of the foot and
enter the body. They next pass via the blood through the liver and heart to reach the
lungs. The larvae grow in the lungs and then again pass through the trachea and
oesophagus to reach the intestine where they mature into adult worm and attach to the
intestinal wall.
Prevention
1. Defecate in a sanitary latrine
2. Avoid walking bare-footed on dirty and damp contaminated soil
Pinworm: Pinworm, commonly known as threadworm, is about 2–12 millimetre
long. It is shaped like a thread. They live in the intestine of human, especially
children. The female pinworms lay eggs at night around the anus of the host, thus
causing itching around the anus. Itching of the anus contaminate the fingernails with
eggs. The eggs then pass to the intestine along with the food handled with the
contaminated fingers. The eggs mature into adult forms in the intestine.
Filaria worm: Filaria worm causes filariasis in human beings. The disease is mostly
found in Thakurgaon, Nilphamari and other districts. The worm is shaped like a
thread. The female worms lay larvae called microfilariae. The larvae live in the blood
of the host. These microfilariae when enter the culex mosquito, undergo growth and
development. The microfilariae again enter human host from infested mosquito. Then
the microfilariae develop into adult worms in the lymph glands of the host.
The symptoms and signs of filariasis in a person include fever and headache. In some
cases the limbs, testes and breasts may be swollen. Gradually the infected person
becomes inefficient and weak.
Prevention
1. Stop breeding of female mosquitoes
2. Protect oneself from mosquito bites
3. Seek prompt treatment
6. Annelida
The annelida have cylindrical body, that is divided into few ring shaped segments.
Between the digestive tract and the body wall there is a body cavity enclosed in a
special membrane, which was seen first in these animals. The organ nephridium
carryout the excretory functions. About 9000 species belong to this phylum.
Example: Earthworm, leeches, and so on
Prostomium
Female reproductive opening

Clitellum
Reproductive saddle
Chaetae Sucker
Male Anus
reproductive
opening
Sucker
Earthworm
7. Arthropoda
Arthropods are the most abundant animals on earth. About 10,00,000 arthropod
species have been identified. Their body consists of three or more paired jointed
accessory limbs. Externally the body is segmented. The internal soft part of body is
covered and protected by pectin containing exo-skeleton.
Example: Shrimps, crabs, spiders, mosquitoes, flies, butterflies, moths, cockroaches,
centipedes, millipedes, mites
Arthropods are of great importance to human beings. Many varieties of prawns

including lobster and crayfish are source of protein food for people. Currently, huge
foreign exchange is being earned through the export of prawns. Insects help in the
pollination of plants. Examples of the benefits humans derive from arthropods include
silk from silkworm, and honey and wax from honey bee. On the other hand, members
of arthropoda, in particular insects, can be formidable pests by devouring crops and
spreading life-threatening disease causing micro-organisms.
Example: Palmri insects damage crops, caterpillars damage jute plants, female
anopheles mosquito carry malarial parasite, culex mosquito transmits filariasis, aedes
mosquito transmit dengue and yellow fever. Louses, bed bugs, ticks and mites cause
harm to humans and domestic animals. The termites, with which we are well
acquainted, severely damage homesteads, furniture, and books.
Prawn
Cockroach Antenna
Compound eye Thorax
Wing
Abdomen
Butterfly Fly
8. Mollusca
Animals of this phylum are unsegmented with soft fleshy bodies. Usually a thin
membrane called mantle covers the body, which sometimes secrete a juice that forms
a shell. A mollusc usually moves on muscular foot. About 100,000 species have been
identified.
Example: Snail, oyster, octopus, sepia
Head
Tentacles
Ciliated foot
Shell
Octopus
Sepia Snail
Some of the molluscs are of economic importance, among them the preparation of
lime by burning the shell of oysters is worth mentioning. The flesh of oyster is eaten
in some countries. Oysters are also the source of natural pearl. The shipworm is a
menace to wooden boats and ships as they bore into the wood and cause damage.
9. Echinodermata
All animals belonging to this phylum are
marine. Their skin is spiny. The body has a
water transporting system. The tube feet
help in their locomotion. About 6,000
species have been identified.
Example: Starfish, sea lily
10. Chordata Starfish
Animals of this phylum demonstrate at least three characteristics during some phase
of their life. These are:
a) An elastic rod called a notochord
b) Hollow dorsal nerve cord
c) The presence of gill slits in the pharynx
About 66,000 species have been identified in this phylum. There are three
subphyla in this phylum.
a) Urochordata: Only the very young ones have notochord, nerve cord and gill slits.
Example: Ascidia
b) Cephalochordata: Notochord is present throughout life.
Example: Branchiostoma
Ascidia Branchiostoma
c) Vertebrata: Notochord is present in the young animals of this sub-phylum. In a

fully developed vertebrate the notochord transforms into vertebral column. Animals
with vertebral column are called vertebrates. Evolutionarily the vertebrates are the
most advanced animals. The subphylum vertebrata is classified into seven classes.
Class-1: Cyclostomata: Their body is elongated, that appears like an eel fish. The mouth
is jawless and rounded with
sucker. They do not have scales or
paired fins like fish.
Example: Petromyzon Petromyzon
Class-2: Chondrichthyes: This type of fish have cartilaginous endoskeleton. The

body is covered by placoid type of scales. They have 5–7 pairs of gill slits, but have
no branchia. They all live in oceans and seas.
Example: Shark fish
Hammer shark
Dogfish (shark)
Saw shark
Class-3: Osteichthyes: This type of fish have bony endoskeleton. The body is
covered by cycloid or ctenoid type of scales. They have four pairs of gills on the two
sides of the head that are covered by branchia.
Example: Hilsa, katla, salmon, roop chanda (pomfret), gajar, chital, flying fish,
horse fish, and so on
Taki
Pomfret
Fishes: Fish are cold-blooded

vertebrates whose bodies are
adapted to live in water. Their
bodies are usually covered with
scales, carry out respiration
through gills, and have fins that
help them to swim. The vertebrate
animals of chondrichthyes and Hilsha
osteichthyes are fish.
Fish is an important source of protein food. It is possible to earn huge foreign
exchange by exporting fish. Fish liver contains vitamins A and D. In Bangladesh there
are numerous ponds, lakes, rivers, canals, haor-baor, and beel. Scientific cultivation of
fishes–salmon, katla, mrigel, telapia, magur, tangra, pangash– in these water bodies
can help Bangladesh to reduce the unemployment problem, and increase individual
and national income to strengthen the economic base of the country.
Class-4: Amphibia: Animals of this class have two stages in their life cycle. The first
is the larval stage. They usually live in water and carry out respiration through gills. In
the second or mature stage they live on land, and respire through lungs. Though the
mature form live on land, but it is essential that they return to water for egg laying.
Their body is adapted to live in two different environments in the two stages of their
lifecycle, and so they are called amphibians. Their skin is scaleless, soft, thin, moist
and glandular. Amphibians are a cold-blooded animal, that is, their body temperature
rises and falls with that of the surrounding environment's temperature.
Example: Golden frogs and toads

Frogs are beneficial to human beings.
They play an important role in
maintaining the ecological balance. Toads
are beneficial to human beings as the
toads live on a diet of harmful insects. Golden frog
They help to control mosquitoes. The legs
of golden frogs are considered a delicacy
in many parts of the world. Hence,
through scientific cultivation and export
of golden frog, it is possible to earn huge
toad
foreign exchange.
Class-5: Reptilia: Reptiles move by crawling, and their bodies are adapted to live on
land. The skin is dry and covered with scales. Each of the two pairs of legs has five
fingers with nails.
Example: Lizards, iguanas, cobras, crocodiles, turtles
Crocodile
Cobra Turtle Lizard
Poisonous reptilia: Among the reptiles, only one species of lizard is venomous
named gila monster that is found only in South America. Snakes form the major part
of venomous reptiles. Most snakes are non-venomous. The venomous snakes are
cobras, raj-cobras, kal-keute, shonkhini, Russell's vipers.
Features of snake: Snakes are legless animals with a long, thin cylindrical body. Snakes
are reptiles that move in a zigzag way. They do not have tympanum or eyelid. Snakes
cannot hear. The tongue is bifurcated, and is used as the sense organ for smell. Besides
the usual teeth, the venomous snakes have two teeth in the upper jaw called fangs. The
fangs are hollow or contain a duct that is connected to the venom gland. In case of bites
by venomous snakes, two distinct side by side marks of the fangs are noted; while in the
bites of non-venomous snakes a line of many small teeth marks are noted.
Fig. Fangs and venom gland of venomous snake (viper)
In case of a bite by venomous snakes, the following measures must be taken:

i. A chord of rope or cloth should be tightly tied just above the bite, that is about 2–3
inches above the bite, which should be loosened for one minute every half hour.
ii. A clean sharp blade or knife should be used to cut the bitten site and the blood
drained out.
iii. Consult a physician as soon as possible
Class-6: Aves: Their body is covered with feathers. Birds are the only vertebrates with
feathers. Birds are animals with feathers and wings. Their forelimbs are modified as
wings, while the lips into beaks. The lungs are connected to a series of air sacs, which
facilitate the movement of air in the lungs. This adaptation is needed as birds require
an abundant supply of oxygen, which is needed to release energy in the cells. To
facilitate flight, birds have lightweight strong skeletons in which many of the major
bones are hollow. They are warm-blooded animals, that is, their body temperature
remain static and does not fluctuate with the temperature of the environment.
Birds are found in many environments. Most birds can fly. They are the birds with
flight, like stork, parrot, kite, owl, dove, robin. Some birds are flightless. They have
strong legs that are adapted for fast running. They are the runner birds, like ostrich.
The ostrich, is the largest species of birds, growing to a height of approximately 2.25
metre, and a weight of more than 150 kilogram. The ostrich can run at speeds as high
as 80 km/hr. They live in the deserts of Africa. Among the other flightless birds are
rhea in South America, emu in Australia, cassowary in New Guinea, and kiwi in New
Zealand. Some birds, like ducks, are adapted to live in water.
Cock
Vulture
Duck
Ostrich Penguin
Stork Dove
Owl
Migratory birds: In Bangladesh there is a rich variety of birds–about 600 species. Of

these species, 400 are permanent resident of Bangladesh, and the rest 200 are winter
birds. Birds in thousands come to Bangladesh from north Himalayan mountain range,
Europe and far away Siberia during the winter season, and leave when winter is over.
These birds are called winter birds, or guest birds.
The migratory birds that come to Bangladesh include cha-pakhi, swallow, wagtail,
kadakhocha, flycatcher, and varieties of ducks (lanja, neelshir, patari, khopa-hansh,
bhooti-hansh). Birds help to maintain the ecological balance by devouring harmful
insects and pests. These migratory birds should be left undisturbed and not killed or
hunted, rather they should be taken care of and be allowed to roam unhindered.
Class-7: Mammalia: The main features of animals of this class include a body that is
covered with hairs, and have mammary glands. With the exception of few, most
mammals give birth to live young ones (babies) that are raised on milk produced in
the mammary glands. Mammals are warm-blooded animals, the heart is four
chambered, and the body cavity is separated by transverse diaphragm. Most mammals
have different types of teeth on the two jaws. Except for camel, the red blood cells in
mammals lack a nucleus.
Example: Cow, tiger, guinea pig, pig, lion, elephant, panda, whale, bat, rat, monkey,
human, and so on.
With the exception of a group of mammals called monotremata that are found in
Australia, all mammals give birth to live young ones. The monotremes lay eggs, after
the eggs hatch the young ones is fed on breast milk.
Example: Platypus, and spiny anteaters
Another group of mammals is marsupials. The females of this group have a pouch
called marsupium that has the mammary glands. The immature young one delivered
from the uterus is carried in the marsupium, where they feed on breast milk. For
example, kangaroo. Most marsupial species are found in Australia and South America.
Human beings have for long domesticated certain species of other mammals, most
notable among them are cow, horse, sheep and dog. Mammals are unique in that they
supply protein and hide. Fur and wool collected from different animals also benefit
human beings. Among the mammals, rats are the most harmful animals. They destroy
crop and bring about economic loss.
Bat
Platypus
Rat
Man
Kangaroo
Whale
Human as Superior Beings

The animals included in the phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, and class
mammalia are considered to be superior to other animals. Among the mammals,
human are the most superior. The human brain is the most developed among all
animals. Using this brain, human beings have been able to establish their authority
and control over other animals. The other features that make human unique is that
they can walk upright, can grasp with the hands, and can use their past experience.
Wildlife in Bangladesh
The amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals that are not domesticated, and survive
without human help are called wildlife. Wildlife do not live only in forests. These
animals live in nature in different water bodies (haor-baor, beel, pond, river, ocean),
hills and mountain, islands, including the bushes and forests near or far from human
dwellings. Wildlife is one of the natural resources of a country. They play an
important role in maintaining ecological equilibrium.
During the last several years many of the wildlife in Bangladesh have become extinct.
Among these are rhinoceros, wild buffalo, swamp deer, stag, nilgai, wolf, bison,
bunting variety of wild cow, redheaded duck, peacock, and fish-eating crocodile.
In Bangladesh, currently there are about 850 species of wildlife. If measures for
conservation are not taken immediately, about 100–150 species of wildlife may
become extinct soon. Among the animals on the verge of extinction are the Royal
Bengal Tiger, leopard, baghdash, khatash, fox, spotted deer, squirrel, bonrui,
macaques, gibbon, kite, owl, wild cock, adjutant stork, modontek, waterfowl, koda,
hornbill, gharial, salt-water crocodile, python, boro kaitta, frog.
Importance of Preservation of Wildlife
Wildlife directly and indirectly is beneficial to human beings. Such as–
1. Wildlife provides meat, hide, feather, teeth, bone and horn
2. Wildlife is used to carry heavy load
3. Extracts from wildlife are ingredient of many medicines
4. Wildlife is used for scientific research
5. Some people like to rear wildlife as a form of hobby
6. Some wildlife act as scavenger
7. Hunting of wildlife is sometimes taken as sports for enjoyment
8. Planned preservation and export of wildlife can be a source of revenue for the
country, and oneself too
9. Wildlife helps to control rodents and harmful insects

10. Wildlife helps in the pollination, fertilisation and spread of plants
11. Wildlife plays an important role in ecological balance
Reasons for Destruction of Wildlife in Bangladesh
Following are important reasons leading to extinction of wildlife in Bangladesh.
1. Unplanned and inhumane hunting of wildlife
2. Damage to and or change in environment
The Process of Preservation of Wildlife
To preserve wildlife, human beings ought to be sympathetic and considerate towards
them. Indiscriminate killing, hunting, buying and selling, exporting of wildlife should
be strongly discouraged. This should be practised at individual and group levels. "The
Bangladesh Wildlife Preservation Act, 1973" is there for the preservation of wildlife.
Implementation of the Act is essential for the preservation of wildlife. Side by side,
the people of Bangladesh need to be made aware of the necessity of preservation of
wildlife. It is possible to preserve the wildlife in the country without causing
imbalance in the ecology of the country.
Exercise

1. What is the scientific name of the national fish of Bangladesh?
(a) Tenualosa ilisha (b) Labeo rohita
(c) Catla catla (d) Asterias rubens
2. One of the biggest phylum in respect of number is
(a) shrimp (b) tara fish
(c) man (human being) (d) ameba
3. Of the following, which set of the animals belong to the same phylum?
(a) Hydra, obelia, coral, jelly fish
(b) Roundworm, shrimp, butter fly, sepia
(c) Hydra, shrimp, jelly fish, butter fly
(d) Tortoise, octopus, shrimp, roundworm
From the diagram, answer question no. 4 and 5
4. To which phylum the animal belongs?

(a) Cnidaria (b) Platyhelminthes
(c) Arthropoda (d) Mollusca
5. The difference between the animal showed in the picture and that belongs to
the Chordata phylum is.
(i) the animal belonging to Chordata phylum has backbone but it has no backbone.
(ii) the animal belonging to Chordata phylum is bipoda but it is polypoda
(iii) the animal belonging to Chordata phylum gives birth to babies but it does not.
(a) i (b) ii
(c) i and iii (d) ii and iii
Creative Questions
In the winter of every year innumerable birds are seen in the marshy land of the
Jahangirnagar University. Most of the birds are of different types. They stay there
from the starting of the winter. They leave when summer starts. They are seen not
only in the campus of the Jahangirnagar university, but also in the marshy lands of the
Dhaka zoo.
(a) By which name the birds are known in Bangladesh?
(b) Which is the causes for their arrival in Bangladesh by this time?
(c) Why these types of birds are not found in all the pools of the country?
(d) Framing of laws and their implementation are not alone sufficient in
protecting wild animals of Bangladesh. Give your opinions with arguments.
Chapter Twelve
Variegation of Human Body
Human beings are not only the most superior of the animals, but also of all creations.
With their intelligence, human beings have been able to establish their superiority
over all living things.
Brain is the centre of intelligence in human beings. It is also the centre of all co-
ordinated activity that endows human beings the ability to prove its superiority over all.
Like other multicellular living things, human beings also develop from the embryo to
attain its full stature. Depending on the structure and function, the cells of the body
are organised into tissues. Different tissues are grouped together to form organs, and
several organs together form organ systems. The co-ordinated activities of the organ
systems contribute towards the superiority of human beings. In addition, human
beings have intelligence and a keen sense of judgement. In this chapter, different
organ systems of human body are discussed. Outer sheath
Spongy bone
Skeletal System
Skeletal system consists of bones and
Cartilage
cartilage. It gives shape to the body and
protects the internal organs. The human
skeleton is endoskeleton. The
endoskeleton cannot be seen from
Compact bone
outside.
Marrow
Structure of Skeleton
Femur
Skeleton is formed with bones and cartilage. Fig 12.1 : Long bone (longitudinal section)
Bone: The bones are formed of living bone cells and inorganic compounds. The
inorganic compounds in bones are calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate. Under
normal conditions, the bones contain about 40–45 percent of water. The bones are
supplied by nerve, blood and lymph.
The different bones of the body join with others to form the endoskeleton. The region
of union between two or more bones is called joint. Some joints are absolutely
immovable, such as the joints in skull bones. Some are slightly movable joints, such
as the joints of the vertebra. Besides, there are more than 70 freely movable or
synovial joints. The bones of freely movable joints are covered with smooth cartilage
held together by dense connective tissue or ligaments. These joints contain an oily
substance–synovial fluid, that helps in smooth movement. Elbow joint and shoulder
joints are examples of synovial joint.
Variegation of Human Body 167
Function of the skeletal system: Following are the functions of skeletal system:
1. Body structure: It serves to give the Skull
body a definite structure and shape.
2. Protection: It affords protection to Cervical vertebrae
soft organs from external injury. For Clavicle
Scapula
example, brain, spinal cord, heart,
Sternum Humerus
lungs, and so on.
Ribs
3. Locomotion: The muscles are
Lumber vertebrae
attached to different bones. This Hip bone Ulna
helps in the contraction and Sacrum Redius
relaxation of the muscles bringing Coceyx Carpal
about movement of the bones. This Metacarpal
Phalauges
results in locomotion.
Femur
4. Red blood cell production: It is in Patella
the red bone marrow, which some of
Tibia
the bones contain, that red blood Fibula
cells are produced.
5. Store: The bones store calcium and Tarsal
Metatarsal
phosphorus.
Phalanges
Arrangement of Bone Fig 12.2 : Skeletal system
The 206 bones of the body are joined with one another to form the endoskeleton (Fig:
12.2) of human beings. According to the arrangement, the endoskeleton can be
divided into four parts.
1) Skull: Resting on the first vertebra is the skull. The 29 strong bones together form
the round hollow chamber called skull or cranium. The cranial cavity of skull protects
the brain. Besides, jaw and cavities for sense organs (nose, ear, eye) are present in the
skull. The spinal cord extends from the posterior end of the brain and passes through
the foramen magnum in the postero-inferior part of the skull.
Dorsal spine
2) Vertebral column: From below and under
surface of the skull the vertebral or spinal
Transverse process column starts. It consists of 33 bones. Each
Neural canal bone is called vertebra. Each vertebra (Fig:
Centrum 12.3) has a body called centrum. A vertebra has
a tubal canal called neural canal. The neural
canal of all the vertebrae form a continuous
Fig 12.3 : Thoracic vertebra canal for the spinal cord. Besides, each vertebra
contains dorsal spine and transverse processes. According to the position of the
vertebrae they are divided into five regions. For example–
(i) Cervical vertebra: These are 7 in number and located in the neck.
(ii) Thoracic or dorsal vertebra: These are 12 in number and located in the thoracic
region. There are twelve pairs of ribs in thoracic region. The heart and lungs are
protected within the thoracic cavity.
(iii) Lumber vertebra: These are 5 in number and located in the lumber or waist
region.
(iv) Sacral vertebra: These are 5 in number, which are fused to form the sacrum.
(v) Coccyx vertebra: These are 4 in number, located at the terminal end of the
vertebral column. These vertebrae are fused to form the coccyx.
Function of Vertebral Column
The vertebral column bears the weight of the body, protects the spinal cord, forms the
thorax, and gives attachment to muscles to help in locomotion.
3) Upper limb (Fig: 12.4): The upper limb is formed of the shoulder girdle and the
bones of the arm.
Clavicle
Dium
Girdle
Pubis
Scapula Lscidum
Humerus Femur
Ulna
Patella
Radius
Tibia
Fibula
Carpal
Metacaral Tarsal
Metstarsal
Phalangs
Phalanges
Fig 12.4: Upper limb Fig 12.5: Lower limb
Shoulder girdle: There are two separate shoulder girdles. With the help of this girdle
the arm is attached to the vertebral column. The shoulder girdle is formed of scapula
and clavicle. The humerus is attached to the hollow at one end of the scapula.
Arm: Each arm is formed of the following bones:

(a) Humerus: The humerus extends from shoulder to elbow.
(b) Radio-ulna: The 2 bones, radius and ulna, extend from elbow to wrist.
(c) Carpal bone: The eight small carpal bones are arranged in two rows. They form
the wrist.
(d) Metacarpal bone: Metacarpal bones are 5 in number. They are long narrow
slightly bigger bones. They form the palm of the hand.
(e) Phalange: The bones of the fingers are phalanges. They are 14 in number.
4) Lower limb (Fig: 12.5): The lower limb is formed by the pelvic girdle and the
bones of the leg.
Pelvic girdle: The pelvic girdle is formed by the ilium, ischium, and pubis bones.
These bones fuse to form the hipbone, and the two hipbones together form the pelvic
girdle. The sacrum and coccyx are located between the two hipbones. The femur is
attached to the hollow in the pelvic girdle.
Leg: Each leg is formed of the following bones:
(a) Femur: The femur extends from the hip to the knee. The femur or thighbone is
the strongest and longest bone in the human body.
(b) Tibia-fibula: The two bones, tibia and fibula, extend from knee to ankle. At the
front of the junction of tibia-fibula with femur there is a rounded bone called
patella.
(c) Tarsal bone: There are 7 small tarsal bones that lie below the tibia-fibula. These
bones form the ankle of the foot.
(d) Metatarsal bone: The metatarsals are 5 in number that are attached to the tarsal
bones. They form the sole of the foot.
(e) Phalange: The bones of the toes are called phalanges. They are 14 in number.
Muscular System
Muscle: Muscle cells form the muscle tissue. Muscular tissues form about 40–50
percent of human body weight. Three types of muscles form the muscular system of
the body.
a) Voluntary muscle: The muscles that can be voluntarily regulated are called
voluntary muscles. As they help in movement and locomotion of the body, they are
also known as skeletal muscle. The voluntary muscles are commonly referred to as
flesh. These muscles are located at the junctions of big bones.
b) Involuntary muscle: The muscles that are not under voluntary control are called
involuntary muscles. These muscles are present in the walls of the alimentary canal,
blood vessels, urinary bladder, uterus, and so on.
c) Cardiac muscle: The special type of involuntary muscle found in the wall of the
heart is called cardiac muscle. The contraction and relaxation of cardiac muscle
functions to regulate the flow of blood by the heart through the body.
Relationship of skeletal and muscular systems: There is an important relationship
between the skeletal and muscular systems. The muscles are attached by means of
tendons to the bones. The contraction and relaxation of the muscles help to move the
different parts of the body and thus help in locomotion.
Common Diseases and Problems of Skeletal System
Rickets: When the growing children have deficiency of vitamin D, calcium and
phosphorus they suffer from rickets. In this condition, the bones cannot grow
normally. Often the bones bend. Intake of a balanced diet and proper care can prevent
this disease.
Arthritis or getebat: In this condition there is inflammation or pain in the joints. The
joint movement is restricted. Living in healthy conditions and seeking treatment in the
early stages can prevent the disease from progressing.
Bone dislocation and fracture: Due to injury or severe pressure, the bone may be
dislocated from its normal position, or fractured or cracked. Bone dislocation may
cause damage of the ligaments and muscles. In case of fracture or dislocation, after
initial first-aid, help of experts should be taken as soon as possible.
Digestive System
Most of the food that we eat is complex food. The complex food substances cannot be
absorbed and directly utilised by our body. The body process by which complex,
insoluble food substances are broken down, under the action of enzymes, into simple
soluble substance capable of being assimilated in the body is called digestion. With
the help of specific enzymes, digestion converts the carbohydrate type of foods into
glucose. Similarly, protein type of food is converted to amino acids, and fat or fatty
food into fatty acids and glycerol.
The system by which digestion of food occurs is called the digestive system. The
digestive system (Fig: 12.6) is divided into two main parts. These are–(1) alimentary
canal, and (2) digestive glands.
Alimentary Canal
The human alimentary canal extends
from the mouth to the anus. It is a coiled
Nasal cavity
tube about 7.5 metre long. The
Buccal cavity
alimentary canal is formed of the
following parts: Oesophagus
a) Mouth aperture: The mouth aperture

is an opening below the nasal aperture. It
is bounded by two lips. This is the
beginning of the alimentary canal.
Gall badder Diaphragm
Function: Its function is to allow food to Stomach
Liver
enter the alimentary canal.
Blle duct Pancreas
b) Buccal cavity: The mouth aperture is Duodenum
followed by the buccal cavity. The buccal Large Colon
Intestine
cavity contains two mandibles that have
different kinds of teeth. There is a large Neum
tongue on the floor of the cavity. The Cecum
tongue is muscular and glandular. Three Appendixs Rectam
pairs of salivary gland are also present. Anus
The salivary glands are connected to the
Fig 12.6 : Digestive system
oral cavity by separate ducts.
Function
1. With the help of teeth, the food is bitten and masticated.
2. The tongue helps in taste sensation and swallowing of food.
3. The saliva from the salivary glands helps to make the food slippery and digest food.
c) Pharynx: The part next to buccal cavity is pharynx.
Function: It conveys the food materials from buccal cavity to oesophagus.
d) Oesophagus: The oesophagus is a muscular tube about 25 cm long. It extends to
the stomach.
Function: This conveys the food to the stomach.
e) Stomach: Stomach is a bag-like structure. It has a thick muscular wall. The wall of
the stomach has numerous glands called gastric glands.
Function
(a) The food is stored temporarily
(b) Digestive juice from gastric glands helps in digestion
f) Intestine: The part following the stomach is the intestine. This is a long coiled tube.
The intestine is divided into two main parts. These are:
1. Small intestine: The relatively long coiled tube extending form the stomach to
large intestine is the small intestine. The small intestine is again divided into three
sections–duodenum, jejunum and ileum. The common bile duct opens into the
duodenum of small intestine. The common bile duct conveys bile from the liver and
pancreatic juice from the pancreas. The villi are present in the inner lining of the
ileum of small intestine. Each villus contains intestinal glands.
Function: The chief functions of the small intestine are digestion and absorption of
food.
2. Large intestine: The relatively wider tube extending from the ileum to anus is the
large intestine. Large intestine has three parts–caecum, colon and rectum. To the
caecum is attached an extension called appendix.
Function: Water is absorbed, stool is formed and stored temporarily in the large
intestine.
g) Anus: The terminal opening of the alimentary canal is the anus.
Function: Expulsion of stool.
Digestive gland: The glands that produce juice, which help in the digestion of food
are called digestive glands. The digestive glands in human body are as follows:
a) Salivary gland: Human buccal cavity has parotid, sublingual and submandibular
salivary glands that open in the buccal cavity by their respective ducts.
The salivary glands secrete saliva. Saliva contains water and an enzyme ptyalin.
b) Liver: The liver is placed under the diaphragm on the right of the stomach. It is
the largest gland in the body. A gall bladder is attached to liver. Bile, a green
coloured juice secreted from the liver is stored in the gall bladder. The bile from
the gall bladder passes through common bile duct to the duodenum. Besides
producing bile and performing other functions, liver converts the excess glucose
to glycogen and stores it.
c) Pancreas: The pancreas is situated below the stomach and duodenum. The juice
secreted by pancreas is called pancreatic juice. This juice passes through the
pancreatic duct, and then through common bile duct to reach the duodenum.
Pancreas also produces the hormone insulin.
d) Gastric gland: Gastric glands are present in the wall of the stomach. The glands
secrete a digestive juice called gastric juice.
e) Intestinal gland: The villi in the wall of small intestine contain numerous
intestinal glands, which produce the intestinal juice.
Enzyme
Enzymes are organic chemicals and protein like substances. The living cells produce
enzymes.
Functions of Enzyme are as Follows
a) Enzymes act as organic catalyst that accelerate chemical reactions.
b) They can work best at a particular temperature, and are readily destroyed by
elevated temperature.
c) A specific enzyme performs a specific function. For example, the enzyme trypsin
acts only on protein.
It acts best at a particular level of acidic or alkaline environment.
Teeth
Teeth: Teeth are the strongest part of the body. On each of the two jaws within the
buccal cavity there are usually 16 teeth totalling 32. In human beings, eruption of
teeth occur twice: first time–milk teeth in childhood; and second time–after the milk
teeth fall off, the permanent teeth erupt up to the age of 18 years.
Human beings have four kinds of permanent teeth. These are–
a) Incisor tooth: This tooth is used to bite or break food.
b) Canine tooth: This is used to tear food.
c) Premolar tooth: This is used to grind and masticate food.
d) Molar tooth: This is used to grind and masticate food.
Enamel
Dentine
Capillaries Nerve bundle
Inclsor teeth
Gum
Canine teeth Cement
Premolar teeth
Jaw bone
Enamel
Dentine
Molar teeth Molar teeth Pulp cavity
Wisdom teeth (lougitudinal section) Capillaries
Gum
Cement
Fig 12.7: Dental arrangement in upper jaw Fig 12.8: Longitudinal section of teeth
Each half of each jaw (Fig: 12.7) contains 2 incisor, 1 canine, 2 premolar, and 3 molar
teeth. Each tooth has three parts. These are–
The part above the gum: Crown
The part embedded in the gum: Root
The part between crown and root: Neck
Structure of the tooth: The composition of each tooth (Fig: 12.8) is as follows:
a) Dentine: The tooth is mainly formed by a hard substance called dentine.
b) Enamel: Covering the crown of the tooth over the dentine is a hard substance
called enamel. Both dentine and enamel are formed of calcium phosphate, calcium
carbonate, and fluoride.
c) Pulp: The substances within the dentine that contains minute arteries, veins, nerves
and soft tissue is called pulp. Pulp is present in the tooth cavity. The nutrients and
oxygen are supplied to the dentine through pulp.
d) Cement: The dentine of root of the tooth is covered by a thin layer called cement.
Cement anchors the tooth in the jaw.
Dental disease: After food is eaten, a sticky layer is left over the teeth that consist of
food remnants, saliva and bacteria. This layer is called plaque. This plaque may be
formed at the margin of the tooth and gum. The plaque destroys the enamel of the
tooth and creates craters in the dentine, which in turn damage the attachment of tooth
with gum. This may lead to premature falling off of tooth.
Dental care: Brushing teeth every morning and night after eating food will prevent
dental erosion, and keep them healthy.
Food Digestion Process

Digestion in mouth: In the buccal cavity food is broken down into small pieces with
the help of tongue and teeth. At the same time saliva is mixed with the food. Saliva
helps in deglutition of food. Saliva contains an enzyme salivary amylase or ptyalin.
The salivary enzyme converts carbohydrate into maltose.
Villus
The food passes from the mouth into
the stomach by the peristaltic
movement in the oesophagus. The
contraction and relaxation of the
muscular wall of the alimentary canal is
called peristalsis.
Digestion in the stomach: After the
food reaches the stomach, the gastric
juice from the gastric glands in the
stomach wall acts on the food.
Fig 12.9: Structure of ileum
The gastric juice has mainly three components.
(a) Hydrochloric acid: Hydrochloric acid destroys the microbes, and converts the
inactive pepsinogen into active pepsin. In addition, it creates an acidic environment
for the action of pepsin.
(b) Pepsin: This is an enzyme. Pepsin breaks down and converts proteins into
polypeptides.
(c) Rennin: The enzyme rennin converts the milk protein casein into caseinogen.
Because of the contraction and relaxation of the stomach, the gastric juice mixes and
reacts with the food to form a soft liquid. This soft liquid is called chyme. The chyme
passes, a little at a time (in small quantities), from the stomach to the intestine.
Digestion in small intestine: As soon as the
Capillary food enters the first part of small intestine or
duodenum, it is mixed with the bile and
Lymphatics
pancreatic juice which are brought by the
common bile duct from the gall bladder and
pancreas. At the same time, intestinal juice
from intestinal glands in the intestinal wall
Blood vessel to villus mixes with the food.
Bile is alkaline juice. Bile neutralises the acidic
medium to form alkaline condition. Bile breaks
large fats into small droplets. The pancreatic
Fig 12.10 : Structure of villus juice contains three enzymes. Trypsin breaks
the polypeptides into amino acids; lipase breaks fats into fatty acids and glycerol; and
amylase breaks maltose into glucose.
The maltase, sucrase, and lactase present in the intestinal juice act on the remaining
simple carbohydrate–maltose, sucrose and lactose–into glucose.
The second part of the small intestine or ileum contains numerous projections called
villi (Fig: 12.9 & 12.10). The blood vessels in the villi absorb the glucose and amino
acids; and the lymphatics absorb fatty acids and glycerol. After absorption of the
digested food, the remaining undigested food is passed into the large intestine.
Digestion in large intestine: No digestion takes place in the large intestine. Large
intestine absorbs the water from the undigested food. The waste, the remaining
undigested food, is stored as stool in the rectum, and finally passed out through the
anus.
Common Disease and Prevention
1) Dysentery: Dysentery is a very common disease in our country. There are two
types of dysentery.
a) Amoebic dysentery: This type of dysentery is caused by Entamoeba, a type of
unicellular animal, when it enters the human intestine. This has been detailed out in
describing phyla protozoa in chapter eleven.
b) Bacillary dysentery: This type of dysentery is caused when the intestine is
attacked by Shigella. The microbe attacks the lining of large intestine. The disease is
manifested by frequent passing of stool mixed with mucus. Often, stool mixed with
blood is passed too. So this disease is also called blood dysentery. When one suffers
from dysentery, without ignoring it, physician's advice should be taken. If hygienic
practices are followed than the disease can be prevented.
c) Constipation: Constipation is not exactly a disease. It may occur due to various
reasons. The most common reason is not defecating when there is the urge to
defecate. Regular defecation, and including plenty of vegetables in the diet can
prevent this condition.
d) Gastritis: Untimely and irregular intake of food over a long time result in
accumulation of excess acid in the stomach causing this disease. Burning sensation in
the throat and abdomen, and abdominal pain are the manifestations of the disease. If
not treated on time, it may lead to ulceration in stomach and intestine. This is called
gastric ulcer. Developing habits regarding regular and timely food intake can help to
prevent the condition.
Blood and Circulatory System

Food and oxygen are essential for metabolism. At the same time, it is essential to
eliminate the unwanted and harmful products of metabolism. The system by which
these substances are transported is called circulatory system.
Blood circulatory system: Blood circulatory system is composed of blood, heart,
arteries, veins and capillary networks.
Blood
Blood (Fig: 12.11) is a fluid connective tissue. Its colour is red, salty to taste, opaque
and alkaline in nature. The blood cells are mainly produced in the bone marrow. An
adult human has about 5 to 6 litres of blood. Blood is formed of two components–(a)
plasma, and (b) blood cells.
(a) Plasma: Plasma is the fluid portion of blood. The blood cells are suspended in
plasma. Plasma contains 90–92 percent water. Besides, plasma contains glucose,
amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, protein (e.g. albumin, fibrinogen), mineral salts,
hormone, vitamins, urea, antibodies, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other waste
products.
(b) Blood cell: In human blood there are three types of cells. These are–
1) Red blood cell or erythrocyte: The
red blood cells (RBCs) are minute bi-
concave disc. They have no nucleus. The
colour of blood is red because of the
Neutrophil leucocyte
presence of a coloured compound Basophil
haemoglobin. Every second, about 20 lakh
red blood cells are produced in the body.
Small lymphocyte
The life span of one red cell is 4 months. Eosinophil
2) White blood cell or leukocyte: They

vary in form and size, and have nucleus. Monocyte
They are bigger in size than the

Thrombocytes
erythrocytes, but are less in number. Erythrocytes Platelate
Depending on the nucleus these are of Fig 12.11 : Difterent types of blood cells
various types–neutrophil, eosinophil,
basophil, lymphocyte, monocyte, and so on. In healthy human body there are
6,000–11,000 leukocytes per cubic millimetre of blood. The white blood cells can
send out pseudopodia to engulf micro-organisms.
3) Platelet or thrombocyte: The smallest cells in the blood are the thrombocytes.
They vary in shape–round, oval, spherical–and are found in bunches. Thrombocytes
do not have nucleus. They are also called platelets.
Functions of blood: The main functions of blood are as follows–
1. Blood maintains balance of water and temperature in the body.
2. The haemoglobin in red blood cells transport oxygen from lungs to different cells
of the body.
3. The white blood cells by its phagocytosis kill the micro-organisms to keep the
body healthy.
4. When any part of body is injured, platelets help in clot formation. This stops
bleeding from the injured part.
5. Through plasma, substances like carbon dioxide, urea, digested food materials
(e.g. glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol), hormone, and so on are
transported to various parts of body.
Heart
Heart is a active pumping machine formed by cardiac muscle. It is located in the chest
cavity above the diaphragm, and between the two lungs a little to the left. The
function of heart is to receive the CO2 enriched blood from different parts of the body
through veins, and to distribute the O2 enriched blood to the various parts of the body
through arteries. The whole heart is wrapped in a double layered membrane called
pericardium. The muscular wall of the heart has three layers. From inside out these
are–endocardium, myocardium and pericardium.
The heart (Fig: 12.12) has four complete chambers. The heart is divided into a right
and left half by a partition. Each half is again subdivided into an upper and a lower
chamber called respectively the atrium and ventricle. The atria are thin walled, while
the ventricles are thick walled. In between right atrium and right ventricle is the right
atrio-ventricular opening, which is guarded by the tricuspid valve. Similarly, in
between the left atrium and left ventricle is the left atrio-ventricular opening which is
guarded by the bicuspid valve.
Two large veins–the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava–open into the right
atrium. Four pulmonary veins open into the left atrium. Passing out of the right
ventricle is the pulmonary artery. And passing out of the left ventricle is the aorta.
Coronary artery supplies blood to the heart muscle. The valves allow unidirectional
flow of blood, and prevent back flow. The tricuspid and bicuspid valves allow the
blood to pass from the atria to the respective ventricles only. The pulmonary valve, a
semi-lunar valve, allows the blood to pass from the right ventricle to the pulmonary
artery and prevents back flow into right ventricle. Similarly, the aortic valve, a semi-
lunar valve, allows the blood to pass from the left ventricle to the aorta and prevents
back flow into left ventricle. Valves do not guard the openings of the veins that bring
blood to the heart.
Aorta
Towards head and body
Towards lungs
Semiluuar valve
Vena cava
From head and body
Pulmonary veins
Right atrium Left atrium

Tricuspid valve
Bicuspid valve
(mitral)
Left ventricle
Right ventricle
Attachment of valve by tendon
Muscle
Fig 12.12: Blood circulation by heart
Circulation of Blood through Heart

The alternate contraction and relaxation of the atria and ventricles of the heart propel
the blood throughout the body. The superior and inferior venae cavae bring CO2 rich
blood from the body to the right atrium. The pulmonary veins bring O2 rich blood
from lungs to the left atrium. When the atria contract they force the blood from the
right atrium to the right ventricle, and from left atrium to left ventricle. Then the
ventricles contract. This closes the tricuspid valve in right ventricle on one hand, and
forces the blood into the pulmonary artery that takes the blood to the lungs. At the
same time, when the left ventricle contracts, it closes the bicuspid valve and forces the
blood into the aorta that takes the blood to the whole body. As a result, the O2 rich
blood from the left ventricle pass through aorta to different parts of the body, and the
CO2 rich blood from right ventricle passes through pulmonary artery to the lungs. In
this way, the heart together with its vessels carries on the circulation of blood.
Blood Pressure and its Determination
The pressure exerted by circulating blood in the arteries, as the blood flows from the
heart to the arteries, is called blood pressure. Blood pressure is of two types. These are–
1) Systolic pressure: Contraction of the heart is called systole. The pressure in the
arteries during systole is called the systolic pressure. Under normal situation, the
systolic pressure is 100–150 millimetre of mercury.
2) Diastolic pressure: Relaxation of heart is called diastole. The pressure at the
arteries during diastole is called the diastolic pressure. Under normal situation,
the diastolic pressure is 65–90 millimetre of mercury. Blood pressure can be
measured with a blood pressure measuring instrument.
Blood vessel (artery, vein, capillary): The vessels that carry blood are called blood
vessels. In the body there are three kinds of blood vessels–artery, vein and capillary.
Artery: An artery is a vessel that carries blood from the heart to all parts of the body.
They usually carry oxygenated blood. They lie deeper in the body. The walls of the
arteries are thick, and do not have valve in the lumen wall.
Vein: The veins carry blood from different parts of the body to the heart. They usually
carry CO2 rich blood. The veins are less thick-walled, and have valves in the lumen
wall.
Capillary network and capillary: When an artery enters an organ, it gradually
breaks up into smaller branches that subdivide again and again until they form very
small vessels called capillaries. The capillaries are found around each cell of the body.
A single layer of cells lines the capillary. The veins originate from capillaries.
Valve
Artery Vein Capillary

Capillary
Artery Vein
Fig 12.13 : Difference among artery, capillary and vein

Heartbeat
One systole followed by a diastole of heart is together called heartbeat or pulse. The
rate of heartbeat in a normal healthy adult is 72 beats per minute. The heartbeat is
easily felt over the wrist.
Blood Group: When blood is transfused, in most cases there is no reaction between
the blood of receiver and donor; but some times there is severe reaction which may
even be acutely fatal for the receiver. This happens because the blood of all people is
not the same. Research has shown that the red blood cells in human blood have two
types of antigen and two types of antibody. Based on these antigen and antibody,
human blood is of four types. This typing is called the ABO blood grouping.
Features of ABO blood grouping
Blood group Presence of Presence of Group to Group from

antigen in red antibody in the which blood which blood
blood cell serum can be donated can be
received
A Antigen A Antibody b A, AB A&O
B Antigen B Antibody a B, AB B&O
AB Antigen A No antibody AB All groups
Antigen B (AB, A, B, O)
O No antigen Antibody a All groups O
Antibody b (A, B, AB, O)
Rhesus or Rh Factor
The blood of rhesus monkey contains an antigen called the Rhesus factor or Rh factor.
Some human beings have such rhesus antigen on their red blood cells. Depending on
the presence or absence of Rh antigen, human blood is grouped into Rh positive, and
Rh negative. Problem may arise if an Rh negative person is transfused with Rh
positive blood, or when Rh negative female is married to an Rh positive male.
Necessity of Knowing Blood Group
The ABO blood group and the Rhesus factor of human beings are very important. In
order to avoid any hazard related to when one donates or receives blood in times of
emergency, one should know one's blood group.
Blood donation: Many critically ill persons, or persons injured in accidents may
require blood. A person has about 5–6 litres of blood in the body. A red blood cell
survives for four months. About twenty thousand crore red blood cells are produced
and destroyed each day. So, it causes no problem if a person donates blood every 4
months. It causes no harm either. On the other hand it can save a valuable life.
Some Common Diseases of the Circulatory System and their Prevention
1) Blood pressure: Under normal conditions, there is a defined blood pressure for a
normal person of specific age. For example, for an adult person the normal systolic
pressure is 120 and diastolic pressure is 80 mm of mercury. If blood pressure is more

or less than the normal for the age, it indicates disease condition. When the blood
pressure is above normal, it is called high blood pressure; and when below normal, it
is called low blood pressure. In today's world, high blood pressure is a serious disease.
In high blood pressure, the small arteries and veins in the brain may rupture and may
even lead to death. The condition is termed as cerebral haemorrhage.
2) Heart attack: When the heart suddenly stops beating, it is called heart attack. The
coronary arteries supply blood to the heart muscles. If for some reason, the coronary
artery cannot supply blood to a part of the heart muscle, that part of the heart muscle is
damaged and it stops functioning. This leads to heart attack, which may even be fatal.
3) Stroke: If blood supply is stopped through any artery in brain the condition is
called stroke. This condition may even lead to death.
Larynx
4) Rheumatic fever: Frequent Trachea
Rib
episodes of fever and inflammation of
the heart are symptom and sign of this
condition. In this disease, the heart Bronchus
valve is damaged. Healthy lifestyle can Bronchiole

prevent the occurrence of the disease. It Alveelus
Pleura
is important to take the right medicine Pleural cavity
for the required period, in case the Heart
Diaphragm
disease occurs.
Fig 12.14: Human respiratory system
5) Anaemia: Anaemia is a common disease
among the females in our country. This disease
occurs when the haemoglobin content in blood Trachea
decreases or when the red blood cells decrease Brunchus
in number. Anaemia may occur when the Bronehlola
number of red cells decrease in blood due to
either decreased production or excess Bronchiole
breakdown, or in states of malnutrition, and so
on. On physician's advice the cause of anaemia Alveolus
should be determined and treated accordingly.
Intake of balanced diet is essential. Bronchiole
Respiration and Respiratory System
Energy is required for all metabolic processes. Alveolus
Energy is stored in food. The process by which Capillary network
oxygen taken from environment is used to burn
Fig 12.15: Bronchiole, Alveolus and capillary network
the cellular food (glucose) to form energy, carbon dioxide and water, is called
respiration.
Glucose + Oxygen JEnergy + Carbon dioxide + Water
The organs that actively participate in respiration form the respiratory system. Nose,
nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchus and lungs together form the respiratory
system. Nose is a hollow organ. The two openings at the anterior end are called
nostrils. The internal cavity of nose is called nasal cavity. The nasal cavity in its
anterior part is lined by small hairs, and in the posterior part it is lined by mucus
membrane. A thin wall divides the nasal cavity into two.
Air passes through the nasal passage during inspiration. During inspiration, dust and
disease causing microbes in air are trapped by the hairs and mucus membrane of nasal
cavity, and thus protects the lungs.
The nasal cavity extends from the nostrils to the pharynx. The part of the pharynx
posterior to the nasal cavity is nasopharynx. Larynx is situated at the junction of
pharynx with trachea. Within the larynx is a pair of vocal cords. At the upper part of
larynx is a tongue-like flap called glottis or uvula. Sound is produced by the vibration
of the vocal cords in the larynx. The uvula covers the larynx while swallowing. So,
under normal conditions food does not enter the larynx. If by chance food passes into
the larynx it causes suffocation followed by coughing, and the food is ejected.
Trachea is a hollow tube that extends from larynx to the point where it bifurcates.
After the trachea enters the thoracic cavity it divides into two branches, the right and
left bronchus, which enter the right and left lungs respectively. Bronchus divides
again and again to form bronchioles. At the end of each bronchiole there is bubble-
like structure called alveolus. Alveolus has a rich supply of capillary network. Lung is
the main organ of respiratory system. Virtually, lung is formed with bronchus,
bronchiole, numerous alveolus and blood vessels. The two lungs are located on either
side of the thoracic cavity. A double layered membrane called pleura covers each
lung. There is a lubricating fluid between the two layers of pleura that prevent friction
between the two layers during respiration. Oxygen enters the blood through the
alveolus of lungs, and carbon dioxide is taken away from blood to the alveolus.
The diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. The
contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm helps in respiration.
Respiratory Process
Respiration occurs in two stages–(a) external respiration or ventilation (inspiration
and expiration), and (b) internal respiration.
(a) External respiration: Exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between
alveolus and the capillaries around the alveolus in lung is called external respiration.
In the first phase of external respiration, oxygen rich air from the environment enters
the lungs with the help of respiratory system.
Entering of air in the lungs is called inspiration or inhalation. Contraction of the

diaphragm and the intercostal muscles expand the thorax. This facilitates the entry of
air into the alveoli of lungs. Blood capillaries surround each alveolus. The oxygen
content in capillaries is low, while the carbon dioxide content is high. The oxygen
content of alveolar air is high, while that of carbon dioxide is low. So, by the process
of diffusion, oxygen enters the capillaries.
In the second phase of external respiration, the diaphragm and thoracic muscles relax
and the volume of thoracic cavity returns to its normal state. As a result, the air within
alveoli, carbon dioxide and water vapour come out of the lungs. The release of air
from the lung into the environment is called expiration or exhalation.
b) Internal respiration: Internal respiration refers to all of the processes involved in

getting oxygen from lungs to the tissues, release of energy and carbon dioxide during
metabolism in cells, and the transport of carbon dioxide to the lungs is called internal
respiration. Internal respiration has three phases. These are–
i. Transport of oxygen from respiratory organ to cell: From the alveoli of lungs
oxygen enters the capillaries around the alveoli where it binds loosely with
haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin. This oxygen rich blood flows throughout the
body and reaches the capillaries around the body cells. Here the oxygen is released
from oxyhaemoglobin. The oxygen passes to the interstitial fluid and then into the
tissues.
ii. Metabolism within cell: In this phase, in presence of enzymes in the cells, the
glucose is metabolised with oxygen to form energy, carbon dioxide and water. The
energy released is stored in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). This stored
energy is used to carry out all metabolic functions of the body.
iii) Transport of carbon dioxide to respiratory organ: The carbon dioxide released
in the process of metabolism in the cell passes out into the capillaries surrounding the
cells. In the blood, the carbon dioxide is transported in the form of bicarbonate to the
lungs. Then in the lungs, the carbon dioxide is released from the bicarbonate and
passed to the alveoli.
From Pulmonery artery

Capillary network Red blood cell
Entry of oxygen
Red blood cell
Outer layer of alveolus
Entry of CO2 from blood to alveolus Towards pulmonary vein

Fig 12.16: Entry of CO2 into alveolus
Common Diseases of Respiratory System and their Prevention

Lung is one of the important organs of the human body. Different bacteria and viruses
cause diseases of the lungs and other parts of the respiratory system. Some of the
common diseases are described below–
Pneumonia: This is a bacterial disease. This disease causes collection of a type of
fluid in the lungs. The symptoms and signs of the disease include cough, fever, chest
pain and headache. Seeking timely advice from physician, and with the right
treatment, pneumonia can be cured.
Tuberculosis: The disease is caused by tubercular bacillus. This is also a bacterial
disease. Living in unhygienic environment, taking non-nutritious and inadequate
food, and excessive work may cause the disease. Symptoms and signs of the disease
include fever, cough, blood stained sputum, weight loss, and so on. On physician's
advice, drugs and rest should be taken for the prescribed duration to be cured of the
disease. The BCG vaccine should be given to all children to prevent childhood
tuberculosis. Disease spreads through cough of the diseased person.
Bronchitis: This is the inflammation of the lining membrane of respiratory tract.
Smoking of cigarette may also cause this disease. Fever, cough and respiratory
distress are the signs and symptoms of this disease. In addition, other diseases of the
lungs include cancer, asthma, pleurisy, influenza, emphysema, and so on. Eating a
balanced diet, giving up of smoking, living in a healthy environment, and seeking
early advice of physician if affected with frequent fever or cough, can protect one
from diseases of respiratory system.
Excretion and Excretory System
As a result of metabolism some unwanted substances are produced in the cells.
Excessive accumulation of such unwanted substances in the body disrupts the normal
state of health. The process by which harmful nitrogenous waste products produced
during metabolism is eliminated from the body, is called excretion.
Excretory substance: In human,
Diaphragm
metabolic waste products are mostly
nitrogenous waste substances. Following Aorta
Vena cava
organs in human body help in the Left renal vein
excretion of harmful waste products of Left kidney
metabolism.
Left renal artery
1) Skin: (Water, salt and some amount of Ureter
urea)
2) Lungs: (Carbon dioxide)
3) Liver: (Bile pigments in bile) Urinary bladder
4) Kidney: (Nitrogenous waste, excess

Urethra
salt and water)
As 75 percent of the excretion takes place Fig 12.17 : Excretory system
through the kidneys, it is considered the
major organ of excretion. Here, only the structure and function of kidney is discussed.
Production of Nitrogenous Wastes
Protein types of food are digested to form amino acids. Amino acids help in the
growth and repair of the body. After use, some amino acid is left over in excess. In the
liver this excess amino acid is passed through various chemical reactions to produce
urea, a nitrogenous waste product. Urea remains in blood in dissolved state. To
excrete the nitrogenous wastes, human body has of a pair of kidney, a pair of ureter, a
urinary bladder, and a urethra.
Structure of kidney Medulla
The two kidneys lie a little above the lower

abdomen, in the rear of the abdominal Renal artery
cavity, one on either side of the spine. The Renal vein
kidneys are solid, brownish-red in colour Pelvis
resembling a bean. The kidneys of adult
humans are about 12 centimetre long and 6 Ureter
centimetre wide. On longitudinal section,
the outer cortex and the inner medulla
layers can be seen with naked eye. The Fig 12.18: Longitudinal section of kidney
region from where the ureter originates is the pelvis of the kidney. The renal artery
supplies blood to the kidneys, and the renal vein takes away the nitrogenous waste
free blood.
The structural and functional unit of kidney is nephron.
There are about 10 lakh nephrons in each kidney. Each nephron is formed of a cup-
like structure called Bowman’s capsule, glomerulus and renal tubule. The afferent
arteriole arising from renal artery enters the Bowman's capsule and breaks up into
capillaries to form glomerulus, and then reunite to form the efferent arteriole that
leave the Bowman's capsule. From the ventral aspect of Bowman's capsule extends
the renal tubule. This tube twists and turns, to form the convoluted tubule and loop of
Henle's, until it drains into a collecting tubule. In the end, the collecting tubules open
in the ureter.
Function of kidney
As the blood flows through the glomerulus, various substances like glucose, urea, uric
acid, salt, water, and so on enter the Bowman's capsule. Subsequently, as these passes
through the renal tubules, the required glucose, water, salt, and so on are reabsorbed,
and the rest is passed out as urine. Urine is mainly composed of water, urea, uric acid,
ammonia, and so on. Glomerulux
Afferent arteriole Efferent arteriole
One ureter arises from each kidney Bowman's Capsule
and enters the urinary bladder. In the Branch of renal artry
end, urine is passed out of the body Renal tubules Collecting duct
through the urethra. Branch of renal vein
Diseases of the Kidney Cortex
Some diseases in other parts of the Medulla

body lead to renal diseases. In case of Capillary
uncontrolled diabetes mellitus,
glucose and albumin (a type of
Loop of henle
protein) are passed in urine. In case of
inflammation of the kidneys, red Ureter
blood cells are passed in urine. Fig 12.19: Simple diagram of nephron
Sometimes, in these conditions the kidneys become non-functional. When the kidneys
are non-functional, the nitrogenous waste accumulates in the body, and cause death.
In case of kidney failure, the waste material may be removed from the blood
artificially by a "renal dialysis machine". This procedure is known as renal dialysis.
Now-a-days, kidney from a healthy donor, or just expired person can be transplanted
to replace the diseased one, and thus cure the disease and make the person healthy.
Nervous System
In the human body, the different organ systems work independently. But their
activities are co-ordinated by the nervous system. The nervous system in human body
is concerned with the reception of stimuli from environment, and co-ordination of
different organ systems such that one can live harmoniously within the environment.
Human nervous system can be divided into three parts–a) central nervous system, b)
peripheral nervous system, and c) autonomic nervous system.
Central Nervous System
In reality, human beings are most superior because of the presence of a highly
developed brain. The great development of human brain is noticed in the function of
its nervous system. Brain is the highly specialised part proximal to spinal cord.
The different parts of the brain are cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla.
Cerebrum or forebrain: In human–a mammal–a large part of the forebrain extends
backward and divides into two parts called the cerebral hemispheres. Situated in the
upper part of the cranial cavity the surface of the cerebrum is twisted and folded.
Cerebrum is the centre of sensation and motor activity.
The outer greyish part of cerebrum is called the grey matter, and the inner white part
is called white matter. There are about 1.5 crore neurones in the grey matter. The
white matter is formed of axons.
Thalamus and hypothalamus: The parts below the cerebrum are thalamus and
hypothalamus. These regions control anger, shyness, sleep, temperature, and so on.
Midbrain: The part next to thalamus is midbrain. This organ is related with vision
and hearing.
Cerebral hemisphere
Corpus callosum
Skull
Cerebral hemisphere
Mid-brain
Hypothalamus
Cerebellun
Skull
Pituitary gland
Mdeulla
Spinal cord
Fig. 12.20 : Longitudinal section of brain

Cerebellum or hindbrain: Cerebellum is located beneath the cerebrum. Maintaining

the body equilibrium is its main function. Cerebellum also co-ordinates the muscles of
the body during locomotion, running, dancing, cycling, and so on.
Medulla: The lowermost part of the brain is medulla. It connects the brain with the
spinal cord. The functions of medulla is the subconscious regulation of respiration,
blood pressure, body temperature, secretion of digestive juice, and so on.
Peripheral nervous system: The peripheral nervous system is formed of nerves
arising from the brain and spinal cord. The functions of peripheral nervous system are
to carry the stimuli from various distant parts of the body to the central nervous
system, and to convey its responses to the distant parts of the body.
Autonomic nervous system: The different parts of central nervous system, through
the nerves of autonomic nervous system, regulate the functions of lachrymal glands,
salivary glands, heart, lungs, stomach, urinary bladder, and so on.
Nerve cell: The basic component or unit
of the nervous system is a neurone. There
are several crores of neurones in the Cytoplasm Plasma membrane
Nucleus
human brain. Each neurone of the brain is Soma
Dendrite
again connected with thousands of other
Central axis
neurones to form a complex nerve-
network.
Myelin sheath
Structure: Though the structure and Axon

nature of neurone is different from other
Node of Ranvier
body cells, it has the same basic cellular
structure. Neurone has a clearly defined
large nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm.
Each neurone has a soma and two types
of thread-like extensions. The thin
branched extensions are the dendrites, Fig. 12.21 : Neurone
and the single non-branching extension is
the axon. In the periphery, the axons form
the nerve system. A thick whitish membrane called myelin covers axon. The myelin is
interrupted at places called nodes of Ranvier.
Function: Neurones transmit impulses in one direction only. These impulses pass
from soma through axon to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord). The
neurones receiving the incoming impulses are sensory neurones. Subsequently, a
response to the impulse received is sent to the periphery through another set of
outgoing neurone called motor neurone. A complete set of impulse followed by
response is called reflex.
Common Disease of the Central Nervous System and their Prevention
Following are the common diseases of the central nervous system:
1) Headache: Identify the cause and take analgesics
2) Unconsciousness: Keep the head elevated, sprinkle water on eye and face, and
take complete rest
3) Meningitis: Caused by virus or bacteria, needs physician's advice
4) Stroke: May occur due to high blood pressure and other causes, needs specialised
physician's advice
5) Epilepsy: A disorder of nervous system where patient suddenly becomes
unconscious and falls to the ground. Contraction of muscles of whole body
occurs.
6) Paralysis: Consequence of high blood pressure, needs physician's advice
7) Brain tumour: Needs surgical intervention, or radiotherapy
The diagram below shows a reflex arc.
Central canal
White matter
Grey matter
Afferent nerve (Impulse from mosqito bite)
Skin (recepter apparatus)
Efferent nerve
Spinal cord
Voluntary muscle
Fig. 12.22 : Reflex arc in human body
Endocrine System
Like the nervous system, the endocrine system helps to maintain co-ordination among
the different organ systems of the body. In some instances, the nervous system and
endocrine system work together to maintain the body's homeostasis. Endocrine organs
have no ducts, so they are also called ductless glands. These glands secrete juice or
hormone that are transported to different parts of the body through blood or lymph.
Endocrine Glands are as Follows

1) Thyroid gland: Extending on Pincal body
Pituitary body
either side of respiratory tract lies a
butterfly-like structure called thyroid.
Parathyroid Thyroid
It consists of epithelial cells arranged
to form small sacs. Thyroid gland Thymus
releases thyroxine hormone. This

hormone influences the body growth Liver
Stomach
and metabolic rate. Adrenal
Duodenum Pancreas
2) Parathyroid gland: The thyroid Kidney
gland has two wings, and on each

Ovary
wing a pair of parathyroid glands are (female)
located. Thus the number of
parathyroid gland is four. The
Testes
hormone released from parathyroid (male)
gland regulates calcium and
phosphorus metabolism, and regulates Fig. 12.23: Main endocrine glands in human body
their level in blood.
3) Pituitary gland: The gland is situated in the forebrain. Its function is so extensive
that it regulates the function of all other endocrine glands in the body. So, this gland is
called the 'king gland'. Hormones of pituitary gland include:
a) Growth hormone
b) Adrenal-stimulating hormone
c) Thyroid-stimulating hormone
d) Follicle-stimulating hormone
4) Adrenal gland: The gland is situated just above each kidney. The external layer or
cortex secretes the hormone cortisone that helps in protein metabolism. The central
layer, medulla, secretes the hormone adrenaline. This hormone influences the nervous
system.
5) Pancreas: Pancreas contains the endocrine gland called islets of Langerhan. This
gland releases the hormone insulin, which regulates the level of carbohydrates in
blood. In deficiency of this hormone, the blood carbohydrate levels may rise and
cause diabetes.
6) Reproductive organ: Male reproductive organ or testes releases sex hormone
called androgens. Among the androgens, the most important hormone is testosterone.
This hormone helps in manifestation of sex organs, and influences the development of
secondary sex characteristics. Female reproductive organ or ovary releases oestrogen

and progesterone, which regulate associated growth of sex organs and development of
uterus respectively.
Common Diseases of Endocrine Glands and their Prevention
1) Diabetes mellitus: This disease occurs due to deficiency of insulin. The disease
can be controlled by treatment, regular exercise, and regulated food habit. In this
disease, the blood glucose level increases and weight decreases.
2) Hypothyroidism: Inadequate secretion of hormone from thyroid gland causes this
disease. As a result the patient suffers from exhaustion, goitre, and diseases of nerves
and muscles. Benefit is derived by intake of adequate amount of thyroxine. By regular
use of iodine fortified salt, it may be possible to prevent goitre.
Five Sense Organs
The numerous stimuli that we receive from the environment every day, is perceived
and felt with the help of our sense organs. Subsequently, we respond appropriately to
the perception and feeling received. As a result our body's balance is maintained.
Though there are numerous such sense organs in the body, but five sense organs are
the major ones. For seeing is the organ of vision or eye, for hearing is the organ of
hearing or ear, for smell is the organ of olfaction or nose, for taste is the tongue, and
for touch it is the skin. The five senses collectively form our sensory power.
Eye
Of the five sense organs, eye is for vision. With eyes we can see any object on which
light falls. A pair of eye is situated in the orbital fossa in the front of the head. The
eyeball is moved with the help of its six muscles. The lachrymal glands secrete tears
that always keep the eyes moist. The structure of the eye is quite similar to a camera.
The different parts of the eye and their functions are as follows:
1) Eyelid: It covers the external part of the eyeball. Blinking of eyelids protect the eye
from dust.
2) Conjunctiva: This is a transparent thin membrane that covers the inner surface of
the eyelids and outer surface of the eyeball. The conjunctiva turns red when rubbed,
or when there is conjunctivitis.
Eyeball: The eyeball is a rounded ball-like structure located in the orbital fossa. The
eyeball is composed of three layers:
a) Sclera: This is a white, tough, thin and fibrous outer layer of the eyeball. This
maintains the shape of the eye.

Cornea: The anterior exposed transparent part of sclera is cornea. Light enters the
eyes through the cornea.
b) Choroid: This layer lies beneath the sclera. Choroid is rich in blood vessels, and is
a layer of dense coloured substance or pigment. It decreases the reflection of light.
Iris: The dense black circular layer behind the cornea is called iris. There is a small
hole in the middle of iris called pupil. By the contraction and relaxation of the
muscles in iris, the size of pupil can be altered. Light passes through the pupil to fall
on the retina.
Lens: A transparent bi-convex lens suspended by suspensary ligament is situated
behind the pupil. By the contraction and relaxation of small ciliary muscles adjacent
to the lens, the curvature and focal length of the lens can be altered to allow the
formation of an image.
c) Retina: This is the innermost layer of the eyeball. This is a light-sensitive layer.
There are two types of light sensitive cells–rods and cones in the retina. The optic
nerve carries impulse from this layer to the brain, and thus helps to form an image.
Conjuctiva
Sclera
Choroid
Iris
Retina
Cornea Optic nerve
Aqueous chamber
Blind spot
Pupil
Fovea
Lens
Vitreous chamber
Suspensory
ligament
Cillary body
Ciliary muscle
Fig. 12.24 : Structure of human eye (cross section).

Optic nerve: This is the second cranial nerve. At the back of the eyeball, it connects
the retina with the brain. It conducts the light impulse to the brain.
Chambers of the eyeball: Within the eyeball and in front and behind the lens are two
chambers. One is called the aqueous or anterior chamber, and the other is called
vitreous or posterior chamber. Both chambers are filled with fluid. Their functions are
to bring the rays of light to focus upon the retina, supply nutrition and to maintain the
shape of the eyeball.
How do we see
We see an object when the reflected light rays from the lightened object enter the eye
through the pupil, to pass through the lens and fall on the retina. The incident rays of
light diverge to be reflected on the retina. As a result an inverted small image is
formed on the retina. When the light impulses are sent through optic nerve to the
brain, we see the object in its normal state. With the help of ciliary muscles the
curvature of lens can be altered and the focal length adjusted. This helps us to see
both distant and near objects. This process is called accommodation.
Diseases of the Eye and their Prevention
1) Presbyopia: With increasing age, at about 50 years, this disease occurs. This
disease causes loss of elasticity of lens. So, objects at a specific distance can be
seen. Use of spectacles can correct presbyopia.
2) Hypermetropia: This condition occurs when the distance between the lens and
retina decrease than normal. Use of spectacles can correct hypermetropia.
3) Myopia: This disease occurs when the eyeball becomes abnormally elongated. In
this case, the image is focused in front of the retina. Use of spectacles can correct
myopia.
4) Trachoma: Dirt and disease causing microbes cause the disease. By keeping the
eyes clean, this disease can be avoided.
5) Glaucoma: This is a complicated disease of the eye. Eye specialist should be
consulted for treatment.
6) Diseases like eye inflammation and night blindness is cured by balanced diet,
vitamin A rich diet, and some minor treatment.
7) Cataract: Operative procedure is the treatment.
Ear
Ear is mainly the organ of hearing. It also acts as the major organ to maintain body
equilibrium. Two ears are situated on either side of the head. The ear has three
parts–1) external ear, 2) middle ear, and 3) internal ear.
External ear: Parts of the external ear is as follows:

a) Pinna: This is the external part of the ear, formed by muscles and cartilage. Its
function is to pass the sound waves to the auditory canal.
b) Auditory canal: The pinna is connected with a tube called auditory canal.
Through this canal sound waves passes to strike the tympanic membrane.
c) Tympanic membrane: The auditory canal ends at a membrane called tympanic
membrane. The sound waves vibrate the tympanic membrane.
Middle ear: This is an air filled cavity in the skull. This part contains three small
bones– malleus, incus and stapes. The bones are attached to each other. The sound
waves are conducted by these bones to the internal ear. Middle ear is connected to the
pharynx by eustachian tube. Pressure of excess sound waves pass out from the mouth
through this tube.
Inner ear: This part is also called membranous labyrinth. This is located in the bone
named auditory capsule. The inner ear is divided into two main sacs–
a) Utriculus: At the upper end of the inner ear are three semi-circular canals, of
which two are placed vertically and one horizontally. The semi-circular canals are
filled with fluid. One of the canals is expanded into ampula. At this end the sensory
hair cells are present. The function of utriculus is to maintain body equilibrium.
b) Sacculus: This sac in the internal ear is elongated and coiled to form a snail shell-
like tube called cochlea. The cochlea is filled with a fluid called endolymph. The
sensory organ of hearing called organ of Corti is embedded in the inner lining of
cochlea. The internal ear sends the sensory signals by the auditory nerve to the brain.
Stapes Semicircular canals
Incus
Malleus
External ear
Fenestra ovalis
Nerve to cochlea
Fenestra rotanda
Tympanic membrane Cochlea
Eustachian tube
External ear Middle ear Internal ear

Fig. 12.25 : Structure of human ear
Hearing Process
The sound waves are collected by the pinna, transported by the auditory canal to the
tympanic membrane to set up a sound wave vibration. As the sound vibrations are
conducted by the three bones of middle ear, there is amplification of sound. This state
reaches the perilymph and endolymph where vibrations are set-up, and the sensory
hair cells in organ of Corti are stimulated. We can hear when this sensory impulse is
sent to the brain by the auditory nerve.
Diseases of the Ear and their Prevention
Ear diseases my occur when there is perforation of eardrum due to accumulation of
dirt in the ear, injury, poking of ear with stick or hard object. Collection of water in
ear when infected may cause accumulation of pus leading to severe ear damage.
Besides, some people may be congenitally deaf. For cure of these diseases, care of the
ear should be taken as per physician's advice. In addition, if any outside object or
insect enters the ear, it should be removed as per physician's advice.
Nose
The nose is situated in the front part of the head. This is the organ of smell. A type of
membrane lines the inner side of nose called olfactory membrane. This membrane is
full of numerous sensory olfactory cells. The olfactory cells communicate with the
brain by the olfactory nerve. Smells from a smelly objects serves as olfactory stimuli.
When such a stimulus comes in contact with the sensory olfactory cells, the cells are
stimulated and transmit the impulse to brain. As a result we can smell.
Disease and prevention: Common cold and diseases of brain may hamper our sense
of smell. Use of snuff or other addictive substances interfere with the sense of smell.
So, for any nasal problem one should consult physician.
Tongue: The tongue is an elongated muscular organ in the buccal cavity. It is the
organ of taste. There are numerous taste buds on the anterior part and edges of tongue.
The taste buds of the anterior part perceive sweet taste, and those on the edges
perceive salt and sour tastes. The central part of tongue is devoid of taste buds and
cannot perceive taste sense. Besides these, the larger taste buds at the posterior part of
tongue perceive bitter taste.
Skin
Skin is the outer covering of the body. It is also an organ of touch. The skin is made
up of three layers:
1) Outer layer or epidermis: This layer is made up of flattened epithelial cells. There
is no blood capillary or nerve network in this layer. There are hairs in epidermis. The
cells wear off and are replaced by new cells. Prickly heat, vesicle, corn, and so on
affect this layer.
2) Middle layer or dermis: This layer contains living cells. It has a rich supply of
blood capillary and nerve network. There is plenty of pigment substance in this layer.
3) Internal layer or hypodermis: This is the innermost layer of skin. Muscle, artery,
vein, nerve, along with different glands are scattered in this layer. The major glands
are sebaceous and sweat gland. The hair follicles are present here. Skin protects the
body from external injury and invasion of disease causing microbes. It maintains
uniformity of body temperature. Sensations of touch, pain, cold, and so on can be felt
by the skin. The body receives ultra-violet rays from sunlight to produce vitamin D in
the body.
Hair Sweat gland
Sebaceous gland
Epidermis
Dermis
Hypodermis
Branches of vein
Nerve Nerve fibre Branches of artery
Fig. 12.26 : T.S of human skin
Disease and prevention: In the absence of proper hygienic conditions different skin
diseases often occur, such as scabies, itches, fungal infection, eczema. Besides, skin
may be affected by sexually transmitted diseases. Proper hygienic lifestyle is the best
way to prevent skin diseases. When necessary, physician's advice should be taken.
Few other skin diseases are ringworm, dermatitis, leprosy, and so on that can be cured
with treatment.
Reproductive System
Animals reproduce to procreate in the urge for continuity of species. Like other
mammals, the important aspect of human reproduction is copulation followed by
fertilisation inside the body. Embryo develops within the mother's body, and
thereafter gives birth to baby.
Description of Male Reproductive System
Male reproductive system is formed with the following organs–
1) Testes: At the outer and lower part of the abdomen is a pouch called scrotum that
contains a pair of testes. The testis contains numerous tubules called seminiferous
tubules. Sperms are produced in these tubules. From here the hormone testosterone is
released. As a result male sexual characteristics are developed.
2) Epididymis: The seminiferous tubules merge and form a larger twisted tube, the
epididymis. Sperms are present in the epididymis.
3) Vas deferens: The part following the epididymis is the vas deferens. This is the
main sperm tube which pass into the urethra.
4) Urethra: Urethra extends into the penis. Penis is formed of numerous blood
vessels and connective tissue.
Description of Female Reproductive System
Female reproductive system is formed with the following organs
1) Ovary: In the female body, a pair of ovary is situated in the lower part of
abdominal cavity behind the kidneys, one on each side. The ovary is attached to the
uterus by a membrane. The ovarian wall contains follicles of varying stages. Ova
develops in the mature follicle. The ovary releases the female hormones–oestrogen
and progesterone.
2) Fallopian tube: Two fallopian tubes originate from uterus and extend to the
ovaries to ultimately open in the peritoneal cavity. Fallopian tubes carry the ova from
ovaries to the uterus.
3) Uterus: This is an expanded hollow organ. The uterine wall is thick and muscular.
Uterus is located between the urinary bladder and rectum. The development and
growth of fertilised ova to embryo occurs in the uterus.
4) Vagina: The tube extending from the uterus to vulva is the vagina. The wall of
vagina is folded.
5) Vulva: Several organs at the opening of vagina are collectively called vulva. The
main organs are (a) labia majora, (b) labia minora, (c) clitoris, (d) vestibule, and (e)
vestibular glands.
Fertilisation
During copulation the male reproductive cells or sperms enter the uterus of female,
where only one sperm fuses with the mature ova to complete fertilisation. As a result
of fertilisation zygote is formed. The embryo continues to grow in the mother's uterus.
Subsequently, the mother gives birth to a baby.
Umbilical cord (Vein carring food and O2 to the embryo in uterus)
Amnion
Amniotic fluid
(protects foetus from outside

pressure or injury during
movement of pregnant mother)
After 1 month After 2 month After 3 month After 4 month Artery carrying waste products from placenta
4 mm 30 mm 100 mm 140 mm (foetus-mother connection)
Fig 12.27 : Sequence of embryo development Fig 12.28 : Coordination of foetus in womb
in womb
Gradual development of embryo in mother's womb and the state of complex

attachment of embryo is shown in Fig. 12.27 and 12.28.
Disease and Prevention
1) Syphilis: In the presence of the microbe Treponema pallidum this disease occurs.
This disease is caused by sexual contact. Use of antibiotics cures the disease.
2) Gonorrhoea: This disease is caused by invasion of the microbe Neisseria
gonorrhoeae. Use of antibiotics cures the disease.
3) AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome): This disease develops in
human after infection with a retro virus named HIV. There is unknown treatment for
the condition. Injection, receiving or donating blood, and indiscriminate sexual
behaviour leads to the occurrence of the disease. Avoiding these situations prevent the
occurrence of the disease.
Exercise

1. By which process oxygen enters into capillari network from alviolus?
(a) Absorption (b) Diffusion
(c) Excretion (d) Conduction
2. Three statements are given below :
(i) Heart helps in completion of different metabolic works by conducting blood
to various parts of the body.
(ii) Lung helps in digesting food though exchange of gases.
(iii) Nefron makes blood free from pollution through excretion of wastes from it.
(a) i (b) i and iii
(c) ii and iii (d) ii
In accordance with the diagram above, answer question no. 3 and 4.

3. The name of the system of the human body in the diagram is
(a) digestive system (b) excretory system
(c) respiratory system (d) nervous system
4. There are in the organ of the diagram shown above
(i) Medulla, cortex, pelvis, urator
(ii) Bronchus, urator, alviolus, glomerulus
(iii) Bowman's capsule, glomerulus, renal tubule, medulla

(a) i (b) ii and iii
(c) i and iii (d) iii
Creative Questions
(a) Which system of the human being is performed by the organ shown in the
diagram?
(b) What is the advantage of having A marked portion?
(c) Draw the circulation of blood. How blood spreads at the various parts of the
body through this organ?
(d) Explain the importance of the organ in keeping the body active and healthy by
sending blood to every cell of the body?
Chapter Thirteen
Sound
We live in a world of sounds. We hear many kinds of sounds after our birth. The
sounds are of various nature and type. They are bird's chattering, noise of motor, bus
and car, roaring of aeroplane, thunders of cloud, horns of car, siren of mills and
factories, hawker's cry etc. But what is sound? Sound is simply a kind of energy. This
energy, produced by the vibration of a body spreads through an elastic, continuous
medium in the form of wave and produces sensation of hearing in our ear. We all want
to know how the various sounds of our surroundings are produced and heard.
Source of sound: Sound is heard instantly after striking a metal object. In your
school, round metal bell gives sound as soon as it is hit by a hammer. Have you ever
touched it with hand? Touch it and you will feel its vibration. The vibration decreases
and the intensity of sound becomes low. Pressing the bell with hand ceases the
vibration and sound stops immediately.
Take a cup of bell metal and strike it,
the same thing happens; the cup
vibrates and sound comes out. So we
can say that source of sound is the
vibration of an object. How does this
sound come to our ear? A vibrating
body disturbs the air with it. This
disturbance in the air spreads in the
form of a wave and rapidly goes in all
direction. Air disturbance reaching our
ear vibrates similarly our ear
diaphragm. Sensation of hearing is Fig. 13.1 : A vibrating tuning fork
produced in ear and we hear the sound. hitting a pith baIl again & again
Let us do some experiment to show that vibration creates sound.

Experiment I: Take a tuning fork. Suspen a pith ball in such a way so that it touches
an arm of the tuning fork. Hit the arm by a paded hammer. The tuning fork vibrates
and sound comes out of it. You will see also that as the pith ball touches the vibrating
arm again and again it goes away from it. Now hold the arm, the vibration stops. The
ball stops too and the sound ceases also. So it is concluded that vibration of a body
produces sound and the vibrating body is the source of sound.
Sound 203
How does a man make sounds: There are two light diaphragms like reverse V called
vocal chord in human voice machine. There is a narrow hole in the vocal chord known
as voice hole. At the time of talking, air from lung goes to mouth and nose through
voice hole. As a result, vibration in vocal chord starts and sound is produced. By the
compression and expansion of the muscle attached to the vocal chord, projected
pressure on it is controlled and thus the frequency of sound is altered at will. Thus
sound of different tune is produced. Vocal chords of women and children are short and
narrow than that of a man. That is why their vocal chords' vibration per second is
greater than that of a man. As such their voice is high pitched and shrill.
Classification of sound: It is understood from the above discussion that rate of
vibration differs from man to man. If your vocal chords vibrate between 20 to 20,000
times per second while you are speaking, your friend and others will hear you. The
sound produced is called audible sound. The sound produced by vibration less than 20
per second will not be heard. The sound produced is known as infrasonic. The sound
that is produced by vibration more than 20,000 per second will also not be heard. It is
called ultrasonic sound.
Mechanism of sound transmission in air : Transmission of sound requires a
continuous elastic medium. How sound is transmitted through air can be understood
by the discussion given below. Say, a tuning fork is vibrating in air (Fig13.2) and
sound produced is transmitting from one place to another. Let us consider the
vibration of right arm of the fork. While going right it pushes adjoined air layer
continuously. As a result, layer on the right is compressed. Again, when the arm
comes back towards left the above air layer is expanded. So for one complete
vibration of the arm the air layer once compressed and then expanded. Since air is a
continuous and elastic medium the vibration of the arm of the fork transmits the
compression and expansion from one layer to another layer next. The process
continues as long as the vibration is there. Thus sound wave produced by the vibration
of the tuning fork hits our ear drum and sensation of hearing is detected by the brain.
Fig. 13.2: Propagation of sound transmission produced by vibrating tuning fork

The above discussion tells us that sound travels through air medium. Not only through
air, sound can go through liquid, solid and any other gas medium too. But it can not
go without a medium. Therefore, on moon surface astronauts used radio to talk, as
there is no atmosphere on the surface of the moon.
By some simple experiment you can understand about sound transmission through
solid and liquid.
Experiment II : (a) In a pond of water you and your friend can do this experiment.
Give your friend a bell and a hammer. Both you and your friend go into the pond and
dive together some distance apart. If your friend hits the bell you will hear the sound
clearly. This proves that sound travels through water.
(b) Take a mechanical watch whose 'tick' sound can not be heard from a distance.
Place the watch at one side of a table. Try to hear it from the other side. 'Tick' is not
heard. Now try to hear it touching your ear with the table. You will hear it. Why do
you hear now? Because the sound carried by the solid wood of the table reaches your
ear. So, you understand sound goes through solid.
Velocity of sound : In rainy days flash of lightning in the sky, we hear sound of
thundering. We see the flash first then a loud sound why is this? Although the two
incidents happen at the sametime at the same place. Light moves very fast. It takes
very happen no time to reach us. But sound takes longer time and reaches after a
significant instant of time. This time is countable. So you understand now that sound
travels with a definite velocity. The distance which a sound covers in one second is
called the velocity of sound. The velocity of sound depends on the density and
temperature of the medium. It has been found by experiment that sound travels in air
332 metre per second; its rate of traveling distance increases by 0.6 metre for rise of
each degree of celcius temperature. Thus velocity of sound becomes 350 metre per
0
second when temperature of air rises to 30 C. Again in wet air velocity of sound
increases as wet air has lower density. For this in cloudy days distant sound can be
heard.
Velocity of sound in liquid is greater than that in gas. The velocity of sound is still
greater in solid. In water the velocity is 1440 metre/second. In wood it is about 12
times greater and in steel about 15 times more than in gas. The velocity of sound
depends also on the elasticity of the medium. Velocity of sound increases as elasticity
of the medium increases. It decreases as density increases.
Determination of velocity of sound: You and your friend can determine velocity of
Sound 205
sound. Go up to two hills a few kilometers apart. Take each one of you a gun and a
stop watch. Say, your friend fired the gun and you start your stopwatch as soon as you
see the smoke of firing and wait for the sound to hear. When you hear the sound, stop
the watch. From the recorded time calculate the desired velocity. Thus velocity of
sound is the distance between the hills divided by time. Wind current may not give
you a good result as sound travels more in favour of wind flow and less against the
wind flow. The result will improve if you repeat the experiment where you will fIre
the gun and your friend will measure the time. Take the mean of the two values. The
experimental value obtained may be influenced by the personal skill. This can be
avoided by recording time electrically.
Sample problem: The sound of thundering in cloud is heard 5.5 second after the flash
0
of light. If the temperature is 30 C, how high is the cloud?
Solution: Distance of the cloud = Velocity of sound × time
At 300C the velocity of sound is 350 m/s
Distance of the cloud = 350×5.5 = 1925 metre.
Echo: When sound is obstructed by a solid plane like wall, hill, tall building it comes
back. This is known as reflection of sound and this reflection causes echo, the repetition of
original sound. Say, you are clapping hand standing near a tall building. The sound reflects
and comes back i.e. produces echo. Its coming back depends upon how far the building is
from you. If the reflected sound comes back after a time of 0.1 second, only then you are
able to hear it separately from the original one. Because the sensation of original sound
will adhere to your ear for 0.1 second. You will not be able to hear any sound
separately if any sound comes to you with in 0.1 sec. or 1 th of a second. The rumbling
10
sound of cloud is heard due to echo of sound by cloud layers. More than one reflected
sound comes to your ear after 0.1 second and it causes the rumbling. In dry air the
sound has a velocity 332 metre/second; so it goes 33.2 metre in 0.1 second. Then if
the reflector stays away a distance of 16.6 metre echo is heard because only then 0.1
second passes away in going to (16.6m) and coming back (16.6m)
When people speak in a large hall room reverberating sound is heard. Sound of
speakers lingers after they finish their talking. This is due to reflection of sound by the
wall of the hall. This is inconvenient too as sound is not heard clearly. So soft and
rough objects are used to stop reflection and thus minimising undue sound. Now-a-
days new technic for sound absorption is used.
Use of sound echo: By the use of reflection of sound depth of ocean, depth of well is
determined and existence of minerals can be established.
Determination of the depth of a sea: Notice the figure no. 13.3. Here T is a sound
sending transmitter. It sends sound to the bottom of the sea 'o', where sound is
reflected. The reflected sound is taken by hydrophone situated at near T. Electronic
clock records the time between sending and receiving of sound. Suppose the depth of
sea, is 'h', then the total distance that sound travels is (h + h) = 2h
Time required to cover this distance
as recorded = t.
Velocity of sound in water = v
Distance = Velocity of sound x time
or 2h = v x t or, h = v × t ....(A)
2
From equation (A) knowing v and
t dept 'h' is measured. Fig. 13.3: Determination of the depth of a sea.
Determination of depth of a well : The detennination procedure is same as sea depth

determination. Only here sound is reflected from the water surface of the well. Time is
measured by a stop watch.
Let, depth of the well = h
So, total distance sound covers = 2h
Time to cover this distance = t
Here sound covers distance, 2h = v t, v = velocity of sound.
v×t
So water surface is at depth, h = (B)
2
From equation (B) depth of the well 'h' is measured. If depth of well is known,
velocity of sound can be measured by same procedure.
Detection of mineral : To search minerals under earth surface geologists explode
deep below the earth's surface and send sound waves. The sound then travels to
different rock layers and come back after reflection. The reflected sound wave is taken
by hydrophone which by an electrical system in it, record echo graphically. Studying
these graphs they know about the position and nature of rock layer under earth
surface.
Sound 207
Exercise

Answer question no. 1 and 2 from the following paragraph.
The ear ring of Jarina Begum fell into the well during the time of raising water
carelessly. She took attempt to measure the depth of the well. It was found by
calculation that 0.1 second was required to hear the echo of the sound. It was assumed
that the velocity of the sound was 332 ms-1.
1. The echo of the sound originated from the well is
a) reflected sound b) refracted sound
c) direct sound d) sound of the reflected sound
2. What was the depth of the well?
(i) 16.6 m (ii) 33.1 m
(iii) 1655 m (iv) 3310 m
3. Soft and uneven materials are used in the walls of big rooms of the public
halls. Because
(i) sound cannot be reflected well due to this.
(ii) disturbances are decreased.
(iii) sound cannot be absorbed.
(a) i (b) ii
(4) By using echo, the depth of the sea and that of the well can be determined but
the depth of the pond cannot be determined at all. Because
(i) pond is very small.
(ii) sound cannot be reflected in ponds.
(iii) the depth of the pond is less.
(a) i (b) ii
Creative Questions
Flash of lightning
and roaring
A B
10m
18m
Observe the diagram above

(a) Which will be felt at first-whether the light of the electricity or the roaring
sound of the cloud?
(b) Who will hear the echo- the man at position at A or the man at position B.
Explain.
(c) Calculate the velocity of sound if the echo of the roaring sound of the cloud
is heard after 0.1 second.
(d) Evaluate the significance of the uses of echo in our life.
Chapter Fourteen
Electricity and Its Use in House
You all use electricity to get light in torch, to listen to music in radio, TV, to
communicate friends and relatives over phone. All these appliances are run by electricity.
What else you can name things "that require electricity? Electric light, fan, mills and
factories etc. and many other things all depend on electricity for their function. You can
say our life is controlled by the versatile use of electricity; contribution of electricity is
the greatest to our civilization. What is this electricity? It is a form of energy. Let us
describe below about the production, properties and uses of electricity.
Electricity : While combing your hair in winter you must have heard crackling noise
in comb. That comb attracts, small bits of paper. Why so happens, can you say? A
comb rubs your hair and produces electricity and this electricity gives power of
attraction. Similarly rubbing glass rod by silk produces electricity also. Why does
rubbing between two things produce electricity? The answer to this question is in the
constituent of matter. Matter is composed of atoms. Electron, proton and neutron are
the constituent particles of atom. Electron carries negative charge, proton carries
positive charge and neutron has no charge. The number of proton and electron are
equal in an atom and therefore the atom as a whole is neutral. Electron revolves round
the nucleus where proton and neutron rest motionless. Repulsion takes place between
revolving electrons and during rubbing one of them may go out of orbit which place is
taken by the other. Thus one of the bodies loses electron and becomes positively
charged and the other gains electron and becomes negatively charged. These charges
are confined to the body of glass, silk comb. So these charges i.e electricity in them is
called statical electricity. They fly away if by any chance what so ever they get.
Two kinds of electricity: Comb your
hair with a comb, then take it to small
bits of paper. You will see attraction
between them. Now touch comb, your
foot remaining on ground. Again take it
+ 10
to the bits of paper. You will see no-
- 10
attraction now. What's the matter?
Where the charges have gone? Actually
when you touched the comb, the
charge in them passed through your
hand to earth. As a result the comb loses
Fig. 14.1: A neon atom
power of attraction. The electricity in the comb, called statical electricity is not of
much use to us. Therefore we are not interested in it. Give it some chance, it will fly
away. When charges are in motion they can do much work and we call such moving
charge current electricity. So you see there are two kinds of electricity-statical
electricity and current electricity.
Rubbing produces statical electricity. Ebonite, plastic, rubber, glass, gataparcha etc.
when rubbed by flannel, silk, catskin with hair etc. easily produce electricity.
Properties of electricity: We see two properties: (a) attraction and (b) repulsion. Two
unlike charges attract each other and two similar charges repel each other. By simple
experiment we can show these properties.
Experiment (a) : Take a glass rod; rub it with a silk cloth and suspend it by a silk
thread (fig-14.2a). Rubbing makes the glass rod positively charged. Take another
glass rod. Similarly rubbing it by a silk cloth, take it near the previous one. You will
see the rods go away from each other. The later glass rod is positively charged. So
like charge repels.
(b) Now an ebonite rod rubbed with flannel is taken to the suspended glass rod. They
come nearer (fig- 14.2b) i.e. attraction is there. Ebonite rod rubbed by flannel gets
negative charge. So we see unlike charge attracts.
(c) Another ebonite rod rubbed by flannel will repel the previous ebonite rod (fig 14.2c).
So there are two kinds of charges also-positive charge and negative charge.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 14.2: Attraction and repulsion of charges
The experiments described above show that the nature of charge produced in glass rod
rubbed by silk cloth is opposite in nature of the charge produced in ebonite rod rubbed
by flannel. These two charges are called positive charge and negative charge.
Electricity and Its Use in House 211
Current
Current
Time Time
a) Direct current b) Alternating current
Fig. 14.3
Current electricity: We use current electricity in our day to day life. This electricity
lights our house, rotates fan, runs mills and factories and does so many other things
that it is not easy to say what it does not.
Now, this current electricity (simply-current) is of two kinds. The current that flows
always in the same direction is called direct current (D.C) and the current that changes
direction after regular interval of time when flowing is called alternating current (A. C)
fig 14.3. Torch cell gives D.C and generator produces A.C.
How A.C is produced: We know water flows from higher water level to lower level.
Similarly, charges flow from higher electric pressure point to lower pressure point.
This flow of charges that changes direction after regular interval of time is the
alternating current. Later in this chapter we will describe a generator (fig-14.16)
Now we will describe some D.C electric source. Electric cells are good source of
direct current.
Electric cell
Italian scientist Allesandro Volta is the inventor of electric cell. So, according to his
name the cell is also called voltaic cell.
Take some dilute sulphuric acid in a glass pot. Two metal plates, one of copper and
the other of zinc are partly immersed in it so that the plates do not touch each other.
Here chemical reaction takes place between zinc plate and sulphuric acid. As a result
a potential difference is created between zinc and copper plate. If now the plates are
joined externally by a wire, current flows through the wire.
The flow of current in an ordinary cell does not last long. Because, due to flow of
current some hydrogen gas adheres to copper plate which resists flow of current. This
defect of the cell is called

polarization. If the layer of hydrogen Current
gas is brushed off time to time, flow
of current starts again. During the Copper Zinc
flow of current, chemical action of the
acid with zinc dissolves zinc but
Sulphuric acid
copper plate remains unchanged. For
this, zinc plate is called active plate
and the copper plate is called non-
active plate. The outer end of copper
plate becomes positive and outer end
of zinc becomes negative. Fig. 14.4 : Simple cell
Instead of copper and zinc some times zinc and carbon or zinc and platinum are also
used to make a cell. Again, instead of sulphuric acid other acids may be used. Even
copper sulphate solution or common salt solution is used. In this kind of cell
chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. When one or more chemical
compounds are exhausted by chemical reaction no more current is obtained. In
Daniel cell, Leclench cell etc. copper sulphate solution, manganese dioxide etc. are
used to avoid polarization.
Dry cell
Brass cap
Dry cell is used in torch and transistor
Pitch
radio. In this cell chemical components
that are used are not in liquid form,
instead they are in dry form. So, the
Aluminium, coal dust,
manganese dioxide
name is dry cell.

Zinc cylinder
The cell is a zinc cylinder (fig 14.5)

in which a paste made of sodium
chloride, coal dust, manganese
dioxide and little water are
introduced. A carbon rod with a
brass cap is so placed in them that
Paper
the rod does not touch zinc cylinder.
A layer of pitch or sealing wax covers
the upper end of the cylinder with the Fig. 14.5: Dry cell
brass cap coming out. The zinc cylinder is surrounded on all sides by a hard paper bag.
Here the zinc cylinder is negative plate and carbon with brass cap is the positive plate
of the cell. Dry cell is essentially a modified Leclenchs cell. Manganese dioxide is
used here to prevent polarization. The cell supplies current at 1.5 volt electric pressure.
Use of electricity
We know many uses of electricity for lighting our houses, to run factories, tram, train,
plane etc. The work done by electricity can be classified into four categories.
i) Heating effect of current
ii) Lighting effect of current
iii) Magnetic effect of current
iv) Chemical effect of current
All these four effects of current can be shown easily by an experiment.
Experiment: Take some salt water in a beaker. Immerse two carbon rods partly in it.
Take care that the rods do not touch each other. Now, on a soft iron bar wound
insulated copper wire. Connect electrically one (upper) end of a carbon rod with one
end of the wire. The other end of the wire is
carbon electrode
joined to a battery, then to a switch, to a
light bulb and finally to the other carbon
rod. Now complete the electric circuit by
closing the switch. You will see light is on
and the bulb is hot soon. Also it is seen that salt water
Iron rod
soft iron bar has become a magnet and is

attracting pins; gas gathered at carbon
electrode. So we have found all the four
effects mentioned above displayed by Battery
current in this experiment. Now let us see Fig. 14.6: Heating, illuminating, magnetic
and chemical effect of current
how these effects work in practice.
(i) Heating effect of electricity: Many electrical appliances like electric stove,
electric kettle, electric oven, various kinds of bulb and other gadjets have been made
on this effect of current.
(ii) Chemical effect of current: Many chemical effects are caused by current.
Michael Farady made many such experiments. Electric cell works on chemical effect
of current. Another example is electroplating. Electrical coating of gold, silver, nickel
on the elements like iron, copper, zinc etc. is called electroplatmg. In a glass pot
copper sulphate solution is taken. Few drops of sulphuric acid is added to it. Two
plates of copper is partially immersed in the solution and current is passed from a cell
through a switch. The plate to which -ve of the cell is connected is called cathode and
the plate joined to +ve is called anode. On closing the switch for a few minutes a
coating of copper is found deposited on the copper plate. Dissolved copper from the
solution is deposited on the cathode plate. Instead of copper, if an iron rod is used as
cathode then there will be copper coating on the iron. Again, to coat iron with silver,
anode plate will be of silver and some silver solution is taken. So, to coat a cathode
with any material, anode be taken of that material and solution will also be of the
same material. The process of electrical analysis of a chemical compound is called
electrolysis and the glass pot with the plates where such analysis is carried out is
known as voltameter. By electroplating coating of valuable metal is given on metals of
less value. Coating increases their durability and looks attractive. So their value
increases also. The large scale process of coating iron with tin or aluminum is called
galvanizing. Galvanizing protects iron from rusting and makes them durable.
(iii) Magnetic effect of current : Much work is done by converting electrical energy
into magnetic energy. Electric fan, door bell, generator, motor etc. are examples of
such conversion. Magnet created by electric current is called electromagnet.
On an iron nail if insulated (rubber
coated) copper wire is wound and
current is passed, the nail becomes a
nail
magnet which then attracts other pins
(fig-14.7). Stop flow of current, the pin
falls indicating that magnetic power is key
no more there. Here magnetic effect is
temporary but strong. If a nail made of
steel, in place of iron, is taken, the
magnetic effect exists even after the pin
current is stopped. Such permanent
magnet is available in the market as
bar magnet, horse-shoe magnet. Every
magnet has two poles at the two ends. Fig. 14.7
They are called poles of a magnet. Magnetic attraction is maximum at two poles. The
poles are named as north pole and south pole. To determine poles of a magnet suspend
it by a thread. It directs toward north-south. Take any pole of another magnet and
bring it near of any end of the suspended magnet. If there is the attraction, pole of the
suspended magnet is opposite to the pole taken near it. Because unlike pole attracts.
Repulsion would indicate same pole. Using magnetic effect of current many machines
have been devised such as telephone, telegraph, door bell, crane to lift load, dynamo,
generator etc.
Dynamo or generators are machines by which mechanical energy is transformed into
electrical energy. It takes help of magnetic effect of current. On the other hand,
reverse is done by electric motor. Here electrical energy is converted into mechanical
energy of motion. So, by connecting motor and passing current we can run pump for
irrigation, can grind rice, wheat or spices and many other things.
Electric circuit
The path through which current flows is called electric circuit. In case of a cell the
total path of flow of current in and outside the cell is the electric circuit. Current from
one of the terminal of the cell goes through fuse, plug key and then comes back to the
other terminal of the cell (Fig 14.8). If there is any discontinuity in the circuit, current
does not flow. The connecting wires used to connect cell with accessories of the
circuit is coated with nonconducting
circuit
material like rubber, plastic etc. This
coating prevents body from shock if
the current carrying wire touches our fuse
plug key
body. Current carrying wire gives
violent shock on touching. Therefore
it is called live wire. Shock from high
voltage current may cause death. So,
people who work with high current
use wooden platform to stand, rubber
Fig. 14.8 : Different parts of a circuit
hand gloves to avoid accident.
In order to start or stop flow of current in a circuit at will, switch or plug key is used.
When switch or plug key is taken off, the continuity of the circuit is broken and the
current goes off. Plug the key, the flow of current starts again.
Ohm's Law
When current flows through a conductor, current faces obstacle given by the material
itself. This obstruction which a current encounters while flowing is called resistance.
According to the name of German scientist Simon Ohm (1787-1854) the unit of
measurement of resistance is called ohm. He established an important law regarding
the strength of current flow, pressure or potential difference between ends of a
conductor and its resistance to flow of current. The law is known as Ohm's law and is
stated thus : At constant temperature the current, that flows through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference between its ends and inversely
proportional to its resistance.
V
If, I = current strength, V = potential difference and R = resistance then, I = R
From this law we see that flow of current strength depends upon potential difference
at the two ends of the conductor and resistance. If potential difference between the
ends increases, current strength increases too; but current strength decreases as
resistance increases. Current I is measured in ampere, potential difference V in volt

and resistance in ohm. If we take a conductor of unit resistance, maintain unit
potential difference between its end, then ohm's law says that current flow will also be
of unit strength. We state below units of quantities related with flow of current along
with ampere, volt and ohm.
Ampere: The unit of current flow was given the name ampere according to the name
of French scientist Andre Ampere (1775-1836). When through a conductor of 1 ohm
resistance whose ends are maintained at a potential difference of 1 volt, the current
that flows through is called 1 ampere current.
Ampere can be defined in another way. We know that practical unit of charge is
coulomb. As current is the rate of flow of charge through any plane in the conductor,
then 1 ampere current is the flow of 1 coulomb charge per second through the plane.
The instrument which measures current directly in ampere is called ammeter.
Ohm : When the potential difference between the two ends of a conductor is one
volt, and a current of 1 ampere flows through it, then the resistance of the conductor
is 1 ohm.
Watt-hour : The rate of doing work of a man or a machine is called its power. Watt is
the unit of power. If an electrical machine performs 1 joule of work in a second the
power of that machine is one watt. According to the name of'scientist James Watt this
unit of power is called watt. The energy expended by a machine of 1 watt power in 1
hour is called 1 watt-hour.
Work W
Power P = =
Time t
Total work done, W == Power, P × time, t
Now total work done is the energy spent during the time.
:. Electrical energy spent, W = P × t
Besides, current, electrical pressure and power are related as
Watt = Ampere × Volt
Killowatt- hour: Watt is a small unit. For big engine and machinery the unit of power
used is killowatt. If a machine of 1 killowatt power works for one hour the energy spent
will be 1 killowatt-hour. So the unit of expended electrical energy is killowatt- hour.
1000 watt- hour = 1 Killowatt-hour
1 killowatt-hour electrical energy is called 1 unit of energy, which is used in practice. It
is written on an electric bulb: 220V-25W. What does it mean? It means that the bulb
will give maximum light at 220 volt and at that time it will spend 25 joule electrical
energy per second.
Problem : What is the current that flows through an electric bulb of 60 watt at 240
supply voltage?
Solution: It is known, Watt = Volt x Ampere
Watt 60
or, Ampere = = = 0.25 Ampere
Volt 240
Problem : If a unit of electricity costs 1.65 taka, what will be the bill for lighting
10 bulb of 60 Watt each for 15 hours?
Solution : Expenditure of energy = 60 watt × l0 × 15 hours
= 9000 watt - hour
= 9 killowatt - hour = 9 unit
So bill for lighting = 1.65 × 9 = 14.85 TK
Problem : In a supply voltage of 120 volt, current of 3 ampere strength passes
through a wire. What is the resistance of the wire?
Solution: It is known that,
Electric Potential defference, V
Electrical resistance, R =
Current strength, I
Here V = 120 volt, I = 3 ampere
V
:. R = = 40 ohm
I
Electrical appliance used in household work
The electrical appliances we use generally in our house are (a) electric bulb or tube
light (b) electric fan (c) electric heater (d) electric iron (e) electric bell (t) radio (g)
television (h) refrigerator etc.
Let us describe below some of them.
(a) Electric bulb: It is used to give us light in our house. It is made of a glass bulb
containing inert gas or it may be evacuated. Two wires pass through its airtight mouth.
A coil of very fine tungsten wire joins two ends of the wire in the glass bulb. The
tungsten coil is called filament. Since the filament is very narrow and long it has a
high resistance. So, current through it is obstructed very much and produce enough
heat to give light.
(b) Electric fan: We use fan to be comfortable in summer. Run by electric current it is
a very useful thing. Here electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy of
rotation. It works on the principle of electric motor. To control its rotation a regulator
is used. The regulator is made of a few resistances that increases or decreases the
motion of fan at will.
glass bulb + current
knob
wire
switch
fine tungsten wire
Electric bulb Electric fan

Fig. 14.9
(c) Electric heater: We know that current through a resistance is obstructed by it and
gets itself heated. On the basis of this principle heater works. On a round plate, made
of some nonconducting material like mica, fIre clay a coil of nichrome wire is fitted.
There is groove on the round plate along which the coil sets. Nichrome wire has 40
times more resistance than a copper wire. As heat production varies directly as
resistance the nichrome wire becomes very much heated. Cooking may be done easily
by it (fig 14.10).
Electric iron : Electric iron works on the same principle as an electric heater. In
electric iron nichrome coil heats the smooth base plate. In electric iron heat produced
depends upon the flow of current. The relation between heat produced H and strength
of current I is H∝I2.
Electric bell: In figure 14.11 there is
a circuit of electric bell. Carefully see
the figure. Push the button of the bell.
The electrical circuit is completed and
current passes through electromagnet
heating coil
which then attracts a soft iron plate
called armature. Fig.14.10: Electric heater and electric iron
A hammer attached to the plate then hits

the bell and sound is produced. The hammer with spring goes away from the screw for
magnetic attraction and the circuit is disconnected. Current stops flowing. As a result
electromagnet loses attractive power. A spring then pulls iron plate to the screw
and again the electrical circuit is completed. Again electromagnet attracts plate with
hammer and sound is produced. Thus as long as button is pushed we hear bell ringing.
Refrigerator: One of the household appliances run by current is refrigerator which is
used to keep things cool in it. In it a liquid called Freon is used which by controlling
pressure easily can be converted into gas and from gas to liquid again. Freon in liquid
form is passed through the cooling chamber of the refrigerator. It takes heat from the
articles there and under some special arrangement becomes gaseous. Thus the things
kept in cooling chamber becomes cold and remain fit for consumption. The Freon gas
now is pressurized by a compressor and is converted back into liquid. The heat it took
earlier from the things in the cooling chamber is taken outside the refrigerator and is
again circulated through cooling chamber.
cooling chamber
liquid
press switch Heat left during
spring condensation
heat taken
electromagnet contact screw from food
soft iron plate material
during
evaporation
vapour
bell hammer fan
electric pump
Fig . 14.11: Electric bell Fig . 14.12: Refrigerator
House wiring
Most of our houses are now connected to electric supply. How this supply of
electricity in our house is used to light house, rotate fans and do other service are
discussed below. Look at the figure of 14.13. Here two bulbs are connected in parallel
with a battery. This type of connection ensures full voltage of cell to each of the bulbs.
The main thing in house wiring is to connect every thing in such a way so that they
get the full supply voltage. This is done by connecting each light and fan with the two
wires coming from electric supply in such a way so that they become parallel to each
other. Figure of 14.14 shows two main wires coming from electric supply with fuse,
meter, etc. and to them two bulbs, one fan and some plug are connected to be used
when necessary. One of the main wire is called live wire, the other is neutral. Electric
pressure remains in the live wire. So if a person touches it keeping himself connected
to ground current flows through the leg of his body and gives violent shock. This may
cause death. Neutral wire carries no pressure. It is connected to the ground.
distribution box
bettery
main switch light
switch
meter
switch
fan
mains
plug socket
Fig . 14.13 Fig . 14.14
The meter reads the quantity of electricity that is being used in the house. From meter
two wires go to the main switch. With this switch current to the house is supplied or it
is stopped. A safety fuse is there with the main switch. From main switch the wire
goes to distribution box. Where it is divided into two branch lines. Each branch line
has separate safety fuse. In the figure a light, a fan and a plug point has been shown in
the lower line. Light and fan has separate switches; they are connected to the live
wire. In the upper line there is only one light and its switch.
Safety fuse: Electric current is as useful as it is dangerous. Human body is a good
conductor of electricity. If for any reason our body touches live line, flow of current
may cause death. If for any reason flow of current through our house, shop or
factories increases fire may break out causing much damage. So, a safety measure
is required in the supply line. Safety fuse is such a devise. It consists of a metal
wire of low melting point. In a china clay holder this safety fuse, usually made of
tin and brass (25% tin, 75% brass) is placed and is connected with the main line.
When flow of current passes a certain limit, the fuse wire melts and disconnects the
circuit and so the current flow is stopped. Thus possibility of damage by fire is
eliminated. Now-a-days, circuit breaker is also used for this purpose. But less costly
fuse wire is still preferable.
If a fuse in a circuit goes off again and again it can be assumed there is some fault
there. Fuse should not be replaced without correcting the fault.
Caution taken in using electricity: In house wiring a fuse must be connected in
series with the main line. The cable used must be insulated by wrapping it with PVC
(polyvinyle chloride) or any other nonconducting material. Rubber is also used for
wrapping. Sometimes wiring cable is kept hidden under plaster.
In our house we use many valuable appliances for comfort. Proper care must be taken
to use these machines. Otherwise irrepairable damage may cause to them. Below we
list some of the safety measures to be followed.
(a) Do not touch switch with a wet hand.

(b) If fuse goes out, main switch must be shutdown. If fuse is to be repaired it must
be done by proper material.
(c) If for any reason short circuit problem arises, shutdown the main switch and call
electrician.
(d) Ordinary screw driver should not be inserted in the socket.
( e) An electric tester should be kept handy in all house.
(f) To connect a new machine it should be done according to the direction written in
the literature.
(g) Water must not be adhered to the body of any electrical machine.
(h) If it is not necessary then switch off the connection of radio, TV, iron, etc.
(i) If fuse of a certain circuit goes off again and again it is to be understood that there
is fault in it. The fault should be corrected first and then connection be given.
(j) Use rubber shoe and gloves if necessary.
Besides, if a man or animal is electrified don't touch him with bare hands. Using
bamboo or wooden stick try to disconnect him from the circuit. If any wire is found
lying on a road, do not touch it. Even when the wire of main line goes under water
then the water should not be touched.
Prevention to wastage of electricity
Electricity is a much valuable wealth. For our development for running mills and
factories its uses are increasing day by day. But its production is limited and costly
too. So, to use it for personal or family reason or for large scale use in any sector we
must be conscious and economical. Following steps can be taken for this.
(a) When leaving a room, see if its lights, fans are switched off.
(b) Heater or cooker must not be kept on unnecessarily.
(c) If there is any leakage of electricity it should be corrected.
(d) Faulty machines consume much electricity than is needed. So electrical machines
must be repaired urgently and be maintained properly.
(e) Illegal electric connection must not be used.
(f) Cable of correct specification should be used for wiring.
Fig. 14.15 : Rotating coil in a magnetic field

Electromagnetic Induction : Space around a magnet where its magnetic influence
exists is known as its magnetic field. In a closed coil if for some reason magnetic field
changes through it then a current appears in the coil. This phenomenon of changing
magnetic field producing current is known as electromagnetic induction. This was
discovered by the famous scientist Michael Faraday (1831). His invention payed the
way to large scale current production by electric dynamo, generator. Also electric
motor, transformer and other machinery have been produced due to the discovery of
electromagnetic induction.
Electric generator : The machine by which mechanical energy is converted into
electrical energy is called generator or dynamo. In dynamo a wire is wound
rectangularly over a soft iron cylinder known as armature. There is a vertical rod
along the axis of the cylinder. The rod is insulated from the cylinder. The rectangular
coil is placed between the pole pieces of a horse shoe magnet. The lines of force of
the magnet cut the coil. Now if by a machine the rod is rotated then armature along
with coil rotate. As a result, lines of force changes through coil and as such induce
electromotive force appears at the end of the coil. If the magnet is strong, the number
of turns of wire in the coil is large and the speed of rotation is high, as a result, a
strong induced current flows through the external circuit connected to the ends of the
coil. Thus, here mechanical energy of rotation is converted into electrical energy by
the generator or dynamo. They are of two kinds : i) A.C dynamo ii) D.C dynamo. In
figure 14.16 construction of these dynamo are shown.
external circuit R
N
N S
brush brush
G H
Alternating Current Dynamo Direct Current Dynamo

Fig. 14.16 : Dynamo
Electric motor
This is a machine by which electric energy is converted into mechanical energy of
motion, just the reverse of a dynamo. If a coil of wire whose ends are connected to an
electric source, is placed in a magnetic field, the coil rotates freely. This is the
principle of working of a motor.
In a commercially produced motor there is a soft iron rod on which wire is wound as
coil. The poles of the magnet are near to each other. So, the strength of the magnetic
field at the space between poles increases which speeds up the rotation. Thus the
electric energy is transformed into mechanical energy. Electric motor is used widely.
To rotate anything you need a motor. In fan, pump, caset player, rolling mill, tram etc.
its use is increasing day by day.
Transformer
Transformer is a device by which electric energy is shifted from one circuit to another.
All of the energies may be shifted or keeping the energy fixed, strength of the current
may be altered. In the figure 14.17 a transformer is shown. Here A is the primary
circuit, B is the secondary circuit and C is a soft iron core. When current flows
through primary circuit, an induced voltage appears at the ends of the secondary
circuit. The strength of this voltage depends on
the number of turns of secondary circuit. soft iron core
Voltage will be high if the number of turns is
more and it will be low when the number of
turns is less. The first one is called 'Step up' incoming
transformer and the second one is called 'Step 220 volt
down' transformer. In the step down

transformer less voltage is obtained in primary coil
secondary coil
secondary than the primary circuit although
current is greater in secondary circuit than that Fig. 14.17: Simple Transfromer
in the primary. Exactly reverse is the case in
step up transformer where greater voltage is
obtained in secondary than that in the primary.
Exercise

1. Which acid is usually used in ordinary electric cell?
(a) Sulphuric acid (b) Nitric acid
(c) Hydrochloric acid (d) Phosphoric acid
From the following paragraph, answer question no. 2 to 4.
During IRRI season, Rahim applies for electrical connection for irrigation. He has
been informed by the electric office that the electrical line near his land is of high
voltage. So, he will be given an electric connection of 440 volt after setting up of a
transformer. The flow of current at the circuit was 3 amp. Every day he conducts his
irrigation works for 6 hours; the cost of per unit electricity is 2.50 taka.
2. Why did electric office raised the question of setting up of a transformer?
(a) For conversion of low voltage to high one
(b) For conversion of high voltage to low one
(c) For transference of whole electrical energy
(d) For increasing flow of current keeping energy constant.
3. Of the following, which equipment Rahim used for irrigation?
(a) Generator (b) Motor
(c) Step up transformer (d) Step down transformer
4. How much money Rahim had to pay as electric bill for the month of June
2007?
(a) Taka 613.30 (b) Taka 554.40
(c) Taka 574.20 (d) Taka 594.00
5. If every day the lights are illuminated in same amount, through which circuit
of the following, minimum amount of current will flow?
(a) A (b) B
(c) C (d) D
Light 1
Light 1 Light 2 Light 3 Light 2
Light 3
50 Ohms
50 Ohms
Creative Questions
Observe the two circuits above and answer the following questions:
(a) What is the meaning of the mark V.
(b) From the sources of the two circuits shown above, what sort of current is
flowing? Explain it by a graph.
(c) Determine the amount of current that flows from one of the circuits.
(d) Present with arguments which one of these two circuits you will prefer to
electrify houses?
Chapter Fifteen
News Communication
Desire to communicate with others is very common. To communicate with others man
used various methods. In the past man used messengers, horse ridden messengers, even
pigeon. These methods were time consuming and message could not be sent very far.
With the invention of electricity means of communication has been easy and fast.
With the passing of time man's knowledge increased. People invented various means of
communication; rapid progress has been achieved in this field. Now we see any body,
anywhere in the world, talk to any person he wants to. Messages sent circulates all over
the world within a moment. Telegraph, Telephone, Radio, TV, Fax, Electronic Mail,
Computer, artificial satellite gave immense impetus to the field of communication.
Below we describe briefly these methods.
Telegraph: Messages are sent to or taken in by code language with the help of wire is
called telegraph. An American scientist named Samuel Morse (1791-1872) invented
telegraph. In 1844 he was able to send message through wire. With 'dot' and 'dash' he
expressed all the letters of English alphabet. These are known as Morse code after his
name. A telegraph has usually three parts- (i) transmitter, (ii) receiver and (iii) relay.
(i) Transmitter : It consists of an electric circuit through which alternately current
is sent and stopped. By tapping key short sound called 'Tore' and a long sound
'Takka' is produced. With these two sounds Morse was able to express all the letters
of English alphabet.
(ii) Receiver (sounder) : In the transmiter receiver
receiver an electromagnet and an taping key
armature receive the sound of the
spring
transmitter. When the key of the armature
transmitter is closed, current flows to
electromagnet
electromagnet of the receiver. As a battery
result it attracts the armature which hits
Fig.15.1: A simple telegraph circuit
a metal plate and a sound is produced.
Again when the key is opened, current stops; armature is pulled by a spring which
comes back and hits another metal plate and sound is produced. In this way receiver
receives sound sent by transmitter.
(iii) Relay : Relay amplify the sound sent by transmitter. When telegraph line is
extended to long distance, the sound received becomes feeble. To make the sound
audible relay works.
News Communication 227
Telephone
It is a device by which communication between people at a distance can be done
through cable wire. Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) is the inventor of telephone.
Telephone has two main parts --- (i) transmitter and (ii) receiver. Besides these two
connecting cables and d.c. source are required.
Transmitter: It has a metal plate called diaphragm. If you speak before a diaphragm
it starts vibrating. This vibration goes to a box containing carbon granules and carbon
particles are pressed when the diaphragm moves forward. As the diaphragm comes
back the pressure on the carbon granules is released and they become isolated. This
variation of pressure starts a variable flow of current in the transmitter. This variable
current represents the sound said by the speaker.
Receiver : In the receiver also there is a diaphragm and a coil wound over a
permanent horseshoe magnet. The diaphragm is lightly attached to the magnet. As
the diaphragm moves forward in the transmitter large current comes to the receiver
coil which strengthens the magnet in the receiver. The magnet strongly attracts the
plate. When small current flows to receiver, the magnet becomes weak and attracts
plate rather feebly. Thus the variable current of the transmitter vibrates the plate in
the receiver exactly as it was vibrated by sound in the transmitter. 'Hallo' said in the
transmitter is heard 'hallo' sound in the receiver. You must have noticed the digits
0,1,2 9 written on the telephone set. By pressing or rotating these numbers telephone
call is made and people start talking. Two processes are followed in telephone
talking- (i) in analog system sound is directly converted into electricity (ii) in digital
system sound is converted into electricity and is then transformed into digital form
and sent. Now-a-days digital telephone system is largely used. The advantages are, it
is easy to send and can easily be connected to computer. Now telephone without
wire-- cordless telephone is used also. Here sitting at a long distance from the
telephone set call may be made.
diaphragm
wire coil diaphragm
carbon granule
dry cell horseshoe magnet
Transmitter receiver
Fig. 15.2: A Telephone circuit

Again, telephone system uses two procedures to send calls. One call is made through
an exchange centre and in the other the call is directly sent to the receiver. In case of
call through exchange, the operator at the exchange first takes the call and sends it to
the particular people. By this system telephone call can be made to remote small
township area. The system is also called trunk call. In the second system a call is
made directly to people concerned by dialing. Anyone now-a-days can call from
Dhaka to important cities of the world
by dialing directly. This is known as
ISD or international subscriber dialing. mouth piece ear piece
Besides, through NWD or nation wide
dialing one can speak to people living
in Upazila area by dialing directly.
Thus the whole telephone system is
rapidly progressing as if the world is in
our grip. Fig. 15.3
Radio Communication
Italian Scientist Marconi (1874-1937) invented radio first. But it is also known that
Bangali Scientist Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose (1858-1937) and Russian Scientist
Alexander Popov (1859-1906) also invented radio at the same time. While we were
discussing sound, we saw that sound is a kind of wave which goes through some
material medium. But there are other kinds of wave too, such as heat wave, light
wave, radio wave. These waves are called electromagnetic radio wave. They move
faster and do not require any medium. So if sound is converted into electromagnetic
radio wave it may be sent anywhere in the world with the speed of light.
Radio communication has two important parts- wave transmission and wave
reception. In wave transmission system sound is converted into radio wave and is then
sent all around the space. In the receiving system the wave is detected and is
reconverted into sound wave. Generally radio means the receiving instrument.
A kind of radio tube or valve is the main component of radio communication. The
discovery of transistor has largely reduced the use of radio tube also called electron
tube. Transistors are small in size, take small electricity and work efficiently.
The principle of radio communication is to produce powerful electromagnetic wave
which carries sound wave and is then sent to space. In the latter stage the wave is
detected and weak sound wave is separated from the carrier wave and amplified. A loud
speaker then reconverts it to sound. Radio transmitting centres produce high frequency
electromagnetic wave and send the wave in all directions in the space by an antenna.
Below is shown by block diagram sending and receiving principle of a sound signal.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Microphone Transmitter Radio wave Radio Loud
Converts Produce e.m Electromagnetic Receives speaker
sound energy carrier wave waves are radio Current is
to electric on which traveling in wave, reconverted
Sound current rides sound space converts into sound
wave and is into wave and
sent in all current helps listening
direction and then
amplify
microphone
receiver antenna
sound wave antenna
carrier wave
a. Sending of radio wave from the b. Receiving of radio wave

transmitter of radio center
antenna
microphone amplifier modulator amplifier
Oscillator
amplifier demodulator amplifier

speaker
Fig. 15.4 : Block diagram of radio communication
In this diagram we see microphone converts sound (speech, music etc.) into electric
current which is mixed with the powerful electromagnetic wave used as the carrier
wave. The two waves are amplified and through an antenna this wave is sent in space
with velocity of light- 3 lac km per second.
This wave when comes in contact with a radio antenna, it receives a small portion of it
and sends it to an amplifier. Here both the carrier and sound waves are amplified.
Then they are separated and sound wave is fed to the speaker after amplification.
Everyday different radio stations go on air at the same time. But by a mechanism
called tuning only the desired station can be heard.
For radio transmission two types of wave are used. They are short wave and medium
wave. Wave length of a wave has a relation with frequency, which is the number of
vibration per second. Wave of longer wavelength has smaller frequency and wave of
shorter wavelength has greater frequency. The product of wavelength and frequency is
always fixed and is equal to the speed of the wave. In case of radio wave speed is 3
×1010 cm/s or 3 × 108 m/s which is the speed of light. So the wavelength and
frequency of a radio wave could be calculated if one of them is known.
Problem : A certain radio station goes on air at wavelength 250 metres. What is the
frequency of the wave?
Solution : Velocity of light = wavelength × frequency
3 × 108 m/s = 250m × frequency
or, frequency = 3 × 108/250 cycle/second
= 12,00,000 cycle/second = 1200 killo cycle per second.
Radio programme of a nearer station can be heard by medium wave. But to listen
distant station short wave becomes necessary. Short wave is reflected from an
obstacle. In uper atmosphere there is a layer of ions known as ionosphere. Short
waves are reflected from this ion sphere and is detected in the radio.
If a radio station is owned by government as in our country there are specialists,
technicians and other workers to use it and look after it. Radio receiver is used by
listener. So it is his responsibility to maintain it. Dust enters into the radio and
deposits as carbon particle at connecting points. Thus slowly radio goes out of order.
So it should be cleaned regularly. Separate aerial connection make the radio voice
clear and conspicuous.
Television
Television is a wonderful invention of science. We see picture along with the voice of
the speaker. Doesn't it seem unbelievable? Scottish scientist Lozy Baird has the credit
of sending and receiving picture from a distance first in 1926.
How television works
To send sound and picture from television transmitting station two separate
instruments are used. One of the instrument converts picture into electric signal and
then sends it as electromagnetic wave to distant places. Television camera does the
work of converting picture to electric signal. Any picture that goes through the lens of
the camera to its screen becomes an electric signal and ultimately goes to surrounding
space as electromagnetic wave.
The other transmitting instrument sends sound. A microphone does this work. There is
a light diaphragm in a box containing carbon particle. Sound vibrates this diaphragm
and a variable current is produced. This signal goes to air by powerful electromagnetic
wave through an antenna.
Our television in the house is a receiving machine of the picture and sound which are
in air as electromagnetic waves. Two separate systems work for picture and sound.
Our TV antenna catches a small part of electromagnetic wave sent by the transmitting
station. If our TV set is tuned at the same channel as the transmitting channel, then
our set receives the signal. Sound part of it goes to a loud speaker after being detected
and amplified successively. The picture part of the signal received goes through a
rectifier which separates picture from the carrier wave, and sends to amplifier for
amplification. This amplified picture e.m. wave now is fed to a an electron gun
situated at the back of the picture tube. Electron gun then throws electrons on the
picture tube and a picture is seen.
How picture tube makes a picture
Front part of the picture tube is the screen on which we see the picture. There is a
coating of phosphor at the back side of the picture tube. The phosphor coating has
such characteristic that when electron falls on it from the electron gun it produces
bright, less bright, dark spot by which a picture is made. So we see a vivid picture of
the scene sent from the transmitting TV station.
Following is the flow picture of a transmitting and receiving machinery :
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Camera Transmitter Vest Receiving Picture TV
Converts Produce space set tube Screen
Picture light appropriate Radio Converts Eectron Picture
energy to radio wave on waves radio wave beam is seen
electric which are into electric produces
current electrical travelling current and bright and
energy is in space amplify dark spot
superimposed. on
phosphor
coating and
picture is
constructed
Coloured Television
A black and white television has been described above. To give a picture its natural
colour, some additional machinery is required. In a colour television, there are three
electron tubes for each of three fundamental colours- red, violet, green. The receiving
set also has three electron guns. The TV screen is also coated with three kinds of
phosphor granules. A certain colour only produces spot of that colour. As a result we
see on the screen all three colours, red, violet and green at a time. Mixing these
colours a great variety of coloured pictures can be produced on the screen.
Use of Television
Television is used to meet various kinds of demand of the age. As for example-
1. For mental recreation and sports and games programme
2. Educative programme
3. Business related advertising programme
4. Programme relating health and
5. Information and news
Fax
Fax plays an important role in sending and receiving news. By fax written statement
can be sent to any desired place. Say, a written statement on one page is to be sent
from Dhaka to Tokyo. When the written page is entered in a fax machine the exact
picture of the written letters reaches Tokyo by its transmitting system. The receiving
system at Tokyo then receives it and through printer machine gives an exact copy of it.
Fax is a contracted word of Faxcimile. Here we give a block diagram showing its
principle of action:
News reader Transmitter

wire
Printer Receiver
This machine works by micro-wave and a satellite. It can be used as telephone, copier,
recorder etc. The speed of the system can be varied. Its efficiency and speed are
increasing as the technique improves.
Electronic mail
Electronic mail or simply e-mail works like a fax machine. But it is connected with a
computer. Voluminous news, lots of information can be exchanged by this system.
The data to be sent is gathered in a file of the computer and is sent by modem of the
computer. Modem is an english word which means modulation and demodulation.
Any information sent at distant place by mixing it with microwave is called
modulation and from a modulate data information separation from micro wave is
called demodulation. To send mail or to receive mail computer is used at both sides.
Information is saved in the computer and is read as and when necessary.
Advantage of using e-mail

E-mail has got the following advantages over telephone or other communications
media:
1. Much information can be sent or received in a short time.
2. From memory of the computer the information can be printed again and again.
3. Mail can be stored.
4. News can be edited by word processing.
5. News can be sent by telex or fax.
6. The cost is comparatively low.
Fax type e-mail is very much popular because high quality reproduction is possible.
Memorandum, documents, sketch etc. can easily be sent and received.
Computer
The one invention that has opened the
ways to vast opportunity is the
computer. It has paved the way of
immense development. Computer
means counting or accounting. So,
ordinarily computer is a machine by
which accounting is done. Computer
can perform large complex account. In
addition, it is used to do a lot of
things. It is not a single machine but a
collection of machines. Therefore it is Fig. 15.6 : Computer
called computer system.
To make it more efficient, powerful and fit for multifarious work, vigorous researches
are going on. It is hoped that in future computer will have intelligence. Effort to use
organic compounds in its memory is being tried.
Classification of computer: Computer is classified into two categories-
1. General Computer
2. Computer for special use
For ordinary accounting work a computer is used. Special parts may be added if
necessary. These are called general computer. The computers which are used for
special purpose like operation of space ship or controlling speed of missiles etc. are
called special purpose computers. Computer is again classified into three categories
depending on its construction and nature of use. They are-
1. Digital computer
2. Analog computer
3. Hybrid computer
On the basis of size, weight, skill and nature of work, different types of computer have
been made.
The structure of computer : The structure of a computer is a subject to be well
understood by computer engineers. But we should know its outer structure.
Hardware
The machines, components, device which have size, shape, and can be touched, eyed,
heard all are hardware. They are used to organize computer system. These are called
hardware. The hardwares are interdependent. They can not do anything by themselves
but their proper adjustment is necessary for the working of computer.
Software
To make hardware ready for work, the necessary instructions or the programmes are
called software. Software drives the computer. Hardware consists of five component
parts. They are-
1. Input
2. Output
3. C.P.U (central processing unit)
4. Memory- main
5. Auxiliary memory
Auxiliary
CPU memory
Input Memory Output
Fig. 15.7: Different parts of computer system
By a block diagram the hardware is shown. Generally the CPU and main memory are
kept in a single compartment. CPU can be compared to our brain. It directs other
components to keep itself workable. CPU has three main functions-
1. Send logical data and mathematical data to different region

2. Understand the instructions of the programme and then create necessary signal
3. List the data according to their descending order
To finish these works properly there are other separate units.
Important use of computer : Now-a-days we are very much dependent on computer.
Its important uses are
I. National work such as publication of public examination result, census, agriculture
census etc. In such work huge numbers of data are to be handled. If they are done
manually a long time will be needed whereas a computer can do it correctly in
very little time.
2. If correct data are fed into a computer with proper programming, it produces
accurate result. Man can do mistake but a computer does not; So to finish a work
rapidly and accurately we use computer.
3. Computer can store huge data in a small place. Billions of data are stored in a big
computer.
4. Man gets tired after working for some time. But a computer can work
continuously day after day but is not tired.
5. Computer performs complex work; risky work is done by it. Say, in atomic reactor
where radioactivity is present, human life is not safe, but with the help of a
computer work can be done.
Communicating Satellite
For rapid radio wave communication with countries of the world satellite is used
now-a-days. Satellite is a natural object revolving round any planet. As for example,
the earth is a planet and the moon revolving round earth is a satellite. Planet mars has
two satellites named Fobo and Dimos. But for radio wave communication satellite
used is artificial. They are man made moon. The far off natural satellite are not
suitable for communication. Therefore scientists have devised artificial satellite for
communication convenience. These satellites revolve in a fixed orbit in space round
the earth. They are playing an important role in sending and receiving news and other
items from one end to the other end of the world. Artificial satellite in space reflects
radio waves and thus television programmes of far-off counties are also being heard
and seen.
satellite
moon's orbit
moon
artificial satellite
earth
satellite satellite
earth's atmosphere
orbit of artificial satellite
Fig. 15.8 Artificial Satellite
If an artificial satellite is placed at 35880 km above earth's surface then it takes same
time to revolve around as taken by earth and so the satellite appears fixed in the sky.
The radio and television programmes reach all places of the world if three mutually
equidistant satellites are placed above the equator of the earth. By such process now
telephonic conversation and television programme are taking place. The picture of
astronaut walking on moon's surface or Olympic games and sound of music are being
seen and heard by people of different countries at the same time.
Exercise

1. The discoverer of which apparatus given below was a scottish scientist?
(a) Telegraph (b) Radio
(c) Television (d) Computer
2. Of the following which is correct?
(a) The speaker converts sound energy to electrical energy.
(b) E-mail sends immediately information of short wave length to any place.
(c) Modulator separates audio and video wave from carrier wave.
(d) Refrigerator sends heat from low heated material to high heated one.
3. If the wavelength of any transmitted wave of radio station is 250 metre, what
will be the number of vibration per second?
(a) 1,200 cycle (b) 1,200 kilocycle
(c) 120 cycle (d) 120 kilocycle
4. Of the following which is the right order for production of pictures in the
picture tube of the television?
(a) Camera picture receiver transmitter picture tube
transmitted picture.
(b) Transmitted picture camera transmitter receiver picture
tube picture.
(c) Picture camera transmitter receiver picture tube
transmitted picture.
(d) Picture Tansmitter receiver picture tube transmitted picture.
Creative Questions
The son of Mr. Rafiq is a student of Class III. He was witnessing the cricket match held
at Karachi between Bangladesh and Pakistan. Suddenly the question arises in him how
this match is transmitted through the television. In addition, how we can see at home the
incidents and happenings at the different parts of the world through a television.
(a) What is artificial satellite?
(b) Which is the best media for communication of news?
(c) Explain how cricket match between Pakistan and Bangladesh is transmitted
through television.
(d) If the time of revolution of the artificial satellite differs from the revolving
time of the earth, then is it possible to witness the television programme
broadcasting from a distant country directly, justify your answer.
Chapter Sixteen
Cleaning Materials
The outer parts of our body; skin, nail, hair etc become dirty every moment. Again oil,
fat, salt and other waste materials come out from our body during sweating. All these
make our body dirty. The dirt thus deposited on the body is harmful to health.
Cleaning of this dirt regularly is a pre-condition of maintaining good health.
Does our body only become dirty? Our daily used clothes, utensils, furniture etc. are
being dirty every day. All usable materials become dirty in various ways with the dust
and sand layer on it. Due to this, materials lose their colour and beauty as well as our
health is affected.
The materials which are usually used to clean the dirt deposited on our body, clothes
or used materials are called cleaning agents. The most widely used substance among
the cleaning agents is soap. Besides, there are detergents, emulsions, polishes, toilet
cleaner etc. In this chapter we shall discuss different types of soap and detergent;
their components with methods of preparation.
Soap:
From very ancient time men have been preparing and using soap as a cleaning agent.
The methods of preparation and the of quality of soap are improving day by day.
Large factories have been set up for the manufacture of soap. The main constituents of
soap are fat and alkali. Caustic soda or caustic potash are used as alkali. Different
animal fat, vegetable oil, such as coconut oil, palm oil, mahua oil, custard oil, olive oil
and animal oil viz grease, cod liver oil etc. are the source of fat for soap making.
Besides, various chemicals such as sodium silicate, sodium bicarbonate, tri-sodium
phosphate, different perfumes and colouring agents are also required for making soap.
Methods of preparation of soap:
There are three common methods of soap preparation.
1. Cold process
2. Semi-boiled process
3. Full-boiled process
Cold and semi-boiled process:
Cold process and semi-boiled process are less used than full-boiled process. In cold
process soap is made by dissolving fat in a container having mechanical stirrer. The
definite quantity of caustic soda is added to it and stirred well. As a result a thick
emulsion is produced which is then passed in a dice. Solid soap is separated from dice
after few days.
Cleaning Materials 239
Half-boiled process is almost the same as soap making in cold process. In this process
comparatively high temperature is applied to complete the soapnification quickly. For
soap making in the cold process at home, three formula are given.
1. For laundry soap:
Coconut oil - 5 kg
Mohua oil - 4 kg
Custard oil - 6 kg
Caustic soda lye - 15 kg
Soap stone powder - 10 kg
Sodium silicate - 10 kg.
2. Toilet soap (Lux-type white soap):
Coconut oil - 21 kg
Zinc oxide - 35 kg
Lux-perfume - 100 c.c
3. Toilet soap (Life buoy type):
Coconut oil - 9 kg
Rosin - 3 kg
Custard oil - 3 kg
Carbolic acid - as per requirement
Soap colour (red) - as per requirement.
Full-boiled process:
In large soap factories, soap is made by this process. In this process a mixture of fat or
oil and alkali in definite proportion are boiled in a large container to make soap. In
soap industry there are two main methods which are adopted in full boiled process.
These are kettle process and continuous process. The two methods are discussed here.
It is mentioned here that although soap is prepared in various methods, the production
principles of all the methods are almost same. A normal flow sheet of the process of
soap making is shown below.
Kettle process:
In kettle process a large sized kettle is used for the manufacture of soap. A kettle can
accommodate nearly 150 tons of soap. At first fat is melted in the kettle and caustic
soda solution is added to the heated fat.
Fig: 16.1: Flow diagram of soap making.

After 3-4 hours of heating, soap-lye or smooth paste like cream is formed and it starts
to boil. Salt solution or salt-water is now added to this oiling soap. This process is
called graining. In this process soap-lye is separated out. At this stage heating is
stopped and the soap is allowed to settle down at the bottom of kettle. In this stage
glycerine and soap-lye are taken out.
Once again the soap is heated and boiled in kettle and water is slowly added to it. As a
result salt and glycerine clinging to the soap are washed away. Now the soap becomes
more smooth and creamy. After the boiling and washing for several times clean soap
at the surface, strong alkaline soap at the middle and mixture of soap and soap-lye at
the bottom are obtained. The soap from the top is pumped out and processed.
Continuous process:
In this process a tube of stainless steel is used instead of a kettle. The diameter of the
tube is about 3 feet and its height is 80 feet. This is called hydrolyser. Boiled water is
pumped into the hydrolyser under high pressure. At the same time heated fat is
pumped into the bottom of the tube. At high temperature fat is hydrolyzed into fatty
acid and glycerine. Fatty acid floats on the upper portion of the hydrolyser. It is
separated, refined and soap is made by treating it with alkali.
At the first step of the process concentrated soap solution or paste is taken into a
special machine called crutcher. In the crutcher other materials such as perfume,
colouring agents and titanium oxide are added to the soap. Here the quality of soap is
controlled and soap for different purposes are made. For example soap becomes hard
by mixing with large sodium silicate.
In the crutcher soap is vigorously agitated. As a result the proportion of water is
decreased. This soap is poured into iron box or dice. In modern continuous process
hot soap solution is pumped into a vacuum chamber. In this chamber excess water and
impurities of soap are removed. Then the dry soap is taken into kneading unit. There
perfume and antiseptics are mixed with soap and made into long bars or rectangular
pieces by applying pressure. The long bars may be cut out into required sizes and be
given different necessary shapes by pressing into a mould. Here it is stamped with a
trade mark or branded and so on.
Classification of soap:
Soap is mainly of two types. Hard soap and soft soap. Soap made by caustic soda is a
hard soap and soap made by using caustic potash is a soft soap. For both the types of
soap different sizes and shapes are available in the market according to the demand. A
brief discussion of different type of soaps is given below.
Bar or cake soap:
The soap paste or concentrated soap solution is marketed in definite rectangular
shape. Sometimes it is also marketed in oval or egg and sometimes in round of ball
shape. Usually toilet soaps and laundry soaps are made in such shape.
Toilet soap:
The piece of soap which is used in bath is called toilet soap. Its constituents are
vegetable oil, perfume and antiseptics. Sometimes light colouring agents are also used
in it. This type of soap is very soft.
Laundry soap:
This soap is made in the shape of balls or rectangular bars for washing cloth. It does
not contain any vegetable oil. The constituents of laundry soap are fat, caustic soda
and colouring materials. It does not contain perfume and antiseptics. Comparatively
this kind of soap is hard.
Shaving soap:
This kind of soap is paste like soft. It is marketed in tubes. It is called shaving cream.
Excess caustic potash and excess stearic acid are used in it. This soap is soft and its
leather is long lasting.
Flakes or powdered soap:
Different brands of powdered soap are available in the market. Hot soap solution is
passed through two steel rollers. One roller is small and heated and another is
comparatively large in diameter and cold. As a result the solution sticks at the second
roller in the form of thin layer. This soap layer is mechanically cut into ribbons which
are scraped off by an automatic blade and dried in a drier. In this way powdered or
flaked soap is made.
Granular soap:
The soap solution from the crutcher is dropped from the top towards the bottom in a
drying tower and hot air is passed from the bottom towards the top of the tower. As a
result soap becomes dry and its density increases. Granular soap deposits at the
bottom of the tower is like crops. Very small and big granules are separated by sieving
through two sieves. Then they are packed separately.
Liquid soap:
The soap is kept in liquid state by mixing special solvent and is contained in a bottle
and sold in the market. This is called liquid soap. In our country use of this kind of
soap has started. In our country use of cake or bar and ball soap is more but in
developed countries granular or liquid soap is used more.
Detergents:
Detergent is one kind of cleaning agent. These are made from different kinds of
synthetic materials. Detergent making actually consists of various complex methods.
At first the synthetic cleaning agent is made in a chemical plant. For this different
kinds of raw materials such as bi-products of petroleum, constituents of soap -
vegetable and animal fats etc. are used.
To make detergent from cow-fat or tallow, tallow is reacted with methyl alcohol and
then the product is hydrogenated. In this process hydrogenated tallow alcohol is
produced. It is a liquid. This liquid is first passed into sulphuric acid and then into
alkali. In this process detergent is produced. At this stage dye, bleaching agents, fiber
brightening agent builder etc. are mixed and detergent is processed as powdered,
granular, liquid or bar form.
The process of making powdered and granular detergent is similar to make powdered
and granular soap respectively. Detergent tablets are made by pressing the granular
detergent with other constituents. Liquid detergent is made by the mixing of such
chemicals which do not react with detergent but may keep it liquid at ordinary
temperature.
Comparison between soap and detergent:
A common cleaning agent is present in both soap and detergent. This constituent is
composed of such molecules which are attracted by dirty molecules on the surface of
a solid substance. The molecules react with dirt particles and separate them from the
solid surface. As a result dirt is removed when washed with water or rubbed with a
cloth. Most of the detergents contain synthetic cleaning agent and other chemical
compounds. These compounds increase the cleaning action of detergent.
Use of detergent is more advantageous than the use of soap. Detergents also work in
hard water and produce sufficient foam. On the other hand soap can not produce foam
in hard water. Even use of excess of soap can not clean well. The reason is that the salt
particles in hard water react those with soap. As a result curd of soap or lime soap is
produced and damage the action of soap. It is seen by dissolving soap in tube well
water. Lime of soap is insoluble in water and hence floats on the water. Thus it makes
problems in washing cloth. This problem does not occur in the case of detergents.
Detergents have more penetrating capacity in solid surfaces than soap. Besides,
detergents dissolve rapidly in cold water. Different detergents are made from different
constituents. The cleaning power of detergent varies with different constituent

materials contained in it.
Other cleaning agents:
Different kinds of cleaning agent except soap and detergent have been used for
different purposes. Such as toilet cleaner is used to clean toilet basin, commode and
floor. To clean metal surfaces special type of emulsions such as metal polish, window
cleaner is used to clean glass and plastics; a special type of alcoholic liquid is used to
clean computer, V.C.P and tape recorder head.
The cleaning materials are not used only for cleaning purposes. This are used at
different places for many purposes also. In industries soap and detergents are used as
cleaning agent, slippery agent, softening agent and polishing work. For example,
during the production of motor tyres soap is used in hot and molten condition so that
the molten rubber do not attach with dice. Soap is used for jewellery polishing work.
To make lather soft soap is also used. Soap and detergent are very important cleaning
agents. The more a country is developed, the more is the use of soap and detergent.
Soap, detergent and other cleaning agents are undoubtedly very important. But excess
use of these substances are harmful to health and environment. It may damage colour
of cloth, may produce skin disease. Decanting soap lye here and there, waste water of
washing cloth or water containing waste soap may be a great cause of environmental
pollution. For example fish, weeds etc. in the ponds or lakes may die and even can
also damage the crops in the field. So, we should take much care in using these
substances.
Exercise

1. Which one is acid?
(a) NaCl (b) HCl
(c) MgSO4 (d) NaOH
2. A common ingredient of the detergent is that
(i) reacts with dirt and separates them.
(ii) separates the dirt from the solid surface after reacting with water.
(iii) is attracted by solid surface associated with dirts and separates the dirt with water.
(a) i (b) ii
3. For preparation of 130 gram white soap, what will be the ratio of coconut oil,
caustic soda and zinc?
(a) 21 : 8 : 36 (b) 20 : 9 : 36
(c) 21 : 9 : 35 (d) 22 : 9 : 34
In the light of the following paragraph answer question no. 4 and 5.
There is only one pond in the village of Mr. Kazal. All of the villagers take their bath
in the pond, clean their cloths and collect water from the pond for cooking. After a
few days, it is found that the fishes were dying and water is being polluted.
4. Which cause is mostly responsible for dying fishes?
(a) To take bath by more people.
(b) To use much soap and detergent
(c) Pollution of the water of the pond
(d) Floating of the foam of soap on the surface of the water
5. To prevent death of the fish and pollution of water, Mr. Kazal will tell the people
of this village
(i) to use less soap. ,
(ii) to use detergents for washing cloths.
(iii) to wash cloths at a particular place by bringing water from the pond.
(a) i (b) ii
(c) iii (d) i and iii
Creative Question
1. For clearing dirty cloths of the members of her family, Nasima Begum used to use
wheel, Tibet 570 and Alam's pacha soap. Now she uses surf Excel, wheel powder, etc.
instead of the soaps as mentioned due to which it has become very easy to clean the
cloths. But she noticed that the color of the cloths is some what faded away due to this.
(a) What is washing soap for cloth (laundry soap)?
(b) What are the differences among the wheel, Tibet 570, surf Excel and wheel
powder?
(c) Explain the causes of fading of color of the cloth.
(d) Explain why Nasima Begum used surf Excel and wheel powder instead of soap.
Chapter Seventeen
Cosmetics
Beautification is an eternal habit of mankind. From the very ancient periods men used
to apply ointments on their faces and on special parts of the body to increase the
beauty, for religious reasons, in wars, and many festivals and to protect the skin from
excessive cold or heat. The materials which are used to take special care of skin are
generally named as cosmetics. In ancient Greece, Egypt and Indian sub-continent
these cosmetics were made mainly from the vegetable and animal sources. For
example, turmeric, powdered pulse, nyme leaves, wax, different kinds of oil, milk fat,
green coconut water, egg, sandal wood etc. are collected from vegetables and animal
sources. Some materials from mineral sources viz water, soil, cucumber, fuller's earth
etc. are also used as cosmetics.
Definition of cosmetics:
The substances which are used to take care of health, i.e different parts of body such
as skin, hair, nail, face, eye etc. and beautify these limbs by making soft and attractive
are called cosmetics. We are familiar with various types of cosmetics like different
perfumes removed to add odor, antiseptic substances, face powder, lipstick, shampoo,
oil, emulsion cream, tooth paste. From ancient period substances from vegetables,
animals and minerals are used to make cosmetics. At present scientists have
discovered different kinds of chemicals for making cosmetics. These materials are
very useful and essential for the body.
Different kinds of organic compounds, alcohol, alkali, glycerin, talc, metallic oxides
are included in these classes of substances. Different kinds of cosmetics are used for
different parts of the body. Cosmetics are divided into 4 classes on the basis of their
utilities.
1. Cosmetics for skin
2. Cosmetics for hair
3. Cosmetics for mouth and teeth
4. Cosmetics for nail.
Care of skin:
Most of the cosmetics are used for skin care. Skin is the cover of the body, it protects
the body from external conditions. Waste materials from inside the body, sweat comes
out through skin. Softness, brightness and colour of the skin, are the identity of body
beauty. So, taking care of skin is essential. The skin of different parts of the body,
outer portion of face, eyes and lips are included in the skin care. Hence the skin care
means to take care of these portions in the body also.
Blusher, face powder, talcum powder, rose, cold cream, vanishing cream, snow, hair
remover, suntan lotion, cleansing milk, hand cream, emulsion oil, deodorant, foot
powder etc. are the important cosmetics used for hands, foot, skin and face.
Emulsion oil, cream, lotions are milk like white made by mixing of water with oil.
These substances prevent loss of water from the skin. Hand cream prevents dryness
which is caused by sunlight and air. Even it protects skin from alkali like materials.
Foundation powder and rose which are used as make up, contain chalk, talc, zinc
oxide, titanium, kaolin, oil and water emulsion, magnesium stearate and different
dyeing agents. Suntan lotion or cream contains such chemicals which filters the
sunlight so that the skin is protected from harmful rays. Vanishing cream removes the
spots and dust particles from the skin. Blusher produces rose colour on the face.
Eye shadow, eye liner, mascara etc. are used to take care of eyes. Mascara is used for
dyeing eye lid. Eye shadow is used on the upper surface of eyelid. Eye shadow of
different colours make the eyes to look beautiful and it protects the eyes from the
intensity of sunlight.
Lipstick, lips-lotions are used to increase of beauty of lips. Lipsticks are made by
grease and red or rose colouring agents with titanium oxide along with a solvent. As a
result, lipstick prevents lips from drying and thus increases its beauty.
Talcum powder:
Talcum powder is used after taking bath to prevent skin from moisture and
sweating. This is a slippery material and prevents infection due to friction between
two organisms of the body. High quality talcum powder is slippery and brightened
white in colour.
The main constituent of talcum powder is talc. Besides, zinc steerage and
magnesium steerage is used to make it more slippery. Zinc steerage is a soft
antiseptic. Sometimes boric acid is also used as antiseptic. The proportion stearic
acid is to be 4 to 10% in it. Calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate is used to
inflate the powder. These hold the perfumes to the powder. A formula of talcum
powder preparation is given below:-
Talc - 95%
Magnesium carbonate - 5%
Perfume- very little, not more than 0.5% (it does not include in percentage
composition, but not more than 0.5%).
Cosmetics 247
Method:
Little amount of perfume is mixed with magnesium carbonate and is kept for some
time. Then it is mixed thoroughly with talc. Afterwards the mixture is sieved by a fine
clean cloth or a strainer. Finally it is packed in the container for marketing.
Baby powder:
Baby powder is not same as the powder used for the adults. Because the skin of the
baby is soft and sensitive. For this, the components of baby powder vary from the
components of talcum powder. In making baby powder an extra antiseptic substance
and very light perfume are used. Zinc stearate and magnesium stearate increase water
absorption capacity. Hence these two components are used by proportion from 3 to
5%. For this the powder becomes very fine, slippery and gains the property of adhere.
Lithium stearate or olive oil is also used instead of zinc stearate. 2 to 5% zinc oxide,
0.5 to 1.5% boric acid makes the powder more graceful.
Here a formula for making a baby powder is given below:
Magnesium stearate - 5%
Light magnesium carbonate - 5%
Talc - 87.5%
Boric acid - 2.5%
Method of preparation: Similar to that of talcum powder.
A perfume for powder or cream can be prepared by mixing the following components
in the proportion given below:
Lavender perfume:
Artificial lavender compound - 100
Magnesium carbonate - 700
Orris resinoid - 50
Lavender fixative - 100
Musk ambrette - 50
1000
Jasmine (Jui) perfume:
Artificial jasmine essences - 100
Magnesium carbonate - 700
Heliotrope - 80
Jasmine fixative - 100
Musk xylen - 20
1000
Cream:
Cream is a half dense material like butter which is mainly prepared by mixing water
with oil. Generally there are two types of cream; one is cleaning or massage type
and other is coating type. Many creams contain both the two properties. The cream
of first category becomes short lasting on the skin. But due to massage with this on
the skin, body and mind become fresh, lively and animated. Generally conifer oil,
oil containing camphor, rosemary oil, lavender oil, spike oil, eucalyptus oil, thyme
oil and petit grain oil and about 0.2% to 0.5% perfume are used for the preparation
of cream. Cream of second category has long lasting effect on the skin. This keeps
the skin soft and delicate. Different types of cold cream, vitamin cream and
hormone cream are included in this category. It contains wax and cod liver oil
among the constituents.
Vanishing cream:
Vanishing cream when massaged on the skin apparently disappears. It forms a dry
but adhesive coating on the skin, due to this a dry feeling is developed on the skin. It
is comfortable to use in summer season. This cream is very suitable for oily skin and
it saves the pores in the skin. The constituents of vanishing cream are water,
glycerin, stearic acid, wax and different kinds of perfumes. The using of perfume in
vanishing cream has to be very careful. Some substances like indole, vaniline, engyl
etc. damage the white colour of the cream. For this, these constituents are avoided
and instead of them geranium, boees, de-rose, sandal wood, patchuli, long-long,
lavender, linalool, polyethyl alcohol are used. A simple formula for making
vanishing cream is mentioned below:
Stearic acid - 20 parts
Potassium hydroxide - 1.4 "
Glycerin - 4 "
Water - 74.6 "
Method of preparation:
Take the constituent of A and B in two separate container and these are to be heated at
temperature of 75 to 85oC. The constituent of B is to be decanted slowly with constant
stirring into A. Then 0.5% perfume is to be added in it when the temperature falls
down at 35oC. In this stage 0.02% propyl para-hydroxy benzoate and 0.15% methyl
para hydroxy benzoate may be added to preserve. Finally this is packed into tubes or
small containers and marketed.
Cold cream:
Cold cream is used in the winter season. It makes skin soft and delicate.
Cosmetics 249
A formula of cold cream preparation:

A. Mineral oil - 2 pints (0.25 gallon)
Parasol - 2 ounces
White Bee wax - 7 ounces
B. Water - 1 pints
Borax - 5 ounces
Method of preparation: It is like vanishing cream.
Snow:
Snow is a coating type moisturized cream. A formula of snow making is given below:
Formula of snow preparation:
A. Soyabean oil - 7.5 parts
Acetyl alcohol - 2 "
Isopropyl linolate - 1 "
Poly ethylene glycol 12.5 "
Mono stearate - 7.5 "
B. Water - 61.3 parts
Sodium methyl sulphate - 1.2 "
Glycerin - 8 "
It is like the preparation process of vanishing cream.
Hair care:
Hair is our valuable asset. Brain is the most important organ of our body and its
cover is called coroty or skull. This coroty is covered by hair. Hair saves our head
from heat and cold; sand and dust; as well as it increases the beauty of body. Dirty
and unclean hair makes different diseases like scabies, dandruff, ulcer and various
skin diseases which are harmful to our health. So it is our duty to take care of our
hair. We use soap or shampoo for taking care of our hair. Soap produces a thin film
on the hair. Soap contains excess of alkaline substance due to which soap is not
considered as a cosmetic.
Cosmetics used for hair:
These include different types of hair oil, hair tonic, hair lotion, soap free shampoo,
pomed etc. Shampoo is actually scented detergent. It increases the brightness of hair
and improves the health of hair. Besides, resin based spray, pomed, alcohol based
lotions and hair conditioners prevent to damage hair, resist to have grayed and
remove dandruff. Some chemical compounds make hair curling. These are called hair
wave preparation. On the other hand some chemicals are also used to make curled
hair straight.
Besides these, different hair dye or coalup is used for colouring the hair. In the past,
these dyes or hair colouring materials were harmful for health even for hair. Now-a-
days, many high quality hair dyes have been prepared which are not harmful; even it
brings the natural colour of hair.
Hair oil:
For taking care of hair we mostly use coconut oil and hair oil. The main constituents of
hair oil are coconut oil, castor oil along with little quantity of perfume and colouring
agent. Here two simple formula for making perfumed hair oil are given below:
1. Beta-napthol - 1 ounce
Castor oil - 10 ounce
Alcohol - 1 gallon
Perfume and colouring agents - as per requirement
2. Di-glycol laurite - 50 c.c
Cantharidene - 1 gm
Glycerin - 150 gm
Alcohol - 800 c.c
Perfume and colouring agents - as per requirement
Good quality essence for high grade hair oil and hair tonic can be prepared by mixing
the following constituents by the given proportions.
Jasmine essence:
Benzyl acetate - 400
Amyl cinamaldehyde - 150
Tarpinal - 150
Cider wood - 150
Slea rax - 100
Musk zylene - 50
1000
Cosmetics 251
Rose essence:
Rodinol - 500
Citronilol - 200
Linalol - 150
Zernyl formate - 30
Panchuli oil - 20
Phenyl ethyl alcohol - 100
1000
The constituent materials along with essence and colouring agent are to be mixed
thoroughly in a container. Then the essence and colouring agents are added to the
mixture and mixed well again.
Mouth care:
Our mouth is the path of taking food. Food materials, fluid from inside the mouth and
different waste materials from the dental ruins produce bad smell in the mouth. From
stomach, stomach disorder, tooth damage this may happen. For this, mouth care and
tooth care are very important. To take care of tooth and mouth, we usually use
different kinds of brushes, tooth powder, tooth paste and mouth wash.
Tooth powder:
Tooth powder is used to clean the tooth. Tooth powders are of two types. Black
coloured tooth powder and white tooth powder. The main constituent of black tooth
powder is wood charcoal. Moreover it contains potash alum, camphor, tannic acid,
eucalyptus oil, menthol oil and glycerin. The main constituent of white tooth powder
is chalk powder. Besides, magnesium carbonate, sodium perborate, sodium bi
carbonate, soap powder, sugar, methyl salicylate, menthol, clove oil and peppermint
etc. are included in it. Glycerin makes the powder sweet and sticky.
The main constituent is wood charcoal or chalk powder. To make it fine powder, sieve
it through a thin cloth. Now the other constituents are to be mixed well with charcoal
powder or chalk powder in a container and stirred well with a piece of leather or stick.
Then camphor is to be dissolved with charcoal powder. Tannic acid, eucalyptus oil
and menthol oil are to be mixed in same way. Alum is to be mixed after heating. Last
of all essence is to be mixed in it.
A formula for the preparation of tooth powder:

Chalk powder - 74 parts
Sodium bi carbonate - 2 parts
Tri-calcium phosphate white powder - 15 parts
Castine soap - 6.5 parts
Saccharin - 0.3 parts
Essence - 2.2 parts
A fine essence for tooth powder may be made by mixing the following constituents in
the given proportion.
Menthol - 6 parts
Thymol - 6 parts
Camphor - 19 parts
Besides peppermint oil, clove oil, eucalyptus oil, methyl salicylate, saffrol etc. can
also be mixed for different tooth powder having different taste.
Tooth paste:
A formula for tooth paste making:
Tri and di calcium phosphate - 10.2 parts
Chalk powder - 30.0 parts
Glycerin - 15.0 parts
Gum tragacanth mucilage - 5.5 parts
Sodium laurate sulphate - 2.0 parts
Liquid paraffin - 1.0 part
Peppermint oil - 0.1 part
Sodium saccharin - 0.1 parts
Sodium benzinate - 0.1 parts
Menthol - 0.1 parts
Distilled water - 35.0 parts
Process:
Heat a mixture of glycerin and water in a container by the ratio 1:4. When it begins to
boil then heating is stopped. Then add gum tragacanth slowly and stir continuously.
Afterwards it is cooled down for 24 hours and sieves it on a muslin cloth. Chalk
powder and di calcium phosphate are mixed well in a separate container. Mixture of
saccharin, water and glycerin mucilage are heated up to 100oC temperature and the
Cosmetics 253
mixture of chalk powder and calcium phosphate from second container is then added.
Heating is continued till the mixture becomes homogenous, more water is added slowly
for cooling down the mixture. In this stage menthol and peppermint oil are added. The
mixture is continuously stirred to cool it down completely. It is kept untouched for two
days. So, tooth paste is prepared in this way.
Tooth paste and tooth powder are our daily used toiletries. Everyday after leaving the
bed, before going to bed at night and after taking meal, sufficient amount of tooth
powder or tooth paste is taken on a soft brush or in finger and teeth are to be brushed
and mouth washed. This will keep teeth and mouth germ free and free from bad smell.
Health and mind will remain fresh.
Antiseptic materials:
Materials that prevent production and growth of bacteria on living cells are called
antiseptic materials. It prevents infection when it is applied on skin and mucous
membrane. These substances are to be strong enough to fight against the bacteria and at
the same time it is to be mild and acceptable to the body cells.
Antiseptic and antibiotic are not the same things. Antiseptic is a preventive made from
chemical compounds. Antibiotic is a preventive which is produced from living
molecules. Antibiotics destroy the bacteria in an infected area and cure the disease.
Surgeons prior to operations use antiseptics to clean their hands, operational equipments
and skin of the patients. Doctors spray antiseptics in severe ulcer to prevent infection.
Antiseptic is used as first aid for injuries.
There are various types of antiseptics in the market. These include cream, mouth wash,
ointment, powder, liquid spray etc. Besides, different antiseptics are used in soap and
shampoo etc. These chemicals are suitable to fight against bacteria. These include
alcohol, iodine and mercury containing compounds, phenol, sulphur derivatives etc.
Some antiseptics are available in the market in our country and widely used antiseptics
are savlon, detol, M & B antiseptic cream, Oral mouth wash, alum etc.
Savlon:
Two types of savlon liquid and cream are available in the market. The constituents of
savlon are chlorohexidine gluconate and cetrimide. When Savlon cream is lightly
massaged or added as coating on the wound, injured or insect bites, it cures quickly and
prevents infection. Cream is to be used several times in a day until the infection is
completely cured. Liquid savlon has its wide applications. Cotton or a piece of soft cloth
is moistened with savlon mixed with water and applied to cuts, wounds or insect bites. In
maintaining the personal cleanliness such as bath, house-hold washing, washing of bed
and dress of patients and of mother after child birth, washing of utensils, floor, bath
room etc. water diluted savlon is used in order to keep them clean and germ free.
Dettol:
Liquid dettol is obtained in the market. The main constituent of dettol is tri-
chlorophenol. Dettol is to be used like savlon by mixing with water in cuts, wound,
insect bites. Besides these, dettol is used in house hold washing, washing cloth of
patients and mothers after baby birth, washing utensils, floor, bath room, etc. to keep
them clean and germ free. Dettol and savlon should not be used without mixing with
water. Doctor's advice should be taken to use these.
Potash alum:
Potash alum is aluminium sulphate, potassium sulphate with 24 molecules of water. In
our country alum has been used as an antiseptic since very old days. Potash alum
moistened with water is used by rubbing on the cut or wound or potash alum may be
dissolved in water and used to the cut. Required quantity of potash alum is used to
make drinking water pure and bacteria free. After dissolving the potash alum in water,
water is then sieved. Many people use potash alum as an after-shave lotion. Potash
alum also stops bleeding.
Disadvantage of using excess of cosmetics:
Cosmetics are mainly the mixtures of different chemical constituents. Using of these
constituents in an appropriate quantity keeps different parts of the body clean, protects
and nourishes body cells and increases the beauty of the body. But excessive use of
cosmetics may cause inflammation of the cell, may cause different skin diseases. Due to
the use of cosmetics skin may burn and damage the original brightness of the face.
Ulcer may be produced on the skin. Excessive use of hair cosmetics may cause
untimely falling of hair, wound on skin and even whitening of hair may occur. The
enamel of tooth may be damaged due to excessive use of tooth paste which may
produce ulcer in the gum. Tooth may be lost in early age. Strong fragrance of cosmetics
may be uncomfortable to others. Sometimes respiratory organ of the excessive
cosmetics users become weaker and even inactive due to strong fragrance. Hence, we
must be very careful in using cosmetics and we should not use excess of cosmetics.
We should be careful in using antiseptics such as, using cosmetics. Bacterial killer
antiseptics have some vital side effect. Excessive antiseptic harms the tissue cell of the
body, produces rash or allergy on the skin even burns the skin. Specially one should
not be careless in using antiseptics and cosmetics on softer portion of the body and for
children. It is safe to obey the usage printed on the label of the container or as per the
advice of the physicians while we use these materials.
N.B: The different formula and the method of preparation of different cosmetics
described in the chapter have been collected from reliable and dependable sources. In
spite of that, the writer will not be held responsible for any personal damage due to
the use of cosmetics being prepared following the methods described here.
Cosmetics 255
Exercise

1. For preparation of fragrant hair oil, what amount of beta naphthol is to be
mixed with one gallon of alcohol?
(a) 1 ounce (b) 3 ounce
(c) 5 ounce (d) 10 ounce
2. Which statement is correct?
(a) Dirts are cleaned by the sediments produced by soap in hard water.
(b) Antibiotic is the preventive of germs produced from micro organism.
(c) Sufficient use of antiseptic confirms safety of health.
(d) There are cytonil and soyabean oil in baby powder.
3. Originally what is shampoo?
(a) One kind of soap. (b) Hair conditioner.
( c) Fragrant detergent. (d) Hair wave preparation.
4. In case of statements given below, hair conditioner
(i) removes falling and whitening of hair and also removes dandruff from the hair.
(ii) brings back the original color of hair.
(iii) makes curl hair normal.
(a) i (b) ii
Answer question no. 5 and 6 from the table below :
Ingredients Percentage (% )
Stearic acid 20
Potassium hydroxide 1.4
Glycerine 4
Water 74.6
5. The above table is for preparation of

(a) cold cream (b) vanishing cream
(c) snow (d) hair oil
6. If indole is mixed with the ingredients in the table, what happens?

(a) Red color is removed. (b) Yellow color is removed.
(c) White color is removed. (d) Blue color is removed.
Creative Question
Rahima Begum, a house wife, is fond of beautifying herself. She uses cream, powder,
lipstick, etc. for more than one time. One day she saw that some of her hair has
become white and is being and there was blister (vesicle) on her skin. She sought
advice of the physician who warned her against the excessive uses of cosmetics.
(a) Name a cosmetic of plant origin.
(b) Explain the basic principle of preparation of cream.
(c) What is the cause of falling and becoming white of hair of Rahima Begum?
(d) Give your opinion with logic why the physician warned Rahima Begum against
excessive use of cosmetics.
Chapter Eighteen
Fibres and Fabrics
Cloth is one of our fundamental needs. Yarn is required for manufacturing cloth. The
constituent of yarn is fibre. In fact yarn is a fibrous thing. In general sense any fibre is
called yarn. But in weaving industry, those things which make it possible to weave
and knit yearn are called fibres. Yarns are made from fibres. Cloths are manufactured
from yarns. Besides, fibres are largely used for making carpets, different kinds of
woven materials, filters and electric insulators.
From the very early days, cotton yarns, silk, wool and linen were used in weaving
industries. These can be collected easily from natural sources. In the last part of
nineteenth century people have been producing chemical fibre - like polythene, nylon,
polyester etc. In order to keep pace with time several types of artificial fibres have
been developed in this century. Different industries and many researchers have been
working regularly for producing easy cost fibres and yarns in order to adjust with the
comparative market.
Classification of fibres:
Fibres are mainly classified into two classes on the basis of their sources. Such as,
natural fibres and artificial fibres. Fibres which are obtained from plants, animals and
minerals are called natural fibres. The fibres that have been developed by scientists in
the laboratories by chemical reactions of different substances are called artificial fibres.
Natural fibres:
Cotton, jute, linen, wool, silk and asbestos, these are the natural fibres. Natural fibres
have been classified into three classes. These are plant fibres, animal fibres and
mineral fibres. More than half of the total demand of world is fulfilled with these
natural fibres.
Plant fibres:
Fibres which are produced from plants and trees are called plant fibres. Cotton is
included in this class and is very familiar. This fibre is collected from the fruits of a
plant which is known as cotton plant. The fibres exist around the seeds inside the
fruits. Due to this, another name of this fibre is seed fibre. Besides these, a very well
known another seed fibre is kapok.
The fibre that is obtained from the bark of trees are known as plant cell fibre. Fibres of
this type, jute is mentionable. Jute fibre is collected from the bark of the jute plant.
Lilen is another mentionable fibre next to jute. Oil seed plants known as Mosinee or
linseed plants in our country have their general name flax. Lilen fibres are produced
from the bark of flax type plants. Hemps, rainy mesta etc. are more examples of plant
cell fibres. Ropes, sacs bags etc. are made from these. Fibres can also be produced
from leaves, roots or stems of trees. Such as, manila, sisal, pine apple etc. These are
called vascular fibres.
Animal fibres:
These fibres are of two types - hair or wool and silk. Hair or wool is produced from
the hairs of horse, camels and different sheep like animals. The surface of the wool
fibers are not plain. As a result, air remains confined in it. So wearing the woolen
dress we feel warm. Fibres are collected by a special method from the cocoons of a
kind of silk worm. This fibre is called silk. Silk is the strongest of all natural fibres.
Mineral fibres:
A kind of fibre is formed in between the layers of rocks under the earth in mines.
These are called asbestos. Asbestos is the non conductor of sound, high temperature
and electricity. This fibre is also used for making insulators, fire and sound resistant
materials etc. But cloths made from this fibre are harmful to health, specially it creates
problem in respiration.
Artificial fibres:
The fibres which can not be directly collected from natural sources but are produced in the
laboratories by mixing different chemicals, are called artificial fibres. Most of artificial
fibres belong to plastic group. Chemists during research on plastic obtained the method for
making fibres from chemicals. These fibres having this quality is woven into cloths.
Generally chemicals are melted by a machine into different liquids. Then the liquid is
passed under very high pressure through a dice having very narrow holes by means of a
machine. In this way the chemicals coming out of the holes in the form of fibres are cooled
and hardened as yarns. This type of yarn is of various classes and different qualities. These
are classified into two classes, viz cellulosic fibres and non cellulosic fibres.
Cellulosic fibres:
Cellulose is a very fine fibrous substance which forms the body, cells of plants and
animals. It is also called regenerated fibres. Cellulosic fibres are produced from small
fibres of cotton, bamboo or saw dust. Rayon is a cellulosic fibres. This was the first
artificial fibre. Cellulose acetate is produced by treating cellulose with acetic acid.
Rayon and acetate are used to make cloth. Rayon is used to make tyres of cars.
Viscose rayon, cupraammonium rayon, acetate rayon etc. are the cellulosic fibres.
Non-cellulosic fibres:
Scientists have prepared substances by chemical reactions of carbon, nitrogen,
hydrogen etc. which have fibre like qualities but they are not natural celluloses. These
Fibres and Fabrics 259
are non-cellulosic or synthetic fibres. Nylon, polyester, acrylic, aramid, spandex

polypropylene are the important examples of this type.
Synthetic is the first synthetic fibre. It is light and strong. It is used for making
carpets, ropes, tyres etc. Polyester is a long lasting fibre. It returns to its initial
position even by twisting. Different cloths, hard sheets, pillows etc. are manufactured
from this. Besides, plastic fibres are used for making filter, sails of boats and many
other usable things. Acrylic fibres are soft and long lasting. It is like wool. Due to this
artificial fibres are made from this. New fibres of better quality are being produced by
mixing cellulosic and non-cellulosic fibres. Besides two main classes of fibres, some
more fibres are mentioned below:
1. Metallic fibres:
Very fine wires of yarns are made mechanically into any soft metal like gold, copper
or their alloys. Threads or yarns are made from different metals by covering them
sometimes by plastics or by some other metal alloys, some time by a mixture of
plastic-alloy or sometime by single substance. These metallic fibres are used to make
decorative cloths. For example ornamental cords, myeler, drubostrone, remit etc. The
classifications of different fibres which have been discussed previously, a short
diagrammatical representation of these are shown below:
Yarn/Fibres
Natural Fibres Artificial Fibres
Animal Vegetable Mineral Cellulosic Non- Cellulosic Others

fibres fibres fibres fibres fibres
Hair Seed-cotton Asbestos Regenerated Synthetic

or Wool Cell jute Rayon acetate Polyester
and Linen Manila Tri -acetate Polythene
Silk Nylon
Polystyrene
Acrylene
Yarn from fibres:

Yarns are required for weaving cloths. Yarns are manufactured from fibres. The
spinning of yarns is different according to the nature of the available sources. There is
no general method for making yarn from fibres of all these sources. But the first step
in all cases is to collect fibres.
Collection of fibres:
The method of collection of fibres from different sources are different. For example,
in the case of cotton, fruits are at first collected from the field and then cotton fibres
are separated. The separation of cotton from seeds is called ginning. There are
different methods adopted for ginning. After separating cotton from seeds by ginning
the primary cotton thus obtained is called cotton lint. This is the fundamental
constituent for producing yarns. Bales are bound with desirable quantities of cotton
lint. These bales are brought to the spinning mills for weaving yarns.
Methods of collection of fibres from jute, hemps, linseed etc. are quite different.
Usually matured plants are cut and dipped into water for a few days in order to make
then rotten. Then the fibres are separated. These fibres are washed into clean water,
then dried in the sun and are bound to bales. These bales are brought into the mills
for spinning.
Fibres of wool are the hairs of animals. For manufacturing woolen yarns, hairs are
sheered from animals by different methods. The animals remain alive after hair
cutting and new hairs grow later on its body. In this way hairs may be collected more
than once from the same animal. These collected hairs are called freeze wool. These
freeze wools are taken to mills for spinning. Yarns are collected or produced directly
in the case of silk or artificial fibres.
Spinning:
Cotton or jute bales are brought in the mills for spinning. It should be remembered
that the same mill does not spin yarn from all types of fibres. The method of
spinning from different fibres are different. The mills for spinning of different fibres
are also different. Although different mills spin yarns in different methods there are
some general similarities among the methods. In this chapter the process is
discussed in brief.
Blending and mixing:
Cotton lints bound into bales are first brought to the blow room. Here cotton is
crushed with a special machine and mixture of different types of cotton is done. This
is called blending and mixing. In the case of cotton it is called blending and called
batching in the case of jute.
Carding and combing:
Combing is the second step of the process of blending or batching and mixing fibres.
In weaving industry this combing is called carding and combing. Carding and
combing are done for the fibres of cotton, linen, wool etc. There is a difference in
carding and combing method on the basis of the length and nature of fibre. Dust
particles, dirts, excess small fibres are removed from fibres by the method of carding.
Some fibres only need carding and there is no need of combing. Combing is required
for very fine, smooth and narrow yarns only. A special type of combing is done only
for linen. This is called hatching. This makes yarn very fine.
Spinning:
Fibres become stratified by means of combing and carding in this way. This
stratification is called sliver. Yarns are spun from this sliver. The last stage of
weaving industry is to spin yarn from sliver. This is called spinning. In this stage
slivers are warped and is gradually arrowed down. At a certain stage only a few
fibres remain at the end of the sliver. In this way changed slivers are twisted. The
process of making the sliver thin is called roding and the process of twisting of the
yarn is called twisting.
Due to twisting of sliver, the fibres combine with each other to make yarn. Naturally
the strength of yarn increases with the increase of twisting of yarn. On the other hand,
excess of twisting may break the yarn. Amount of yarn may vary depending on the
length and other qualities of the original fibres. Jute or linen having long fibres, less
amount of twisting is to be given. On the other hand cotton, woolen etc. having
shorter length, more amount of twisting are to be given. The amount of twist and its
direction are determined by a machine known as twist counter.
Silk yarn:
Silk worms produce a kind of cocoons. Matured cocoons are boiled with soap water in
an iron container. These boiled cocoons become very soft and get up as a layer. From
this an end or a vein of fiber can be obtained. If this end is carefully pulled, long yarn
comes out with the help of a spinning wheel 5-7 veins of cocoons for fine yarn and
15-20 veins for thick or medium yarn are made into a skein of yarn.
Fig.:18.1: Silk worm, cocoons and moths coming out of the cocoons.
When these veins are taken in contact they combine together to make desirable yarn.
Spinning yarn from artificial fibers:
All the artificial fibers are manufactured more or less in the same way. A kind of
adhesive solution is made by chemical reaction of more than one small fibre and
chemical substances.
Fig:18.2: Getting yarn from cocoons by reeling
Then long veins like yarn are prepared from this adhesive solution. This solution is
called spinning solution. The spinning solution is passed under very high pressure by
a special mechanism through very narrow holes like fountains. The flow of fountains
are passed into some chemicals and other arrangement so that it may be coagulated
very soon. Due to this long vein of yarn come easily. It is used directly in weaving.
The machine through which the vein of yarns come out is called spinneret. A
spinneret is shown in the figure.
Spinnaret
yarn
Fig: 18.3: Spinning of yarn from spinneret.
Count of yarns:
Thick, medium and thin yarns are used in weaving industries. The more in the radius
of yarn the more it is thick. Cloths prepared from thick yarns are thick and heavy. On
the other hand, cloths made of thin yarns are fine, soft and light. Yarns thick or thin, is
represented by count of yarns. During buying cloth we used to say 80 yarns cloth or
cloth of 80 numbers or cloth of 100 yarns.
Cloths of 100 yarns are thin and light than the cloths from the yarns 80. These numbers
of yarns are calculated on the basis of the variation of the radius of the yarns. This is
called count of yarns. There are three conventional methods for determining the count of
the yarns. These are:
1. Indirect or weight system.
2. Direct or length system, and
3. Universal or international system.
The first two methods are old but yet now these are used. Still now the old systems for
count of yarns in our country are expressed.
The international system:
The more thick the yarn is, the higher is the number of counts in direct system. In
indirect system the more thick the yarn is, less is the number of count of yarns. As a
result, there arises confusion in this description of count. Again there is no relationship
between the two systems for variation in lengths and weights of different yarns. Different
systems are in use in different countries for various fibres. This creates confusions and
problems in international export and import business. In order to overcome this problem
universal or international system has been introduced. Eventually, International
Standardization Organization (ISO) has declared this system to avoid the complexities of
direct and indirect method and to establish a relation between the two. This system is
called Tex. In this system count is determined according to metric system of weights and
measures by means of per unit length of the yarns. For this purpose gram is taken as the
unit of mass and kilometer is taken as the unit of length. That is, the mass of 1000 meter
or 1 km length of yarns is 1 gram, then the count of this yarn is to be taken as 1 tex.
Again if 1 km of yarn has masses 2 grams its count will be 2 tex or the number of the
yarn is 2.
Example:
Calculate the count of 400 meters of yarn of mass 6 gram.
Solution:
Mass of yarn = 6 gm.
Length = 400 m = 0.4 km.
The mass of 0.4 km of yarn is 6 gm
Therefore, the count = 15 tex.

Tex indicates the same meaning for all type of yarns, in all weaving industries or
trade and commerce.
Colour:
In order to make the garments attractive and charming it requires internal qualities as
well as the colour also are required. The external beauty and charm of clothes and
dresses are increased largely by suitable colour. Some times the cloths and fibres have
its own colour but still the fibres may be made beautiful by applying separate colour.
Cloths can be decorated by printing like colour. But there is some difference between
printing and colouring. Colouring is done in the whole of the cloth or fibres while
printing is done on one side or selected side of the cloth. The process of colouring of
fibres, yarns or clothes with different colour is known as dyeing.
Classification of colours:
There were few colours in the primary stage of weaving industry. Now we see a lot of
colours. Colours can be classified in various ways. Some types of colours dissolve in
water or any other liquid, another types of colours do not dissolve in water. Water
soluble colours are called dye and water insoluble colours are called pigment. Some
of these colours are natural and some are artificial.
Natural colours:
In the primitive period people extracted colours from natural sources while some of
colours are also extracted even now. The colours which can be extracted from the
bark, flowers, fruits, roots, creepers, leaves of trees are known as vegetable dye. In our
country colour are extracted from shefalis, polash, kusum flowers etc. Colours can
also be extracted from saffron, turmeric, myrobalan, sandal wood, cassia leaves, hena
china rose, roungon root etc. One upon a time blue colour was extracted from indigo
plants which was used for colouring.
Methods of extraction of dye from animal sources like vegetables was continued
from ancient period. For example, cochinitrap, shellac etc. are used for silks and
wools. These are called animal dye. Besides, vegetable and animal sources dyes
obtained from metals are called metallic dye. Such as Prussian blue, chrome yellow
are the examples of metal metallic dye.
Artificial colours:
In 1856 William Henry Parkin first discovered the method of synthesis of colour by
chemical reaction in the laboratory. In this way colours produced by chemical
reactions are called artificial or synthetic colours. At present, uncountable numbers
of synthetic colours are produced. Houndreds of dyeing industries side by side
textile industries have been developed in the countries. Artificial colours have been
made attractive and durable through gradual experiments and research. Artificial
colours are of eight types.
1. Acid dye
2. Basic dye
3. Mordant dye
4. Direct dye
5. Developed dye
6. Napthol or Azoic dye
7. Vat dye
8. Pigment dye
Acid dye:
Different salts produced from acids are used as acid colours. Such as sodium sulphate
is used as acid colour. Its practical name is glober's salt. This is dissolved in water
very easily. This colour is used for dying animal fibres like silk wool and synthetic
fibres like, orlene, acrylic, nylon etc. This colour is the cheapest. This colour is not
settled in cotton at all. It is washed away in water. But in the case of silk and wool, it
settles more. These colours are also called commercial dyes.
Basic dye:
Basic dye is produced from alkaline organic substances. This is also called aniline dye
because it was first derived from a compound name aniline. This colour is used for
colouring cotton, linen, silk and wool. But it is generally bright and settle for silk and
wool. Besides, animal fibres a mordant dye is applied before application of this dye to
cotton, linen, acetate or nylon. This type of dye is known as powder or granular dyes
in the market.
Mordant dye:
Many dyes do not settle down in clothes or fibres. After dyeing, colour is washed
away when the cloth is washed in water. For this purpose prior to desired dying a coal
of mordant dye is to be applied to the yarns or clothes. If the coat settles down to
yarns then the dye can settle properly. This coat is called mordant. The dye applied to
the clothes with a mordant are called mordant dyes. For example, potash alum is
mordant. Clothes are to be immersed in solution of potash alum solution before
dyeing. As a result, dye becomes settled down. Besides this chromium, iron,
aluminum or tin act as mordants.
Direct dye:
The dyes which do not require mordant before dyeing are called direct dyes. This dye
is more fixed to woolen and even it is more or less fixed for silk also. But it is used
more in cotton clothes. The cloth which is to be coloured directly, it is first heated
with potassium dichromate solution for 20 minutes and then washed away in clean
water so that the applied colour does not wash away. Sometimes by using copper
sulphate solution the same result is obtained.
Developed dye:
Some direct dyes are converted into a very stable colour by special methods. This
method is called diazotizing or developing. While applying dye, cloth is first
immersed in a cold sodium nitrite solution in a container. As a result the main dye
becomes an active chemical. This type of dye is used for dyeing cotton, linen, rayon,
acetate, orlen, dacron etc.
Azoic dye:
This dye is usually used in printing cotton clothes. The clothes are first immersed in
napthol and then into diazotized dye. Then the cloth is washed away with soap water
after dyeing. At the time of application of this colour it is cooled again and again with
ice. So it is called as ice dye also. This colour is fixed in soap even in bleaching. But it
fades gradually in light.
Vat dye:
Vat dye settles down mostly in the clothes of cotton, linen and rayon. This dye can
also be used in the synthetic fibres like, nylon, dacron, orlen, acrylic, spandex etc. Vat
dye is not appropriate for silk and wool. Three types of vat dyes; indigo vat,
anthaquinovat and sulphur vat.
Pigment dye: This dye is used for printing works.
Application of dye in cloth:
Dye is applied at different stages of weaving industries. Dye is applied in some cases
in fibres, in some cases in yarns, in some cases in clothes and again in some cases in
finished garments. The method of dyeing are:
1. Stock dyeing: Applied when the fibres are in raw stage.
2. Yarn dyeing: Applied in yarns.
3. Piece dyeing: Applied in pieces of clothes or in garments.
4. Cross dyeing: Combination of step 1 and 2 mentioned above.
5. Zig dyeing: Applied in pieces of clothes or in roll of clothes.
6. Solution pigmenting: This dye is applied to the artificial or synthetic fibres
before coming out the spinneret holes.
Stock dyeing:
Stock dyeing is done when the fibres remain in stored condition or as raw materials.
In this method the fibres are immersed in a container or in a bucket containing dye.
Two process are used for this purpose, such as solution process and top process. In
solution process dye is applied to the fibres prior to spinning. This process is less
expensive. Dyeing in this process does not fade easily. But as a result the fibres
become hard causing difficulty in spinning.
The method of dyeing in top process is little different. Dye is given to the top of the
separate rope from combing machine like heads of wool. The ropes are rolled like balls
in a spindle having holes and kept in a tank through which dye is pumped with a
machine and passed out. In this way dye is applied to the fibres. Again during combing
and at the time of slivering, dye is applied to different parts of the fibres. As a result,
beautiful colour appears at different parts after spinning. This is called slab dyeing.
Yarn dyeing:
Yarn dyeing is done to the yarns before cloths are woven. Yarn made from fibres are
rolled around a spool or skein. At this stage dyeing is done by dissolving the yarns in
a solution of dye. In this method dyeing of colour becomes very stable.
Piece dyeing:
Colouring of cloths after made is called piece dyeing. Sometime it is called deep
dyeing also. In this method dye does not contact closely to the fibres but it is less
expensive. The colour may not be stable because this method does not ensure uniform
contact of dye with yarns or fabrics. Piece dyeing is applied to the linen, silk and very
thin cotton cloths like organdie, voile etc.
Zig dyeing:
In this process cloths are passed through two rollers fitted in a container or dram
containing of dye. As a result, cloths get coloured. Rayon or nylon is coloured in this
process. In industries this method is applied for quick dyeing of very big rolls of
cloths.
Printing:
Dyeing of many cloths can be done by means of printing techniques. Actually printing
does not include any class of dyes or colours. Printing is a process in which colouring
of cloth is done by pressing. This gives different designs in different dyes at various
parts of the cloths. Different designs are excavated in different rollers. The necessary
dye is applied to the roller and the roller is pressed on the cloth. Again printing may
be done with small dices also. In all these cases prints are given to only one side of the
cloth and the other side remains white or print less.
Dye makes cloths attractive and charming. But the sources of most of the dyes are
chemicals. After dyeing if the waste materials are not destroyed properly in the mills it
will cause environmental pollution. Specially, dye waste in a pond or river occur water
pollution and it causes the damage to aquatic animals and plants. Dye wastes are
harmful to the agricultural product also. So in order to maintain balance of
environment the dye wastes should be drained out carefully.
Exercise

1. Which one is the fibre derived from the animals?
(a) Cocoon (b) Asbestos
(c) Silk (d) Flux
2. There are three sentences given below :
(i) Silk is the hardest of all the natural fibres.
(ii) The surface of the woolen fibre is unsmooth.
(iii) Asbestos is used for making insulation, fire proof and sound proof materials.
(a) i (b) ii
3. What is its count if a thread of 1200 metre weighs 18 gram?
(a) 12 tex (b) 15 tex
(c) 18 tex (d) 21 tex
4. After dying cloth in the factory, one should be careful in extraction of wastes
of the cloth. Because
(i) color-wastes pollute environment
(ii) color-wastes do harm to aquatic animals and plants.
(iii) the wastes create obstacle in production of crops in the field.
(a) i (b) ii
Creative Questions
Abdur Rahman is a dealer of cloths. He makes cloths by purchasing thread from the
local market. Abdur Rahman uses all kinds of threads including natural and artificial
ones. In addition to making cloths, Abdur Rahman works on dying threads by self
management. Every day Rahman requires 4 lac metre thread weighing 6 kilogram.
(a) Write only one source of natural thread.
(b) Write two differences between artificial fibre and natural fibre.
(c) Determine count of the thread used by Rahman.
(d) Which color do you think profitable for Rahman for making cotton cloth ?
Chapter Nineteen
Colouring Materials
Colour has made our life and environment highly beautiful and colourful. We find the
games of colours every where in the nature. The presence of wonderful colours in
nature is actually the reflection of different colours of the rays of sunlight. If we
return our eyes from nature to the substances used in our daily life, our food, cloth,
house, furniture, doors and windows, roads, vehicles, launches, boats etc. we find that
every thing is some how coloured or painted. People have been learning the method of
colouring for thousands of years. Colour makes our usable articles manifold attractive
and enhances the beauty.
Colourants:
The substances which are used to dye or paint something are called colourants. In
ancient times people used vegetable, animal sources and minerals as colouring
substances. Artificial dyes have been discovered towards the eve of nineteenth
century. As a result varieties of colour developed and their qualities also improved to a
great extent.
Classification of colouring materials:
The colouring materials can be divided into two classes. Soluble colouring agent and
insoluble colouring agent. The colouring agents which are soluble in water or in any
other liquid are called dye. The colouring agents which are insoluble in water or any
other liquid but can be used as opaque fluid for coating purposes on solid surface are
called insoluble colour or paint. Paints can be used to metal surface, wood, bamboo,
stone, paper, cloth, leather or on any other solid. Dyes can be used in cloth, paper,
different types of fibres and cloths.
Constituent of paint:
There are three constituents of paint.
(1) Pigment (2) Vehicle and (3) Solvent thinner.
Paint is actually the mixture of pigment and vehicle. Vehicle is a liquid but pigment
never dissolves in vehicle. But the pigments diffuse in it uniformly. That is, the pigment
particles mix with the vehicle in such a way that the particles are distributed in equal
distances through out the whole liquid. Another liquid solvent is used to dilute this paint
mixture. The vehicle dissolves in it but the original pigment does not dissolve. This is
called solvent thinner. By diluting the paint coating on the surface becomes uniform and
easy. Specially, use of thinner is very important in spray painting.
Classification of paints:
Paints of different qualities are made from the different pigment, vehicle and thinner.
As a result, variation of uses are found. Some of widely used paints are as follows:
1. Emulsion or latex paint.
2. Oil based paint.
3. Lacquer paint.
4. Fire retardant paint.
5. Heat resistant paint.
6. Cement water paint.
7. Metallic paint.
8. Wood and plaster paint.
9. Enamel paint.
Emulsion paint:
A kind of milky white liquid or extracts come out from the bark of certain trees.
Generally this is called latex. Such type of white liquid is extracted from rubber trees.
In general, latex indicates the juice from rubber tree. Rubber is produced from this
juice. Latex can also be produced by artificial means. Latex can also be made by
mixing artificial or synthetic rosin with water. The paint produced by mixing pigment
with latex vehicle is called latex or emulsion paint.
This paint is used to coating wall, metal surface, wood, bamboo, cane etc. This paint
is diluted with water. The emulsion which is made for wall painting contains
polyvinyl latex vehicle and different pigments. The emulsion paint particularly made
for wood can also be applied on concrete, wall and roofs. Polyvinyl acetate or acrylic
is used to make this paint. Water is used in it as thinner. The thin coating of this paint
protects solid surfaces from alkaline action. Emulsion can also be made by mixing
pigments with poly acrylic latex.
Different types of pigments:
The pigments which are used as constituents of paint can be divided into two kinds.
Prime pigment and inert pigment. Prime pigment produces colour of the paint.
Different types of chemical compounds viz. compounds of lead were also used as
pigments in before. Recently the paint industries are using different artificial or
synthetic substances as pigments. Important synthetics of this type are: Titanium
dioxide (white pigment), Tahloeynine (blue and green pigment), Iron oxide (brown,
red, yellow pigment).
Inert pigment has no effect on the colour of the paint. But these substances make the
colour bright, long-lasting. The important inert pigments are calcium carbonate clay,
magnesium, silicate mica, talc etc.
Different types of varnish:
To make wood, metal and other substances lustrous, bright and to protect from air and
Colouring Materials 271
moisture a coating of a transparent liquid on its surface is used. This is called varnish.
A thin, strong and bright layer remain on the surface after drying the varnish. The
wood, bamboo, cane or metal surface is clearly seen through this layer. Wood fibres
are clearly seen. Varnish materials has its own colour. This changes the colour of the
wood but still the wood fibres remain visible clearly. Varnishes applied on metal
surface sometimes are called lacquers. Lacquers prevent metal from erosion and
rusting. But brightness of metal remains unchanged. Varnish is used to protect
insulating wires, wooden materials, paper etc. from the effect of weather.
Varnish is mainly of two types, spirit varnish and oil-resin or oleoresinous varnish.
Spirit varnish is prepared by dissolving resin or shellac ethyl alcohol or methelated
spirit. When this varnish is applied on wood surface the spirit turns to vapour and a
layer of varnish settles on the wooden surface. Spirit varnish is of four typs; shellac
varnish, resin varnish, phenol-resin varnish and urea-formaldehyde resin varnish.
Oil-resin varnish is made by mixing resin with special types of oil. Resin is added to
oil and then heated. It is then dissolved in tarpinol and petroleum. This solution
evaporates and helps to condense oil. This type of varnish is very suitable for outer
materials of houses. Oil resin varnish is classified into eight classes. Among these the
most important are, outer surface varnish, inner-surface varnish, oak varnish, floor
varnish, flatting varnish and stove varnish.
Varnish making:
Both natural and synthetic resin are used for making varnish. Natural resin is
extracted from juice of certain trees. Shellac, lac and demur etc. resin obtain from
natural sources. Artificial resin are of some chemical compounds produced in
laboratory, such as phenol-formaldehyde etc. To make spirit varnish, some methelated
spirit are to be taken in a soil, glass or metallic container. Then required quantity of
resin or shellac are to be dissolved in it. Within some time shellac will dissolve in it.
To dissolve quickly the mixture may be stirred with a stick. It may be heated gently if
required. A little cotton or a small piece of soft cloth is moistened with this viscera
solution and surface of wooden furniture is gently rubbed with it. It is repeated several
times and finally varnish coating will deposit on the wood surface. A formula of spirit
varnish is given here. By keeping the proportion of constituents unchanged, a small
quantity of varnish may be prepared and used experimentally.
Shellac - 90 kg
Turpentine oil - 3.5 kg
Methelated spirit - 360 litre.
Spirit varnish is widely used in our country. This varnish is used to protect wood,
bamboo, cane-furniture from climate. As a result, the furniture becomes bright and
lustrous for a longer period of time.
Exercise

1. Which is the inactive pigment?
(a) Talc (b) Zinc oxide
(c) Iron oxide (d) Lead turnings
2. Which statement is correct for dye and paint?
(a) Dye is insoluble in water but paint is soluble.
(b) Dye is soluble in liquid but paint is not.
(c) Though dye is natural or artificial yet paint is natural.
(d) Dyes and paints are used in equal ratio for dying cloths.
3. By using varnish
(i) rusting is prevented.
(ii) fibres of cane or woods are seen (visible).
(iii) materials are colored.
(a) i (b) ii
(c) iii (d) i and ii
4. Of the following, which is correct?
(a) Color is used in all sorts of varnishes.
(b) Rosin is used in all types of varnishes.
(c) Spirit is used in all kinds of varnishes.
(d) Oil is used in all sorts of varnishes.
Creative Questions
A list of ingredients is given below for preparation of varnish.
(i) Gala 90 kg
(ii) Turpentine oil 3.5 kg
(iii) Methelated spirit 360 litre
(a) What sort of varnish is there in the above list?
(b) What are the differences among oil, resin and above mentioned varnish?
(c) Explain what would happen if methelated spirit is not being used in this varnish?
(d) Discuss the significance of using this type of varnish?
Chapter Twenty
Ecology
Living and nonliving things collectively form the environment. Every living thing
derives necessary elements from the environment, which is again entirely returned to
the environment. So if there is any deficiency of living and nonliving elements in the
environment, it becomes difficult for the plants and animals to survive. Birds taking
shelter in trees receive food and oxygen. In return, birds provide the plant with much
needed carbon dioxide. Plants derive nutrients from fertile soil. Animals again take the
plants as food. This interdependence of living things is the simple uniqueness of nature.
It is through this type of inter-relationship that a balance is maintained in nature.
Ecology
It is not only that in nature the living things depend on one another for survival, they
also depend on the main elements of environment-soil, water, air-in addition to their
equal dependence on other plants, animals and birds. For this, the living things can
never be considered separately from the environment. In any area, varieties of
relationship develop among the nonliving environment and living species. This inter-
relationship among the living species with nonliving environment is ecology.
Ecology is again referred to ecosystem or nature. Ecology is more often referred to as
nature. Though in the past, human beings considered themselves independent entity
outside the environment, they do not think so now. Because like other living things
human beings also are inseparable component of the environment. Human beings and
environment exert ample influence over each other. Environment exerts influence on
living things. In the same way, living things can beautify environment at its desire, or
can defile or damage environment.
Component of Ecology
There are two basic components of any ecology, one of which is living thing, and the
other is nonliving environment. All living things together form the living component
of ecology. The nonliving environment preserves the living things. Living things are
the living component of ecology and all the rest are nonliving component.
A) Nonliving component: The nonliving component of ecology can be divided into
three major components-organic, inorganic and physical. These factors exert influence
on the living components in different ways.
(1) Inorganic component: Soil, water, calcium, potassium and the likes are the
inorganic factors of environment. Gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen are also
inorganic substances. All these are the primary nutrients for green plants.
(2) Organic component: The dead bodies of plants and animals decompose to form
ammonia and humus. These then form the organic component of the soil. The action
of certain bacteria and fungus again convert part of this to inorganic mineral salts. The
green plants absorb these inorganic substances as nutrients. Thus it is evident that the
organic component is the connection between the living and nonliving things.
(3) Physical component: The criteria on which the state or characteristics of nonliving
things in the environment depend are climate, soil quality and geological factors.
Weather, climate, soil quality and geological factors determine the natural state of
nonliving components of environment. Solar energy is the source of all energy
required for the environment. The green plants with the help of chloroplast and solar
energy, convert the inorganic substances into organic ones and store it in the plant
body. It is through the green plants that the solar energy flows through all living
things. So, there is continuity of life on the earth.
B) Living component: All living things are the component of ecology. The living
(biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) components of ecology are dependent on each other in
such a way that the absence of one is the cause of disadvantage for the other. Within
ecology, the characteristics of plants exert influence on the features of animals.
All animals take food for survival, body growth and reproduction. This food provides
vitality in animal's life. Sun is the source of all energy for all animal components in
ecology.
The characteristics of the components of an ideal ecology can be understood by
the following flow diagram
Components of Ecology
Living components Nonliving components
Autotrophic Heterotrophic Inorganic Organic Physical

Component Component Component
Producer,
(Green plant) Consumers Decomposers
e.g. Bacteric, Fungus etc.
Primary level e.g. Rat
Secondary level e.g. Snake
Tertiary level/Final Consumer e.g. E agle
Ecology 275
Biome
The living components of ecology are some independent animals, or animals of same
species. For example, plant, animal and micro-organism. These living beings organize
themselves in different ways in various environments and live collectively. So it is
essential to know about species-aggregates (population), and biotic-communities
before understanding biome.
In a defined habitat, the animals of same species-aggregate are collectively called the
population of that species. Species-aggregates can never accomplish any task on their
own. But plants and animals of different species living in a defined habitat maintain
equality or balance because of persistence of regular interaction among the members
of independent species. In the same way, species-aggregates of all the plants and
animals living collectively in a defined habitat form the biotic-community. Through
exchange or interaction, the members of same biotic-community exert influence over
each other in different ways to form ecology. Living things adapt itself with an
independent part of ecology. For the survival of living things in nonliving
environment, living things have to struggle and thus they increase in number. In
future, if there is any change in the nonliving environment, the biotic-community will
fall back in its competition for survival.
Similar or near similar biotic-community live in some widespread areas of the world.
In these areas the similar biotic-community lives in well-organized ways to form the
biome. In short, living beings with distinct and similar characteristics constitute
biome. For example, with similar weather and land configuration the biome in the
Sundarbans is formed. Likewise, several biomes are formed in different parts of the
world with different climate and land influence. For example, grassland, desert, forest,
polar region, and so on.
All the biomes or the living things in the earth collectively form biosphere. In other
words, wherever life is present in water, soil and air, they collectively form biosphere.
In reality, biosphere is a huge ecology.
Sun
Food Chain
Only the green plants are self- Carbon
dioxide
dependent. They can produce their Primary
Food
Production
own food. Animals are heterotrophic producer (salt)
as they directly or indirectly depend

on plants for their food. Green plants Primary Decomposer
consumer & detritivore
are food producers. They store solar
energy as potential energy in their
body. Some of the food produced by Secondary Highest
consumer consumer
the plant is used to meet its own
needs, the rest is stored in their body Fig. 20.1: Food chain
which is consumed by the herbivores. Again, the carnivores consume the herbivores as
their food. In this way, the food and consumer form a simple linear chain from food
producer to the highest level of consumer. This linear chain is called the food chain.
Sun is the main source of energy. This solar energy is stored as potential energy in the
four forms of life: (1) producer, (2) consumer, (3) decomposer, and (4) detritivore.
(1) Producer: By the process of photosynthesis, in the presence of sunlight
carbohydrate type of food is produced by the green plants. Through this process,
water and carbon dioxide undergo chemical reaction to produce oxygen and
carbohydrate type of food that are essential for living beings and environment. In this
way the light energy is converted to chemical energy that gets trapped in carbohydrate
type of food.
Plants that can carry out photosynthesis are called primary producers. As they can
produce their own food, they are self-dependent. So they are called autotrophic.
(2) Consumer or eater: The heterotrophic beings in the ecology are called
consumers. Unlike the green plants, they cannot produce their own food. They survive
on the carbohydrate type of food produced by the green plants. It is usually
understood that the consumers are animals. As photosynthesis does not occur in
animal body, directly or indirectly animals depend on plants for food. Consumers may
be divided into several levels, such as-
(a) First level of consumer or primary consumer or herbivore: The animals that
survive by eating plants are the first level of consumers. Many varieties of herbivore
directly depend on plants for their food. For example, plankton that floats on water,
insects, grasshopper, butterfly, pigeon, cow, goat, deer, and so on.
(b) Second level of consumer or secondary consumer or carnivore: Animals that
survive by feeding on the first level of consumers are called second level of consumers.
Frog eat insect; lion, tiger, fox, and so on are the animals that eat the herbivores. So
they are second level of consumers. In reality, for food these animals indirectly
depend on the food producers (plants). Notable among the second level of consumers
are fish, robin, crow, crane, snake, dog, wolf, spider and lizard.
(c) Third level of consumer or highest level of consumer: Those who survive by
eating the second level of consumers are called third level of consumers. Animals in
third level of consumers include vulture, falcon, shark, crocodile, tiger, lion, and so
on. However, some animals may be of more than one level of consumer. They are
called omnivores. When peacock eats food produced or derived from plants, it is the
Ecology 277
first level of consumer. Again, when it eats small snakes it is second level of
consumer. In the same way, human beings eat different levels of consumers. When
human beings eat rice and pulse, they are first level of consumers. Again, when they
take fish, beef and milk as food, they are second level of consumers.
(3) Decomposer or digester: In the ecology, there is another group of heterotrophic
living beings that are collectively called decomposers. They derive their nutrition from
the dead bodies of producers and consumers. Decomposers are living things, mainly
bacteria and fungus. They take their own food from the dead bodies of other living
things. During this, a series of chemical reactions occur, resulting in gradual
decomposition of dead bodies with the release of varieties of simple inorganic or
organic compounds. This is the digestion of living bodies. As a result, the dead body
is destroyed, and elements of food that can be absorbed by plants are released into the
soil or air. So the presence of decomposers in the ecology is essential.
Producer 1st level consumer 2nd level consumer 3rd level consumer
Fig. 20.2 Food-Consumer relationship in ecology
(4) Detritivore or transformer: Several types of micro-organism carry out the

functions of detritivores. The fungus and microbes in the soil while deriving their food
from the dead bodies decompose the dead bodies. Some micro-organisms transform
the simple organic compounds produced by the decomposers into inorganic
compounds (salt) or convert into basic chemical elements, and release back into the
environment. Producer plants later again absorb these substances. Thus the
decomposed materials transform again and again. The decomposers and detritivores
play an important role in determining the change in nature of ecology.
(5) Scavenger: Some carnivores eat not only herbivores for survival, but also eat other
carnivores. For example, a carcass in the forest is devoured by hyena, dog, vulture and
crow. So they are called the scavengers or nature's cleaners. They are third level
consumers too. All living things belonging to the groups of consumers, decomposers
and detritivores are heterotrophic, as they all directly or indirectly depend on
autotrophic beings for their food.
Through ages, the interdependence of producers and consumers has brought about
cyclic changes in the basic chemical elements in nature.
Working Process of Ecology
The processes that keep the ecology active are as follows:
1) Absorption of light energy through the process of photosynthesis.
2) Production of chemical substances like carbohydrate, protein and other essentials
of cell by integrated reaction of water and inorganic salts absorbed from soil by
producer.
3) Intake as food the producers and consumers of lower levels by different levels of
consumers, and the assimilation of food thus taken.
4) Conversion of lower level of consumers into food for upper level of consumers.
5) After death of producers and consumers, the complex organic compounds from
their body is lost and in the end is converted into substances acceptable to the
producer plants.
A comprehensive outline of the main steps in the food chain mechanism of
ecology is shown in the following flowchart:
Sun CO2 Nutrient salt constituent
Producer (green plant) Decomposer & Detritivore

(fungus & bacteria)
Primary level of consumer

(rabbit) Death and decay
Secondary level of Tertiary level of consumer

consumer (Tiger)
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The existence of different levels of consumers depends on the existence of food

producers. Some examples of terrestrial and aquatic food chain are given below:
Consumer
Ecology Producer Tertiary Highest
Primary level Secondary level
level level
1)Terrestrial Plant Human

2) Grass Cattle Human
Terrestrial 3) Grass Rabbit Lion, tiger
4) Crop Rodent Snake Eagle
5) Grass Insect Frog Peacock
6) Aquatic Plant Aquatic insect Fish Human
7) Algae Mosquito larvae or Frog or small fish Stork or Big fish Human
Aquatic worm
Aquatic
8) Algae Amoeba Aquatic insect Small fish Big fish
9) Phytoplankton Zooplankton Insect Small fish Big fish
(e.g. shark)
There are many such food chains in the world. This gives an idea about how much
each is dependent on the others. Each food chain consists of one producer and usually
3-4 consumers. The highest level of consumers are not taken as food by other animals.
Disease, natural and unnatural causes bring about death to the highest level of
consumers. There are three types of food chain in nature. For example-
1) Heterotrophic chain: The food chain that builds up beginning with plant source
and gradually passing on to small and large animals is called the heterotrophic chain.
This food chain is formed beginning with plant source and gradually leads up to big
animals. Such a heterotrophic food chain is: grass cow human.
2) Parasite chain: The food chain that starts with big living things and gradually
passes on to smaller ones in a parasitic relationship is called parasitic chain. Parasites
derive their food from other living things. Such a chain is: human mosquito
malarial microbe.
3) Decomposer chain: The food chain that develops between the dead bodies of
plants and animals, and other microbes and animals is called the decomposer chain.
The decomposers derive their food from dead bodies. Such a decomposer chain is:
dead body fungus earthworm.
Food Web
In nature, the food chains are not isolated. Starting from producers to consumers, the
different interconnected food chains traverse a complicated pathway. One producer
simultaneously may become food for more than one of the first level of consumers.
Again, one of the first level of consumers simultaneously may become food for more
than one of the second level of consumers. As a result, the numerous food chains in a
biotic-community form a food web.
Carnivorous insect
Green insect
Larva
Small bird Primary consumer

Fox
Plant Secondary Consumer
Snail
Consumer
Big eagle
Producer
Rabbit
Highest consumer
Fig. 20.3: Food web
Fig. 20.4: Energy flow in ecology

Energy Flow in Ecology
All living things in this world primarily derive their energy from sunrays. Depending
on the situation, green plants by the process of photosynthesis manufacture
carbohydrate type of food using only 1-2 percent of the sunrays striking the surface of
earth. Photosynthesis is one of the processes, among the natural processes, that can
convert solar energy into usable chemical energy. Through this process a connection is
set up between nonliving and living worlds.
This energy from the producer plant body flows through different food chains and
food webs. Starting from the producer, each food chain is arranged in several trophic
levels. During respiration and other metabolic processes of the producers and
consumers, the potential energy stored in the carbohydrate is converted into kinetic
energy. The amount of energy decreases as it is converted and passed on from the
producer to the highest level of consumer. The energy stored in the producer is passed
on to the herbivores. From there it passes on to the second level of consumers. Thus
the energy flows.
Human beings are associated with different food cycles, and are always the last
member in the cycle. But, for human beings the food cycle may be short or long. For
example, algae shrimp small fish boal fish human. This cycle is long and has
Ecology 281
five levels. But in most underdeveloped countries people are vegan. As a result this
cycle is short. For example, rice (boiled rice) human. A lot of energy is lost during
respiration and heat production as the energy flows from one food level to the other.
The shorter the cycle the less is the loss of energy. In the first level, the amount of food
or energy produced by plants with the help of sunlight is gradually lost in the
subsequent levels. So the shorter the food chain the less is the loss of energy. For
example, grass can obtain a maximum of 2 percent of the sunrays for its body growth.
Similarly, a maximum of 4 percent of sunrays enters the cow's body, and is used for its
body growth. From this rule it is understood that as the energy flows further upwards
in trophic levels from the producer, the energy decreases proportionally. Due to the
gradual loss of energy, the number of consumer levels in a food chain is not much.
Decomposition and Energy Release
Unused food (energy) is excreted from the living body as excretory product (waste),
or is lost as excretion related energy. In the end, due to different causes, death comes
to all living things, and there is misuse of energy. This energy is called wasted energy.
Different detritivores or decomposers derive their energy from waste and dead bodies
of animals from different trophic levels.
In this way, the different organic geo-chemicals provide the necessary basic
elements of substances. In any food chain, the energy transformation is especially
effective. So, in every ecology, the overall utilization of oxygen and supply source of
carbon dioxide is equal.
Types of Ecology
According to the natural environment, there are mainly two types of Ecology:
1) Terrestrial ecology and 2) Aquatic ecology. Besides these, people also create
different types of artificial ecology.
The terrestrial, aquatic and artificial ecology are described with example below.
(a) Terrestrial ecology
This can again be of several types. For example, grassland ecology, forestland
ecology, desert ecology, and so on. Following is a brief description of the mangrove
forest, that is, the ecology of the Sundarbans of Bangladesh.
The natural environment of the Sundarbans is unique. It is situated on the southern
part of the district of Khulna. It extends for 1.12 kilometre inland from the shores of
the Bay of Bengal. Under the influence of high and low tides, the salt content of the
forest soil is very high. The soil is sticky and muddy. The commonly found trees in
the Sundarbans are sundari, goran, gewaa, gol-pata, kewra, pasur, and so on. The
notable animals are deer, pig, monkey, tiger, turtle, crocodile, and so on. Besides
these, the birds found are hen, stork, crane, kingfisher, and so on. As the plants grow
in saline environment, they have several characteristics that adapt them to the
environment. Forest areas with such special types of plants are called goran bon or
mangrove forest.
The mangrove plants have numerous prop roots arising from its trunk which helps the
plant to anchor to the soil and not be dragged out during the high and low tides. As
there is no air in the muddy soil, many of the roots do not go underground rather
extend vertically upwards from the ground. Typically the mangrove plants produce
tangled masses of arching roots that are exposed during low tides. Some mangrove
roots extend above the water. These roots have numerous pores on their tips called
pneumatophores, which act as the aerating organs.
Branch
Furit
(b) Sundari
Embryonic root
Sundari flowering branch Female flower
(a) Gol-pata
Root Root
Sundari Male flower
pneumatophore
Sundari fruit
Normal root Viviparous germination
Fig. 20.5: Pneumatophore and viviparous germination of different types of mangrove plants
Because of high salinity of soil, the seeds that fall on the ground may rot, or else be
washed away by the tides. For this reason, its seeds are unusual in that they germinate
while still on the tree. Thus the saplings start growing as soon as they fall to the
ground. This type of germination is called viviparous germination. The sundari, goran,
gol-pata, and the various other plants are the producers. Insects, hen, birds and deer
are the primary level of consumers. Tiger and crocodile are the tertiary level of
consumers. Among this level of consumers, pig, monkey and crane are omnivorous.
(b) Aquatic Ecology
To get a comprehensive idea of the aquatic ecology, the study of a pond is appropriate.
This is so because in pond ecology, the products of all actions and reactions in water
remain in the water and pond bed, except for some gaseous materials that leave from
the surface of the water. Again, some gases and rainwater enter the pond. This
environment gives a clear understanding of the close relationship between the living
Ecology 283
and nonliving things within the pond. So, if there is any change or an event occurs
within this ecology, it can be closely observed, which is not possible in terrestrial
ecology. Aquatic ecology is also called a closed ecology.
Among the biotic-community in the pond the most important floating and fast moving
minute ones are plankton. The microscopic plankton in plant kingdom are called
phytoplankton, and those plankton in animal kingdom are called zooplankton. In
addition, there are green algae and small aquatic animals in the pond. The nonliving
components of the pond ecology are soil, water, solar energy, and so on.
The usual producers in pond ecology are varieties of plants-water lily, water hyacinth,
hydrilla, phytoplankton, and so on-that float or live in shallow waters. The first level
of consumers in water are the varieties of floating small worms, mosquito larvae, and
so on. The second level of consumer include aquatic insect, frog, prawn and small
fish. The highest level of consumers include big fish, stork, sea gull, and so on. In the
usual way, after death of these living things in the pond, the fungus that survive on
dead bodies, microbes and even the small worms in the muddy pond bed act as
decomposers. Following the general rule, the decomposed inorganic salts again
become food components of the producers.
Sun
Producer
(plant with roots)
Producer
(phytoplankton)
1st level consumer 2nd level consumer (carnivore)

(herivore) 1st level consumer
in Pond bed (zooplankton)
Nonliving things
3rd level consumer
(carnivore)
Decomposer
(bacteria, fangus)
1st level consumer (herivore) in Pond bed
Fig. 20.6: Ecosystem of a pond
(c) Artificial ecology: Based on the knowledge of the natural and human
environment, human beings create an artificial environment to rear certain selected
plants and animals, this is called artificial ecology. The examples of artificial ecology
are aquarium, lunar module, and so on. Besides its use in education and research,
small and big sized aquariums with special types of fish and aquatic plants are kept in
homes and offices for decoration and entertainment of mind. Again, in other countries
of the world huge aquariums have been built where arrangements have been made to
preserve different varieties of small and big marine fishes. Every day hundreds of
people visit such aquariums.
These aquariums, made of glass, usually contain water, special types of some aquatic
plants and insects, and inorganic substances. In addition, solar energy, air with
oxygen, and food materials are regularly supplied to the water in the aquarium to
facilitate fish rearing. So, unlike natural ecology, this does not have supply of all
natural ingredients and processes. Though it is possible to take short-term measures
artificially, unlike natural ecology it lacks the mechanisms of purification,
detoxification and re-decomposition of materials, and normal energy flow. Such man-
made ecology is called artificial ecology.
Micro-ecology: Great advances in science and technology has helped to build several
spacecrafts that are being used in space research, moon expedition, setting up of space
station, and in other important programmes. These crafts are Salyut, Sputnik, lunar
module, rockets, Discovery, Endeavour, and so on. These spacecrafts are successful
examples of creating partially self-contained artificial ecology. But these crafts are
made to last for a short time-few days to few weeks. These crafts are equipped with
adequate food storage and mechanical mechanism for pollutant free waste disposal,
which is suitable for short time and not for long time use.
Conduction of long term programmes of staying in the space, and moving from one
planet to another will require space stations and vehicles that can maintain the
necessary artificial ecology for a long time. Such auto-regulated artificial environment
made for the astronauts is called micro-ecology. By this time, space researchers have
given input to build such crafts and achieved success.
Environmental Equilibrium
Sun is the source of energy in ecology. Energy from this source flows to the
producers, that is the green plants. From the producers, the energy gradually passes to
the higher levels of consumers. Energy is released into the environment from the
bodies of the consumers. Energy does not return to its primary source. In other words,
the flow of energy in ecology is unidirectional.
Ecology is a self-sufficient unit. Here the living beings are bound together in chains of
food-consumer relationship. As a result a particular type of biotic form cannot
increase in an unlimited way; again are not destroyed completely. The numbers of
species in the different levels maintain a relatively proportionate equilibrium.
Ecology 285
In spite of various changes in nature, natural equilibrium is maintained in the long run.
If for some reason, the number of a particular biotic species increases in the ecology,
the subsequent changes in the other species will be such that, the number of species
that increased will soon decrease relatively, and the equilibrium will be restored.
For example, if for some reason, the tiger population increases in the Sundarbans, the
deer population will decrease relative to the tigers. As a result the tigers (consumers)
will not get sufficient food (deer), and some of the tigers will die. Thus the number of
tigers will decrease and previous state will be restored. Again if the population of
tigers decreases, the deer population will increase. But the grazing land for deer in the
forest is limited, so there will be scarcity of required extra food and some deer will die
to bring back equilibrium in the ecology. Thus by nature's law the balance in the
different levels of food and consumer is maintained.
Influence of Human Beings on the Environment
Using intelligence, human beings are able to derive peace and comfort from nature.
On conquering disease, human beings are procreating rapidly. As a result, the
continuously increasing population is frequently creating new problems everyday. As
an after effect of this, extensive unsolicited human intervention on nature is ongoing.
Plant resource is being destroyed; soil, water and air are being continuously polluted.
This is causing a negative effect on the climate. Harnessing science and technology,
human beings are using nature indiscriminately to meet their ever-increasing needs.
Cultivation on forest land, mountains slopes and deserts has not yet made possible to
fulfil the food demand of the increasing population. Using artificial fertilizer, crops
are being grown on the same land three times each year. The use of excessive
chemical fertilizer and insecticide is destroying the equilibrium in agricultural
ecology. Water is being polluted. As a result harmful substances are entering the
bodies of fresh-water fish, domestic fowl and cattle. These harmful substances are
then entering human body through the consumption of vegetables and flesh of
contaminated animals. In this way the human food chain is also being defiled and
poisoned. Under all circumstances, through rational use of environment, we should try
our best to ensure environmental equilibrium. For, we have to present our next
generation with an ideal environment.
Exercise

1. Which one is the producer of the ecology of the pond?
(a) Zooplankton (b) Phytoplankton
(c) Fungus (d) Germs
2. Which one is the consumer of the secondary stage?
(a) Goat (b) Wolf
(c) Crocodile (d) Magpie robin
3. Being organized an identical animal community of a particular region develops
(i) Ecosystem
(ii) Food web
(iii) Biome
Which is correct?
(a) i (b) ii
4. Which is the correct food chain?
(a) Man crops domestic animals
(b) Frog snake eagle
(c) Terrestrial plants rabbit tiger
(d) Small fish aquatic insects big fish
5. The cause of affecting equilibrium of the environment between the living and
nonliving is
(i) to collect one sort of fish from the river.
(ii) to apply excess fertilizer in the crop field.
(iii) to throw hot water of the industries in the river.
(a) i (b) ii
(c) ii and iii (c) i, ii and iii
Ecology 287
Creative Questions
Observe the above picture and Answer the following questions:

(a) What is the name of 'A' marked portion?
(b) What is the difference between consumer and decomposer?
(c) In absence of phytoplankton what would happen to ecosystem as described
in the diagram?
(d) The ecosystem of the pond is a self complete unit, make an analysis on it.
Chapter Twenty-one
Disaster Management and Bangladesh
Bangladesh is one of the most disaster prone countries of the world. Tornadoes, tidal
waves, floods, draughts, and so on cause havoc in the lives of the people of this
country by causing loss to life and property, and by damaging the environment. The
geographical location of the country is the main reason for such frequent disaster. In
the north of this plain land of rivers is the Himalayas, and in the south is the Bay of
Bengal. The origin of the rivers flowing through Bangladesh is either in India or in
Nepal. There is no mountain, hill or plateau in the south of the country that can serve
as a natural barrier to cyclones or tidal waves. Floods occur in Bangladesh when the
global warming due to greenhouse effect changes the environmental balance and the
ice on the top of Himalayas melts, or when there is excessive rain. Also, as the
country is situated in the subtropical region the temperature at the surface of the sea is
o
around 27 C, which causes high tidal waves to strike the land. The people of this
country have to survive in this geographical location, and put up with natural disaster.
In the light of these circumstances, the people of Bangladesh should have a
comprehensive idea about disaster and its management. Disaster may be considered as
the occurrence of an event that causes disruption of community's normal activities,
loss of life and property, and ecological disruption. This occurrence is on a scale that
is beyond the adjustment capacity of the affected community within its own resource.
As a result, outside help or assistance is required. A hazard can be considered as any
suddenly occurring severe natural or man made phenomenon. Subsequently, if the
event turns unfavourable to life and property, it may lead to disaster.
Disaster management involves formulating plans regarding disaster and the sumtotal
of administrative decisions, together with its implementation at all administrative
levels in the stages of pre-disaster, disaster, and post-disaster. In other words, disaster
management is an applied science that encompasses disaster prevention, disaster
preparedness, rapid response in disaster, and recovery through adequate monitoring
and analysis. The main objectives of disaster management are reducing risk of disaster
and minimizing damage during disaster. The realm of disaster management includes
reducing the risk of disaster, adequate plan formulation and execution to reduce
damage, arrangement to disseminate warning signals in impending disaster,
watchfulness over the situation in disaster prone areas, and review of relief and
rehabilitation activities. There are three objectives of disaster management:
a. To avoid or minimize the loss of life, property, and environmental damage
b. To ensure need based relief and rehabilitation of the affected community within
the shortest possible time
c. Post-disaster effective recovery
Disaster Management and Bangladesh 289
The fundamental aspects of disaster management include activities related to pre-

disaster, disaster, and post-disaster periods.
The following disaster management cycle highlights the elements of disaster
management and the activities required in different stages of disaster.
In the past, disaster management was considered as extensive relief operation

following a disaster. In reality, relief operation is an element of the overall disaster
management. The above cycle shows that pre-disaster activities include disaster
prevention, disaster mitigation, and disaster preparedness as the primary elements of
disaster management. Comprehensive execution of these elements are of prime
importance in pre-disaster period. Inadequate attention to any one of the elements will
lead to overall failure of disaster management. Hence, to effectively combat disaster
more activity has to be carried out in the pre-disaster period.
The management involved immediately after a disaster includes response, recovery
and development. In the past, the response after a disaster was considered as total
management of disaster. Response is only a part of disaster management.
Appropriate response is required immediately after a disaster. Response includes
evacuation to a safe place, search and rescue, estimation of damage, and relief and
rehabilitation activities.
Recovery means rebuilding following damage to property and environment, to social
and economic infrastructure, and returning to a state that existed before the disaster.
For this, help and support is needed from the government, non-government, voluntary
and international organizations.
As soon as recovery activities bring the affected area to the pre-disaster state,
development activities have to be initiated. Before undertaking development activities,
the geographical and environmental conditions of the area have to be taken into
consideration. Though Bangladesh is a plain land, difference is noted in the types and
intensity of disaster in the different parts of the country. In the south, Bhola and other
islands are more prone to tidal waves and cyclones. In the north, the areas of Dinajpur,
Bogra and Rajshahi are prone to draughts. Keeping these two factors in mind, if the
public buildings such as Upazila training and development centres, school buildings
and governmental offices are built appropriately, the people of the southern part of the
country could use them as shelter during disaster. Thus, crores of taka need not be
spent by the government in building separate cyclone or flood shelters. Consequently,
before undertaking development work, the geographical and environmental factors
should be taken into consideration.
Even if it is not possible to completely prevent disaster, preventive measures taken to
reduce the damage due to disaster can bring good results. Disaster prevention involves
structural and non-structural mitigation measures. Structural mitigation measures means
the implementation of various construction activities, such as, erecting dams, building
shelter centres, making brick-made strong houses, dredging of rivers, and so on.
Structural mitigation measures for disaster is expensive, and is a burden for many poor
countries. Execution of non-structural mitigation measures as training, building public
awareness, preparedness and other activities are less expensive. This does not require
huge amount of money at a time. The government of Bangladesh is conducting training
programmes at village and union levels, workshop and seminar in union and upazila
levels to raise public awareness regarding disaster. Until June 1998, the Disaster
Management Bureau has imparted training on disaster management to almost 10,000
persons. It has been made compulsory that all courses in all training institutes must
include at least two hours session on disaster management. The Prime Minister has also
notified that when the officials of district and upazila levels pay official visit to the
villages, they must formally discuss with the people the disaster related permanent
instructions of the government. So, in a poor country like ours, the non-structural
mitigation activities are being carried out in an effective and meaningful way. As a result,
people are increasingly becoming aware of the necessity of taking refuge in shelter
centres to minimize the after effects of disaster, and to get the primary heath care
services.
Disaster mitigation means the sustained reduction in disaster, and disaster preparedness.
Activities incorporated in disaster mitigation are construction of brick-made strong buildings,
crop diversification, defining strategies to reduce misuse of land, economic development,
building strong structural infrastructure, shifting people to less vulnerable areas, developing
institutional infrastructure, and so on. Though sustained disaster mitigation is expensive,
government within its limited resources has taken up the activities of constructing dams,
dredging rivers, constructing of shelter centres, afforestation, and so on.
Disaster preparedness means the management of risk reduction of disaster during pre-
disaster period. Activities incorporated in disaster preparedness are identifying the
vulnerable regions and population, formulating disaster related plan, developing
institutional infrastructure, allocating required resource to meet the emergency, drill or
simulation; and to keep road, transport and radio system in readiness.
Because our country is situated in a disaster prone region, we have gained varied
experience on disaster. The permanent instructions of the government formulated in
the light of past experiences must be followed by all. Within these instructions lies the
guideline of responsibilities of different offices and organizations in pre-disaster,
disaster and post-disaster periods. The instructions give the direction of constituting
different committees to deal with planning various disaster management activities too.
There is direction for constituting eight committees at the national level, and one
committee each at the union, upazila and district levels to deal with disaster
management. The committees at the national level are:
a) National Disaster Management Council: The Hon'ble Prime Minister is the
Chairperson of the council. The Hon'ble Ministers/ State Ministers responsible for
different ministries; the Chiefs of Army, Navy and Airforce; and Secretaries of the
concerned ministries are the members of this council. The main function of the
council is to formulate disaster related policies, take measures to formulate laws
related to national disaster management plan, and so on.
b) Inter-Ministerial Disaster Management Co-ordination Committee: The
Hon'ble Minister in charge of the Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief is the
Chairperson of the committee. The Secretaries of the concerned ministries; Principal
Staff Officer of Armed Forces; Director Generals of the Disaster Management Bureau,
NGO Affairs Bureau, Directorate of Relief and Rehabilitation; and the heads of other
concerned organizations are the members of this committee. The main responsibilities
of the committee include inter-ministerial co-ordination for disaster management,
execution of disaster management policies formulated by National Disaster
Management Council, advise the council, and so on.
c) National Disaster Management Advisory Committee: An experienced person/
expert in the field of disaster management nominated by the Hon'ble Prime Minister
is the Chairperson of the advisory committee. The members of this advisory
committee are the elected members of the Parliament from disaster prone areas;
persons having experience in disaster related issues working in university, non-
government organization (NGO), donor organization, and government institute;
Chair-persons of Red Crescent Society, and Chamber of Commerce; President of
Institute of Engineers; Chair-persons of Insurance Company Association, Krishi
Bank, Grameen Bank; and Director General of Disaster Management and Relief. The
main responsibility of the advisory committee is to give necessary advice on disaster
management issues to the National Disaster Management Council, Ministry of
Disaster Management and Relief, and Disaster Management Bureau. The advisory
committee will submit a report on post-mortem and final evaluation to the government
and other committees on the activities undertaken following disaster.
d) Cyclone Preparedness Programme Implementation Board: The Secretary,
Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief is the Chairperson of this board. The
members of the board are the Director Generals of Disaster Management Bureau, and
Directorate of Relief and Rehabilitation; Chairperson of SPARSO; Director,
Directorate of Meteorology, and a representative from the Ministry of Health. The
Director of Cyclone Preparedness Programme is the Member Secretary of the board.
The main responsibilities of the board include review of cyclone preparedness
activities, and ensureing preparedness in the initial stage of an impending cyclone.
e) Focal Point Operation Co-ordination Group of Disaster Management: The
Director General of Disaster Management Bureau is the Chairperson of the Co-
ordination group. The members of the co-ordination group are the Director Generals
of the Directorates of Health, Agriculture, Fisheries, Primary Education, Secondary
and Higher Education, Bangladesh Betar, Bangladesh Television, NGO Affairs
Bureau, and so on; Director, Directorate of meteorology; Chairperson of SPARSO;
and the Heads of the other concerned Directorates working with disaster. The
Director (Planning) of Disaster Management Bureau is the Member Secretary of the
co-ordination group. The main responsibilities of the group include review of and
recommendation on the activities of disaster preparedness undertaken by different
departments; discussing the disaster preparedness planning activities with different
departments; preparing work plan for disaster management at district, upazila and
union levels; and taking decision after discussing the issues of potential problems in
executing the activities.
f) Disaster Management Training and Public Awareness Building Task Force:
The Director General of Disaster Management Bureau is the Chairperson of the Task
Force. The members of the task force are the representatives from government and
non-government organisations that impart training and promote awareness on disaster
management. The main responsibilities of the task force are to co-ordinate the disaster
related training and public awareness activities; review and evaluate the curriculum
for training and awareness building programmes; and to strengthen activities for
training and public awareness building.
g) Non-government Organization Co-ordination Committee on Disaster Management:
The Director General of Disaster Management Bureau is the Chairperson of the co-
ordination committee. The members of the co-ordination committee are the Director
General of NGO Affairs Bureau, and the heads of the non-government organizations
working in the area of disaster management. The main responsibilities of the co-
ordination committee is to co-ordinate the disaster management related activities of
the government and non-government organizations, to avoid duplication of the
activities undertaken by the government and non-government organisations, and to

carry out disaster related activities in a planned way.
h) Committee for Speedy Dissemination of Disaster Related Signal: The Director
General of Disaster Management Bureau is the Chairperson of the committee. The
members of the committee are the Director Generals of Bangladesh Betar, Bangladesh
Television, Mass communication, Films and Publication; Principal Information
Officer; Director of Flood Forecasting, Director of Meteorology, and Chairperson of
SPARSO. The main responsibilities of the committee are to ensure ways and means
for the speedy dissemination of warning signals in impending cyclone and flood, and
to identify the obstacles and take measures to overcome them.
Besides the eight committees at national level, there are field level disaster
management committees at district, upazila and union levels for comprehensive
disaster management:
a) District Disaster Management Committee: The Deputy commissioner of the
concerned district is the Chairperson of the committee. The members of the
committee are the Heads of the concerned government offices at district level, all the
Upazila Nirbahi Officers of the district, representatives from non-government
organizations, and representative from Armed Forces. The District Relief and
Rehabilitation Officer is the Member Secretary of the committee. The main functions
of the committee are to constitute the Upazila Disaster Management Committee in all
the upazilas of the district, conduct disaster related training and public awareness
programme, to take measures in preparing disaster preparedness plan for the district,
and to ensure appropriate rapid response with relief and rehabilitation operations.
b) Upazila Disaster Management Committee: The Upazila Nirbahi Officer is the
Chairperson of the committee. The members of the committee are the Chairpersons of
all the Union Parishads of the upazila, Heads of concerned government and non-
government offices in the upazila, Chairperson of the Central Co-operative Samity,
and representative of non-government organisations working in the upazila. The
Upazila Project Implementation Officer is the Member Secretary of the committee.
The main responsibilities of the committee are to constitute the Union Disaster
Management Committee in all the unions of the upazila, and to give necessary
direction and keep activated the Union Committee. In addition to training and public
awareness building, the committee is also concerned with preparing disaster
management related work plan, and ensuring appropriate rapid response with relief
and rehabilitation operations.
c) Union Disaster Management committee: The Chairman of the concerned Union
Parishad is the Chairperson of the committee. The members of the committee are all
the members of the Union Parishad, representative of teachers working in the union,
and staff of government offices and representative of non-government organizations at
union level. The Secretary of the Union Parishad is the Member Secretary of the
committee. The main responsibility of the committee are public awareness building on
disaster related issues, ensuring appropriate rapid response with relief and
rehabilitation operations, and so on.
It was long felt at home and abroad to establish a self-contained office to co-ordinate
the multifaceted extensive activities in pre-disaster, disaster and post-disaster
management by the different committees at national and local levels, and concerned
government, semi-government and non-governments organizations/offices.The
necessity of such an office was intensely felt by the Government and donor agencies
especially after the colossal flood of 1987 and 1988, and the severe cyclone of 1991.
The Disaster Management Bureau was established in 1993 with the aim to co-ordinate
the various disaster management activities; raise public awareness about disaster;
collect information on disaster; management of disaster related information and
research activities; local and national level disaster preparedness and mitigation; plan
formulation; and to assist and render services through disaster management. Since
then, the Bureau has been effectively discharging its responsibilities of disaster
management. An Additional Secretary of the Government is entrusted with the
responsibility of Director General of the Bureau.
The "Cyclone Preparedness Programme", an organ of Bangladesh Red Crescent
Society, is facilitating the overall disaster management activities in the country. The
organ is working with the aim to respond in cyclone through maintaining
communication, enhancing preparedness and raising public awareness. Under this
programme, more than thirty-two thousand volunteers from the coastal districts are
rendering commendable services in terms of cyclone preparedness, rescue and
rehabilitation, and maintaining communication on cyclone related issues.
Evidence based weather forecasting and warning are the important factors that
contribute to rapid response in natural disaster like cyclone, tornado, draught,
excessive rainfall, and so on. The Directorate of Meteorology, the professional
department of the Government, is discharging this important responsibility. Alongside,
Government's another department-the SPARSO is conducting space research. With the
help of terrestrial satellite, the SPARSO collects cloud mapping regularly to support
the Directorate of Meteorology in weather forecasting and warning. It is the
responsibility of the Directorate of Meteorology to forecast weather and forewarn by
drawing and analysing the radar signals collected from national and international data
source. Flood Forecasting Centre of the Water Development Board forecasts and
disseminate flood-related information. Though there is no technology for forecasting
earthquake, the intensity and nature of earthquake can be measured in Richter scale.
In times of emergency, members of our Armed Forces extend all-out help and co-
operation to the civil administration in medicare services, rescue, relief distribution
and rehabilitation operation to the affected people. Bangladesh Betar and Bangladesh
Television play an important role in disseminating disaster related
warning signals. In addition to the different government bodies, the non-government

organizations working in the area of disaster management are Oxfam, Disaster Forum,
Care Bangladesh, Caritas, Proshika, CCDB, BDPC (Bangladesh Disaster
Preparedness Centre), and so on.
We have to live with natural disaster. Carrying out disaster management activities
involving development, prevention, mitigation and preparedness during normal times,
in other words during pre-disaster periods, we can save life, property and environment
to a great extent from the clutches of disaster. So, for the interest of appropriate
disaster management and combat measures, we need to have a disaster work plan that
covers the disaster period too. This work plan has to be practised at individual, family,
village, union, upazila and district levels to ensure proper execution at times of need.
We should have the idea of warning signals for cyclone or flood. We should be
motivated to go to shelter centre and send the domestic cattle to safe animal shed. It is
better to be prepared with first aid, dry food, drinking water, match-box, candle, and so
on. The district, upazila and union level committees on disaster management should
meet regularly, and a mechanism should be developed for maintaining adequate liaison
of the population with the committee. It is our responsibility to prepare a work plan to
be able to face the daily needs in times of disaster. We should remember that adequate
forewarning and preparation can overcome any difficulty or disaster.
Exercise

1. What is one of the causes of the natural disaster in Bangladesh?
(a) Green house effect.
(b) Geographical location of the country.
(c) Huge number of mountains at the North.
(d) Having no mountains in the South.
2. What is the important way of decreasing the loss and damage in natural disaster?
(a) To increase public awareness on the disaster.
(b) To prepare road map on disaster abatement.
(c) To accept preliminary (prior) preparations.
(d) Aforestation at "increased rate.
3. Disaster management means

(i) to conduct comprehensive relief in the wake of the disaster.
(ii) to prepare pre-disaster work plan.
(iii) Work plan to decrease the risk of the disaster and accept program with a view
to decreasing related loss and damage.
(a) i (b) ii
4. To which subject matter of the following, maximum importance will be given
prior to take part in development activities for disaster management of
affected area?
(a) On the amount of fund for development activities.
(b) On the number of shelter-centre to be built.
(c) On the number of people of the locality.
(d) On the geographical and environmental characteristics of the locality.
5. A few fishermen including Manu Mia rapidly came back to their houses receiving
news of great danger signal.
What sort of preparations should they take to face possible disaster?
(a) To go to the cyclone-shelter as quickly as possible.
(b) To go to the cyclone-shelter after preserving necessary quantity of drinking
water and dry food.
(c) To remain busy in building their houses so that no damage would occur.
(d) To reside at their houses depending on the luck.
Creative Questions
Apu's house is beside the sea shore at sadar upazilla of Cox's Bazar district. On the
29th April of 1991, the devastating cyclone and the tidal wave hit the coastal area of
the district including Apu's village. But Apu's family members however protected
themselves from the disaster. He learnt different techniques to fight the disaster from a
private organisation and along with other preliminary preparations he took shelter in a
near-by cyclone-centre accordingly.
(a) What is natural disaster?
(b) What is the difference between cyclone and tidal wave?
(c) Besides going to the cyclone-shelter, what were the preparations taken by Apu
due to which Apu's family protected themselves from the loss and damage?
(d) Explain the significance of the efforts made by the non-goverment organisations
along with the government ones in order to minimise loss and damage.

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Prescribed as a Textbook for classes IX & X from the 1997 Session

by the National Curriculum and Textbook Board

Secondary General Science

Authors of the Bangla Text

National Curriculum and Textbook Board, Dhaka.

[All rights reserved by the Publisher]

Frist Print : 1997

Prof. Md. Mostafa Kamaluddin

Chapter Subject Page

earmarked first problem is how to increase production. Identification of a problem

Physical Science Biological Science

Physics Chemistry Botany Zoology

Interrelation Among Different Branches of Science

Multiple Choice Questions

What is the distance (in millimetre) between point A and point B.

Impact of population increase on natural environment:

3. Impact of population growth on plants:

nitrogen and the main source of

Death and decay

bodies through various processes. The g

nitrogen again returns to the atmosphere becter

Water above ground

Fig: Nitrogen cycle

In harmony with green house the

Fig: Maintaining of balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

AIDS is the abbreviated form of four words-Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome,

Young Boys and Girls are at Risk of Contracting HIV/AIDS

4) Not to deprive the HIV/AIDS affected persons from usual activities

Population Data Collection

2. Number of family members :

emigration is higher than immigration, zero population growth rates might be

10,000 male5,000 0 5,000 Female 10,000 Male Female

Fig: Population Pyramid

Table : World Population

This process is called Demographic Transition. Demographic transition can be divided

Fig: Demographic transition

5. Regarding Bangladesh, which conclusion of the following can be made from

(2) Carbohydrates: Help to produce energy.

2. Metabolism is continuously going on in our body cells. As a result after a certain

3. Carbohydrate protects us from a

One meal for a child of 6 months

The readily available sources of food components

3. Of the following, which set of food is called balanced one?

Serial number Age (years) Professions Weight (kg)

To extract a particular element a mineral is to be selected in which the element is

Stag Molten Metal

Fig: 4.1: Blast furnace

Properties of iron and steel :

in chemical properties. In other words some non-metals show differences in

Multiple Choice Questions

Which one is correct?

Name Amount of Carbon (%) Brittleness Ductility

Uses and maintenance:

Fig: 5.1: Uniformly distributed constituents of solidified concrete

a. L corner block b. Bond-beam block c. pillow star block

e. Linteal block f. Chimney block

g. Acoustic block h. Middle block i. Utility block

Fig: 5.2: Blocks of different shapes and sizes