Interactions of Bio-Macromolecules During Processing of Instant Asian Noodles: A Review
Interactions of Bio-Macromolecules During Processing of Instant Asian Noodles: A Review
Interactions of Bio-Macromolecules During Processing of Instant Asian Noodles: A Review
The review focuses on how the protein, fats, carbohydrates and water interact and form the complexes during different stages
of processing of instant noodles. Moisture is needed for dough formation and chemical interactions therein. Appropriate
moisture content is required for proper gelatinization of noodle strand during steaming and eventually moisture is evaporated
off by drying and frying to increase its shelf life. Frying oil may undergo degradation process invited by high frying time and
temperature, high moisture in oil and polyvalent metals. Various intermediate products like dimers and polymers accelerate
the oil degradation finally changing the physiochemical properties of oil rendering it unacceptable for processing. Gliadin
and glutenin gives noodle its viscoelastic character. The polymeric glutenin network develops throughout the process of
mixing, resting and subsequent stages of sheeting. Protein content and amylose content in noodle are inversely proportional
to the oil uptake ratio. Another possibility is the non-enzymatic browning reaction during frying of instant noodles.
Noodles represent a complex system in which multiple common. Optimal firmness for instant noodles is observed
components interact to achieve final characteristic product. with either 0.215% kansui or 2.0% NaCl. However, the
The interactions or combined effects of water, starch protein addition of kansui reduced noodle nutritional quality, and
and lipid under various conditions are the components of high levels of both table (2.03.0%) and alkaline (1.001.5%)
major concern in the processing and product quality of salt increased cooking losses (Rombouts, et al., 2014).
Asian noodles. Dough and noodle quality is affected by Powders of black soda are dissolved in water to prepare the
wheat proteins (Gary, 2013), starch (Noda et al., 2001), solution. The chemical ingredients are dissolved in water
lipids (Lu, et al., 2009), and enzymes (Fu, 2008). (soft water) and stored in storage tank. The pH of the mixing
water is maintained at 7.2 – 7.5 at 20˚C during storage.
Protein, glycans and lipids are the major bio-macromolecules Likewise, salt solution is prepared in separate tank and fed
involved in noodle processing. Bio-macromolecules are into the mixing batch at continuous rate.
the biopolymers formed by joining together small building
blocks (bio-molecular monomers) in the cells (Tsai, 2007). In noodle making, incorporation of water with added
There are mainly 3 true macromolecules; carbohydrate, ingredients is carried out such that actual dough development
protein and nucleic acid. Lipid is not truly a macromolecule. is minimized. Furthermore, absorption of water is only 29
Monomer constituents of bio-macromolecules are mono- – 30 percent. The incorporation of water is mainly done
saccharides (for glycans), amino acid (for protein), and to have enough water to hydrate the flour. Less moisture
glycerol and fatty acid (for lipid). For bio-macromolecules, content of dough means that there will be less water to
there is usually a tetrahedral arrangement of bonds around eliminate during subsequent steps of drying and frying. The
single-bonded carbon atoms and phosphorus atoms. Organic water absorption is dependent on the type of flour. Water
molecules, including bio-macromolecules, are held together temperature affects mixing time and noodle quality. If
with covalent bonds. Their 3D structures are characterized water temperature is too low (<18 ˚C), it slows down flour
by bond lengths, bond angles and rotations of groups of hydration speed and gluten development and requires a
atoms about the bonds Covalent bonds are the major source longer mixing time. If water temperature is too high (>30
of energy for cells when broken. Computer graphics provides ˚C), excessive heat generated during mixing could denature
the most comprehensive tool for depicting 3 dimensional the protein and gelatinize the starch, resulting in sticky
structures of biomolecules. dough. High dough temperature can also increase enzyme
activity and deteriorate noodle quality. It is recommended
Competition of protein and starch for water during that the water temperature be adjusted to achieve a final
mixing dough temperature of 25-30 ˚C (Hou, 2011).
During dough mixing, proteins, pentosans and starch Dough development: lipid, protein and starch
compete for the limited amount of water available. Since interactions
the starch comprises at least 70 % of the flour, it will absorb
a substantial amount of the water. Starch which has been Unlike bread making, dough development is not fully
damaged in the milling process has an even greater affinity achieved while preparing dough for noodles. In noodle
for water absorbing up to three times as much water as dough, proteins do not pull away from starch granules during
undamaged starch (Kruger, 1996). mixing. The micro structure resembles that of compacted
flour, which is due to the low moisture content of noodle
In Asian noodles, alkali is added in water to increase water dough (Moss, 1987). During noodle dough mixing, protein
absorption and decreases the mixing requirement of wheat absorbs water and forms a limited gluten network, which
flour dough. Larger increase in water absorption is with glues other wheat flour components together, resulting
sodium hydroxide than with either sodium or potassium in crumbly dough. Presence of protein–carbohydrate
carbonates (Moss, 1986). Alkali addition also affects the complexes in gluten (McMaster, 1983), binding of lipids to
gelatinization properties of starch. For example; sodium gluten proteins during dough mixing (Bekes, et al., 1983)
hydroxide can gelatinize starch at room temperature and implication of both carbohydrate and lipid complex
(Maher, 1983). Changes in dough properties under alkaline formation with glutenin proteins (Zawistowska, 1985) all
condition have been attributed to oxidation of sulfhydryl- directly or indirectly support the possible roles of starch
disulfide exchange and oxidation of globulin fraction to granular proteins and lipids in starch– gluten interactions.
form high molecular weight proteins (Terada, 1978). Within a dough system, starch exists primarily in granular
Alkali can be powder which is also called “soda ash”or form, while protein is developed into a continuous three-
liquid form that is termed as “lye water”. In Japan, mixture dimensional network.
of sodium and potassium carbonate (kansui) are more
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Scanning electron microscope studies would indicate not complete even at the end of the compression stage. The
that there is some disaggregation and mixing of protein reduction stage which follows further develops the gluten.
component, largely responsible for dough development, but Uniform protein matrix is obtained at this stage (Moss,
that is generally incomplete with some vestiges of intact 1987).
cell components remaining (Moss, 1987). The viscous
flow aspect of dough is known to be due to the monomeric The development and alignment of the gluten in the dough
gliadin component, whereas the polymeric glutenin gives sheet allows noodle strands to be slit from the dough sheet
the elasticity. Gluten is the important gas retaining protein. without breakage or loss of shape during drying, frying
Concerning the importance of gliadin and glutenin subunits, and cooking process. Gluten protein content is negatively
both aggregate and individual (Kruger, 1996). correlated with cooking loss, and positively with noodle
tensile strength and firmness (Hou, 2013).The stage of
Excessively elastic gluten tends to produce a tough dough dough resting helps moisture distribute more evenly. This
sheet, which shrinks back during the sheeting process, also enhances disulfide bond formation and forms bond
making it difficult to reduce the thickness and extend the between gluten and lipid. Whether a dough sheet is allowed
length of the dough sheet, and making noodle strands non- to rest or not has a significant impact on the degree of starch
pliable. On the other hand, surface peeling and tearing of gelatinization during steaming. According to (Wu, 1998)
the sheet could occur during sheeting through multiple well-rested dough has a higher degree of starch gelatinization
rolls when the rate of gluten development is too slow or the than unrested dough, as examined by differential scanning
developed gluten network is too small or weak to provide calorimetric. The lack of evenly distributed water may
complete encapsulation of flour components. Protein prevent starch from being fully gelatinized during steaming.
component also determines the firmness of noodle (Ohio, Meanwhile, the unrelaxed gluten may suppress starch
1985). swelling.
Because the surfaces of fried noodle strands absorb oil during Water, steam, and oxygen initiate the chemical reactions in
frying, they can easily be separated in hot water. It usually the frying oil and food. Water, a weak nucleophile, attacks
takes 3–4 minutes to cook or soak fried instant noodles in the ester linkage of triacylglycerols and produces di and
hot water before consumption. The moisture content of the monoacylglycerols, glycerol, and free fatty acids. Free fatty
finished noodle products is in the range of 3–7%. The main acids contents in frying oil increase with the number of
purpose of frying instant noodle is to remove excess water fryings (Chung, et al., 2004). Stevenson and others (1984)
from the noodles, which causes weight loss accounts for 30 suggested that the maximum free fatty acid content for frying
-32% of the noodles. oil is 0.05% to 0.08%. Antioxidant decreases the frying oil
oxidation, but the effectiveness of antioxidant decreases
Thermal oxidation of lipid with high frying temperature (Min, 2007). Antioxidants,
Tertiary Butyl Hydroxy Quinone (TBHQ) is mostly used
Series of complex reactions such as oxidation, hydrolysis,
for palm oil and delta Tocopherol for beef tallow. It is well
isomerization and polymerization take place during the
known that TBHQ shows greater stability than Butylated
deep-fat frying that influence quality attributes of the
Hydroxy Quinone (BHQ) (Rho, 1986).
final product such as flavor, texture, shelf life and nutrient
composition (Zhang, 2012). Saturated fat such as palm oil, Decomposition of ester linkage takes place when water
beef tallow, vanaspati ghee etc. are used for deep frying and heat are concomitant to each other (Houhoula, 2003).
of instant noodles in the industry. The reactions in deep Thermal hydrolysis takes place mainly within the oil phase
fat- frying depends upon factors such as replenishment of rather than water–oil interface (Lascaray, 1949). Hydrolysis
fresh oil, frying conditions, original quality of frying oil, is more preferable in oil with short and unsaturated fatty acids
food materials, type of fryer, antioxidants, and oxygen than oil with long and saturated fatty acids because short and
concentration. High frying temperature, the number of unsaturated fatty acids are more soluble in water than long
frying, the contents of free fatty acids, polyvalent metals, and and saturated fatty acids. Water from foods is easily accessible
unsaturated fatty acids of oil decrease the oxidative stability to short-chain fats and oils for hydrolysis (Nawar, 1969).
and flavor quality of oil. The thermal oxidation rate is faster Water hydrolyzes the oil faster than steam (Pokorny, 1981).
than the autoxidation. The mechanism of thermal oxidation Frequent replacement of frying oil with fresh oil slows down
involves the initiation, propagation, and termination of the the hydrolysis of frying oil (Romero, 1998) while polymer
reaction as shown in Figure 2. compounds increases with number of frying as illustrated in
Figure 3. Di- and monoacylglycerols, glycerol, and free fatty
Initiation: CH3-(CH2)3-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH- acids accelerate the further hydrolysis reaction of oil (Frega,
CH2(CH2)6-COOH 1999). Glycerol evaporates at 1500C and the remaining
↓- H glycerol in oil promotes the production of free fatty acids by
CH3-(CH2)4-CH-CH=CH-CH=CH-CH2(CH2)7-COOH hydrolysis (Naz, et al., 2005). Interestingly, Peroxide value
(PV) of frying oil also increases with increasing frying time
↓+O2
and temperature (> 180˚C) although at low temperature, PV
Propagation: CH3-(CH2)4-C̩ H-CH=CH-CH=CH- decreases with increasing time of frying oil Figure 4. Radical
CH2(CH2)7-COOH oxygen requires radical oil for the oxidation of oil. The
O̩ ↓ +Ḣ hydrogen with the weakest bond on the carbon of oil will
be removed first to become radical. The various strengths of
O
hydrogen carbon bond of fatty acids explain the differences
CH3-(CH2)4-C̩ H-CH=CH-CH=CH-CH2(CH2)7-COOH of oxidation rates of stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linoleic acids
O̩ ↓ -OḢ during thermal oxidation or autoxidation. The polyvalent
OH metals as Fe3+ and Cu2+ remove hydrogen protons from oil
to form alkyl radicals by oxidation-reduction mechanism of
CH3-(CH2)4-C̩ H-CH=CH-CH=CH-CH2(CH2)7-COOH
metals even at low temperatures. The site of radical formation
O̩ ↓ in saturated fatty acids is different from those of unsaturated
CH3-(CH2)3-CH2 + O=CH-CH=CH-CH=CH-CH2(CH2)7- oleic or linoleic acids. The alkyl radical of saturated fatty
COOH acids is formed at α position of the carboxyl group having
electron-withdrawing property. The high interfacial tension
↓ in the frying system breaks steam bubbles and forms a steam
Termination: CH3-(CH2)3-CH3 blanket over the oil surface. The steam blanket reduces
the contact between the oil and oxygen, and lowers the oil
Figure 2. Thermal oxidation of oil (Min, 2007) oxidation (Blumenthal 1991). Addition of sesame oil can also
improve thermo oxidative stability of the frying oil (Chung,
et al., 2004).
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Figure 4: POV of frying oil at different time and temperatures A, B, C (Nawar, 1984)
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Except the reducing sugar as source of carbonyl compound, such as TBHQ, tocopherols (vitamin E), BHA, or BHT or
some of the lipid oxidation products which occur during their mixtures TBHQ is reported to have the best efficiency
deep-fat frying, promote or participate in the formation of to prolong the shelf life of fried noodles.
acrylamide. The more susceptible to oxidation of the frying
oil, the more Acrylamide is formed (Capuano, et al., 2010). It was found that Maillard reactions generating compounds
responsible for smashing taste, aroma and color of foods are
Acrylamide concentration is much higher when palmolein is coupled with formation of acrylamide from asparagine and
used as frying oil due to its high content of diglycerides (6 to reducing sugars (Zhang, 2009). Currently it is clearly known
8%). This might be attributed to another formation pathway that this compound is also one of triacylglycerols thermal
of the aminoacid precursor of acrolein (Klostermann, 2002) degradation products that is formed during food processing
or formed from glycerol when the frying temperature at very high temperature. The intensity of acrylamide
is higher than the smoke point of frying oil (Claeys, formation in foods containing asparagine and reducing
2005). Therefore, control of the type of frying oil, frying sugars depends on initial concentrations of these precursors
temperature and time are effective to control the producing and their ratio as well as on temperature and duration of
of acrylamide. Palm oil contains about 45% saturated fat thermal treatment, water activity and pH (Shibamoto, 2005;
and is more stable than palmoleinand other vegetable oils Claus, et al., 2008; Hedegaard, 2008).
(Fennema, 1985). Among myriad of choices of atioxidants,
+ Amino
HMF or Furfural Aldols and N-Free Polymers Compounds
Traditionally, High Performance Liquid Chromatography Noodle color and Noodle darkening
(HPLC) and Gas Chromatography (GC) were only used
to measure acrylamide quantitatively. Novel analytical During frying, noodle develops characteristic golden or
technique uses Capillary Ecectrophoresis (CE), Enzyme yellow color. The degree of yellowness in noodles is not
Linked Immunological Assay (ELISA) and Electrochemical only dependent on the alkali used in formulation alone but
biosensors. Among these methods, use of biosensors also on the wheat variety and yellow pigment of the flour
are and ELISA are the most promising one as they allow (Kruger, 1996). Flavones are colorless at acidic pH and
fast screening of numerous samples without usage of present in great amount in germ and bran. Raw noodle
sophisticated apparatus. HPLC, GC and CE are time become darker and yellow with time after manufacture as
consuming sample preparation and use expensive equipment attributed by presence of bran specks ad enzymatic browning
(Oracz, et al., 2011). by polyphenol oxidases (Moss, 1985). Polyphenol oxidases,
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