11 Basic Civil Engg Theo EM PDF

GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU
HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING - THEORY
Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of School Education
Civil_English_FM.indd 1 21-04-2018 13:20:02

Government of Tamil Nadu
First Edition - 2018
NOT FOR SALE
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
State Council of Educational

Research and Training
© SCERT 2018
Printing & Publishing
Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

Services Corporation
www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in

Preface
This book on “Basic Civil Engineering” has been written entirely based on new
syllabus framed by TNSCERT. The subject matter is explained in a simple and lucid
language, light-ened by sufficient colourful diagrams, illustrations with learning
objectives.
In each chapter, Quotes, Activities, “Do you Know” and web search links were given
which enhance the students knowledge. QR Codes for the tough area of the subject were
marked. This will help the students to understand the subject further in detail. A set of
Model Questions were also included at the end of each unit.
Case studies which were included at the end of this book would be useful to moti-
vate the students and also give an idea about the diversity of their course.
I extend my sincere thanks to the Director, Joint Director and Staff members whose
patronage on this book to come out and the committee of learned Teachers who shouldered
the responsibility to bring the book in good shape.
Despite all our efforts, some errors and minor mistakes might have crept in. Your pos-
itive suggestion, regarding the improvement of this book will be thankfully acknowledged.
iii

Learning objectives are brief statements that describe what
Learning Objectives students will be expected to learn by the end of school year,
course, unit, lesson or class period
Chapter Outline Illustrate the complete overview of chapter
Amazing facts, Rhetorical questions to lead students

to Engineering inquiry
Activity Directions are provided to students to conduct activities

in order to explore, enrich the concept
Infographics Visual representation of the lesson to enrich learning

HOW TO USE
THE BOOK
Evaluation Assess students to pause, think and check their understanding
To motivate the students to further explore the content

digitally and take them in to virtual world
Career corner List of professions related to the subject
References List of related books for further details of the topic
Web links List of digital resources
Glossary Explanation of Engineering terms
Competitive
Model questions to face various competitive exams
Exam questions

Career Guidance
Vertical Mobility - Higher Education

After completion of Basic Civil Engineering Vocational Group students are eligible
* To join Bachelor degree in Engineering in any discipline in Engineering Colleges.
* To join Bachelor degree in Architecture.
* To join directly in second year Diploma Engineering in polytechnic colleges in any
discipline.
* To join AMIE through Distance education which is equal to Bachelor in
Engineering.
* To join Diploma in Teacher Education.
* To join B.Sc Mathematics.
* To join B. Com., B.A., B.B.A, B.C.S, B.C.A, etc.,
* To join B.L, L.L.B (Law Courses)
* To join Diploma and B.Sc in Catering Technology.
Horizontal Mobility (Employment/Self Employment)
Employment
Join as Apprentice Trainee/Site Supervisors in reputed companies like
* L & T Construction pvt ltd.
* Various private construction companies.
* As CAD Draughtsman in Architectural offices.
* As field surveyor.
* As quantity surveyor.
Self-Employment
* After
getting sufficient knowledge in this field, can do Bulding Construction
Works individually.

Competitive Exam
* TNPSC – www.tnpsc.gov.in
* Railway Recruitment Board (RRB) www.Indainrailways.gov.in
* Indian Navy – www.indiannavy.nic.in
* Indian Army – www.indiannavy.nic
* Indian Air Force – www.indianairforce.nic.in
* Indian Coast Guard – www.joinindiancoastguard.gov.in
* Tamilnadu Uniform Service Recruitment Board – www.tnsrb.gov.in
* Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) www. http://crpf.nic.in
* Indian Postal Department – www.indianpost.gov.in
* LIC of India www.lic.in
vi

Contents
Unit 1 Basic Engineering Drawing 1

1.1 Drawing Instruments and their uses
1.2 Lines, Lettering and Dimensioning
Unit 2 AutoCAD 25
2.1 AutoCAD Software
2.2 AutoCAD Basics
Unit 3 Building Materials 55
3.1 Stones
3.2 Bricks
3.3 Sand
4.1 Cement
4.2 Mortar
4.3 Concrete
5.1 Timber
5.2 Lime
5.3 Tiles
Unit 6 Building Construction 129
6.1 Foundation
6.2 Stone Masonry
6.3 Brick Masonry
vii

7.1 Lintels and Arches
7.2 Doors and Windows
8.1 Stairs
8.2 Roofs
8.3 Floors and Flooring
Case Studies
Nateswaran205
Deepika206
Arunkumar Mohanraj 207
Joseph Marie Dass 208
Marks Allocation209
Model Question Paper I210
Model Question Paper II213
References216
Glossary217
E-book Assessment DIGI-Links

Lets use the QR code in the text books ! How ?
• Download the QR code scanner from the Google PlayStore/ Apple App Store into your smartphone
• Open the QR code scanner application
• Once the scanner button in the application is clicked, camera opens and then bring it closer to the QR code in the text book.
• Once the camera detects the QR code, a url appears in the screen.Click the url and goto the content page.
viii

BASIC ENGINEERING Unit - 1
Basic Civil
DRAWING Engineering
1.1 - DRAWING INSTRUMENTS

AND THEIR USES
1.2 - LINES, LETTERING AND STRAIGHT LETTERS & NUMBERALS

DIMENSIONING
10
A B C D E F G H I J K LM N O PQ R S T U V W X Y Z
10
1 2 34 56 7 89 0
10 INCLINED LETTERS & NUMBERALS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z 75
10
12 34 5 67 8 90
1 Basic Engineering Drawing
Civil_English_Unit_1.indd 1 21-04-2018 13:20:44

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 Drawing Instruments and 1.2.3. Lettering
Their Uses 1.2.4. Dimensioning
1.1.1. Introduction 1.2.5. Methods of Dimensioning
1.1.2. Drawing, Types of Drawing 1.2.6. Principles of Dimensioning
1.1.3. Drawing Instruments 1.2.7. Exercise on Dimensioning
1.2 Lines, Lettering and
Dimensioning
1.2.1. Introduction
1.2.2. Types of Lines
Learning Objectives
1.1 DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR USES
Learning Objectives
At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• State the importance of drawing.
• List the drawing instruments.
• Use different drawing instruments.
• Follow precaution in the use of instruments.
1.1.1 Introduction craftsman are expected to communicate

anything concerning a part or a compo-
To produce a best standard prod-
nent by drawings involving lines, symbols,
uct, all the technical personnel (Engineers
abbreviations, etc.
to Craftsmen) must have a sound knowl-
edge in Engineering drawing. Because 1.1.2 Drawing - Definition
Engineering drawing is the language with
different types of lines and alphabet. Tech- A drawing is a graphic representa-
nical personnel in any industry including tion of an object or a part of it and is the
Basic Engineering Drawing | Drawing Instruments 2

result of the creative thought by an engi- 1.1.3.1 Drawing Board
neer or technician. Drawing is classified
into three types. STRIPS
SCREW
Types of Drawing
1. Art Drawing.
BATTENS
2. Geometrical Drawing.
3. Engineering Drawing. WORKING
EDGE
1. Art Drawing: Drawing of objects like (EBONY)
trees, animals, hills and natural sceneries
on the paper is called as “Art Drawing”.
2. Geometrical Drawing: Drawing of geo-
metrical shapes like square, rectangle,
triangle, cylinder, sphere, etc., on the
paper is called “Geometrical Drawing”.
3. Engineering Drawing: Drawing of
Engineering objects like buildings,
machines, electricity, etc., on the paper
Drawing Board with Stand
is called “Engineering Drawing”.
1.1.3 Drawing Instruments Drawing board is one of the main

equipment of Draughtsman. It is used for
There are so many drawing instru- supporting the drawing paper for making
ments used to draw a drawing in a simple drawings. It is rectangular in shape. It is
and accurate way. They are : made of well seasoned wood strips of about
25mm thick, free from knots and warping.
1. Drawing Board
2. T-Square
3. Set Squares
4. Protractor
5. Mini Drafter
6. Clinograph
7. French Curves
8. Scale
9. Compass (Bow Compass, Large Compass)
10. Divider
11. Drawing Pencils
12. Pencil Eraser
13. Drawing Sheets
3 Drawing Instruments | Basic Engineering Drawing

Standard Size of Drawing Boards as per IS 1444-1989
Drawing-
S.No Designation Sheet Size to Size of the Board in mm
be used (Length, Breadth, Thickness)
1 D0 A0 1500 × 1000 × 25
2 D1 A1 1000 × 700 × 25
3 D2 A2 700 × 500 × 15
4 D3 A3 500 × 350 × 15
It should be softer enough to allow inser- blade is screwed to this head such that the
tion and removal of drawing pins. Two bat- working edge is at right angle to head.
tens are fastened to the board by screws, in
slotted joints. They prevent warping and at
working edge
the same time permit expansion and con- 90°
traction of the strips due to the change of
moisture in the atmosphere.
blade
One of the shorter edges of the draw- stock
ing board is provided with an “Ebony edge”
(hard wood) fitted perfectly straight, on which
the stock of the ‘T’ square moves. It projects
about 4 to 5mm from the board. While work-
ing, the ebony edge (working edge) side is to
be placed to the left side on a table or castle at
a convenient height and slope. The standard size of T-Squares
as per IS 1360 – 1989.
Now-a-days the drawing boards
S.No Designation Blade Length in mm
are available with laminated surfaces.
1. T0 1500
The flatness can be checked by placing
2. T1 1000
a straight edge on its surface. If no light
passes between them, the surface is per- 3. T2 700
fectly flat. 4. T3 500
The T-Square can move up and down

1.1.3.2 T-Square
direction only.
It is T - shaped made of well-sea-
soned wood, or plastic material. It has two The T-Square is used to draw horizon-
parts, namely the head and the blade. One tal lines, parallel lines and to guide/hold the
edge of the blade is the working edge. The setsquares, stencils, etc.

th of T-square Sometimes set squares have French
ng edge of drawing curves. Set squares are used to draw straight
must be straight lines except horizontal lines. It is convenient
to draw horizontal lines using T square.
Blade Parallel line or Straight Edge
Hanging hole
Transparent plastic edge

permitd seeing drawing
underneath
Set Squares with French Curve

and Protractor
T-Square with Set Squares and 1.1.3.4 Protractor

Drawing Board
Protractor is an instrument for
measuring angles. It is semi-circular in
1.1.3.3 Set Squares shape and is made of flat celluloid (or)
Transparent celluloid (or) plastic plastic material.
set squares are preferred. They are two
in number, each having one corner with The angles can be set or measured
90°. The set square with 30°–60° of 25cm from both sides, aligning reference line
long and 45° of 20cm long is convenient and point ‘O’ with corner point of the
for use. Set squares sometimes lose their angle.
accuracy due to internal strains. So they
should be tested periodically.
Protractor With Scale
30°–60° Set Square 45° Set Square

A drafting machine is used by
professional draughtsman to prepare
drawings. It combines the functions of
T – Square, set square, scales, clinograph
and protractor. The miniature version of
Figure shows how to read or set the drafting machine known as “Mini-
the angle. Protractor can also be used to drafter”. It is used for drafting by students.
divide a circle into equal parts.
One end of the mini drafter is
clamped by means of a clamping screw
1.1.3.5 Mini Drafter:
(c.s.) to the longer edge of the drawing
board. At its other end, an adjustable
knob (k) having protractor (P) markings
is fitted. Two Scales of transparent cellu-
loid, set at right angles to each other are
attached to the knob.
In short, the mini drafter is used for

different drafting operations like, to draw
horizontal, vertical and inclined lines par-
allel and perpendicular lines and also for
Drawing
Drawing sheet
board measuring lines and angles.
Movable arms 1.1.3.6 Clinograph

Scales
An adjustable set square which
changes angular measurement is known as
clinograph. These are made-up of transpar-
Protractor
ent plastic (or) celluloid. Clinograph can be
adjusted to any required angle by using the
Parts of Mini-Drafter

Who invented drafting
machine?
T he drafting machine
was invented by
Charles H. Little in 1901. He founded
the universal drafting Machine Com-
pany in Cleveland, Ohio to manufac-
ture and sell the instrument.
Clinograph
Search link: Htttp://en.m.wiki-
pedia.org>wiki>drafting machine.
1.1.3.7 French Curves:
French curve is made of transpar-
ent celluloid or plastic. It is used to draw
irregular curves. It is available in differ-
ent sizes and shapes. French curve is also
inscribed in the setsquares. French curve
is used to draw non-circular curves, which
cannot be drawn with a compass.
degrees given with centre and fixed firmly

after adjustment by using a screw provided.
With T square, clinograph is used to draw
parallel lines to any inclined line.
French Curve Models
1.1.3.8 Scale
The Scale is made up of wood, trans-
parent celluloid (or) plastic. Metric (or)
British system of measurement is marked

Flexi Curve ACTIVITY
PROJECT 1
There is an instrument Prepare a drawing using irregu-

named as flexi curve lar curved lines with the help of French
which is used to draw curves and flexi curve.
irregular continuous curved lines in
architectural drawings.
Search link: http://www.sci-
1.1.3.9 Compass
encedirect.com>pii.
 Compass is used to draw circles and arcs.
 Large Compass is used to draw circles
from 30mm to 120mm Ø diameter.
 Bow Compass is used for drawing small
circles upto 30mm Ø diameter.
on the edge of the scale. Generally the size

of scale we are using is 300mm length,
30mm breadth and 1mm thick. The meas-
urement are graduated in 1:1 scale.
Instrument Box Set
Scales

Large Compass
Divider
 Setting dimensions from the scale to the

drawing.
1.1.3.11 Drawing Pencils

Drawing pencils are different from
ordinary pencils and are in grades HB,H,
2H etc. Grade HB denotes medium soft.
Grades H, 2H etc, denote the degree of
hardness in increasing order. Grades B,
2B etc, denote the degree of softness in
increasing orders. There are 18 numbers of
Bow Compass quality drawing pencils. The grade of the
pencil is decided by the amount of graph-
ite mixed with clay and is used as follows:
1.1.3.10 Divider
The divider has two legs hinged at
HB Soft Grade – used for drawing border
the upper end. It is provided with steel
lines, lettering and freehand sketching.
pins at both the lower ends.
H Medium Grade – used for drawing visi-
ble outlines and visible edges.
Dividers are used for
2H Hard Grade – used for construction
 Dividing curved or straight lines into
lines, Dimension lines, Leader lines, exten-
any number of equal parts.
sion lines, centre lines, hatching lines and
 Transfering dimensions from one part of hidden lines.
the drawing to another part.

NOTE: Never use ordinary cheap
quality pencils on your drawing sheet.
Keep your pencil sharp: A dull pencil

Microtip Pencils
produces fuzzy lines. Only a sharp pen-
cil produces black and sharp lines that
sparkle with clarity. Lead is sharpened to
conical point (or) chisel edge by rubbing What is the birth place
on an emery paper. Conical point is used of pencil?
G
for lettering and freehand sketching. ermany was the birth place of
Chisel edged pencil is used for drawing the first mass produced pencils
lines. in 1662.
The discovery of a large graph-
ite deposit in Borrowdale, England in
1564.
Later, the graphite was inserted
into hollowed – out wooden sticks
and thus the wood cased pencil was
born at Nuremberg, Germany
Search link: http://en.m.wiki-
pedia.org>swiki>pencil. www.histo-
ryofpencils.com
Micro-tip pencils
Micro-tip pencils / clutch pencils
with 0.5mm thick leads of grades HB, H 1.1.3.12 Pencil Eraser
and 2H are preferred than wooden pen- Pencil eraser (‘it is not rubber’ call
cils, as they need no sharpening. it ‘eraser’) is used to erase unwanted lines,
etc. A non-dusting good quality eraser is
called Eraser soft should be used.

1.1.3.13 Drawing Sheet
Drawing sheets are of two types:
 Mill made paper
 Hand made paper.
Mill Made Papers are most com-
monly used for regular work and are avail-
able in different sizes and rolls .
Mill Made Paper
Pencil Eraser
Hand-Made Papers have rough
surfaces, pale in color and not used for
regular work, but meant for charts.
Eraser
I n, 1770 English engi-

neer ‘Edward Nairne’
developed the first widely
marketed ‘rubber eraser.’ Until that
time it was known as ‘gum elastic’
Hand Made Paper
Sizes of Drawing Sheets: The drawing

sheets are designated by symbols such as
A0, A1, A2, A3, A4 and A5. A0 being the
largest.

Standard Size of Drawing Sheets
Designation Trimmed Size in mm Untrimmed Size in mm
A0 1189 × 841 1230 × 880
A1 841 × 594 880 × 625
A2 594 × 420 625 × 450
A3 420 × 297 450 × 330
A4 297 × 210 330 × 240
A5 210 × 148 240 × 165
Layout and Folding of Drawing Sheet (IS 10711:2001)
Drawing Sheets
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 2
Prepare an album by collecting
the picture of all drawing instruments.

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
Choose the correct answer
1. Drawing related to natural sceneries is
……..
a. Art drawing
b. Geometry drawing 6. The quality of pencil used to draw object
c. Engineering drawing lines
d. Civil drawing a. 2H
2. The drawing related to building is ……… b. 3H
a. Art drawing c. HB
b. Geometry drawing d. H
c. Civil drawing 7. The total number of quality drawing
d. Engineering drawing pencil
3. With the help of ……. protractor and set a. 6
square are used. b. 12
a. Scale c. 18
b. Clinograph d. 3
c. T-square 8. Combined instrument of T-square, set
d. Drafter squares, protractor and scale.
4. The length of 30°−60° set square a. Mini drafter
a. 30 cm b. French curves
b. 35 cm c. Compass
c. 15 cm d. Clinograph
d. 25 cm
PART II (3 Marks)
5. The lines are equally divided with the
help of Answer in one or two sentences
a. Divider 9. What is meant by Engineering drawing?
b. Compass 10. Mention any three instruments to draw
c. Set squares the drawing.
d. Protractor 11. What are the instruments used to draw
curves?
12. What is the use of compass?
13. Mention any two prescribed sizes of
drawing board.

PART III (5 Marks) PART IV (10 Marks)
Answer shortly Answer in detail
14. Draw the sketch of a drawing board and 17. Describe the mini drafter with a neat
mention its parts. sketch.
15. What are the uses of ‘T-squares’?
16. Describe the protractor with a neat
sketch.
1.(a) 2.(c) 3.(c) 4.(d) 5.(a) 6.(d) 7.(c) 8.(a)
Answers

Learning Objectives
1.2 LINES, LETTERING AND DIMENSIONING
Learning Objectives
• State the types of line
• Explain the application of different types of lines
• Understand the lettering style
• Define dimensioning
• Dimension the drawings as per standard specification
1.2.1 Introduction Line Types

. Object Lines
Lines: In Engineering drawing, several lines
. Hidden Lines thick
are followed to define a shape of the object.
Each and every line has its individual name
. Center Lines thin
. Phantom Lines
thin
and sense. Especially the types of lines, must
. Dimension Lines
thin
be known that how each and every lines are thin
Extension Lines
used in Engineering drawing. Leader Lines
.Cutting Plane line
thick
1.2.2 Types of Lines . Sections - Hatching
1. Object line or Outline. . Break Lines thin thick
2. Hidden lines or Dotted lines.
3. Centre Line. VISIBLE LINE
4. Dimension line. HIDDEN LINE
5. Arrow heads. CENTER LINE

DIMENSION & EXTENSION LINES
6. Extension line (or) Projection line.
SHORT BREAK LINE
7. Leader Line. LONG BREAK LINE
8. Cutting plane line. PHANTOM LINE
9. Sectional line (or) Hatching line. CUTTING PLANE LINES
OR
VIEWING- PLANE LINES
10. Short break line.
11. Long break line. by using this lines to show the shape of
1. Object Line (or) Outline: When we see the object. H pencil is used for drawing,
an object, the visible edges and their sur- object line / outline. It should be dark
face boundaries are drawn in a drawing and at the same time thin.
15 Lines, Lettering And Dimensioning | Basic Engineering Drawing

2. Hidden Lines (or) Dotted Lines: These 5. Arrow Heads: At both ends of the
lines are used to show the hidden planes dimension line, the arrows are marked.
and hidden edges of an object. The Arrow marks are drawn as per the sketch
length of this line may be 2mm to 3mm. shown. But same type of arrow mark
The interval between the lines should be should be used in a sketch .The angle
1mm. The point of intersection of these between the arrow mark may be 15°
lines with the outlines (or) another hid- to 90°.
den line should be clearly shown. Where space is too small for an
3. Centre Line: The centre point of arc, circle arrowhead, the oblique stroke (drawn as
are denoted by this line. The axes of sym- a short line inclined at an angle of 45°) or
metrical geometrical objects like cylinder a dot may be substituted as shown in fig.
sphere and cone are denoted by this line.
Construction of this line is with uniform
interval of alternative lengthy line and Arrow head
small line. Interval is 1mm length of the
line is 9 to 12mm and small lines in 1.5mm
4. Dimension Line (D.L) This line is a con-
tinuous narrow line drawn parallel to Obilque storke
the edge or surface whose measurement
should be shown. It should be placed
outside the view. Sometimes it may be
placed inside the view if the drawing Origin indication
becomes very clear to do so.
6. Extension Line (or) Projection Line: It
ARROW HEAD DIMENSION LINE
is a continuous narrow line drawn per-
XX 3 mm pendicular to the outline to be dimen-
XX EXTENSION
LINE sioned and without leaving a gap from
the portion. It is drawn extending slightly
beyond the dimension line about 2mm.
XX
XX
12 mm
OBJECT LINE 8 mm
3X
X
Dimension line is placed at least 12 7. Leader Line:

mm away from the outline of the drawing. Leader line is a continuous nar-
It is terminated by arrows at its end. row line, connecting dimensional value
Basic Engineering Drawing |Lines,LetteringAndDimensioning 16

or note with the corresponding feature Generally letters and numerals are
on the drawing. It is drawn at 30°, 45° or written in two methods.
60° with the horizontal and it should be
drawn radially to indicate the radius or 1. Vertical Type
diameter of a circle or an arc. 2. Inclined Type
Leader Line Vertical Type: In vertical type of letter-

ø2° ing, the letters and numerals should be
written perpendicular to the horizontal
ø5° level.
Leader Line
ø1°
.5 deep
1.2.3 Lettering
Letters and numerals are used in Inclined Type: In this type letters and
Engineering drawing to specify the meas- numerals should be inclined to 75° to
urement of object and description of that horizontal level.
object. H or HB pencils are used to write
letters and numerals.
Capital letters are generally used

in engineering drawing. But small letters
recommended by international standard
are also used.
To write letters and numerals,

drawing instruments should not be used,
as fastness cannot be achieved and also
takes more time.

1.2.4 Dimensioning method of placing dimensional values at
different positions on the dimension lines.
Method of describing the shape,
measurement of an object in engineer-
Angular Dimensions: Angular dimen-
ing drawing is called “Dimensioning”. So
sions are oriented as in the following
many lines, letters, numerals and symbols
figure
are used in this dimensioning.
1.2.5 Methods of Dimensioning

Method-I: Aligned System Marking Angles from Baseline
In Aligned method of Dimension-

ing the dimension line should be contin-
uous and dimension should be placed in
the middle of the dimension line without
39º
touching it.
100
40 25
Ø20-4
135 0 40
46
Holes
º
53º
100
25
Marking Angles Continuously

38
Ø40
40 38 Method-II: Unidirectional System
128
In unidirectional method of dimen-
Dimensional values are marked sioning the dimension line should be cut at
so that they can be read either from the center and dimensions should be placed in
bottom or from the right hand side of the middle of dimension lines as shown in
the drawing. The above figure shows the the fig below.

NOTE:
 All dimensions should be noted in mm.

 Only one method of dimensioning
should be used in a drawing.
 If the dimension value is less than 1,
a zero is placed before the decimal
point, example 0.5 and not .5
 Decimal point in a dimension should
be written in line with the bottom line
of the dimension value, example 0.5
and not 0 ˙5
 Abbreviation for millimetres is not
‘mms’ but ‘mm’ only.
1.2.6 Principles of Dimensioning
S1. DIMENSIONING INCORRECT CORRECT

No RULE
1 Place the dimensions

outside the views. 60
35
35
60
2 Location of holes 40 40
should be dimensioned
in top views.

30 Ø30
3 A circle should be
dimension by its
diameter using
the symbol Ø.
4 Dimensions to the
hidden lines of a view
are be avioded. 10
10
5 Arrange a chain of
dimensions in a c
ontinuos line.
40 30 60
40 30 60
10 30
6 Larger dimensions 30
should be placed 10
out side the shorter one.
7 Overall dimensions
should be placed
out side intermediate
dimensions.
100 35 35
35 35 100
8 Dimension figures
should be
approximately centered
between the arrow
heads. 40
40

9 An axis line or
outline should never
be used as dimension 25
30
30
line. But the axis line
may be used as
extension line. 25
10 Centre line should not

be used as a
dimension line. 60 60
11 Do not repeat the

same dimension in 40 40
different views.
40 40
12 Dimension line 10
should be drawn 10
atleast 12 mm away
from the outline and
from each other.
13 Arrowheads should
touch the Projection
lines.
ø10, 25 DEEP
14 Notes should always
ø10, 25 DEEP
be written
horizontally.
30
15 Dimensions should
be given to finished
surfaces rather than
rough surfaces.
30

1.2.7 Exercise On Dimensioning: 25 35 2 Holes ∅20
Example – 1: Read the dimensioned draw-

ing as shown in figure. Redraw the figure
50
in full size. Dimension it as per BIS code.
30
The following mistakes of dimensioning
15
are noted as shown in figure. 45
80
(ii) Correct
30 30Ø
15
1. Many dimensions are placed inside
20
the drawing. Mark them outside the
60
drawing.
30
30
30 2. Dimension (50) Line is crossing the

15
dimension (45) line. Also, dimensions
80
(45) line and dimension (30) line cross
(i) Incorrect each other. Also , dimension (50) and
30 20 dimension (35) line cross each other.
Ø30 Dimension lines should not cross other
dimension lines.
3. Dimensional value (50) should be placed
in the middle of the dimension line.
30
60
4. Centre lines of both the holes should be

30
15
drawn. Distance between center lines

80
should be marked.
(ii) Correct
5. Diameters of the holes are not shown
1. Most of the dimensions are placed inside the properly. Follow the convention of
drawing. Place them outside the drawing. repeated features for the two holes using
2. Some of the dimension lines are crossing leader line and Notes (2xØ 20 or 2 holes
each other. It is not permitted. Ø 20) written horizontally.
3. Diameter of the circle is wrongly given 6. Extensions of outlines of the drawing are
as 30 Ø wrongly used as dimension (35 and 15)
4. Axis of the circle is not shown correctly. lines.
7. Dimension (15) line between outside
Example – 2 : Redraw the figure in full
the circles and also the dimension (10)
size. Mark the dimensions as per BIS.
line between the outline of the circle
and outline of the drawing are not
permissible.
50
35 15 20 10
8. Overall measurements should be given.
45 But only overall width of the drawing is
30
shown. Mark the overall length too.

15
35
(i) Incorrect

Example – 3 : Redraw the figure to half 5. Angle (60˚) is not properly dimensioned
size. Dimension it as per BIScode. in both the places. The same should be
NOTE : Draw the figure to half size placed by either of the two methods.
(scale 1:2) Mark actual dimensions on the 6. Unit of dimension mm is marked near
drawing. the dimensional values (75 and 180),
Ø40 which is not correct. A foot-note stating
“ALL DIMENSIONS IN mm” is written
45 in a prominent place near the title block.
45
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 3
60° 60°
Redraw the figure. Dimension it
as per BIS code.
12
180 mm
80
75 mm
(i) Incorrect 80
40
40
R23 50° 50°
100
45 40
60 60° 60° 60°
20
20
60°
60
140 140
(i) Incorrect (ii) Correct

45
60° 60°
12 75
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 4
180
Redraw the figure, dimension it
(ii) Correct Scale 1:2
as per BIS code.
1
1. Dimension (12) is wrongly marked, 30R 25 R30 30
80
25
since the outline of the object is used as 10
10R ø20
dimension line. 25 30
30
30
R
30
An outline or a centreline 30 10ø 30

80
80
20 ø30
should never be used as a dimension
20
20
20
20
line. However, a centre line may be +

20 20
+
60˚
extended to serve as an extension line. (i) Incorrect (i
140
2. Series of dimensions
30R (45, 45 and 12) 25
are R30 30 10 25 25 R30
80
25
not in a continuous line, which10 is not ø20
10R
proper. They should be arranged 25on a
25
30
30
30
30
R
30
continuous line. 30 10ø 30 ø10

80
80
ø30
3. The longer dimension (180) is wrongly
20 R15
20
placed inside the shorter dimension (75)
20
20
60˚
20
20
+ +
60˚ 20 20
4. Arc dimension (R23) is wrongly
(i) Incorrect marked (ii) Correct
as (Ø 46)

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. …… letters are generally used in engi-
neering drawing.
a. Capital b. Slanting
c. Inclined d. Small
2. Generally, the letters and numerals are
PART IV (10 Marks)
written in …… methods. Answer in detail
a. 5 b. 4 c. 3 d. 2 11. Describe the method of dimensioning in
3. The letters are inclined to ….. to the hor- aligned system with sketch.
izontal plane. 12. Describe the method of dimensioning in
a. 50º b. 75º c. 60º d. 45º unidirectional system with sketch.
13. Draw the given figure in full size and
4. The angle between the arrow mark may
dimension it as per BIS code.
be……
a. 15º to 90º
b. 20º to 50º 30 30Ø
15
c. 10º to 30º 20
d. 5º to 15º 60
30
30
30
PART II (3 Marks) 15
Answer in one or two sentences 80
(i) Incorrect
5. Write any four types of lines.
6. What is dimensioning? 30 20
7. Define Arrow heads. Ø30
8. Define oblique stroke.

PART III (5 Marks)
30
60
Answer shortly
30
15
9. Write briefly about any two types of lines

80
with sketch
(ii) Correct
10. Define hidden line and centre line
1.(a) 2.(d) 3.(b) 4.(a)
Answers:

Unit 2
AUTOCAD Basic Civil
Engineering
2.1 AUTOCAD
SOFTWARE
2.2 AUTOCAD BASICS
25 AutoCAD

TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1 AutoCAD Software 2.2 AutoCAD Basics
2.1.1 Introduction 2.2.1 Introduction
2.1.2 Softwares Used in Civil 2.2.2 Draw Commands
Engineering 2.2.3 Modify Commands
2.1.3 CAD-AutoCAD 2.2.4 Text Command
2.1.4 Advantages of using 2.2.5 Zoom Command
AutoCAD Software in 2.2.6 Dimension
Computers 2.2.7 Layer
2.1.5 Units 2.2.8 Editing Commands
2.1.6 Functional Keys 2.2.9 Isometric Drawings
Learning
2.1.7 Objectives
File Management 2.2.10 Orthographic View
2.1.8 Drawing Limits
2.1 AUTOCAD SOFTWARE
Learning Objectives

• State the AUTOCAD software and its uses.
• Understand the other softwares in civil engineering.
2.1.1 Introduction Who invented CAD?

In modern world, the use of com-
puters are increasing in almost all the sec- A n American Ivan
Sutherland invented
CAD in 1961.
tors. The computers play an important role
in the field of Civil Engineering too. Varous
software are used to save time, energy and
simplify the tedious work like building
drawing, design, analysis etc. In this chap-
ter we learn about the softwares used in civil
engineering.
AutoCAD | AutoCAD Software 26

mechanical, electrical and electronics
Who discovered engineering. Drawing using this software
AutoCAD? is simple, speed and errorless.
I n 1982, John Walker and

12 other programmers
began to work on several computers
The softwares like Archi CAD,
REVIT, SKETCHUP and PHOTO SHOP
are also used for drawing.
application. The first to be completed
was auto CAD, a software application
for computer aided design (CAD) and
drafting.
2.1.2.2. STAAD PRO : This software is used

to designing and analysis of a structure.
The softwares SAP, NISA, ANSYS

are also used for design and analysis of
structure.
Search Link: http://en.m.wikipedia.org>

wiki>autodesk
2.1.2 Softwares Used in Civil 2.1.2.3 QE PRO: This software used for

Engineering: fast and accurate quantity computation
1. AUTOCAD from building plans.
2. STAAD PRO
3. QE PRO
4. ESR, GSR
5. GEO
6. AQUA++ 2.1.2.4 ESR, GSR: It is a unique software
7. KANAL ++ for structural analysis, design and detail-
8. MX ROADS ing of overhead water tanks.
9. ECOTECT
10. SAFE
11. SACS
2.1.2.1 AUTOCAD: AutoCAD software

is prepared by an American company
called Auto Desk. This software is highly 2.1.2.5 GEO: This software is used to
used for the preparation of drawings. This show the route map, topography of the
software is used in branches like civil, land etc.
27 AutoCAD Software | AutoCAD

2.1.2.6 AQUA ++: Aqua ++ software is
used for water distribution and water
management.
2.1.2.9 ECOTECT: This is an environ-

mental analysis tool software. The soft-
2.1.2.7 KANAL ++: Kanal ++ software wares ENERGY +, IES are also used for
is used for storm water distribution and pollution free building designs.
waste water management.
2.1.2.8 MX ROADS: This software is use-

ful to highway designing and 3D modeling,
pavement design etc. The softwares HDM,
AUTOPLOTTER, HEADS are also used for
highway modeling.
Which organisation
developed AutoCAD?
• A uto CAD developed and marketed

by Auto Desk.
• Auto CAD was first released in
December 1982.
• It releases auto CAD 2018(release 32)
in March 2017 2.1.2.10 SAFE/STAAD FOUNDATION:
This software is used for the design of
foundations. STAAD FOUNDATION
software also used for basic and complex
foundation designs and documents.

can draw the drawing with utmost care,
clarity and fast by using the AutoCAD
software.
2.1.4 Advantages of Using AUTOCAD

Software in Computer
1. If a drawing is prepared by using Auto-
CAD, it will be beautiful and clear. This
2.1.2.11 SACS: SACS software is useful is a good type of drawing compared with
for offshore structural analysis and design. manual preparation of drawing.
2. It will take much time while using vari-
eties of lines, colours in manual drawing.
But all these done within a short time in
AutoCAD.
3. It is very tough to edit or correct a man-
ual drawing. But corrections can be eas-
ily done in AutoCAD.
2.1.3 CAD – AutoCAD:
4. We can show the original appearance of
CAD – Computer Aided Design the building with the three dimensional
drawings using AutoCAD.
Before constructing a building the
preparation of drawing such as plan, sec- 5. According to the desire of building
tional view and elevation is necessary. We owner, the needs of a house can be shown
through this AutoCAD drawing which is
impossible in manual drawing.
6. We can make some changes in the draw-
ing as per our requirements and several
Photoshop copies may be taken at a time. It is not
• Photoshop was developed possible in manual drawing.
in 1987 by the American
brothers ‘Thomas’ and
7. By joining two drawings, we can make it
‘John Knoll’. as a single drawing. It cannot be done in
• In 1988 he sold the distribution manual drawing.
license to the adobe systems.
Thus drawing by using AutoCAD
software is more useful than manual
drawing.
2.1.5 Units
1. Selection of unit is to be done before
drawing a sketch. Eg. decimal, engineer-
ing, architectural, fractional or scientific.
29 AutoCAD Software | AutoCAD

2. Selection of Unit format. Eg. millimeter, of a drawing can be shown by using this
centimetre, Feet, inches, etc. OSNAP function.
3. Selection of unit for angle is necessary.
F7 : SNAP ON / SNAP OFF : Snap is
Eg. Degree / min / sec, radians etc.,
used to control the cursor movement in a
4. Drawing area limits should be decided.
drawing. Isometric views can be drawn by
2.1.6 Functional Keys: using this key.
ESC: ‘ESC’ key is used to come out from F8 : ORTHO ON (OR) ORTHO OFF :
any command.
ORTHO ON : In this position, 0˚ and 90˚ lines
F1 : This F1 key helps to know about the are drawn from one point to another point.
AutoCAD perfectly. This is a help window
for AutoCAD Function key. ORTHO OFF: In this position, we can draw
the line according to our required angle
F2 : This is an AutoCAD text window. from one point to another point.
This function key is used to open the file
and thus it is used to know the commands F9 : GRID ON (OR) GRID OFF :
we have used.
GRID ON: When grid is on, the points of X
F3 : OSNAP function - When a com- axis and Y axis, like graph sheet are seen in
mand is under progress, Symbols of mid- window of AutoCAD drawing. But it is not
point, centre point, perpendicular etc., visible in print out. Grid on position is used
to draw straight line. Also we can know how
far we are selecting the limits of drawing.
Sketch up GRID OFF: In this grid off position, we

• Sketch up was introduced cannot see the graph on the window.
by @last software, a tech
company, co-founded in F10 : POLAR ON (OR) POLAR OFF :
1999 by Brad Schell release
date august 2000. POLAR ON: In polar on position, when lines
• Sketch up developed as a 3D are drawn from a point to another point by
modelling tool for architects, using line command, the distance of line
designers and film makers.
and angle of line can be known. It can be
used to draw the line with required angle.
POLAR OFF: In polar off position, the dis-

tance and angle of line are not visible in
the window.
2.1.7 File Management:

New: This command is used to draw a
new drawing in AutoCAD.

AUTOCAD Window
Open: This command is used to open the Export: This is used to change or bring
saved drawing which is already drawn and the drawing file from AutoCAD file to
saved in the file. another file.
Save: It is used to save the drawing we Exit: This command is used to come out
have already drawn in AutoCAD Window from AutoCAD to desktop.
Save As: This command is used to change

2.1.8 Drawing Limits
the title of the drawing which is already
saved and to save it in another file. It is Before drawing a sketch in Auto-
also used to take the print out of duplicate CAD, we have to know the limits of the
copy. drawing. For this purpose like manual
drawing sheets, we have to select the lim-
Quit: This command is used to come out its such as A1, A2, A3 and A4 size. This
from AutoCAD measurements should be given in X and Y
direction.
Plot: This command is used to print the
drawing of AutoCAD
31 AutoCAD
AutoCAD
Software
Basics | AutoCAD

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. Auto CAD software is developed by an
………. Company.
a) Italian
b) Egyptian
c) American
d) Australian PART II (3 Marks)
2. ………. Software is used for water distri- Answer in one or two sentences
bution and water management.
6. What is Auto CAD?
a) GEO b) AQUA++
7. State any three softwares used in civil
c) ENERGY+ d) STAD PRO
engineering
3. In ……..position, 0° and 90° lines are 8. What is the difference between ‘Ortho
drawn from one point to another point. on’ and ‘Ortho off ’
a) Snap on
b) Grid on PART III (5 Marks)
c) Polar on Answer shortly
d) Ortho on
9. Write short notes on any three func-
4. ……… command is used to print the tional keys.
auto CAD drawing 10. Explain about ‘UNITS’ in Auto CAD.
a) EXPORT b) NEW
c) PLOT d) QUIT PART IV (10 Marks)
5. The ………functional key is a help win- Answer in detail
dow for Auto CAD. 11. What are the uses of drawing using
a) F1 b) F2 c) F3 d) F4 AutoCAD?
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a)

Part – I Answers

Learning Objectives
2.2 AUTOCAD BASICS
Learning Objectives
• State the draw commands, modify, text & dimension commands,
layer & editing commands and its uses.
• Draw the engineering drawing using commands.
2.2.1 Introduction
Lines are drawn using line com-
To draw a drawing using Auto- mand. The line toolbar used to draw the
CAD software so many commands are line (or) type ‘line’ and enter (or) type ‘l’
required. For this there was a necessity of and enter. Instead of giving enter we can
compulsory typing in the command box. also click the right button in the mouse.
But, in the latest or modified software of
Auto CAD 2000, 2002, 2004, 2007, 2010
the highly used commands are given in
toolbar or icon. Let us know the required
commands to draw a building drawing
2.2.2 Draw Commands
Polyline Polygon
Arc Spline Ellipse arc
line
Construction line Rectangle Circle Ellipse

DRAW TOOL BAR
2.2.2.1 Line
33 AutoCAD
AutoCAD
Software
Basics | AutoCAD

Lines are Drawn in Three Methods. angle of direction and distance from
1. Absolute co-ordinate method. starting point to the next point.
2. Relative co-ordinate method.
3. Polar co-ordinate method.
1. Absolute Co-Ordinate Method: In this

method we have to give the statement of
points from origin.
2.2.2.2 Polyline
2. Relative Co-Ordinate Method: In this

method we have to give the co-ordinates
of the starting point towards X-axis and
Polyline means many character-
Y-axis or distance of Y axis from the
istics of a line. It can be drawn by using
point.
the polyline toolbar or by typing PL and
pressing ENTER key.
Special Charecteristics of Polylines:
1. Polyline has a single characteristic

feature.
2. We can enlarge the size of thickness of
line.
3. With polyline we can draw different
shaped drawings with a single character-
3. Polar Co-Ordinate Method: In this istic feature.
method sketch is drawn by giving the
AutoCAD | AutoCAD Basics 34

4. The line drawn by polyline can be easily
changed.
5. One line can be joined with another line
with (straight line + curved line) a single
characteristics polyline.
6. Structure of several lines drawn with a
polyline is called an object. This com-
mand is highly useful for drawing area,
circumference and hatching.
2.2.2.3 Circle
➢ Three Point Method: To draw a circle in
this method three points in the circum-
ference of the circle should be given.
Generally, if there is a centre and

radius we can draw a circle. There are five
methods to draw a circle.
➢ Centre Point Radius Method: To draw

➢ Two Point Method: Two points in the
a circle in this method, the centre point
circumference of the circle should be
and radius should be given.
given to draw a circle in this method.
➢ Tangent Radius Method: To draw a cir-

➢ Centre Point Diameter Method: In this cle in this method, the radius and the
method the centre point and the diame- tangent position should be given.
ter of the circle should be given to draw
the circle.
35 AutoCAD Basics | AutoCAD

Second Point
First Point
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 2
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 1 Draw some rectangles in various
sizes and take print outs.
Draw some circles using circle
command and take print outs.
2.2.2.5 Arc
2.2.2.4 Rectangle
There are two dimensional meas-

urements available for rectangle such as
length and breadth (or) length and depth.
When we are drawing by AutoCAD we are
not using these measurements. Instead
of measurements, the rectangle is drawn
with diagonal.
We have to give the values of lower

edge of left side and values of opposite Part of a circumference of a circle
corner of the rectangle. Two corners are is called as an arc. It is curved in shape.
noted as first corner and other corner Three points are required to draw an arc.
respectively. We can also draw the arc with the centre
point of arc, angle of arc and radius of arc.
There are six methods to draw an arc.

c) By Start, Centre and Included Angle
a) Three Points Method

d) By Start, Centre and Length of Chord
e) By Start, End and Radius
b) Start, Centre and End Point Method
f) By Start, End and Direction

ACTIVITY
PROJECT 3
Draw some arcs by using any one
method and take print outs.
2.2.2.6 Polygon
Polygon With 12 Sides (Dodecagon)
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 4
Draw some polygons of different
number of sides and take print outs.
A closed drawing drawn with sev-

eral angles (or) with several sides is called 2.2.2.7 Ellipse
polygon. In this angle (or) sides should be
equal in measurement. Polygons of 3 to
1024 sides can be drawn.
Ellipse is a closed curve drawn by

two different axes. One axis is noted as
major axis and another is noted as minor
axis. It is noted that half of the distance of
3 Sides Polygon (Triangle) minor axis is axis distance. With this point,
we can draw the ellipse in 4 methods.
Quadrant
5 Sides Polygon (Pentagon)


2.2.3.2 Copy
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 5
Draw an ellipse and take print out.
2.2.3 Modify Commands
Initially the object is drawn while

duplicating the object. Then the base
point is selected and the duplicate object
is fixed at the displacement point.
2.2.3.1 Erase Commands
P2 P3
P1
Before Copy During After
By using this command, objects of 2.2.3.3 Mirror

one (or) several lines are removed (or)
erased.
Before Erase After Erase


If an object is placed in front of By using this command, curves,
a mirror, the object reflects in the mir- circles, rectangles are drawn parallel to
ror. Like this if we draw mirror line at some distance.
an object, then the object will reflect in
reverse direction.
We can draw quickly the symmet-

rical figures by using this mirror com-
mand. Hence it reduces the time taken for
drawing.
2.2.3.5 Move
2.2.3.4 Offset
When an object is moved from one
place to another place, it is called as mov-
ing. It is similar to copy command, but the
only difference is old object and duplicate
object will be in copy command. But after
moving the object in move command, the
old object will not be there.
Before Move After Move

2.2.3.6 Rotate
ROTATE
We have to use rotate command

to rotate all the drawn objects or a single
object. The object may be rotated from
one position to another in a particular
angle we need.
2.2.3.8 Array
Classifying an
object in uniform order
2.2.3.7 Hatching is called array command.
This command is used to construct This may be formed by a
a sectional view of the drawing object and square, rectangular (or)
to show the inner parts of the objects in circular classification.
detail. Several parts of the object will be Array of square formation is called rectan-
filled by several patterns. gular array. Array of circular formation is
called as circular array.
Particular boundary should be 2 Columns
closed boundary of line, curve, circle or
polyline.
3 Rows
DC
DR
Rectangular Array

particular place by using this command.
We can trim the form of circle, curve,
polyline by using this command.
2.2.3.11 Extend
Array of circular formation is called

as circular array
2.2.3.9 Stretch
This command is used to extend or

reduce an object. Any form of an object
can be extended or reduced in stretch com- This command is used to extend a
mand. We can stretch the objects of curve, line. If we select the boundary edge, that
polyline, solid by using this command line will be extended. The line is extended
upto the selected boundary even though if
there is any object in the centre.
2.2.3.10 Trim
2.2.3.12 Break
After drawing an object the

unnecessary lines are removed from the

This break command is used to 2.2.4 Text Command
break the middle portion (or) edge of a
line. By using this command we can break
a line, circle, ellipse or polyline.
By using this command letters and

numerals are typed by using the keyboard
and if enter key is pressed all the typed
2.2.3.13 Fillet matter in the monitor screen will come
out. Instead of this command D text com-
Fillet helps to convert sharp edges
mand is available. Dynamic Text is called
of square, rectangle or polygons to round
D Text.
edges. The rounded edge of different
radius should be drawn.
2.2.3.14 Chamfer 2.2.4.1 Text Style

This command used to bevel the
edges of objects. The distances and angles
that you specify are applied in the order
that you select the objects.

This command is used to select the 2.2.4.4 Editing Text
type of texts. We can select standard text
style (or) annotative text style from this
command. First line Ruler
indent
Change tab
style
2.2.4.2 Single Line Text Paragraph
indent
User tab stop Set multiline text
Set multiline text
boundary width
boundary height
If there is any spelling mistake in

the typing it may be corrected by using
this command.
2.2.5 Zoom Command

Zoom Scale
Zoom Center Zoom Extents

Single line text is used for small
content and to write short words.
2.2.4.3 M Text
Zoom Dynamic Zoom All
Zoom Window Zoom Out
Zoom In
M text command is used to form This command zoom is used to see

the typed words into a sentence. This com- the object by magnifying (or) reducing it.
mand will decide the text boundary. The
typed sentences are included in the bound- i) Zoom Extent
ary. The lines are formed as a single object.
before Zoom Extents

after Zoom Extents
ii) Zoom Window

iii) Zoom Dynamic

iv) Zoom Center diameter and co-ordinates are available.
Now we can see some dimension variable
used in dimension.
after Zoom center,

magnification increased
before Zoom center

v) Zoom All
For best results use the Aligned Dimension

style for Isometric Dims.
2.2.6 Dimension
Oblique Dimension Button
If we have drawn an object and if

there is no measurement, then the drawing
will not attain its fulfillment. If we furnish
the details such as length, breadth, depth,
angle, radius, diameter of the object, then
the object gets nature of producing for-
mation. Some commands are available for
this method.
2.2.6.1 Methods of Dimensioning
In the classification of dimen-
sioning there are linear, angular, radius,

Dim Linear, Dim Angular, Dim
Aligned, Dim Radius, Dim Diameter,
Dim Baseline, Dim Continued.
Systems of Dimensioning
2.2.6.2 Dimension Line
Dim Linear
Dimension line is a single line. Side

measurements of the objects are indicated
with arrow mark from one end to another
end. The vertical line from both end of the
object is called extension line.
2.2.6.3 Dimension Text

Selection of actual size of the side
of an object by AutoCAD is called dimen-
sion text.

It is very tough to
understand a drawing,
If we should show the
full details of the object
in the same drawing.
When we prepare the
manual drawing we will give the details in
several places of the object. Some struc-
ture do not require some details, so with
other information another drawing is to
be drawn.
2.2.6.4 Dimension Style

To eliminate this problem, drawings
are drawn in the layer method of Auto-
CAD. In this method, we can take print
out of the drawing object with required
details.
2.2.7.1 Layer On / Off

This characteristic is used to switch
off the unnecessary layer. When we switch
off the particular layer, the drawing drawn
This command is used to select in that layer will not be visible to our eyes.
style for dimension. Also that drawing cannot be printed or
plotted. That layer may be switched on
when required.
2.2.7 Layer
.

2.2.7.2 Freeze
When we freeze a layer, the objects

in that layer are hidden and printing is
also not possible. If we press this take (line type)
option several types of lines will appear in
2.2.7.3 Thaw model structure. Also we have to select sev-
eral types of lines such as centre line, con-
Opposite form of freeze take is tinuous line, hidden line and dashed line.
thaw take. To operate the freezed layer
again, thaw is used.
2.2.8 Editing Commands
2.2.8.1 Regen
2.2.7.4 Line Type
To renew a drawing which is already

drawn, this command is used. Sometimes
the drawn object can be seen flat, when we
draw a circle (or) an arc. Regen command
is used to remove this flat formation.

2.2.8.2 Explode To make use of the drawing, we
have drawn, it is copied in ordinary sheet
(or) tracing sheet, this command is used.
There are two methods in copying such as
printing and plotting. Printing is to take
print by using dot matrix, inkjet and laser
printing. With this normally we can take
print out in A3 or A4 sheet.
2.2.8.4 Plot
Plot is nothing but taking tracing
sheet print out in Indian ink by plotter
instrument. We can plot upto ‘A0’ size
drawing. Drawings reproduced in tracing
sheet and several copies are taken as blue
print. Now colour plotters are available
with this plotting may be carried out to
photo print size.
Objects of polyline, polygon can

be changed into individual object by using
this command.
2.2.8.3 Plotting Drawing 2.2.8.5 Paper Size and Orientation

In this part we can decide the size
of paper for plotting or tracing. While the
drawing is printed or plotted different size
of papers like A4, A3, A2, A0 are given to
users.
2.2.9 Isometric Drawings:
We have to draw the drawing with

three axes in this method.
Object drawn by isometric drawing

will be in visualizing shape. Full details of
object with various view angle is shown in
orthographic projection. But in isometric
view, we can see the visualizing form. We
can give full details only when an object is
drawn in orthographic view and isometric
view.
2.2.9.1 Isometric Projections ACTIVITY

PROJECT 6
Equal size view is isometric view. Draw isometric views of a square
Three axis of the object is seen in 120˚. and a rectangle by using AutoCAD and
take print out.
Axis drawing in horizontal posi-

tion at 30˚ is called right horizontal axis
and the axis drawn at 30˚ to the left side
horizontal position is called left horizon-
tal axis. In between these axes an axis at
When we draw the drawing we have 90˚ is called vertical axis.
to use full scale. The hidden parts should
not be drawn in hidden lines. We have to change these three axes
when we draw in isometric drawing. That
is the cursor is moved to right axis and

lines are drawn in one side. Then the
cursor is moved to left axis and lines are
drawn in another side. Like this upside
lines are drawn by moving to vertical axis.
When isometric drawing is drawn

the axes are changed and planes are drawn
parallel to that axis. These are called iso-
metric plane.
So, Isometric drawings are drawn

with three planes of right side plane, left
side plane and top plane.
P
TO
LEF HT
T RIG
2.2.10 Orthographic View
Drawing the visualizing shape of

several angular shaped object in a draw-
ing is called orthographic view. Front
view, top view, right side view, left side
view, bottom view, and dimension of the

drawing are drawn with the dimensional
view of X, Y and Z axis.
When an object is on these three

axis, we have to imagine the angle of object
and it is drawn on the drawing.

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. There are ….. methods in Auto CAD to
draw a circle
a) Three 6. The command ….. is used to see the
b) Four object by magnifying (or) reducing it.
c) Five a) ZOOM
d) Six b) ARRAY
2. Polygons of maximum ……. sides can c) DISTANCE
be drawn in Auto CAD. d) BREAK
a) 512 7. Opposite form of freeze take is …….
b) 624 take
c) 1024 a) Layer
d) 836 b) Thaw
3. By using ….. command parallel lines c) Export
should be drawn d) Regen
a) MIRROR
b) OFFSET PART II (3 Marks)
c) ARRAY
Answer in one or two sentences
d) STRETCH
8. What is meant by hatching command ?
4. To extend or reduce on object….. com-
9. Write notes on : ROTATE command.
mand is used
10. What are the methods of drawing a line
a) STRETCH
in Auto CAD?
b) TRIM
11. List the isometric planes?
c) COPY
12. Write short notes on polygon command.
d) MOVE
5. ……. Command is used to round the PART III (5 Marks)
edges of square or rectangle. Answer shortly
a) Extend
13. What are the methods of drawing circles
b) Chamfer
in Auto CAD?
c) Fillet
14. State the methods of drawing arc in Auto
d) Dimension
CAD?
15. What are the types of Zoom command?
16. List any five modifying commands.
17. What are the special characteristics of a
polyline?

PART IV (10 Marks) 19. Explain any five modifying commands.
20. Explain about isometric projections in
Answer in detail
Auto CAD.
18. Explain any five draw commands in
detail.
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (b)

Answers

BUILDING Unit 3
Basic Civil
MATERIALS Engineering
3.1 STONES
3.2 BRICKS
3.3 SAND
55 Building Materials

TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.1 Stones 3.2.5 Manufacture of Brick
3.1.1 Introduction 3.2.6 Classification of Brick
3.1.2 Classification of Rocks 3.2.7 Properties of Good Brick
3.1.3 Uses of Stones 3.2.8 Hollow Block
3.1.4 Characteristics of Good 3.3 Sand
Building Stones 3.3.1 Introduction
3.2 Bricks 3.3.2 River Sand
3.2.1 Introduction 3.3.3 Manufacture Sand
3.2.2 Definition
Learning Objectives 3.3.4 Test for Sand
3.2.3 Size and Weight of Brick 3.3.5 Comparison of River Sand
3.2.4 Brick Earth & M Sand
3.1 STONES
Learning Objectives
• Define stone
• Understand the classification of rocks
• Explain the characteristics of good building stone
3.1.1 Introduction The stones for building are obtained

In many places, stones are more by quarrying rocks. Such stones are very
freely available than any building mate- irregular in shape and size. They are
rial. They are derived from rocks. therefore dressed for proper bedding, thin
joints and speedy construction. When
such stones are laid with cement or lime
mortar in a systematic manner, they form
a structural mass which can resist load
without disintegration.
3.1.2 Classification of Rocks

Rocks are classified in three ways.
They are,
Building Materials | Stones 56

1. Geological classification
2. Physical classification
3. Chemical classification
3.1.2.1 Geological Classification
According to this classification
rocks are of 3 types
i) Igneous rocks
ii) Sedimentary rocks
iii) Metamorphic rocks
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 1
i) Igneous Rocks : Stones obtained from Collect images of recent volca-
these rocks are very strong and durable. noes around the world and make an
It is the result of cooling and consolida- album.
tion of molten lava released by volca-
noes. E.g. Granite, Basalt.
ii) Sedimentary Rocks: They are formed by
gradual deposition of broken pieces of
rocks which are disintegrated by atmo-
Which is the largest spheric actions. It is migrated from one
active volcano? place to another place and deposited
at the bottom of rivers or lakes. These
• The largest most active volcano on deposits harden due to water pressure.
earth is ‘Mauna Loa’ in Hawaii(U.S.A), E.g. Limestone, Sandstone
measured about 60 miles long and
30 miles wide (1800 sq. miles).’
• It has erupted 33 times since 1843 in
the past 175 years
iii) Metamorphic Rocks: They are igneous

or sedimentary rocks. The change in
colour, structure and texture are due to
57 Stones | Building Materials

either pressure or heat or both. Eg. Mar- 3.1.2.2 Physical Classification
bles, Slates. This classification is based on gen-
eral structure of rocks. According to this
classification rocks are of three types.
They are:
i) Stratified Rocks
ii) Unstratified Rocks
iii) Foliated Rocks
i) Stratified Rocks: Sedimentary rocks

are distinctly stratified rocks. They are
formed by series of parallel layers. E.g.
Limestone, Sandstone, Slates.
Which is the active

volcano in India
• Th
e only confirmed active volcano in
India is Barren Island of Andaman
Islands.
• It is located 135 kms north-east of the ii) Unstratified Rocks : Igneous and sedi-
territory’s capital, Port Blair. mentary rocks affected by movements of
• This volcano erupted more than 10 earth are of this type of rocks. They can-
times, with the most recent one being not be split into thin slabs. E.g. Granite,
in 2017. Marble.
Search link: http://en.m.wikipedia.org>

iii) Foliated Rocks : These rocks have a ten-
wiki>barrenisland
dency to split up in a definite direction

like leaves of a book. Such foliated struc- ii) Calcareous Rocks : These rocks have
ture is very common in metamorphic calcium carbonate as their main constit-
rocks. E.g. Gneiss. uent. E.g. Lime stone, Marble.
iii) Argillaceous Rocks : In these rocks clay

predominates. E.g. Slate, Laterite.
3.1.2.3 Chemical Classification
This classification is based on their
chief constituents. Chemically, rocks are
of three types.
They are :
i) Silicious Rocks
ii) Calcareous Rocks
iii) Argillaceous Rocks
i) Silicious rocks : These rocks have silica

or sand as their main constituent. They
are hard and durable. E.g. Sand stone, ACTIVITY
PROJECT 2
Granite Collect different rocks, name them
and display them in your class room.
Most number of Vol-

cano in the world -
The top two among
them are,
• United States -173
• Russia -166

3.1.3 Uses of Stones 4. As thin slabs for Pavings
5. In Ornamental Works
Stones are widely used in many

permanent engineering works on account
of their strength and durability.
The principal uses of stone in con-

struction are:
6. As Wall, Columns, Beams and Lintels in
1. As material for foundation Buildings.
2. As aggregate for concrete making
3. As material for road construction

resistance to atmosphere and other
influences, location of the structure, etc.,
The important atmospheric agencies
which affect the durability of a stone is
alternate conditions of heat and cold due
to difference in temperature.
4. Dressing of Stones: Stones should be
such that they can be easily carved,
moulded out and dressed. Dressing of
7. Limestone for manufacture of cement stones results in economy of construc-
tion.
8. As roofing tiles in the form of slates
5. Fracture : For a good building stone, its
fracture should be sharp, even, bright
and clear with grains, well cemented
together. A dull, chalkey and earthly
fracture of a stone, reduces the life span
of the building.
6. Hardness : The co-efficient of hardness,
as worked out in hardness test should be
3.1.4
Characteristics of Good greater than 17 for a stone to be used in
Building Stones road work. If it is between 14 and 17, the
stone is said to be of medium hardness.
Following are the characteristics of
good building stone 7. Attrition : In attrition test, if wear is
more than 3%, the stone is not satisfac-
1. Crushing Strength : For a good struc- tory. If it is equal to 3%, the stone is just
tural stone, the crushing strength should tolerable.
be greater than 100 N/mm2. 8. Fire Resistance : The minerals compos-
2. Appearance : The stones which are to be ing stone should be fire resistant way
used for face work should be decent in that the shape is preserved when a fire
appearance and they should be capable occurs.
of preserving their colour uniformly for 9. Seasoning : The stones should be well
a long time. The colour of the stones for seasoned before putting into use. The
face work should be chosen by keeping stones obtained fresh from a quarry,
in mind the general get up of the sur- contain some moisture which is known
rounding area. as the quarry sap. The presence of this
3. Durability : A good building stone moisture makes the stone soft.
should be durable. The various factors 10. Specific Gravity : For good building
contributing the durability of a stone stone, the specific gravity should be
are its chemical composition, texture, greater than 2.7 or so.

11. Texture : A good building stone should 12. Water Absorption : All the stones are
have compact, fine, crystalline structure more or less porous, but for a good stone,
free from cavities, cracks or patches or percentage absorption by weight should
soft or loose material. These stones with not exceed 0.60 after 24 hours.
such texture are strong and durable.

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. Rock is the result of cooling and consol-
idation of ….. released by volcanoes.
a) Lime stone
b) Molten lava
c) Marble PART II (3 Marks)
d) Sand stone
2. Sedimentary rocks are distinctly…….
a) Stratified rocks 6. What are the classification rocks?
b) Un stratified rocks 7. Write types of geographical classification?
c) Foliated rocks 8. Write about Igneous rocks?
d) Silicious rocks
PART III (5 Marks)
3. The crushing strength for building stone
Answer shortly
should be greater than ……..
a) 40 N/mm2 9. What are the uses of stones?
b) 25 N/mm2 10. Write any five requirements of good
c) 100 N/mm2 building stones?
d) 75 N/mm2
PART IV (10 Marks)
4. Percentage of water absorption by weight
after …… hours should not exceed 0.60 Answer in detail
in stones. 11. What are the requirements of good
a) 12 building stones?
b) 6
c) 18
d) 24
5. The hardness should be greater than
…… for a stone in road work
a) 17
b) 20
c) 14
d) 24
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a)
Part – I Answers

Learning Objectives
3.2 BRICKS
Learning Objectives
• Define brick
• Explain the brick size and weight
• Describe the method of manufacturing of bricks
• Classify the bricks
• Explain the properties of good brick
• Know about the hollow block
3.2.1 Introduction
Clay bricks were used by humans from When and where the
very early dates. First it was used without burning first brick was used?
as sundried bricks. Burnt brick was a common
building material among the Egyptians. Now a • Th
e earliest bricks were sun dried and
made from mud.
days, they are made from specially selected and
• It was used in 8000 BC in southern
matured brick earth. It is used to construct the
Turkey around the city of Jericho.
building because of its good bearing capacity,
• In Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) the
long life and strength. Bricks are made up of first true arch of sun baked brick was
blending a good clay and moulded to a rectan- made about 4000 BC.
gular shape of uniform size and they are dried • Ceramic or fried (burned) bricks were
and burned. As bricks are in uniform size they used as early as 3000 BC in early Indus
can be beautifully laid in masonry work. valley cities.
burning them. In places where stones are

not easily available, bricks are used in con-
struction. These are preferred because of its
durability, strength, reliability, low, cost, etc.
Brick
3.2.2 Definition
Bricks are obtained by moulding clay
in rectangular moulds, then by drying and
Building Materials | Bricks 64

The size of Indian brick we are
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 3 using is 228mm × 107mm × 69mm.
Collect the photos of ancient
brick buildings and modern brick 3.2.4 Brick Earth
buildings and make an album.
Bricks are easily moulded from
plastic clays also known as brick clay or
3.2.3 Size and Weight of Brick brick earth.
The Bricks are prepared in various

sizes. The custom in the locality is the gov-
erning factor to decide the size of a brick.
Such bricks which are not standardised
are known as the traditional bricks.
BIS has recommended the bricks of

uniform size. Such bricks are known as the
Modular bricks. The actual size of mod-
ular bricks is 190mm × 90mm × 90mm.
With mortar thickness (10mm) alround
the brick, the nominal size of modular Composition of Good Brick Earth
brick is 200mm × 100mm × 100mm. According to IS 2119-1975 the clay
or mixture of clay selected should pref-
But practically to match with the
erably confirm the following mechanical
beam width a brick or block of width
composition.
230mm is used widely in construction
industry. 115 mm is considered for half Clay = 20 – 30% by weight
brick. The brick of size 230 mm × 110mm Silt = 20 – 35% by weight
× 110 mm or 230mm × 110mm × 76mm Sand= 35 – 50% by weight
is generally used in construction industry.
Constituents of Brick Earth

Following are the constituent of
good brick earth.
i) Alumina :
It is the chief constituent of clay. A
It is found that the weight of 1m3 good brick earth should contain 20 to 30% of
of brick earth is about 1800 kg. Hence the alumina. This constituent imparts plasticity
average weight of brick will be about 3.0 to earth so that it can be moulded. If alumina
to 3.5 kg. is present in excess, raw bricks. shrink and
warp during drying and burning.
65 Bricks | Building Materials

causes the brick to melt and hence its
shape is lost due to the splitting of bricks.
iv) Oxide of Iron :

A small quantity of oxide of iron to
the extent of 5 to 6 % is desirable to impart
red colour in bricks. Excess of iron oxide
makes the bricks dark blue or blackish.
v) Magnesia :
ii) Silica :
A small quantity of magnesia in
A good brick earth should contain
brick earth imparts yellow tint to bricks, and
about 50 to 60% of silica. Silica exists in clay
decrease shrinkage. But excess of magnesia
either as free or in combined form. As free
leads to be decay of bricks. The ingredients like
sand, it is mechanically mixed with clay and
lime, iron pyrites, alkalies, pebbles, organic
in combined form. It exists in chemical com-
matter should not present in good brick earth.
position with alumina. Presence of silica pre-
vents cracking, shrinking and warping of raw
bricks. It thus imparts uniform shape to the
bricks. Durability of bricks depends on the
proper proportion of silica in brick earth.
Excess of silica destroys the cohesion between
particles and bricks become brittle.
3.2.5 Manufacture of Brick

The following are various steps for
the preparation of common bricks :
1. Preparation of clay
2. Moulding
3. Drying
4. Burning
3.2.5.1. Preparation of Clay

iii) Lime : The preparation of clay involves
A small quantity of lime is desir- following operations
able in finely powdered state to prevents
shrinkage of raw bricks. Excess of lime a) Unsoiling : Top layer of 20 cm depth is
removed as it contain impurities

b) Digging : Clay dug out from ground is Process : Clay with water
spread on level ground about 60 cm to is placed in pug mill
120 cm heaps. from the top. When the
c) Cleaning : Stones pebbles, vegetable vertical shaft is rotated
matter etc, removed and converted in to by using electric power,
powder form. clay is thoroughly mixed
d) Weathering : Clay is exposed to atmo- up by the actions of hori-
sphere from few weeks to full season. zontal arms and knives. When clay has
been sufficiently pugged, hole at the bot-
e) Blending : Clay is made loose and any
tom of tub is opened out and the pugged
ingredient to be added to it is spread out
earth is taken out from ramp for the next
at top and turning it up and down in ver-
operation of moulding.
tical direction.
f) Tempering: Clay is brought to a proper 3.2.5.2. Moulding
degree of hardness, then water is added
to clay and whole mass is kneaded or Clay which is prepared from pug mill
pressed under the feet of men or cattle. is sent to the next operation of moulding.
Following are the two ways of

moulding
1. Hand Moulding
2. Machine Moulding.
1) Hand Moulding :
Moulds are rectangular boxes of
wood or steel which are open at top and
For large scale tempering is usually bottom. Steel moulds are more durable
done in pug mill as shown in the fig and used for manufacturing bricks on large
scale as shown in fig. Bricks prepared by
hand moulding are of two types.
a) Ground Moulded Bricks

b) Table Moulded Bricks
a) Ground Moulded Bricks :

Ground is first made level and fine
sand is sprinkled over it. Mould is dipped
in water and placed over the ground to fill
the clay. Extra clay is removed by wooden
or metal strike after the mould is filled.
Mould is then lifted up and raw brick is
Pug Mill left on the ground. Mould is then dipped

in water every time lower faces of ground
moulded bricks on rough and it is not pos-
sible to place frog on such bricks. Ground
moulded bricks of better quality and with
frogs on their surface are made by using
a pair of parallel boards and a wooden
block.
Hand Moulding
Steel Mould
Wooden Mould
Wooden Mould

B) Table Moulded Bricks : helpful for moulding hard and string clay.
Process of moulding these bricks is These machine are broadly classified into
just similar to ground moulded bricks.These two categories
are moulded on a table of size about 2m × 1 a) Plastic Clay Machine.
m. The clay, mould, water pots, stock board,
b) Dry Clay Machine.
strikes and pallet boards are placed on the
table. The bricks are moulded on the table a) Plastic Clay Machine :
and sent for the further process of drying.
This machine containing rectan-
gular opening of size equal to length and
width of a brick. Pugged clay is placed in
the machine and as it comes out through
the opening. It is cut into strips by wires
and fixed into frames, so these bricks are
called “Wire cut bricks”.
However the efficiency of moulder

decreases gradually because of standing at
the same place for long duration. The cost
of brick moulding also increases when
table moulding is adopted.
b.) Dry Clay Machines :
In these machines, strong clay is
first converted into powder form and then
bo ter
Wa
wl
y
Cla
water is added to form a stiff plastic paste.

Such paste is placed in mould and pressed
uld
t
Mo
Clo
ard
by machine to form hard and well shaped

k c
bo
Sto
g
Fro
et
bricks. These bricks are heavier than ordi-

ll
Pa
ike
nary hand moulded bricks. They carry

g
Str
Fro
distinct frog and exhibit uniform texture.

po ding
un
st
Bo
3.2.5.3. Drying
2) Machine Moulding : The damp brick, if burnt, are
This method proves to be econom- likely to be cracked and distorted. Hence
ical when bricks in huge quantity are to be moulded bricks are dried before they are
manufactured at the same spot. It is also taken for the next operation of burning.

Bricks are laid along and across the stock When the temperature of about
in alternate layers. The drying of brick is 1100°c is reached, the particles of the earth
done by the following means bind themselves together resulting in the
increase of strength and density of bricks.
a. Artificial Drying: Drying by tunnels Further heating is not desirable and if the
usually 120°c about 1 to 3 days temperature is raised beyond 1100°c great
b. Circulation of Air: Stacks are arranged amount of fusible glassy mass is formed
in such a way that sufficient space is left and the bricks are said to be vitrified.
between them for free circulation of air.
c. Drying Yard: Special yards should be Bricks are burnt in clamps or kilns
prepared slightly higher level to prevent
the accumulation of rain water.
3.2.6 Classification of Brick
d. Period of Drying : Usually three to ten According to use, bricks are classi-
days for bricks to dry. fied into five categories.
They are,
3.2.5.4. Burning
i) Ordinary Bricks
This is very important operation
ii) Engineering Bricks (special bricks for car-
in the manufacture of bricks. It imparts
rying heavy loads)
hardness and strength to brick and makes
them dense and durable. The bricks should iii) Facing Bricks
be burnt properly. iv) Fire Bricks
v) Special bricks (special shapes)
If bricks are over burnt, they will
be brittle and hence break easily. If they
are under burnt, they will be soft and can-
not carry loads.
Squint Bull Nose Perforated
When the temperature of about
650°c is attained, the organic matter con-
tained in the brick is oxidized and also the
Hollow Circular Cornice
water of crystallization is driven away.

strength. They are 10, 7.5, 5.0 and 3.5
having compressive strength of 10 N/
mm2, 7.5 N/mm2, 5 N/mm2 and 3.5 N/
mm2respectively.
3.2.7 Properties of Good Bricks

 Good bricks should sound of compact
structure, free from cracks and flaws
such as air bubbles, lumps and stones.
 They should be regular in shape and of uni-
form size with plane faces and sharp edges.
 Length should be equal to twice the
width plus the thickness of mortar joints.
(Length = (2 × Width) + thickness of
mortar joints).
 The colour should be uniform and of
deep red or copper colour.
According to general physical  When soaked in water for 24 hours, a
requirements bricks are classified into good brick should not absorb more than
three categories. They are, 20% of its own weight.
 A well burnt brick should be hard and
1) Class I when scratched with the finger nail, no
2) Class II impression should be formed.
3) Class III  On striking it should give a clear ringing
The bricks belongs to these or metallic sound.
three classification, differ in their gen-  When struck against one another or
eral requirements and water absorption thrown on end on a hard ground from
property. a height of 1m, the bricks should not
break.
As per IS classification, bricks are
classified according to their compressive

 The crushing strength should not be less Concrete blocks are usually made
than 55 kg/cm2. large in size so that the block work is faster
and consume less cement in joints than the
3.2.8 Hollow Blocks brick work. Specially made hollow blocks
Concrete blocks are now-a-days used are also used to construct load bearing
for masonry construction. These blocks are walls. Such works are useful in reducing
available in three types namely solid blocks, the dead load of masonry in buildings.
hollow blocks and cellular blocks.
The normal concrete blocks are

called as solid blocks.
If the percentage of voids is more

than 25% then it is called as hollow blocks,
if the percentage of voids is less than 25%
it is called as perforated blocks.
Cellular blocks are generally referred

as light weight aerated concerte blocks.
3.2.8.1 Manufacturing of Hollow Blocks
The concrete mix for concrete
blocks shall not be richer than one part
of cement to six parts of volume of com-
bined aggregate. Lean mixes upto 1:8 are
also commonly used. The choice of aggre-
gates for manufacturing these block is of
utmost importance as cost of aggregates
When was the first account for a large part of the total cost.
brick house built? Hence “Baby jelly” aggregates that are not
It was built in California generally used for conventional concrete
in 1847. work are found of much use in making
these concrete blocks.
Search link: http://www.youtube.
com> watch first brick house
3.2.8.2 Classification of Hollow Blocks
Hollow concrete blocks are classi-
fied by IS into the following three grades.
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 4 A) Grade A : These blocks are used for load
Visit a brick manufacturing unit bearing walls. They should have a mini-
near by your school and prepare report mum density of 1500 kg/m3. They should
with photos. be manufactured for minimum specified

compressive strength of 3.5, 4.5, 5.5 and
7.0 N/mm2 in 28 days.
C) Grade C : These are used for non-load

bearing walls, and its density is not
less than 1000kg/m3. They are made
B) Grade B : These are also used for load
for specified strength of 1.5 N/mm2 in
bearing walls. They may have a density
28 days.
below 1500 kg / m3 but not less than
1000 kg/m3. They are made for specified
compressive strength of 2.0, 3.0 and 5.0
N/mm2 in 28 days.

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. The actual size of modular brick is …….
a) 200mm × 200mm × 100mm
b) 100mm × 100mm × 100mm
c) 190mm × 90mm × 90mm
PART II (3 Marks)
d) 115mm × 100mm × 230mm
2. The size of bricks used in construction Answer in one or two sentences
industry is ……… 6. Define : Bricks
a) 230mm × 100mm × 100mm 7. What is nominal size of modular bricks?
b) 230mm × 90mm × 90mm 8. What is burning of bricks?
c) 230mm × 110mm × 76mm 9. Write any three name of the raw materi-
d) 200mm × 100mm × 110mm als in brick earth?
3. The size of Indian brick we are using is 10. What are the classification of Hollow
…… block?
a) 190mm × 90mm × 90mm PART III (5 Marks)
b) 228mm × 107mm × 69mm
c) 200mm × 100mm × 100mm Answer shortly
d) 100mm × 100mm × 100mm 11. Write short notes on drying of bricks?
4. Weight of brick is …… 12. What are the steps for manufacture of
a) 2.00 to 3.00 kg brick?
b) 5.00 to 10.00 kg 13. Write shorts notes on hollow block?
c) 10.00 to 15.00 kg
PART IV (10 Marks)
d) 3.00 to 3.50 kg
5. Quantity of Alumina in a good brick Answer in detail
earth is ……… 14. What are the properties of good brick?
a) 20 to 30% 15. Explain the composition of good brick
b) 40 to 50% earth?
c) 10 to 50% 16. Explain any two steps of manufacturing
d) 25 to 55% of bricks?
17. Explain the manufacturing process of
Hollow blocks?
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (a)
Part – I Answers

3.3 SAND
Learning Objectives
• Define river sand and manufactured sand (M-sand).
• Compare M-sand and river sand.
3.3.3 Manufactured Sand (M Sand)

3.3.1 Introduction
M Sand is defined as a purpose -
Sand is a building material used
made crushed fine aggregate produced
in construction for preparing mortar,
from a suitable source material. Produc-
concrete and also for filling under floor,
tion generally involves crushing, screen-
basements. It is technically named as fine
ing and possible washing.
aggregate. It is used in concrete to fill up
the voids leaved by coarse aggregate.
Nowadays it is practically impos-

sible to get river sand in large quantities.
Hence M sand (manufactured sand) is
introduced in the field to overcome this
deficiency.
3.3.2 River Sand Search link: http://www.youtube.com/

Sand generally composed of watch/m-sand
rounded particles and may or may not con-
tain clay or other impurities. It is obtained
from the banks and beds of rivers.
75 Building Materials | Sand

3.3.4 Test For Sand
The following are some of the tests • The chemical name and
formula of sand is silicon
conducted to know the quality of sand.
dioxide and SiO2.
1) Sieve analysis
• S and is uncountable. It contains
2) Bulking of sand particles from 62.5 micron
3) Voids Ratio (0.0625mm) to 2mm in diameter.
4) Porosity
5) Bulk density
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 5
Collect some types of sand avail-
able nearby your town and display it in
your class room.
1.3.5 Comparison of River Sand & M Sand
S.No Parameters River Sand M-Sand

1 Process Naturally available on river Manufactured in factory
banks.
2 Shape Smoother texture with better Angular and has rougher
shape. Demands less water. texture. Angular aggregates
demands more water. Water
demands can be compen-
sated with cement content
3 Moisture Moisture is trapped in between Moisture is available only in
content the particles which is good for water washed M sand
concrete purpose.
4 Concrete Lesser concrete strength com- Higher concrete strength
Strength pared to M – sand. compared to river sand used
for concreting.
5 Silt Content Minimum permissible silt con- Zero silt. Hence good for
tent is 3%.Anything morethan construction works.
3% is harmful to the concrete
durability. We can expect 5 –
20% silt content in medium
quality river sand.
6 Over sized 1 – 6 % of minimum over 0% since it is artificially
materials sized materials can be manufactured.
expected, like pebble stones
Building Materials | Sand 76

7 Marine 1 – 2% like sea shells, tree 0%
Products barks, etc.,
8 Eco friendly Harmful to environment Eco Though M sand uses nat-
imbalances, reduce ground ural coarse aggregates to
water level and river water gets form, it causes less damage
dried up. to environment as com-
pared to river sand.
9 Applications Recommended for RCC plas- Highly recommended for
tering and brick work. RCC purposes and brick
works.
10 Quality No control over quality since Better quality control since
it is naturally occurring. Same manufactured in a con-
river bed sand can have differ- trolled environment.
ence in silt contents.
77 Sand | Building Materials

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. …… is defined as a purpose made
crushed fine aggregate produced from
suitable source?
a) Brick
PART III (5 Marks)
b) Wood
c) Stone Answer shortly
d) M-Sand 5. Write any three comparison between
river sand and M-sand?
PART II (3 Marks)
PART IV (10 Marks)
Answer in detail
2. Define : River Sand?
3. Define: M-Sand? 6. What are the difference between river
4. What are tests conducted on sand? sand and M-sand?
1. (d)
Part – I Answers
Building Materials | Sand 78

BUILDING Unit 4
Basic Civil
4.1 CEMENT
4.2 MORTAR
4.3 CONCRETE
Education is the most powerful

weapon which you can use to
change the world.
- Nelson Mandela

TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.1 Cement 4.2.8 Required Strength of Mor-
4.1.1 Introduction tars in Masonry
4.1.2 Types of Cement 4.3 Concrete
4.1.3 Types of Artificial Cement 4.3.1 Introduction
4.1.4 Field Tests for Cement 4.3.2 Definition
4.1.5 Required Properties of 4.3.3 Ingredients of Concrete
Portland Cement 4.3.4 Water – Cement Ratio
4.1.6 Grades of Cement 4.3.5 Preparation of Cement
4.1.7 Storage of Cement Concrete
4.2 Mortar 4.3.6 Compaction of Concrete
4.2.1 Introduction 4.3.7 Curing of Concrete
4.2.2 Definition 4.3.8 Properties of Concrete
4.2.3 Properties of Good Mortar 4.3.9 Uses of Concrete
4.2.4 Types of Mortar 4.3.10 Types of Concrete
4.2.5 Preparation of Cement 4.3.11 Other types of Concrete
Mortar 4.3.12 Precautions to be Taken
4.2.6 Uses of Mortar during Transportation and
4.2.7 Precautions in Using Placing of Concrete
Mortar 4.3.13 Grades of Concrete
Learning Objectives
4.1 CEMENT
Learning Objectives
• Know the types of cement.
• Explain artificial cement and its types.
• Know the field tests for cement.
• State the properties of Portland cement.
• Understand the storage of cement and grades of cement.
4.1.1 Introduction cement. Cement is manufactured from

Cement is the most important lime stone and clay. It is available in pow-
material in building construction. To a der form, when mixed with water can set
layman the term cement means Portland to a hard mass even under water.
Building Materials | Cement 80

United Kingdom. Hence it is called “Port-
land cement”. In the year 1904, artificial
cement is manufactured in India. In gen-
eral, the weight of one cement bag is 50 kg.
4.1.3 Types of Artificial Cement

In addition to ordinary Portland
cement, following are the other varieties
of cement.
1. Hydrophobic cement
2. Pozzolana cement
3. Quick setting cement
4. Rapid hardening cement
5. White cement
6. Coloured cement
7. Acid resisting cement
4.1.2 Types of Cement 8. Blast Furnace slag cement
Generally cement is classified into 9. High alumina cement
two categories. They are, 10. Low heat cement
11. Sulphate resisting cement
1) Natural Cement
2) Artificial Cement
4.1.2.1 Natural Cement

Natural cement is obtained by burn-
ing, crushing and powdering the molecu-
lar stones of normal silica and lime. This
stone contains 20% to 40% of clay alias sil-
A rtificial cement was
invented by Louis
Vicat in 1817.
ica. It is also known as “Roman cement”.
4.1.2.2 Artificial Cement

Artificial cement is obtained by
adding lime and clay in correct propor-
tion and burning it at high temperature.
This burnt mixture is called “Clinker”.
Gypsum is added to clinker and grinded
in powdered form. This grinded powder
is known as “Cement”. Colour of artificial
cement is alike the stones in Portland of
81 Cement | Building Materials

Hydrophobic Cement
P ortland cement was

invented by an Eng-
lish man named ‘Joseph
Aspdin’ in the year 1824
(19th century).
Acidol, Napthalene soap, oxidised

petroleum etc. are used as the additional to expansion and possesses lighter tensile
ingredients to decrease the wetting ability strength. It is used to prepare mass con-
of cement grains. These substances form a crete of lean mix works and for laying
thin film around cement grains. The fine concrete underwater.
pores in concrete are uniformly distrib-
uted. Thus frost and water resistance of Quick Setting Cement
the concrete are increased considerably.
Pozzolana Cement
Quick Setting cement is produced

by adding a small percentage of alumin-
ium sulphate to the ingredients of cement
Pozzolana denotes volcanic pow- during grinding. The setting action starts
der. It is cheap, attains compressive within five minutes after the addition of
strength with age, offers great resistance water. It becomes hard in less than thirty

minutes. This cement is used to lay con- for floor finish, plaster work and orna-
crete under static water or running water. mental work, etc. It is more costly than
ordinary cement.
Rapid Hardening Cement
Coloured Cement
Rapid Hardening cement attains

high hardness in minimum days. The ini-
tial setting time and final setting time of
this cement is like an ordinary cement.
Increase in lime content, very fine grinding
and burning at high temperature are the
reasons for the quick setting. The cost of
this cement is more than Portland cement.
Construction work is done quickly due to
its quick setting and hardening property.
White Cement Coloured cement is manufactured

by mixing 5% to 10% of colouring agents
with ordinary cement. Strength of this
cement is affected when more than 10% of
colouring pigment is added. Green colour
is obtained by adding chromium oxide.
Blue colour is obtained by adding cobalt.
Yellowish brown, red, yellow colours are
obtained by adding iron oxide in different
proportions. Black colour is obtained by
magnesium oxide. This cement is used to
make artificial stones, external decoration
and coloured cement flooring, etc.
White Cement is a variety of ordi-
nary cement. It is prepared from raw
4.1.4 Field Tests For Cement
materials which are practically free from
colouring oxides of iron, manganese or To know the quality of cement the
chromium. It is white in colour. It is used following tests are conducted.

1. Manufacturing date and Colour test.
2.
3.
Physical properties
Presence of lumps T he first bridge built
using artificial cement
is Souillac Bridge over
4. Block test
5. Glass plate test Dordogne River in 1824 at
France.
4.1.4.1 Manufacturing Date and
Colour Test
If the cement bags stocked for long
period it loses its strength. Hence, the
manufacturing date of the cement bag
should be checked. The colour of cement
should be uniform. It is light green mixed
with grey colour.
4.1.4.2 Physical Properties

When cement felt between fin-
gers is rough, and is warm when hand is
inserted in a bag of cement, it indicates
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 1
adulteration.
Do the block test and glass plate test
4.1.4.3 Presence of Lumps conducted in cement in your class room.
Cement inside the bag should not

be harden due to moisture. If it is hard, 4.1.5 Required Properties of
such cement should be rejected. Portland Cement
• Initial setting time should not be less
4.1.4.4 Block Test
than 30 minutes.
A cement block of size 200 mm × • Final setting time should not be more
25mm × 25mm is made and it is immersed than 10 hours.
in water for 7 days. It is then placed 150
• After 3 days, compressive strength should
mm apart. The cement is good, if this
not be less than 16 N/mm2
block shows no sign of failure when 34kg
• After 7 days, compressive strength
weight is loaded on it.
should not be less than 22 N/mm2
4.1.4.5 Glass Plate Test • After 3 days, tensile strength should be 2

N/mm 2.
A thick paste of cement with water is
• After 7 days, tensile strength should be
made on a piece of glass plate and keep it in
2.5N/mm 2
water for 24 hours. The paste should set hard
with the glass plate when it is taken out. • The residue should not be more than
10 % when sieved in I.S 90 micron sieve.

• Should not expand more than 19 mm in 4.1.7 Storage of Cement
Le-Chatlier test.
4.1.6 Grades of Cement

There are three grades of cement.
1) Grade 33 as per IS 269 (1989).

2) Grade 43 as per IS 8112 (1989).
3) Grade 53 as per IS 12269 (1987).
 Cement packed in bags should be stored

in a place that it may not come into con-
tact with water, moisture and even with
moist air.
 Cement bags are stored in storage sheds
Now a days the cement of grade 43 on damp proof raised floors.
is easily available.
The grades 43 and 53 in cement

mainly corresponds to the average com-
pressive strength attained after 28 days in
mega Pascal’s (Mpa) of at least 3 mortar
cubes (area of the face 50cm2) composed
of one part of cement with three parts of
standard sand.
 The bags should be kept 60cm away from
O
ver two billion tons
of cement is pro-
duced each year.
the walls.
 Not more than 10 bags should be stacked
on one stock.
Ancient Chinese
 Cement should not be stored for more
used cement to hold bamboo together
than one year.
in boats and in the Great Wall of
China.  In case of long storage for a period more
than a year it should be covered with
“tarpaulin” which renders water proof.

 If different brands of cement are stacked
they should be stacked separately.
 For mass storage, cement should be
stored in silos in loose form.
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 2
Visit any loose cement storage
plant nearby your town and submit a
report with photos.

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. The artificial cement is manufactured in
India in the year …..
a. 1900
b. 1940
c. 1904
d. 1914
PART II (3 Marks)
2. The other name of natural cement is
Answer in on or two sentence
a. Roman cement
b. Sand 6. What are the general types of cement?
c. M- sand 7. What are the field tests conducted in
d. Artificial cement cement?
8. List the grades of cement.
3. The weight of cement bag is…
9. Brief about the block test conducted on
a. 10kg
cement.
b. 50kg
10. List any five types of artificial cement.
c. 100kg
11. List the grades of cement.
d. 75kg
4. Colour cement is manufactured by mix- PART III (5 Marks)
ing ........... of colouring agents with ordi- Answer shortly
nary cement.
a. 25% to 50% 12. Write briefly about artificial cement.
b. 50% to 100% 13. Write about any two types of artificial
c. 1% to 60% cement in brief.
d. 5% to 10%
PART IV (10 Marks)
5. While storage the cement bags should be
Answer in detail
stored ............. away from the wall.
a. 120cm 14. What are the required properties of
b. 60cm portland cement?
c. 15cm 15. Explain about storage of cement.
d. 90cm
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (b)
Part – I Answers

Learning Objectives
4.2 MORTAR
Learning Objectives
• Know mortar and its types.
• Understand the properties of good mortar.
• Understand the preparation of cement mortar.
• Know the precaution in using mortar.
• Know the uses of mortar.
4.2.1 Introduction iv) Compatible with the types of painting

work.
Mortars are used in masonry for
joining stones, bricks, blocks, etc., and are v) It should stiffen early.
designated by the mix used. vi) It must have good bond with bricks
and stones.
4.2.2 Definition vii) It should prevent seepage of rain water.
viii) It should be cheap.
The term mortar is used to indicate a
paste prepared by adding required quantity ix) It should have water retentively.
of water to a mixture of binding material like
4.2.4 Types of Mortar
cement or lime and fine aggregate like sand.
Based on the kind of binding mate-
rial used, the mortar is classified into 4
types. The binding material is chosen based
on the expected working condition, hard-
ening temperature, moisture condition, etc.
They are,
1. Lime Mortar
2. Cement mortar
3. Combination or gauged mortar
4.2.3 Properties of Good Mortar
4. Mud mortar
i) It must have the required strength.
ii) It must be workable. 4.2.4.1 Lime Mortar
iii) It must be durable. In lime mortar, lime is used as bind-
ing material and it may be fat lime, hydraulic
Building Materials | Mortar 88

lime or lime with surkhi in different propor- 4.2.5.1 Hand Mixing
tions. Lime mortar has the properties like
high plasticity, can be placed easily, good
cohesiveness, durability and hardens slowly.
It is generally used in lightly loaded parts of
building above ground level.
4.2.4.2 Cement Mortar

In cement mortar, cement is used
as binding material. Proportion of cement
to sand varies from 1:2 to 1:6 or more. Cement and Sand
Cement mortar is used where a mortar of
high strength and water resisting prop-
erty is required such as underground con-
struction, water saturated soil etc.,
4.2.4.3 Combination Mortar or
Gauged Mortar
To improve the quality of lime mor- Dry Mixing
tar, cement is sometimes added to it. This
is known as gauging. It makes lime mortar
strong and dense.
4.2.4.4 Mud Mortar

In this type of mortar clay and sand
are mixed together and used in the con-
struction of temporary sheds.
Wet Mixing
• Gypsum based mortars

have already been used
10,000 years ago.
• Lime came into operation in 6000 BC
but it had been used first by romans as
a constituent to produce mortar.
4.2.5 Preparation of Cement Prepared Mortar

Mortar
Sand is measured by boxes and
Cement Mortar needed for small
cement by weight of bags. The specified
works is mixed by hand and for large
quantity of sand is spread first and then
works is mixed by mixer machine.
89 Mortar | Building Materials

cement is spread over it. They are dry 3. To form an even bedding layer for build-
mixed again and again by a shovel or ing units.
spade till the mix is of uniform in colour. 4. To form joints of pipes.
Then water is added and the whole mass is 5. To improve the appearance of structure.
mixed for ten to fifteen minutes.
6. To prepare moulds.
4.2.5.2 Machine Mixing 7. To serve as a matrix to hold coarse aggre-

gates etc.
4.2.7 Precautions in Using Mortar

The following precautions are to be
taken while making use of mortar.
i) After preparation, it should be con-

sumed as early as possible.
ii) The cement mortar should be con-
sumed before its initial setting time
starts.
In machine mixing, cement and
iii) It is advisable to prepare cement mortar
sand are just mixed in a concrete mixer
of one bag of cement at a time.
and then water is added gradually. Mix-
iv) It is advisable to stop the work in frosty
ing is carried out for more than one min-
weather.
ute till the mixture is brought to a plastic
condition. v) The building units should be soaked in
water before mortar is applied.
Mortars within two hours can be vi) The construction work should be cured
used for retempering by adding water to by sprinkling water to avoid rapid
restore the consistency. After two hours drying.
the mix should not be used. vii) The mortar should not contain excess
water and it should be as stiff as can be
conveniently used.
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 3
Visit a construction site near by
4.2.8 Required Strength of Mortars
your school and collect details about In Masonry
mixing of mortar.
Strength of mortars to be used for
joining bricks, stones, blocks, etc. should
4.2.6 Uses of Mortar depend on the strength of the materials.
1. To bind the building units such as bricks, There is no advantage in using over strong
stones, etc. mortar. It should be sufficiently strong to
resist erosion, abrasion and other factors
2. To carry pointing and plaster work on
affecting durability. The following list
exposed surface of masonry.

gives the ratio of common cement – sand 4. Arch work - CM 1:3
mortars used in practice in Tamilnadu. 5. Pointing work- CM 1:1 to 1:3
6. Brick work plaster - CM 1:5
1. Damp proof course - CM 1 : 2
7. RC Plasterwork (like ceiling) - CM 1:3 to
2. General Brick work - CM 1 : 6
1:4
3. Stone masonry – CM 1:6

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. …… is used in masonry for giving stones
and bricks together.
a. Mortar
b. Concrete
c. Adhesives PART II (3 Marks)
d. Chemicals Answer in one or two sentences
2. The mortar is mixed for ….. minutes in 4. Define mortar.
hand mixing. 5. List the types of mortar.
a. 30 to 45 6. Define mud mortar.
b. 10 to 15 7. List any three ratios of cement mortars
c. 5 to 10 used in practice.
d. 20 to 25
PART III (5 Marks)
3. It is advisable to prepare cement mortar
for ….. at a time. Answer shortly
a. 5 bags 8. Write about any two types of mortar.
b. 2 bags 9. What are the uses of mortar?
c. 3 bags
d. 1 bag PART IV (10 Marks)
Answer in detail
10. What are the properties of a good
mortar?
11. Explain the preparation of cement
mortar?
12. What are the precautions in using mortar?
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d)
Part – I Answers

Learning Objectives
4.3 CONCRETE
Learning Objectives

• Know concrete and its ingrediants.
• Understand about water cement ratio.
• List the types of concrete, its uses and properties.
• Know the preparation of cement concrete.
• Understand the precautions to be taken while transportation and placing of concrete.
• Know the grades of concrete.
4.3.1 Introduction 4.3.3 Ingredients of Concrete

Cement concrete is a major build-
ing material used in modern building
constructions. It is used in all parts of a
building like foundations, superstructure
and roofs. It is prepared at site by hand
mixing or machine mixing. Nowadays it
is also available as a factory made product
known as “Ready Mix Concrete” (RMC).
The main ingredients of concrete
4.3.2 Definition are,
Concrete is a composition of coarse
1. Binding material (cement or lime)
aggregate, fine aggregate, binding mate-
rial and water in such proportions that the 2. Fine aggregate (river sand or M-sand)
whole sets into a monolithic mass. 3. Coarse aggregate (gravel or broken stone)
4. Water
When cement concrete is used
without reinforcement, it is called “Plain 4.3.3.1 Binding Material
Cement Concrete” (PCC). If it is rein-
Cement or lime are used as the
forced with steel, it is called “Reinforced
binding material. They bind the indi-
Cement Concrete” (RCC).
vidual units of fine aggregate and coarse

aggregate by virtue of its properties of
setting or hardening in combination with
water. It helps to fill the voids and imparts
density to concrete.
4.3.3.2 Fine Aggregate

Sand or crushed stone sand (M
sand) are used as the fine aggregate to fill
the voids leaved between coarse aggregate
and thereby reduce the quantity of cement.
4.3.3.3 Coarse Aggregate

Broken stone or broken brick acts
as main filler and forms the main bulk of
concrete. The aggregates should be clean,
dense, hard, strong and durable.
4.3.3.4 Water
Water facilitates the spreading of
cement over the aggregates and regulates
the consistency. Water used should be
clean. Sea water should not be used as it
retards setting of concrete.
However, there are also certain other

additives known as “Admixtures” added to
improve the quality of concrete required for
various constructions. Some of them are,
i) Plasticizers.
ii) Superplasticizers.
iii) Accelerators.
iv) Retarders.
v) Pozzolanic material.
vi) Air entraining agents.
vii) Fibres.
viii) Polymers. 4.3.4 Water – Cement Ratio
ix) Silica fume.
“Water-cement ratio” is defined as
the ratio of the weight of mixing water to
the weight of cement used in the concrete.

The strength of concrete increases with
I
decrease in water cement ratio. n India the buildings
made out of white con-
Water reacts with cement chem- crete is Bhai lotus tem-
ically and causes setting and hardening ple (constructed in1986)
of concrete. It is found theoretically that located in Delhi.
water required is about 0.50 to 0.60 time
Search link: http://en.m.wikipedia.org>
the weight of cement.
wiki>lotustemple
4.3.5 Preparation of Cement
Concrete
Cement concrete is prepared
either by hand mixing or machine mixing
depending on the requirement. The mate-
rials are mixed thoroughly, so that a uni-
form distribution of materials is obtained.
The thorough mixing ensures that cement
in the form of a film completely covers the
surface of aggregate.
4.3.5.1 Hand Mixing 4.3.5.2 Machine Mixing
Mixing by hand is done either in a

steel pan or on a pucca water tight platform.
First, the sand and cement in the spec-
ified proportions are mixed thoroughly
and then, this mixture is spread evenly
on a stack of coarse aggregate. It is turned
over twice in dry state. Then the measured
quantity of water is added and the mixture Tilting Drum Concrete Mixer
is mixed thoroughly to get a uniform mix.
The prepared mix shall be consumed in 30 Machine mixing is useful in large
minutes after adding water. Hand mixing works. It is cheaper in the long run. The
is best for small works.

mixing is done in concrete mixer either 4.3.5.3 Ready Mix Concrete
of tilting drum type or non-tilting drum
type. Water should be added in the mixer
at the same time or before the other mate-
rials are placed. The mixing time should
be at least one minute and preferably two
minutes. The concrete discharged from
the mixer should be consumed before the
setting time starts. The mixer should be
cleaned well after every use.
Batching Plant
When construction is to be carried

out in congested places, it is difficult to
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 4 find space for storing aggregates and mix-
Visit a construction site in your ing concrete at the site. Hence, ready mix
town during the process of concreting concrete are used at such sites. The ready
by machine mixing and prepare a report mix plants are located away from the cen-
with picture. tre of city where concrete can be mixed by
using batching plants.

a maximum density to concrete. Compac-
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 5 tion can be done in 2 ways.
Visit ready mix plant nearby and
prepare a report. 1. Hand Compaction
2. Mechanical Compaction
In case of where it 4.3.6.1 Hand Compaction

is difficult to lift the con-
crete to large heights by
employing manual labour,
concrete is pumped
up through specially
designed pumps. These `pump concrete
mix should be designed in such a way that
they do not allow segregation.
This is done with the help of steel

tamping rods or timber screeds. Narrow and
deep members are compacted with tamping
rods. The slabs and floors are tamped with
screeds. Compaction should be done in lay-
ers of 300mm for mass concrete and 150
The ready mix concrete while being mm for reinforced concrete.
transported in rotating drums which keep
the concrete in agitated condition as well 4.3.6.2 Mechanical Compaction
a dose of retarding agents (additives) are
added to the concrete.
4.3.6 Compaction of Concrete
The thoroughly mixed concrete

should be placed continuously and com-
pacted rapidly. The main aim of compac-
tion is to remove air bubbles and thus give

4.3.7 Curing of Concrete
Reinforced concrete: After concrete is set, it should be
I
n 1848, Jean-Louis-
Lambot was the first
person to use reinforced concrete by
continuously cured for a specific period.
For the chemical reaction (Hydration)
to take place between the constituent of
using iron bars and wire mesh. cement there should be a humidity of 95%
in the mix. Hence, it is necessary to keep
the concrete wet for a specific period. If the
concrete is not cured properly then cracks
appear on the top and the full strength is
also not attained.
4.3.7.1 Methods of Curing

I. Ponding with water.
ii. Covering the concrete with wet sand,
jute bags etc.
iii. Intermittent spraying and covering con-
crete with polythene bags.
iv. Completely immersing on water tanks as
in the case of precast elements.
v. By steam curing.
vi. Vertical surfaces like columns are cured
by covering with wet sack or by spraying.
Vibrators are used for this way of com-

paction. The vibrators permits the use of a
lower water- cement ratio as the compaction
is very thorough even for drier mixes. The
advantages of this type of compaction are,
i. A good surface finish can easily be

o bt ai n e d.
ii. Formworks can be removed early.
iii. A leaner mix with high strength can be
obtained.
iv. Concrete can be deposited also in
small openings and in the places where
it will be difficult to deposit by hand
methods.

4.3.8 Properties of Concrete
Cement concrete possesses the fol-
lowing important desirable properties:
i. It has high compressive strength.

ii. It is free from corrosion and there is
no appreciable effect of atmospheric
agents on it.
iii. It can be moulded into any form.
iv. It hardens with age.
v. It is proved to be more economical than
steel.
vi. It binds rapidly with steel.
vii. It forms a hard surface, capable of
resisting abrasion.

The main undesirable properties of (1) No fines concrete.
cement concrete are as follows: (2) High slump or self-compacting concrete.
(3) High strength concrete.
i. It undergoes shrinkage while setting and
hardening (4) High performance concrete.
ii. It requires careful attention in prepara- 4.1.10.1 No Fines Concrete
tion, placing and curing
iii. Concrete structure will be bigger and
heavier than steel structures.
iv. If it is not compacted thoroughly porous
holes may formed on the surface.
4.3.9 Uses of Concrete

Concrete is used for variety of pur-
poses such as:
i. Foundations of masonry works, espe-

cially in damp soil or under water. It is designed with cement, coarse
ii. Terrace roofs and floors. aggregate and water without fine aggre-
iii. Walls, retaining walls. gates. This is generally used in mass con-
crete work in foundation where we want
iv. Arches, dams and bridges etc.
to prevent capillary rise of water.
4.1.10.2 High Slump or Self

• The use of concrete can Compacting Concrete
be traced back to ancient
Egypt, where it was used
as an infill material for the
pyramids.
• First concrete highway was built in
1909 in Greenfield Township, which
is now northwest Detroit, Michigan,
USA.
4.3.10 Types of Concrete In situations like concreting of

piles, we cannot compact the concrete by
There are many types of concrete
external means. Similarly, in places where
that can be made as per requirement. In
there is congestion of steel, we need this
the ordinary concrete, the following dis-
type of concrete. These are produced
tinctions are usually made.

by increasing the workability of con-
P
crete by the aid of plasticizers and super recasted concrete
plasticizers. construction is the
modern type of construc-
4.1.10.3 High Strength Concrete tion now-a-days.
Concrete which is designed to have
Search link: Http://en.m.wikipedi.
strength 40 N/mm2 (Grade 40) and above
org>wiki>precastedconcretecon-
is called high strength concrete.
struction.
4.1.10.4 High Performance 4.3.11 Other Types of Concrete

Concrete
In addition to the above concretes, a
Concrete which is designed to have
large number of special types of concretes
strength more than 60N/mm2 is called high
are made for special purposes. They are:
performance concrete. Also these concrete
have special characters like high workabil- i. Fibre reinforced concrete.
ity, high resistance to corrosion, etc.
ii. Light weight concrete.
iii. Fly ash concrete.
iv. Silica fumes concrete.
v. Polymer concrete.
vi. Ferro cement concrete.
vii. Ready mixed concrete.
viii. Pre packed concrete.

• It should be laid continuously.
A
10- storey precasted
structure was erected
in 48 hours in Mohali,
• The thickness should not be more than
30-45cm in case of mass concrete and 15
- 30 cm in case of RCC Works.
Chandigarh by involving • It should be consolidated or compacted
200 workers including technicians. well.
• Walking on freshly laid concrete should
be avoided.
• Concrete should not be laid during
rain.
Stephen Stepanian:
A n American inven-
tor and owner of
numerous patents including the eleva-
4.3.12 Precautions to Be taken tor and conveyor, compound tool and
During Transportation and the wrench. He is also the inventor
Placing of Concrete of self-discharging motorized tran-
During Transportation sit mixer that was the predecessor of
the concrete mixer truck. Stepanian is
• There should be no segregation or spill-
often called the ‘father of the ready-
ing of concrete.
mix concrete’ industry
• Water should not be added in any
circumstances.
• Concrete should be placed and com-
pacted before its setting starts.
During Placing
• The form work should be properly
cleaned and prepared well to receive fresh
concrete.
• It should be deposited as nearly as possi-
ble to its final position.
• The position of form work and rein-
forcement should not be disturbed.
• It should not be dropped from height
more than a metre to avoid segregation.

4.3.13 Grades of Concrete Note: The minimum grade of con-
crete for plain cement concrete (PCC) is
Concrete grades are denoted by
M15 and for reinforced cement concrete
M10, M20, M30 according to their compres-
(RCC) is M20.
sive strength. The ‘M’ denotes mix design
of concrete followed by the compressive
strength number in N/mm2. Proportion Characteristic
of Compressive
Grade
‘Mix’ is the respective ingredient concrete Strength
proportions which are cement, fine aggre- (N/mm2)
gate and coarse aggregate. M5 1:5:10 5 N/mm2
M7.5 1:4:8 7.5 N/mm2
If we mention M10 concrete, it means
that the concrete has 10 N/mm2 character- M10 1:3:6 10 N/mm2
istic compressive strength at 28 days. M15 1:2:4 15 N/mm2
M20 1:1 ½ : 3 20 N/mm2
M25 1: 1: 2 25 N/mm2
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 6
M30 1: 1: 3 30 N/mm2
Collect pictures of coloured con-
crete buildings and various concrete
construction and prepare an album.

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. ……. concrete is adopted for concreting
in congested areas.
a. Ready mix
b. Reinforced cement PART II (3 Marks)
c. Plain cement Answer in one or two sentences
d. Lime
5. Define RCC and PCC.
2. The materials used to improve the qual- 6. List the ingredients of concrete
ity of concrete is ….. 7. List any four admixtures used in
a. Fine aggregate concrete.
b. Binding material 8. What is water-cement ratio?
c. Admixture 9. Write shortly about grade of concrete.
d. Cement
3. ……. water should not be used in PART III (5 Marks)
concrete. Answer shortly
a. Pond
10. Write about any two ingredients of
b. Lake
concrete.
c. River
11. Explain hand mixing of concrete.
d. Sea
12. Write about ready mix concrete.
4. The strength of high strength concrete is 13. What is compaction of concrete?
…….. 14. Write the uses of concrete.
a. 20 N/mm2 15. What are the advantages of mechanical
b. 40 N/mm2 compaction of concrete?
c. 30 N/mm2
d. 10 N/mm2 PART IV (10 Marks)
Answer in detail
16. Explain machine mixing of concrete
with sketch.
17. Explain about compaction of concrete.
18. Define curing and list the methods of
curing.
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (b)
Part – I Answers

BUILDING Unit 5
Basic Civil
5.1 TIMBER
5.2 LIME
5.3 TILES
Learning gives creativity,

creativity leads to thinking,
thinking provides knowledge,
knowledge makes you great
-A.P.J.Abdul Kalam

TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.1 Timber 5.2 Lime
5.1.2 Types of Timber 5.2.2 Types of Lime
5.1.3. Defects in Timber 5.2.3 I.S. Classification of Lime
5.1.4. Seasoning of Timber 5.2.4 Uses of Lime
• Objective of Seasoning 5.2.5 Difference Between Fat
• Methods of Seasoning Lime and Hydraulic Lime
5.1.5 Timber Products and their 5.3 Tiles
Uses 5.3.1 Introduction
5.1.6 Uses of Timber in Construction 5.3.2 Types of Tiles and its uses
Learning Objectives 5.3.3. Ceramic Tiles
5.1 TIMBER
Learning Objectives
• State the types of timber
• Describe the defects in timber
• Explain the seasoning of timber
• State the methods of seasoning of timber
• Explain the timber and its products with uses
5.1.1 Introduction 5.1.2.1 Teak Wood

Wood is one of the oldest materials Teak wood is one of the most avail-
used by mankind to increase the comfort and able hard woods. It is more durable due to
well beings. Since it is so light in weight that the presence of aromatic oil, which largely
large structures could be built on slender foun- preserves it from the attack of white ants.
dations with help of beams of great strength. It grows in south India and central India.
5.1.2 Types of Timber

1. Teak Wood
2. Sal Wood
3. RoseWood
4. Mango Wood
5. Jack Wood
Building Materials | Timber 106

The biggest tree in the world:
General Sherman (Giant Sequoia Tree)
in California’s Sequoia National Park
in Tulare country in the United States of
California. By volume it is the largest
known living single stem tree on earth.
Volume: 52000 cubic feet (1487 m3)
Height: 84 m
Weight: 1.9 million kilogram.
Uses: It is used for ship building, railway

sleepers, for making furniture and railway
carriages and also for structural and deco-
rative purposes.
5.1.2.2 Sal Wood

It is available mostly in hilly areas
of UP, Bihar, Assam and Visakhapatnam.
Characteristics of Teak Wood

i. It shrinks very little and its fibres are
straight.
ii. It can be worked easily and finally
v ar n i she d. Characteristics of Sal Wood
iii. It weighs 7700 N/m .
3
i. Wood is hard, close grained, heavy and
iv. Its colour is yellow to dark brown. durable.
v. It is the most valuable timber of the ii. Not easily attacked by white ants and
world. seasons.
iii. Average weight is 8600 N/m.3
107 Timber | Building Materials

Uses: Used in bridge construction, ship is easily attacked by white ants and decays
building, piles etc. on exposure to wet atmosphere.
5.1.2.3 Rosewood
Rosewood is dark pink in colour
and it takes a high polish. It is found in
Kerala, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Tamilnadu and Orissa.
Characteristics of Mango Wood

i. It can be easily designed.
ii. It is coarse and open grained.
iii. It has deep grey colour.
iv. Its average weight is 6900 N/m3.
Characteristics of Rosewood
i. It is strong, tough and close grained.
ii. It maintains its shape well and available
in large sizes.
iii. Its weight after seasoning is about
7 9 0 0 N / m 3.
Uses: Used for furniture of superior qual- Uses: Used for cheap furniture and tem-
ity, ornamental coverings, etc. porary construction.
5.1.2.5 Jack Wood

Its colour is yellow when freshly cut
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 1
and it darkens with age. It maintains its shape.
a. Find out the oldest tree in your town It is found in Maharashtra and Tamilnadu.
and try to determine its age.
b. Take out the cross section of timber
and see the grains in it.
5.1.2.4 Mango Wood
This tree is very much esteemed for

fruit and is found all over India. The wood

Characteristics of Jack Wood Uses: Used for plain furniture, boat con-
i. It is easy to work. struction, doors windows and panels, etc.
ii. It gives a good finish.
iii. Its weight after seasoning is 5950 N/m3. 5.1.3 Defects in Timber
Outer bark
Inner bark
Cambrium layer
The largest tree in India: Pith
• The banyan tree (250 year- Heart wood
Sap wood
old) located in Acharya
Jagadeesh Chandra Bose
Indian botanic garden,
Howrah near Kolkata.
• A 330 m long road was constructed
around the tree to drive the visitors
around the circumference of the tree.
It covers 14500m2 (3.5acres) area.
1. Star Shakes: There are the cracks which

extend from bark towards the sapwood.
These are wider at outside end and nar-
rower at inside end. These are usually
formed due to extreme heat or severe
frost during the growth of the tree.

4. Radial Shake: These are similar to star
shakes and occur in felled timber when
exposed to the sun during seasoning.
Radial shakes are generally irregular,
fine and numerous.
2. Heart Shakes: These cracks occur at the

centre of the cross section of the tree and
it extends from pith to sapwood in the
5. Rind Galls:
direction of medullary rays. These cracks
occur due to shrinkage of interior part
of tree which is approaching maturity. It
divides the cross-section of the tree into
two or four parts.
A peculiar curved swelling found

on the body of the tree known as rind
3. Cup Shakes: Cup shakes separate the galls. They develop at points from where
whole or part of one annual ring from branches are improperly cut-off or
another and are caused by wind and removed.
frost in the growing tree.
6. Upsets: Upsets are portions of the tim-
ber in which the fibres have been injured
by crushing, bending or shocks during
growth of the tree.
cup shake ring shake

8. Knots: Sometimes branches or limbs are
cut off from the tree. The portion from
which the branch is cut off continues to
receive nourishment from the stem for a
long time and it ultimately results in the
formation of knots.
live or
green knot
7. Twisted Fibres:
dead or loose knot
9. Wind Crack: Wind cracks are shakes

or splits on the sides of a bark of timber
due to the shrinkage of exterior surface
exposed to atmospheric influences.
Twisted fibres are caused by the

action of a prevalent wind turning the
tree constantly in one direction. Timber
thus injured is not fit for convertion, as so Wind Cracks
many fibres would be cut through.

5.1.4 Seasoning of Timber
How to calculate the age Seasoning is the process of drying
of a live tree? timber in a controlled condition to remove
Way 1 - Try to find out all the sap and to reduce moisture content
when it’s planted. without introducing any splits and distor-
tion in the wood.
Way 2 - C
ount the numbers of branch
whorls above chest height. Add 5.1.4.1 Objectives of Seasoning
1 to your total. (Example: 4
I. To reduce the weight of timber
whorls + 1 = 5 years)
ii. To make timber fit for receiving coating
Way 3 - M
ultiply the diameter by the of paints
growth factor.
iii. To impart hardness strength and stiff-
Way 4 - E
xample: For White Oak tree, ness to timber
if the growth factor is 5 and its iv. To make timber safe from the attack of
diameter is 22 inches, then its fungi, insects etc
age is 22 × 5 = 110 years.
v. To reduce the tendency of timber to
warp, crack and shrink.
5.1.4.2 Methods of Seasoning of Timbers

1. Natural Seasoning
2. Artificial Seasoning
1. Natural Seasoning :
10. Druxiness: Druxiness is the name given

to decayed spots or steaks of whitish
colour in timber. In this method, timber logs are
sawn into planks or other marketable sizes
immediately after felling. The sawn tim-
ber is stacked under a covered shed. Sawn
timber is stacked in such a way that suffi-
cient space is left around each sawn piece,
so that free circulation of air may take
place without any difficulty. Timber pieces
may be stacked horizontally or vertically.
But horizontally stacking arrangement

is the most common method. The plat- 2. Artificial Seasoning
form where stack is to be erected should i) Boiling
be raised from the adjoining ground by at ii) Electrical Seasoning
least about 300mm.
iii) Kiln Seasoning
The stack is prepared by laying lay-
(i) Boiling: In this method timber is
ers of sawn pieces in cross wise directions
immersed in water and the water is then
in alternate layers, length of the stack is
boiled for about three to four hours. It is
equal to length of timber pieces. Width and
then dried very slowly. Instead of boiling
height of the stack are restricted to about
in water, timber may be exposed to the
1.5m and 3m respectively. A number of such
action of hot steam. This method of sea-
stacks may be constructed under the same
soning proves to be costly.
shed. Minimum distance between adjacent
stacks should be kept about 600mm. This
method of seasonings is also called “Air Steam jets
Fan to extract
moist air
seasoning” as natural air remains circulat-

ing around each piece of the stacks and in
Hot pipes to
due course of time and the type of size of heat the air
the timber seasoning is brought about.
Timber stack
(ii) Electrical Seasoning: In this method

high frequency alternating current is
passed on timber. When timber is wet it
offers less resistance to the flow of electric
current. The resistance increases as the
wood dries internally, which also results
Electrical Seasoning

in the production of heat. This method is 5.1.5 Timber Products and their Uses
not adopted as it is not economical. 1. Veneers
2. Plywood
How to determine the age 3. Fibre board
of a dead tree? 4. Particle or Light board
5. Hard Board
By counting the number of
rings in the log. 6. Block board
7. Laminated Boards
5.1.5.1 Veneer
Veneers are thin
sheets of wood with
0.4mm to 6mm thick-
ness obtained by dif-
ferent knife cutting
processes. These are
produced by rotary
cutters where a knife blade is firmly held
against a leg which is rotated. The sheets
that are turned out are cut into stand-
(iii) Kiln Seasoning: This method of sea- ard sizes dried and graded as suitable for
soning is carried out in air tight cham- cores or faces. Teak, sissoo, rosewood are
bers or ovens. Converted timber pieces some of the Indian timbers capable of
are stacked inside the chamber such that producing high-grade figured veneers of
spaces are left for free circulation of air. approved merit.
Now air fully saturated with moisture
and heated about 40° c is forced inside
of the chamber. The heated air gradually
enters inside of the timber pieces and the
moisture content in the timber is gradu-
Saw Blade Knife Blade
ally reduced.
Vent Fan
Roof
Steam
jets
Timber
stack
Trolley

5.1.5.2 Plywood 5.1.5.4 Particle Boards
Plywood is made by pasting three Low Density Fibre (LDF) boards
or more veneers having the direction are called particle boards. These are man-
of grain running at right angles to each ufactured from waste wooden chips, saw
other in alternate layers. The adhesive mill shavings or even saw dust blended
coated sheets are assembled and pressed with syntheic resin or other suitable bind-
together by hot press. It is then cut into ers by pressing.
different pieces of marketable sizes. It is
also available in various thickness ranging
from 3mm to 25mm in Moisture Resistant
(MR) and Boiling Water Resistant (BWR)
grades.
5.1.5.3 Fibre Boards 5.1.5.5 Hard Board

For making fibre boards, wood Hard boards are made from wood
chips are steamed to separate fibres from fibres extracted form wood chips and
each other. These fibres are blended with pulped wood waste. It is also called as
resin and wax and turned into sheets by High-density fibre (HDF) board. These
passing through a pressing machine under boards are stronger, denser and harder
controlled heat and pressure. It is then than other types of boards because it is
cut into pieces of marketable sizes. These made by the materials which are highly
boards are available in thickness rang- compressed. Usually hard boards are 3mm
ing from 2.3mm to 35mm in plain MDF in thickness.
boards and prelaminated MDF boards.
(MDF = Medium Density Fibre board)

5.1.5.6 Block Board
Block boards are made up of a core
of softwood strips. These strips may be
25mm wide. The strips are placed edge
5.1.6 Uses of Timber in Constructions
to edge and sandwiched between veneers
of hardwood. The sandwich is then glued 1. It can be used in the form of vertical
under high pressure. These boards are not posts, beams, lintels, etc.
suitable for outdoor use. It is available 2. It can also be used as members of roof-
as sheets of 2440 × 1220mm in size with ing trusses and rafter.
30mm thickness. 3. It is used as form work for cement con-
crete structures.
4. It is very much used in timbering in the
deep trenches.
5. It is an important material for furniture
making.
6. It is very much used in making sports
goods, musical instruments, agricultural
implements, etc.
7. It is used in making woods floors, parti-
5.1.5.7 Laminated Board
tions, doors and windows etc.
Laminated boards looks very sim-
ilar to blockboards but it is made up of
softwood strips, 5-7mm in width. It is also ACTIVITY
PROJECT 2
sandwiched between two outer Veneers a. Collect some small samples of dif-
with the grains running at right angles to ferent types of timber. Smell and
the core strips. weight it.
b. Prepare a comparison statement for
its colour, smell, weight, grains, etc.

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. Teak wood weight is ……..
a. 1100 N/m3 b. 2200 N/m3
c. 5500 N/m3 d. 7700 N/m3
2. The dark pink colour tree is PART II (3 Marks)
a. Teak wood b. Rose wood Answer in one or two sentences
c. Sal wood d. Jack wood 5. Write short notes on teak wood
3. Natural seasoning is also called …… 6. List three methods of artificial seasoning
a. Air seasoning of timber?
b. Chemical seasoning 7. What are the methods of seasoning of
c. Electrical seasoning timbers?
d. Kiln seasoning
PART III (5 Marks)
4. Temperature for seasoning of timber in
kiln seasoning Answer shortly
a. 140ºC b. 240ºC 8. What are the types of trees? Explain
c. 40ºC d. 110ºC about any one?
9. What are the uses of timber in
construction?
10. What are the objects of seasoning?
PART IV (10 Marks)

Answer in detail
11. Write about any two timber products
and their uses?
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c)

Answers

Learning Objectives
5.2 LIME
Learning Objectives
• State the types of lime.
• Compare fat lime and hydraulic lime.
• Know the I.S.Classification of lime.
5.2.1 Introduction
Lime is an important binding mate-
rial in building construction. Several build-
ings in India were constructed using lime.
5.2.2 Types of Lime

Generally, lime is classified in two
types.
1. Fat lime
2. Hydraulic lime
5.2.2.1 Fat Lime Properties of Fat Lime

Due to high calcium content, it i. It hardens slowly.
is called high calcium lime and it is also ii. Its Plasticity is high.
called as white lime and pure lime. If we iii. It is soluble in water easily and quickly.
get pure lime in nature it is called as quick iv. It is in pure white colour.
lime. When fat lime is boiled in water the
cubic measurement increases to 2.5 times. Uses of Fat Lime
This lime contains 95% calcium oxide. i. Useful for white washing on the plas-
tered walls.
ii. When added with sand, that lime mortar
L
ime was used as a
construction material
in Egypt for plastering
is used for brick work and stone masonry
work.
iii. When mixed with surkhi, that mortar
the pyramids approxi-
is used in the constructions of big com-
mately in 4000 BC.
pound walls, basements, etc.
Building Materials | Lime 118

5.2.2.2 Hydraulic Lime Class A
It is an eminently hydraulic lime
normally used for structural purposes.
It is normally supplied as hydrated lime.
This contains about 25% of clay. It is espe-
cially suitable for under water works.
Class B
Semi hydraulic lime is the name
contains both hydraulic lime and fat lime.
It contains about 15% of clay. It is supplied
both as hydrated or quick lime. It is used
for mortar and concrete.
It sets under water. There is small Class C

quantity of clay content and iron oxide.
It is predominantly fat lime used for
According to the quantity of clay content,
finishing coat in plastering, white washing
it is classified in to three types.
etc and with suitable admixtures such as
1. Feebly hydraulic lime surkhi (or) any other pozzolanic material
2. Moderately hydraulic lime to produce artificial hydraulic lime. It is
supplied both quick lime and hydrated
3. High quality hydraulic lime
lime. This can set under water.
Feebly hydraulic lime is having 5%
to 10% clay. This content is easily soluble Class D
in water. It takes 21 days to settle.
It is the lime containing substantial
proportions of magnesium oxide and is
Moderately Hydraulic Lime is
similar to fat time. It is used for finishing
having 11% to 21% clay. This content
coat in plastering, white washing, etc.
takes two hours for dissolving. It takes one
or two weeks to settle.
Class E
High quality hydraulic lime is hav- It is kankar lime generally used
ing 21% to 30% clay. This soil will not eas- for masonry mortars and is supplied as
ily soluble. But settle in one (or) two days. hydrated lime.
5.2.3 I.S Classification of Lime

ACTIVITY
PROJECT 3
Indian Standard Institution classi-
Collect the lime sample and its
fied lime into 5 classes. Class A, Class B,
rates in your town.
Class C, Class D and Class E.
119 Lime | Building Materials

5.2.4 Uses of Lime iii. To prepare lime-sand brick.
The following are uses of lime in iv To stabilize earth.
construction. v As inner lining in open hearth furnace.
i. For white washing. vi In manufacturing of cement.
ii. To prepare Mortar for Masonry and
plastering work.
5.2.5 Difference Between Fat Lime and Hydraulic Lime
S.no Property Fat Lime Hydraulic Lime

1 Main 95% calcium oxide. 5% to 30% clay soil small
ingredient 5% clay soil. quantity of ferrous oxide.
2 Slacking action Quickly slacks. At that Slow slaking property. No
time volume is increased sound and heat releases when
two times. Heat and sound slakes.
occurs.
3 Setting action Slow setting property. Sets under water. It changes
Absorbs carbon-di-ox- as tricalcium aluminate and
ide from the atmosphere di calcium silicate when com-
and converts as calcium bines with water.
carbonate.
4 Hydraulic No hydraulic property. Possess hydraulic property.
property
5 Colour White. Moderate white
6 Strength Not so hard. Highly hard.
7 Uses Useful for white washing. To prepare mortar used for
the masonry work in water
logged areas.
Building Materials | Lime 120

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. The lime contains …… calcium oxide
a. 50%
b. 70%
c. 85%
d. 95% PART II (3 Marks)
2. Several buildings in India were used Answer in one or two sentences
……. for construction
4. What are the types of lime?
a. Sand
5. Write the uses of fat lime?
b. Lime
c. Line PART III (5 Marks)
d. Clay
Answer shortly
3. Increasing in volume when water
sprayed in fat lime 6. Explain the IS Classification of lime?
a. 2.5 times
PART IV (10 Marks)
b. 3.5 times
c. 4.5 times Answer in detail
d. 5.5 times 7. Write the difference between fat lime
and hydraulic lime.
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a)
Part – I Answers
121 Lime | Building Materials

Learning Objectives
5.3 TILES
Learning Objectives
• State the types of tiles.
• Understand the uses of tiles.
5.3.1 Introduction
Tiles are used for various purposes
in building industry. They are thinner
than bricks and hence should be carefully
handled to avoid any damage.
5.3.2 Types of Tiles and Their Uses

1. Drain tiles
2. Floor tiles
3. Roof tiles
5.3.2.1 Drain Tiles
These tiles are prepared in such a
way that they retain porous texture after
burning. If the tiles are used in water
logged areas, they allow sub soil water to
pass through their holes. They are also
used to convey irrigation water. Such drain
tiles are rarely adopted in modern times. 5.3.2.2 Floor Tiles
Floor tiles may be square or hexag-
onal in shape. These are flat tiles and their
When was the first tile made?
thickness varies from 12mm to 50mm.
In 14000 BC the first tile was
The thickness of square tiles varies from
made at Mesopotamia in Iraq.
The maximum size of a tile 150mm to 300mm. As the floor tiles are
was 300 cm × 150 cm – giant tiles hard and tough, there is minimum wear
Search link: www.granitifiandre.com> and tear. Floor tiles with thinner section
porcelaintile can be adopted for ceiling also. To prepare
coloured floor tiles, colouring substances
Building Materials | Tiles 122

is added in the clay at the time of its
preparation. Floor tiles of comparatively
less thickness can be adopted for fixing on
walls.
5.3.2.3 Roof Tiles

These tiles are used for covering
of pitched roof. Several kinds of roof tiles
are used. They are:
 Allahabad Tiles
 Corrugated tiles
 Flat tiles
 Flemish tiles
 Mangalore tiles
 Pan tiles
 Pot tiles
5.3.2.3.1 Allahabad Tiles
These tiles are made from selected

clay. Moulding of clay is done under pres-
sure by machines. Burning of these tiles is
done in such a way that they become more
strong. Tiles of special shapes are made for
hip, ridge and valley portions of the roof.
123 Tiles Building | Materials

5.3.2.3.2 Corrugated Tiles 5.3.2.3.5 Mangalore Tiles
These tiles have corrugations.
Hence it is called corrugated tiles. When
these tiles are placed on the roof, it is
enough to overlap two corrugations to
join each other. These are made by galva-
nized iron sheets.
To drain water, the red colour Man-

galore tiles are moulded with two channel
like structure. By joining the tiles, there
will be a projection in the side of tiles.
5.3.2.3.3 Flat Tiles

These are like ordinary floor tiles.
These are used to lay on the terrace above
the weathering course.
By using Mangalore moulds, ridge,

hip, chimney portion tiles are designed.
5.3.2.3.4 Flemish Tiles

These tiles are moulded in the
shape of ‘S’.

As this tiles are coming from Man- 5.3.2.3.7 Pot Tiles
galore of Karnataka state to Tamilnadu,
these are called Mangalore tiles. This tiles
are also manufactured in Cochin, Calicut
of Kerala state. Maximum 24% of water can
be absorbed by “A” class Mangalore tile.
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 4 These are ordinary semi-circular
country tiles. As this tiles are made by Pot
Prepare an album by pasting dif-
makers, they are called pot tiles. These
ferent types of floor, roof, and drain
tiles are small, handy and comfortable to
tiles.
handle. So, it is called hand tiles in Tamil
Nadu. These tiles are easily breakable.
5.3.2.3.6 Pan Tiles
These are small and hard. When
compared to pot tiles, they have minimum
undulations. Good quality tiles are man-
ufactured by moulding, drying, burning.
The length is 33 cm to 38 cm. The breadth
is 23cm to 28cm.
5.3.3 Ceramic Tile

Ceramic tile is made up of sand,
natural products and clay. Once it has
been moulded into shape they are then
fired in kiln. Ceramic tiles can either be
glazed or unglazed. In buildings, ceramic
tiles are used as floor tiles. Common types
of ceramic tiles used in construction are :
1. Common clay floor tiles

2. Clay terracing tiles
3. Clay ceiling tiles
4. Glazed ceramic tiles
5. Fully vitrified tiles
6. Porcelain tiles

Clay Terracing Tiles: These tiles are flat Fully Vitrified Tiles: When special clay is
tiles made up of well prepared and weath- mixed with oxides and burnt to very high
ered clay and burnt in a kiln. They should temperatures, the clay becomes vitrified
be burnt uniformly. They can be hand- (crystalline nature) and we get coloured
made or machine pressed. Usual sizes are vitrified tiles. These tiles are totally made
200 × 200 × 15mm and 150 × 150 × 15 up of vitrified clay. Since the edges of
mm. The thickness are 15mm and 20mm. these tiles are uniform they can be laid
with very close joints.
Glazed Ceramic Tiles: These are of

earthenware, having top surface glazed
and underside unglazed, so that tile
may adhere properly with the surface. A
glaze is applied in order to improve the
appearance, making it non-absorbent and
increasing its durability. These tiles are ACTIVITY
PROJECT 5
made in different sizes.
Collect different types of tiles
with your class friends and display it in
the class room.

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. Flat tiles thickness varies from ……
a. 12mm to 50mm
b. 2mm to 300mm
c. 5mm to 400mm
PART III (5 Marks)
d. 6mm to 100mm
2. Mangalore tiles are also manufactured in Answer shortly
the state of ….. 3. What are the types of tiles?
a. Tamil Nadu 4. What are the types of roof tiles?
b. Kerala
c. Delhi PART IV (10 Marks)
d. Karnataka Answer in detail
5. Elaborate about ceramic tiles?
1. (a) 2. (b)
Part – I Answers

BUILDING Unit 6
Basic Civil
CONSTRUCTION Engineering
6.1 FOUNDATION
6.2 STONE MASONRY
6.3 BRICK MASONRY
129 Building Construction

TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.1 Foundation 6.3 Brick Masonry
6.1.2 Objectives 6.3.2 Terms used in Brick
6.1.3 Types of Foundation Masonry
6.1.4 Shallow Foundation 6.3.3 Types of Bonds in Brick
6.1.5 Deep Foundation Works
6.1.6 Setting out of Foundation 6.3.4 Tools used in Brick
6.1.7 Causes of Failure of Foun- Masonry and Stone
dation and its Remedies Masonry
6.2 Stone Masonry 6.3.5 Points to be Considered in
6.2.1 Introduction the Construction of Brick
6.2.2 Terms Used in Stone Masonry
Masonry 6.3.6 Thickness of Brick Wall
6.2.3 Dressing of Stones 6.3.7 Difference Between
6.2.4 Classification of Stone Stone Masonry and Brick
Masonry Masonry
6.2.5 Points to be Considered in
the Construction
Learning Objectives of Stone
Masonry
6.1 FOUNDATION
Learning Objectives
• State the types of foundation.
• Explain various types of foundation.
• Understand the setting out work for foundation.
• List out the causes of failure of foundation and their remedies.
6.1.1 Introduction and another part above the ground level

Foundation is the most impor- (Superstructure). The structure con-
tant and strongest part of building. Every structed below the ground level is to trans-
building has two important parts, the part mit the total load of the structure above
below the ground level (Sub-structure) the ground level safely to the earth below
is called foundation.
Building Construction | Foundation 130

Types of Shallow Foundation
In the film “Padithal mat-
1. Wall footing (or) spread footing.
tum pothuma” – Kann-
2. Isolated footing.
adhasan song.
3. Combined footing.
அடிப்படை இன்றி கட்டிய மாளிகை காற்றுக்கு
4. Continuous footing.
நிக்காது!
அழகாய் இருக்கும் காஞ்சிரைப் பழங்கள் 5. Inverted arch footing.
சந்தையில் விற்காது! 6. Strap footing.
7. Grillage foundation.
8. Raft foundation.
6.1.4.1
Wall Foundation (or) Spread
Footing
The foundation of the wall is a con-
tinuous strip of concrete or stepped foot-
ing. The stepped footing is also called as
spread footing, which is provided to dis-
tribute the load of the structure on large
area of the soil.
6.1.2 Objectives
This is the cheapest type of foun-
I. Foundations are constructed to dis- dation and is largely used for ordinary
tribute the load of the structure to the building. The concrete ratio used for
soil uniformly and to prevent unequal foundation may be 1:3:6 or 1:4:8.
settlement.
ii. The foundations gives stability, strength
and protection to the structure above Floor level
Damp proof course
from wind, storm and rain. Ground level
iii. The foundation gives levelled and hard

surface for the construction above the Offset 5cm
ground level. Offset 10 to 12cm

Slope more Plain concrete
than 1 vertical min. thickness-15cm
6.1.3 Types of Foundation to 1 horizontal
1. Shallow foundation.
2. Deep foundation. Method of designing the breadth and
depth of wall foundation:
6.1.4 Shallow Foundation
These foundations are constructed 1. Breadth of foundation = Total load/m /
in ordinary buildings with low depths. allowable bearing capacity of soil.
131 Foundation | Building Construction

2. Depth of foundation. It is designed by 6.1.4.3 Combined Footing
Rankine’s formula A combined footing supports two
or more columns in a row. The combined
footing may be rectangular (or) trapezo-
dal in shape. The centre of gravity of com-
Where, bined loads and the center of gravity of
the footing should coincide.
h = minimum depth of foundation
p = gross bearing capacity
= density of soil
= angle of repose or internal friction of
soil.
6.1.4.2 Isolated Footing

These foundations are formed for
individual concrete (or) brick pillar. The
base structure are formed in stepped or
slopped position. Reinforced concrete
foundation are used for foundation of
heavy weight pillars.
6.1.4.4. Continuous Footing

In this type of footing a single con-
tinuous RC slab is provided as foundation
of two or more columns in row. This type
of footing is best where earthquake is lia-
ble to act. This footing prevents unequal
settlement. Sometimes deeper beam is
provided between the columns.

BURJ KHALIFA.
The ‘Burj Khalifa’ is a mega
tall skyscraper in Dubai,
United Arab Emirates.
Total height is 829.8m (2,722 ft).
It has been the tallest structure in the
world since its topping out in late 2008.
6.1.4.5. Inverted Arch Footing
While forming the foundation on
soft and fine soil these footings are used to
reduce the depth of foundation. Through
the inverted arch the whole load acting
are transferred by spreading to wider area.
Mostly these are used for bridges. As it is
curve in shape it bears heavy load due to
its arch action. ½ brick or concrete is used
to form this arch.
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 1
Prepare a report about ‘Burj
Khalifa’ with pictures.
6.1.4.6 Strap Footing
Strap footing consists of two or more

individual footings connected by a RC beam.
These beams are called strap beams. This
type of footing may be used where the dis-
tance between the columns is more.
6.1.4.7. Grillage Foundation

These foundations are used to trans-
mit heavy loads from steel column to the

soils having low bearing capacity. Deep
excavation of soil can be avoided by using
this foundation. This type of foundation is
lighter and more economical.
Small steel columns are in lower

layer and steel beams are constructed at
top layer in vertical direction. Above that,
steel column is formed by fixing base plate.
Angle gusset plates are used to connect the
steel column and base plate. These beams 6.1.5 Deep Foundation
and pillar are hidden by filling concrete. These foundations are suitable
when buildings are to be constructed in
poor soil (low bearing capacity of soil) or
hard rock is only available in high depth.
It is classified into two types.
1) Pile foundation
2) Well foundation
6.1.6. Setting Out Of Foundation

The land where the building is to
be constructed should be cleaned and lev-
elled by removing vegetation and undula-
6.1.4.8. Raft Foundation tions.
A raft or mat is a combined foot-
ing that covers the entire area beneath the i. Dimension of the hall to be constructed
structure and supports all the columns. is studied carefully. Say 4.80 m x 3.30 m.
The raft foundation is economical than ii. Now the centreline sketch should be
isolated footing, if the sum of the base prepared.
areas of the isolated footing exceeds about iii. If the wall thickness is 0.20 m, the centre-
half the total building area. line dimension will be 5.00 m x 3.50m.
iv. As per the drawing the centreline of front
wall should be marked (points 1 and 2)
by driving steel pegs and strings are tied
to it.
v. The length of front wall is marked as
A and B in that line according to the
drawing.

The deepest foundation. ACTIVITY
PROJECT 2
Prepare a report about deepest
‘Petronas tower’ also
foundation structure with pictures.
known as Petronas Twin
Towers became the structure having the
deepest seated foundation in the world.
vi. By using right angle, the line is extended
It is situated in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
from the point 2 and C is marked as per
measurement.
• The whole foundation rested on 104
piles. vii. The same procedure is repeated until it
reaches the point A.
• To reach the safe bed rock, the piles
were extended to the depth ranging viii. Now we can get a rectangle bounded
from 200 to 374 feet. by strings.
• The piles were embedded by thick ix. Then the diagonals AC and BD are
raft of 15 feet in depth. checked. It should be equal.
• The concrete raft foundation, com- x. Now the half of the width of the founda-
prising 4,70,000 cubic feet of con- tion should be marked on either sides of
crete was continuously powered the centreline using white powder.
through a period of 54 hours for xi. Thus a building is set out at site for
each tower. excavation.
It takes 12 months to complete the

foundation.
Search link: http://en.m.wikipedia.

org>wiki>petronas tower
A
6′
10′
B D
8′

The tallest building in
the world.
‘Jeddah Tower’ is a sky-

scraper under con-
struction in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. If
completed in 2020 as planned, the Jed-
dah Tower will reach an unprecedented
height, becoming the tallest building in
the world as well as the first structure to
reach the one-kilometer-high mark.
6. Transpiration of trees and shrubs.

7. Atmospheric action.
6.1.7.1
Unequal Settlement of the
Sub Soil
When the load of all the parts of
building is not even, the unequal settle-
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 3 ment occurs. Based on the intensity of the
Collect pictures of various types load it may be low or high. This is because
of foundation, various foundation fail- the bearing capacity of soil which is not
ures and prepare an album. uniform in all places. Cracks are formed
in the building due to the variations in the
settlement of soil.
6.1.7 Causes of Failure of Foundation
and Its Remedies Method of Prevention
1. Unequal settlement of the sub soil. i. Foundations should rest on hard rock or
2. Unequal settlement of the masonry. hard moorum.
3. Withdrawal of moisture from the sub ii. Type and design of foundation should be
soil. selected according to the nature of soil.
4. Lateral pressure of the super structure. iii. It should be seen that the safe bearing
5. Horizontal movement of the earth. capacity of the soil should not exceed.

6.1.7.2
Unequal Settlement of the 6.1.7.5 Horizontal Movement of the
Masonry Earth
The mortar joints in the wall and When buildings are constructed
other building portion may shrink and in the low level area and on the river bed
this may lead to unequal settlement of the where the soil is loose, the foundation
building portion. may fail due to the horizontal movement
of earth.
Method of Prevention
i. The water used to mix the cement mortar Method of Prevention
for the construction of building should To avoid sliding of soil, bearing walls or pillar
be in correct proportion and it should with plates may be constructed.
not exceed.
ii. Height of raising the super structure
should be uniform. Height of the con- Leaning tower of Pisa,
structing wall should not exceed 1.5m / Italy
T
day. he tower’s tilt began
iii. Curing of the masonry should be adequate. during construction
in the 12th century, caused by an inad-
6.1.7.3
Withdrawal of Moisture from equate foundation on ground too soft
the Sub Soil
on one side to properly support the
Failure of foundation occurs where structure’s weight. The tilt increased
there is variation in the height of water in the decades before the structure
table. The cracks are formed when the was completed in the 14th century. It
soil shrink due to the sudden reduction of gradually increased until the struc-
water table from top to bottom. ture was stabilized by efforts in the
late 20th and early 21st centuries
The foundations are provided
by inserting the piles to the extreme or
should rest on hard rock.
6.1.7.4
Lateral Pressure on the
Superstructure
The lateral pressure due to lateral
movement of the earth tends to turn the
super structure.
The base of the foundation wall
should be much wider.

6.1.7.6 Transpiration of Trees and 6.1.7.7 Atmospheric Action
Shrubs
The important factors affecting the
The moisture content of soil is foundation are sun, wind and rain. Chem-
absorbed by the penetration of roots from ical reactions takes place when the chem-
the trees and plants around the founda- ical substances in the rain water come in
tion of the building. So cracks are formed contact with earth, resulting in adverse
due to the shrinkage of soil. effects.
Method of Prevention Method of Prevention

i. The foundations are taken sufficiently deep i. Foundation should be deep upto where
that is the foundation should be beyond the rain water cannot reach.
the roots of tree. Minimum depth should ii. After the masonry works are finished,
be one meter. sides of wall should be filled with earth
ii. It should be seen that the fast grow- and consolidated well. Rain water should
ing trees and trees requiring more be drained properly and it should not
water should be 8 meter away from the stagnate near the walls.
building.

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. Cement concrete ratio used for founda-
tion is ……..
a. 1:3:6
b. 1:4:6
c. 1:5:6 PART II (3 Marks)
d. 1:2:6 Answer in one or two sentences
2. Foundation provided to protect from 4. Define foundation?
Earthquake is ……. 5. What are the types of deep foundations?
a. Wall footing 6. Write the Rankine’s formula to calculate
b. Continuous footing the depth of foundation and write the
c. Combined footing notation?
d. Pile foundation
PART III (5 Marks)
3. Foundation provided for construction of
bridges is ……. Answer shortly
a. Pile foundation 7. Explain the types of wall foundation
b. Spread foundation with sketches.
c. Inverted arch foundation
d. Wall foundation. PART IV (10 Marks)
Answer in detail
8. What are the causes of failure of foun-
dation and explain any five methods of
prevention?
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c)
Part – I Answers

Learning Objectives
6.2 STONE MASONRY
Learning Objectives
• Understand the technical terms used in stone masonry.
• List the classification of stone masonry.
• Know about dressing of stones and its types.
6.2.1 Introduction ii) Quoins
If construction is carried out using
stones with cement or lime mortar, it is
known as stone masonry.
6.2.2 Terms Used In Stone Masonry
cope
filling
face
through
face filling BOND
HEADER
through
footing
The external corner or angles of a

i) Natural Bed
wall are known as quoins and the stones
The surface on which the mate-
or bricks forming the quoin are known as
rials was originally deposited in the for-
quoin stones or quoin bricks.
mation of rock is known as natural bed.
Rocks from which stones for masonry is
obtained have distinct planes of division
along which stones can easily be split.
These planes are the natural beds.
Building Construction | Stone Masonry 140

iii) Sill Level vi) Weathering
The bottom surface of a door or a win- It is a term to indicate bevelled top
dow opening is known as sill level. surface of the stone. It is sloped so as to allow
easy flow of rain water.
TWICE WEATHERED
B C
A
SILLS
C D
A
iv) Corbel
It is projection provided on the inside
face of the wall by projecting stones. The vii) Through Stones
projection is used to serve as a support for Through
Stone
wall plates (wooden beam) for roof trusses,
Risers
beams, etc. Capstones
Digging
bar
Sort stones
before laying
In stone masonry, some stones at

regular intervals are placed through the
full thickness of wall to develop bond.
v) Spalls
Such stones are known as through stones.
Stone chips broken off from large
size stone during dressing and shaping are
known as spalls. These are used as filling viii) Cornice
stones.
141 Stone Masonry | Building Construction

This is a moulded course of xi) Course
masonry having large projections. It may A layer of stones or bricks is known
be provided at the junction of the wall and as a course.
ceiling near the top of the building.
The thickness of a course = Thick-
ix) Coping ness of a stone or brick + Thickness of one
mortar joint.
It is course of stone, concrete or

bricks provided at the top of the wall so
as to protect the wall from seepage of
rain water through joints at the top most
course of the wall. This course is gener-
ally provided at the top of a parapet wall xii) Plinth
or compound wall.
x) Throat
The projecting course at ground

floor level is known as the plinth. It is
It is a small groove cut on the under-
also used to indicate the height of ground
side of sill, coping, cornice and projected
floor level from ground level. The plinth
chajja to discharge the rain water without
course protects the interior of a building
trickling down to the walls.

from rain water, frost etc. It is sometimes Objectives of Dressing
moulded and given ornamental treatment.
The offset at plinth level is sometimes i. To convert the stone pieces into desired
omitted for the architectural purpose. shape and size.
ii. To make thin mortar joints there by
xiii) String Course reducing the mortar consumption and
It is continuous horizontal course to improve the qualities of work.
of masonry, generally provided at every iii. To give the desired surface finish.
floor level. This course remains pro- iv. To make transport easy and economical
jecting from the face of the wall and is from quarry.
intended to improve the elevation of the
structure. Types of Dressing
1. Hammer Dressing.
2. Chisel Dressing.
3. Punched Dressing.
4. Furrowed Dressing.
5. Combed Dressing
xiv) Lacing Course 6.2.3.1 Hammer Dressing

A hammer dressed stone shall have
no sharp and irregular corners and shall
have comparatively even surface. All the
sharp and irregular corners of the stone
obtained by quarrying shall be knocked
off by using the flat face of a scrabbling
hammer. The surface shall be dressed with
the pointed end of the hammer.
The horizontal course provided to

strengthen a wall of regular small stones
is known as a lacing course.
6.2.3 Dressing of Stones

The process of cutting stones into
suitable sizes and shapes is known as 6.2.3.2 Chisel Dressing
dressing of stones.
Stones available from the quarry
is first dressed with hammer and then

smoothly dressed by means of a pointed gauge. A margin of about 20mm width is
chisel. So that, all the projections are sunk on all the edges of the stones and the
removed and a fairly smooth surface is central portion is made to project about
obtained. In this type of dressing the depth 15mm.
of gap between the surface and a straight
edge kept over the surface shall not exceed
1.5mm. This type of dressing is commonly
adopted for ashlar work.
6.2.3.5 Combed Dressing

This finish is used only in soft
stones. Drags made of steel plates and of
6.2.3.3 Punched Dressing
different grades are then dragged back-
This is another form of rough dress- ward and forward in different directions
ing usually used for lower portions of the until the tool marks are eliminated. Fine
buildings. The exposed face of the stone drags are used at the end and eliminates
is dressed with the help of a punch, thus all the scratches on the stone. This is also
making depressions or punch hole on it at called as dragged finish.
some regular distance (say 25mm).
6.2.3.4 Furrowed Dressing
6.2.4 Classification Of Stone Masonry
This type of finish is applied to The stone masonry classified as
the fillets or flat bands of cornices, string
courses, doors and windows etc., after 1. Rubble masonry
boasting the surface and then rubbing it
2. Ashlar masonry
6 to 10 mm wide flutes are formed by a

6.2.4.1 Rubble Masonry
In this masonry, stones are not

dressed. They are used in the masonry Uncoursed Rubble Masonry
as obtained from the quarry. It may be
shaped with the help of hammers just by
removing excess projection before using
in the masonry.
Types of Rubble Masonry
I. Coursed rubble masonry.

ii. Un-coursed rubble masonry.
iii. Random rubble masonry.
iv. Dry rubble masonry.
Coursed Rubble Masonry

In this type of rubble masonry, the
height of stones vary from 50mm to 20cm.
In this type of rubble masonry, the
The stones are sorted out before the work
stones are not dressed. But they are used as
starts. The masonry work is then carried
they are available from the quarry, except
out in courses such that stones in a par-
breaking some corners. The courses are
ticular course are of equal heights. This
not maintained regularly. The larger stones
type of masonry is used for the construc-
are laid first and the spaces between them
tion of public buildings, residential build-
are then filled up by means of spalls. The
ings etc.
wall is brought to a level every 30cm to
50cm. This type of rubble masonry being
cheaper, is used for the construction of
compound walls, godown, garages, labour
quarters etc.

Random Rubble Masonry
Brihadisvara Temple,
Thanjavur.
I t was built by emperor

Raja Raja Chola and
completed in 1010 AD. The temple
turned 1000 years old in 2010. King
Raja Raja Chola had the main temple
built completely with granite. It is hard
The stones of irregular sizes and
to imagine how, in that age, more than
shapes are used for the construction of
1,30,000 tones of granite was brought
masonry. The stones are arranged so as
to the temple site, especially given that
to have a good appearance. More skill is
there is no granite quarry within a hun-
required to make this masonry structurally
dred kilometres of the temple site.
stable. The face stones are chisel dressed
and the mortar joints does not exceed Search link: htpps://en.m.wikipedia.
6mm to 12mm. This type of masonry is org>wiki>Brihadisvara temple.
used for the construction of residential
buildings, compound walls, etc.
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 4
Collect informations and pic-
tures about the structures and temples
using stone masonry.
Dry Rubble Masonry
that no mortar is used in the joints. This

requires skill in construction. This type
of masonry is used in compound walls,
pitching bridge approaches, retaining
walls etc.
6.2.4.2 Ashlar Masonry

In this masonry the entire con-
This is similar in construction struction is done using square or rectan-
of the coursed rubble masonry, except gular dressed stones. The stones used in

this masonry are all dressed timely with But the face is made rough by means of
chisel. The height of stones varies from tools. The thickness of mortar joints does
25cm to 30cm. not exceed 6mm. This type of work is also
known as the bastard ashlar.
Types of Ashlar Masonry
I. Ashlar fine masonry. Ashlar Rock Masonry
ii. Ashlar rough tooled masonry.
In this type of ashlar masonry, a
iii. Ashlar rock masonry. strip about 25mm wide, made by means of
iv. Ashlar chamfered masonry. a chisel, is provided around the perimeter
v. Ashlar block in course masonry. of the exposed face of every stone. But the
remaining portion of the face is left in the
Ashlar Fine Masonry same form as received from quarry. The
projections on the exposed face known as
the bushings exceeding 80mm in height
are removed by a hammer. This type of
construction gives massive appearance.
In this type of masonry, the beds,

sides and faces are finely chisel dressed.
The stones are arranged in proper bond
and the thickness of the mortar joints
does not exceed 3mm. This type of con-
struction gives perfectly smooth appear-
ance. It is costly in construction.
Ashlar Chamfered
Ashlar Rough Tooled Masonry
In this type, 2.5cm chisel drafting

around the face is levelled at the angle of
45˚ with the help of chisel. Another chisel
In this type of ashlar masonry, the drafting about 10mm to 12 mm wide
beds and sides are finely chisel dressed. is again developed around the perime-
ter inside the chamfered drafting. The

6.2.5 Points to be considered in the
T he Most Beautiful construction of Stone Masonry

and Famous Stone I. The stones used should confirm the
Buildings. required specifications.
ii. The stone should be well watered before
1. The Taj Mahal, India. use.
2. The Colosseum, Rome, Italy. iii. All the stones should be laid on the nat-
3. Great Pyramid, Giza, Egypt. ural bed.
4. Washington Monument. iv. The dressing of stones should be prop-
erly done
v. Proper bond with sufficient number of
through stones should be provided in
remaining enclosed space is left as such.
construction.
However projections of more than 8cm
are removed with the help of hammer. vi. No tensile stress should develop in the
masonry.
vii. Good quality of mortar should be used
Ashlar Facing or Ashlar Block in Course in construction.
viii. Stone work should be raised uniformly.
ix. In the stone work, small pieces and
chips should not be used.
x. The stone work should be carried out as
per line and level.
xi. After the construction, the stone work
should be watered for the required
period.
This masonry may be called as

combination of rubble masonry and ashlar
masonry. The faces of the stones are gen-
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 5
erally hammer dressed and the thickness
Prepare an album about the most
of mortar joints does not exceed 6mm.
beautiful stone buildings.
The depth of courses varies from 20cm to
30 cm. This type of construction may be
used for heavy engineering works such as
retaining walls, sea walls, etc.

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. Natural bed of stone is provided in
……… direction.
a. Slope
b. Straight
c. Vertical PART II (3 Marks)
d. Horizontal Answer in one or two sentences
2. The name of stone used in external cor- 5. What are the types of masonry?
ners is …….. 6. Mention the types of dressing of stones.
a. Corbel stone
b. Sill stone PART III (5 Marks)
c. quoin stone
Answer shortly
d. Weathering stone.
7. Explain the terms used in stone masonry?
3. The size of stone used in coursed rubble
masonry is ……… PART IV (10 Marks)
a. 20mm to 50cm
b. 50mm to 20cm Answer in detail
c. 70mm to 9cm 8. Describe rubble masonry.
d. 10mm to 20cm 9. What are the types of ashlar masonry?
4. The bottom surface of a …… is called as Explain any two.
sill.
a. Door
b. Ventilator
c. Beam
d. Roof
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a)
Part – I Answers

Learning Objectives
6.3 BRICK MASONRY
Learning Objectives
• State the terms and tools used in masonry.
• Understand the types of bonds in brick work.
• Compare stone masonry and brick masonry.
6.3.1 Introduction
Construction of brick units bonded
together with cement or lime mortar is
termed as Brick Masonry.
6.3.2 Terms Used in Brick Masonry

i. Stretcher : It is a full brick which is laid
with its length parallel to the face of the iii. Bed: The term used to indicate the lower
wall. If all the bricks are laid as stretchers, surface of brick in each course.
the course is named as stretcher course. iv. Bond: The interlocking arrangement of
bricks, so as to avoid the occurrence of
continuous vertical joints is known as
bond.
v. Closer: It is a piece of brick used to cre-
ate bond in brick work.
vi. King Closer: It is a brick which is cut
in such away that the width of one of its
end is half of that of a full brick.
ii. Header: It is full brick which is laid with

its length perpendicular to the face of
the wall. A course of brick work entirely
composed of headers is named as header
course.
Building Construction | Brick Masonry 150

vii. Queen Closer: It is a term applied to a half size it is called as half bat and if cut
brick which is half as a full brick. Queen by three quarter size it is called three
closer is made by cutting a brick length quarter bat.
wise into two portions.
Half Bat Three Quarter Bat Bevelled Bat
xi. Lap: The horizontal distance between

two vertical joints of successive brick
course is termed as lap.
xii. Arris: The edges of the bricks are called
as arises. Arises should be sharp and
unbroken.
viii. Beveled Closer: It is similar to king
closer, the only difference that the whole xiii. Bed Joint: Joints parallel to the bed of
length of brick is bevelled for maintain- bricks or stone in a course are termed
ing half width at one end and full width as bed joints.
at the other end. xiv. Perpends: It is vertical joint on the face
of a wall of alternate courses.
xv. Frog: Depressions provided in the face
of the brick is called as frog. It forms a
key for holding the mortar.
1
2 Brick
ix. Mitred Closer: It is a brick whose one

end is cut splayed or mitred for the full
width.
45˚to 60˚
King Closer Bevelled Closer Mitred Closer ACTIVITY

PROJECT 6
Visit a construction site during
x. Brick Bat: It is the portion of a brick cut the process of brick masonry and pre-
across the width or a brick cut by some pare a report about that.
fraction of its length. If a brick is cut by
151 Brick Masonry | Building Construction

6.3.3 Bonds in Brick Works In this type of bonding, all the
The different types of bonds com- bricks are laid as headers on the face. It is
monly adopted in brick work: used for walls curved on plan. The thick-
ness of the wall is equal to one brick.
1. Stretcher bond.
2. Header bond. 6.3.3.3 English Bond
3. English bond. This is the most commonly used
4. Flemish bond. bond because it is stronger than the other
5. Garden wall bond. bonds.
6. Raking bond. The important features of English bond
7. Dutch bond. i. The bond consists of alternate course of
8. Brick on edge bond. headers and stretchers.
ii. A queen closer will be placed next to the
6.3.3.1 Stretcher Bond first header in each heading course.
iii. A course consisting of headers on front
face will show headers on the back face
also in one brick, two brick, and three
brick thick walls.
iv. In walls having their thicknesses equal
to an odd number of half bricks, i.e. 1½
brick thick walls or 2½" brick thick walls
and so on. The same course will show
stretchers on one face and headers on
In this arrangement of bond- the other.
ing brick work, all the bricks are laid as v. Continuous vertical joints are elimi-
stretchers. The thickness of the wall is half nated.
brick. It is commonly adopted in the cav-
vi. More quantity of cement mortar con-
ity walls and partition wall.
sumes in header course than stretcher
course. As for as possible less quantity
6.3.3.2 Header Bond of cement mortar should be used for
header course. Otherwise vertical joint
will be formed in next course.

6.3.3.5 Brick on Edge Bond
This type of bond uses stretcher

bricks on edges instead of bed. The bond
is weak in strength but it is economical.
Hence it is used for garden walls, com-
pound walls etc.
6.3.3.4 Flemish Bond

The important features of Flemish
bond:
i. Each course consists of alternate header

and stretchers.
ii. Queen closers are inserted in alternate
courses next to the quoin header. Oldest Brick Temple in
iii. When 1 ½ - 2 ½ brick walls are con- India
R
structed, bat bricks are also used with
asmancha in Bishnupur,
full brick. For 1, 2, 3 brick walls construc-
West Bengal is the oldest
tion, only full bricks should be used.
brick temple in India. It is the only temple
iv. Flemish bond is weaker than English of its kind in the whole country.
bond.
v. Continuous vertical joints may occur in
Flemish bond.
vi. Flemish bond renders the appearance
of the face work more attractive and
pleasing.
6.3.4 Tools Used in Brick Masonry and

Stone Masonry
I. Trowel: It is used to lift and spread the
mortar and also for cutting bricks.
ii. Plumb Rule and Bob: It is used to
check the vertically of the wall.
iii. Spirit Level: It is used to check the hor-
izontal level of the surface.

iv. Line and Pin: It is used to construct the
walls straight and uniform. Ham
mer
Brick
v. Straight Edge: It is used to check the
vertical and straight positions of walls. l
we
Tro
vi. Mason Square: It is used to set right
angles.
Mason Square
vii. Hammer: It is used for breaking and
rough dressing of stones.
viii. Crowbar: To make the stones in quarry.
ix. Chisels: To dress stones.
x. Pick Axe: To split stones and for rough
dressing.
xi. Bevel: To set out angles.
6.3.5 Points to be considered in the

construction of Brick Masonry
I. The bricks used in a good work should
be sound hard and well burnt with uni-
form size, shape and colour.
ii. The bricks should be thoroughly soaked
in clear water before use. It reduces
their tendency of suction of water from
wet mortar.
iii. Only specified mortar of a good quality
should be used.
iv. No brick bats should be used in the
work except closers.
v. The progress of work in raising masonry
should be in uniform layers at one level.

vi. Brick work should be ensured that a 1. The total load acting on the walls.
proper bond is maintained throughout 2. The total height of the wall.
the work. 3. The quality of materials used for the
vii. The bricks should be laid on a full bed construction of wall.
of mortar. The frog in the brick should 4. The length of the wall.
be at the top and filled with mortar to
5. The height between one floor to the
ensure proper adhesion.
other.
viii. Scaffolding should be adopted for con-
Formula to find the thickness of wall is:
struction at higher level.
ix. All the course should be laid truly hor- P
A=
izontal and all the vertical joints should O
be truly vertical. The verticality should P
be checked with plumb bob. T×L =
O
x. All the finished masonry work should
be kept wet for at least seven days. Cur- ‘
P
ing for two weeks for cement mortar. Thicknes of wall �‘ T =
L×O
Where
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 7 P = Total load on the wall
Prepare an album of rich herit- A = Area of the wall
age monuments and temples situated in
L = Length of the wall
India.
T = Thickness of the wall
6.3.6. Thickness of Brick Wall O = Permissible bearing capacity
Thickness of brick wall are pro-
vided by the following terms:

6.3.7 Difference Between Stone Masonry and Brick Masonry
S.No Stone Masonry Brick Masonry
1 The stones obtained naturally are The bricks are burnt in kiln and used
dressed to a particular shape and for masonry work.
used for masonry work.
2 Stone masonry are very strong. Strength of brick masonry is lesser
than stone masonry.
3 Water tight stone masonry may be Like stone masonry, water tight
constructed. masonry work is not possible in brick
masonry.
4 Stone masonry does not have the Brick walls are having the property of
property of water absorption. So this water absorption. To protect the walls
masonry is suitable for bathroom and from the dampness cement plastering
toilets than brick masonry. is necessary. When sewage water is
sprinkled on the walls the bricks are
eroded and attains the powder form.
5 Stone masonry is hard and construc- Construction of brick masonry work
tion is tough. is easy.
6 Bonding property is not much high Good bonding property is available in
in stone masonry and consumption of brick work. Less quantity of cement
cement mortar is also high. or lime mortar is used.
7 Lifting and handling of stones are As the size of brick is small, handling
tough. So speed of masonry work is and lifting is easy. So masonry work
slow. is faster.
8 In hilly areas stones are highly availa- Other than hilly area cost of brick
ble so construction cost is low. work is economical.
9 We cannot directly use the stone We can use the bricks directly from
which are taken from stone quarry. It the kiln. So cost becomes low.
should be dressed to some extent. So
cost becomes high.
10 Minimum width of stone masonry We can construct brick walls from 10
should be 30 cm. Construction of stone cm to 20cm.
masonry below this width is tough.
11 Heat absorption property is high for Heat absorption property is not much
stone masonry. high.

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. The bottom surface of brick in each
course is ………
a. Bond
b. Bed
c. Ariser
PART II (3 Marks)
d. Perpend
2. The portion of brick cut across the width
is ……. 5. Define queen closer.
a. Queen closer 6. What is the use of plumb bob?
b. King closer 7. List the types of bonds in brick work?
c. Brick bat 8. Write short notes on frog.
d. Mitred closer
PART III (5 Marks)
3. Flemish bond is ….. than English bond.
a. Thicker Answer shortly
b. Thinner 9. List the tools used for brick masonry.
c. Stronger 10. Explain any five terms used in brick
d. Weaker masonry.
4. ……. is used to set right angles in walls.
PART IV (10 Marks)
a. Trowel
b. Spirit level Answer in detail
c. Plumb bob 11. Explain English bond brick work with
d. Mason square neat sketches.
12. Explain Flemish bond brick work with
neat sketches.
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (d)
Part – I Answers

BUILDING Unit 7
Basic Civil
7.1 LINTELS AND
ARCHES
7.2 DOORS AND
WINDOWS
“ Intelligence plus character -

that is the goal of true education”
Martin Luther King Jr.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.1 Lintels and Arches 7.2 Doors and Windows
7.1.2 Types of Lintels used in 7.2.2 Terms Used in Doors and
Building Construction Windows
7.1.3 Arches – An Introduction 7.2.3 Size and Location of Doors
7.1.4 Technical Terms used in and Windows
Arches 7.2.4 Types of Doors
Learning
7.1.5 Objectives
Classification of Arches 7.2.5 Types of Windows
7.1.6 Difference Between Arches 7.2.6 Fixture for Doors and
and Lintels Windows
7.1 LINTELS AND ARCHES
Learning Objectives
• Understand the types of lintels and arches.
• Differentiate lintels and arches.
1. 10 cm to 20cm
7.1.1 Lintel - Introduction 2. Height of lintel beam
A lintel is a horizontal member 3. 1/10th to 1/12th of span of the lintel
which is placed across the openings like
doors, windows, etc., in buildings. Lintels 7.1.2 Types of Lintels used in
takes the load from the structure above it Building Construction
and provides support to it. Lintel is also a Lintels are classified based on the
type of beam. The width of Lintel is equal material used for the construction as:
to the width of wall and the ends are built
into the wall. These are very easy to con- 1. Timber Lintel
struct compared to arches. 2. Stone Lintel
3. Brick Lintel
Bearing of Lintel 4. Steel Lintel
The bearing of lintels should be 5. Reinforced Concrete Lintel
provided as follows. 6. Reinforced Brick Lintel
Building Construction | Lintels and arches 160

7.1.2.1 Timber Lintel Bricks with frogs are most suitable than
normal bricks because, frogs when filled
In olden days of construction, tim-
with mortar gives more sheer resistance of
ber lintels were mostly used. But, nowa-
end joints. Such lintel is known as joggled
days they are replaced by several Lintels
brick lintel.
based on modern techniques. However in
hilly areas still timber lintels are used. The
main disadvantage with timber lintels are
such as (i) more expensive; (ii) less dura-
ble; and (iii) non-fire resistant.
7.1.2.4 Steel Lintel

If the super imposed loads are heavy
and openings are large, we can go for steel
lintels. These lintels consist of channel
sections or rolled steel joists. Single steel
7.1.2.2 Stone Lintel section or combinations of two or more
are used depending upon the requirement
These are the most common types
in steel lintels.
of lintels especially where stone is avail-
able in large quantities. The thickness of
lintels are most important factor of its
design. These are also provided over the
openings in brick walls. Stone lintels are
provided in the form of either one single
piece or multiple pieces.
7.1.2.5 Reinforced Brick Lintel

If loads are heavy and span is
greater than 1m, then reinforced brick
lintels are useful. The depth of reinforced
brick lintel should be equal to 10cm to 15
7.1.2.3 Brick Lintel cm or multiple of 10 cm. The bricks are
When the opening is less than so arranged that 2 to 3 cm wide space is
1m and for lesser loads, brick lintels are left in lengthwise between adjacent bricks
used. The depth of brick lintel varies from for the insertion of mild steel bars for
10cm to 20 cm depending upon the span.
161 Lintels and arches | Building Construction

reinforcement. Then cement mortar(1:3)
is used to fill up the gaps.
Four to seven
courses high
Reinforcing steel
fully embedded in
cement grout 7.1.4. Technical Terms
7.1.2.6 Reinforced Cement
Concrete Lintels
At present, the lintels of RCC are
widely used for the openings of doors,
windows etc., in the buildings because of
its strength, rigidity, fire resistance, econ-
omy and ease in construction. RCC lintels The various technical terms used in
are suitable for all the loads and any span. arches are as follows:
The width of lintel is equal to width of
wall. Depth of lintel is depend upon the a) Abutment: This is the end support of an
length of span and magnitude of loading. arch.
b) Pier: These are the intermediate supports of
an arcade.
c) Intrados: This is the inner curved surface
of an arch.
d) Extrados: This is the outer curved surface
of an arch.
e) Voussoirs: The voussoirs or arch stones are
the wedge shaped units forming the arch.
f) Springing stone: The springing stone or
springer is the first voussoir at springing
level on either side of the arch.
7.1.3 Arches - Introduction g) Springing line: This is an imaginary line
joining the two springing points.
An arch is a structure that is curved
at the top and is supported on either side h) Crown: This is the highest point of extrados
by a pillar, post or wall. It is constructed or it is the highest part of an arch.
of wedge shaped block of stones or bricks i) Key stone: This is the highest central wedge
joined together with mortar and provided shaped block of an arch.
across the opening to carry the weight of j) Skew back: This is the inclined surface of
the structure above the opening. the abutment on which the arch rests.

k) Span: This is the clear horizontal distance
I
between the two supports. ndia gate, New Delhi,
l) Rise: This is the vertical distance between India is one of the
the highest point of intrados and springing most popular arch in the
line. world. This monuments
m) Depth of arch: This is the perpendicular dedicated to Indian soldiers who died
distance between the extrados and intrados. in World War 1 and the Afghan wars.
n) Haunch of an arch: Haunch is the lower
part of the arch between crown and
skewback.
7.1.5 Classification of Arches

A) Classification according to shape.
According to this classification,
arches may be of the following types.
1) Flat arch
2) Segmental arch
3) Semi-circular arch
4) Horse shoe arch
5) Pointed arch or gothic arch the extrados is kept horizontal and flat. Flat
6) Relieving arch arches are used only for light loads and for
spans up to 1.5m.
7) Circular arch
8) Inverted arch
B) Classification based on materials of

construction.
1) Stone arches
2) Brick arches
3) Concrete arches
Flat Arch
Segmental Arch
A flat arch usually the angle formed
This is common type of arch used
by skew backs is 60° with horizontal, thus
for buildings. The centre point of these
forming an equilateral triangle with intrados
arches lies below the springing line. It
at the base. The intrados is apparently flat,
is one of the strongest arch because it is
but it is given a slight rise of camber of about
able to resist thrust. Segmental arches
10mm to 15mm per meter width of open-
are most commonly used for residential
ing to allow for small settlements. However,

constructions over doorways, windows
G
and fire places. ate way arch,
St. Louis, United
States is the tallest arch
monument in U.S (height
630 feet)
Semi Circular Arch

It is also known as Roman arch.
This is the modification of segmental
arch in which the centre point lies on
the springing line. The shape of these
arches are semi-circle. The thrust trans-
ferred to the abutments is perfectly in ACTIVITY
PROJECT 1
vertical direction since the skewback is Collect the pictures of a popular
horizontal. arches around the world and make an
album.
Pointed Arch
Horse Shoe Arch

Releiving Arch

Inverted Arch
Circular Arch
7.1.6 Difference Between Arches and Lintels

S.No Arches Lintels
1 Generally curved in shape. Horizontal in shape.
2 Gives excess rises over door and win- There is no excess rises in lintels.
dow openings.
3 Good for uniformly distributed loads Strong in uniformly distributed loads
and weak in point loads. as well as point loads.
4 Joints should be in radial shape. Joints should be vertical.
5 Supported at the abutments and piers. There is no supports like piers and
abutments.
6 Arches gives beautiful appearance to Gives ordinary appearance to the
the buildings. buildings.

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. ........ takes the load from structure above
the doors and windows.
a. Sunshades
b. Pillars PART II (3 Marks)
c. Lintels
d. Columns
5. Write short notes on lintel.
2. Brick lintels are used when the opening
6. List the type of lintels.
is less than ........
7. What is springing line?
a. 1m
8. State the types of arches based on mate-
b. 2m
rials of construction.
c. 3m
d. 0.5m PART III (5 Marks)
3. The end support of an arch is ......
Answer shortly
a. Pier
b. Abutment 9. List the types of arches.
c. Springer 10. Explain stone lintel with sketch.
d. Crown 11. What are the difference between arches
and lintels?
4. ...... is the highest central wedge shaped
block of an arch. PART IV (10 Marks)
a. Sill stone
Answer in detail
b. Springing stone
c. Key stone 12. Explain the terms involved in the arches
d. Bond stone with a neat sketch.
13. What are the types of lintels? Explain
any two with neat sketch.
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c)
Part – I Answers
Building Construction | Lintels

Doors and
and Windows
arches 166

Learning Objectives
7.2 DOORS AND WINDOWS
Learning Objectives
• Understand the terms used in doors and windows.
• Classify the doors and windows.
• Explain the fixtures for doors and windows.
7.2.1 Introduction 2. Shutter: These are openable parts of

a door or window. It is an assembly of
A door may be designed as a frame
styles, panels and rails.
work secured in an opening left in a wall
for the purpose of providing access to the 3. Style: The vertical outside member of the
uses of the structure. A window may be shutter of a door or window is termed as
defined as an opening made in a wall for style.
the purpose of providing day light, vision 4. Top rail: The topmost horizontal mem-
and ventilation. ber of the shutter is termed as top rail.
5. Bottom rail: The lowermost horizontal
member of the shutter is termed as bot-
7.2.2 Terms used in Doors tom rail.
and Windows
6. Lock rail: The middle horizontal member
Casing
Top Rail of a door shutter, to which locking arrange-
Panels ments are fixed is termed as lock rail.
Hinge
7. Panel: The area of shutter enclosed
Hinge Stile
Mullion
between adjacent rails is termed as panel.
Stop
Lock Stile 8. Sash: The frame made for glass like pan-
Hinge
els is termed as sash.
Lock Rail Jamb
9. Mullion: The vertical member of a frame
Casing which separates the shutter in the mid-
dle is mullion.
10. Transom: The horizontal member of a
Bottom Rail Threshold (Saddle)
frame which divides the shutter into two
parts is termed as transom.
11. Louver: The small strips of wood fixed
1. Frame: It is a group of members which
inclined in the shutter is termed as louver.
form a support of a door or window.
167 Doors
Building
Lintels
and
Construction
and
Windows
arches | Building
| Doors and
Construction
Windows

12. Putty: The mixture of lime and linseed In general,
oil used for fixing the glass with shutters Width of the door = 0.40 to 0.60 × height.
is termed as putty. Height of the door =Width of the door +
7.2.3 Size and Location of Doors 1.20 m
And Windows
The following guidelines should be 7.2.4 Types of Doors
kept in view while deciding the location of 1. Ledged doors.
doors and windows in a building. 2. Ledged and braced doors.
3. Ledged and framed doors.
1. Doors should as far as possible be located
near the corner of a room, but 20 cm 4. Ledged, braced and framed doors.
away from the corner. 5. Framed and panelled doors.
2. The number of doors in a room should 6. Glazed doors.
be kept minimum to achieve optimum 7. Flush doors.
utilisation of space. 8. Louvered doors.
3. The window sill should be placed at 75 to 9. Collapsible doors.
100 cm above the floor level.
10. Revolving doors.
4. Windows should be located opposite to
11. Rolling shutters.
each other wherever possible.
12. Sliding doors.
5. The size and number of windows should
be sufficient to provide adequate light, 7.2.4.1 Ledged Doors
ventilation and privacy in the room. This door consists of a series of
6. The shutters of windows in external walls vertical battens fixed together with hori-
should be opened at outside. zontal members known as ledges. There
are three ledges named top ledge, bottom
The Size Of Doors: ledge and middle ledge. The door is hung
For Residential buildings on the frame by means of T – Hinge. These
Internal doors - types of doors are mostly used for rooms
0.90 × 2.10 m (or) 0.90 × 1.95 m where economy rather than the appear-
ances is the main consideration.
External doors -
1.20 × 2.10 m (or) 1.00 × 1.95 m
Bathroom doors -
0.75 × 2.10 m (or) 0.75 × 1.95m
For Public buildings

Schools and Hospitals - 1.20 × 2.25 m
Car Shed - 2.25 × 2.75 m
The minimum height of the doors should
be 1.80 m.
Building Construction | Doors and Windows 168

7.2.4.2 Ledged and Braced Doors 7.2.4.4 Ledged, Braced and
Framed Doors
It is also like ledge doors. But, there
are two additional members called braces This door consists of battens, ledges,
are fixed in an inclined manner towards braces and frames. It has more strength,
the side on which the door is hung. As the durability and good in appearance. The
braces gives more strength to these doors, braces are housed and inclined towards
it is used in the places where the width of the side on which the door is hung.
the door way is more. It is hung on the
frame by means of T-hinges.
7.2.4.3 Ledged and Framed Doors

These doors are formed by fixing
7.2.4.5 Framed and Panelled
two styles at either end of ledged door
Doors
setup having battens and ledges. These are
stronger and beautiful in appearance than This type of door is commonly pro-
ledged doors. vided in all types of buildings. This door
consists of frame work of styles and rails
which are grooved inside to receive one
Top Ledge
or more panels. The number of panels
and type should be selected according to
Middle Ledge
the places used. The thickness of shutter
should be 30mm to 40mm and thickness
of panels should be 20mm. The door may
Frame
be single, double, three, four or six pan-
elled and so on. This should have good
appearance.
Battens
169 Doors and Windows | Building Construction

i. Solid core type flush door
ii. Hollow core type flush door
OPTIONAL INFILLINGS
Chipboard Semi solid Full solid Flush door with
infilling core core decoration
lines
i) Solid core type flush door: This type

of door is made out of selected pieces
of timber placed in series and pasted
together in between the frame work. As
it is surrounded by pasting of plywood
pressure, it acts as a solid material. The
7.2.4.6 Glazed Door thickness of the shutter should be 30mm.
This type of door is used in residen- ii) Hollow core type flush door: In this
tial as well as public buildings like hospi- type, the frame consists of styles, top rail,
tals, schools or colleges, etc to get extra bottom rail and minimum intermediate
lighting in addition to the natural lighting rails. The space between styles and the
provided by windows. They may be par- rails is divided by fixing wooden battens
tially or fully glazed. The glass should be not less than 25mm in width. Thus the
fitted in frames by using putty. voids are equally distributed. The voids
should be filled with light weight mate-
rial like cork. Plywood sheets and face
veneers are then glued under pressure
on both faces of the core.
Hollow-core Solid-core
Top rail
Top rail
Hollow
core Particle
core
Stile
Stile
Lockblock
Door
Door face face
Bottom Bottom
rail rail
7.2.4.7 Flush Doors 7.2.4.8 Louvered Doors

Flush doors have pleasing appear- In this type, the styles of shutter are
ance, simple construction, high strength grooved to receive a series of louvers which
and durability and economic. Flush doors may be of glass or wood. The Louvers are
can be classified in following types. set within the grooves in inclined position, so

that they sloped downward to the outside in 30×30 20×7×3
M.S. Angle M.S. Channel 12mm SQ.Bar
order to run off the rain water and obstruct the M.S. Flats as
supports
horizontal vision. It may be fixed or pivoted. Rivet
20×3 M.S. Flat
These are commonly used in bathrooms, WC,
workshops, dressing rooms,etc. Movable rivet
inside
Handle
Wheels Foldable Track
7.2.4.10 Revolving Door

This door essentially consists of
7.2.4.9 Collapsible Doors
four leaves radially attached to a cen-
These doors are used for shops, garages, trally placed mullion in a circular open-
public buildings, godowns , etc and in situations ing. The leaves may be glazed, panelled or
where width of opening is large. The door partly glazed. Such doors are commonly
essentially consists of vertical double channels provided in hotels, banks, offices, ATM
each 20 x 10 x 2mm in size and spaced at 10 Centres and other such important public
to 12 cm apart. These are braced with flat iron buildings.
diagonals 20mm wide and 5 mm thick. The door
shutter slides over rollers mounted at its bottom
and is held in position by the rails. This door is
also used for residences to increase safety and
protection.

7.2.4.12 Sliding Doors
The door is provided with top and
bottom guide rails or runners within
which the shutters slide. The guide rails
run past the opening for a distance equal
to the width of shutter. So that, when the
door is required to be opened, the door
shutter occupies a new position parallel
to the wall face and clear off the opening.
This type of door is suitable for shops,
sheds, godowns, offices and garages.
7.2.4.11 Rolling Shutters

The door consists of thin steel slabs
interlocked to each other and wind upon
in a specially designed pipe shaft mounted
at the top of the opening. The door shutter
travels into two vertical steel guide chan-
nels installed at either end of the opening.
The shutter is counter balanced by means
of helical spring enclosed in the drum.
These are used for shops, factories and
garages, etc.
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 2
1. Collect photos of world’s 5 tallest
doors and make an album.
2. List out the doors available in your
school campus.
7.2.5 Types of Windows

1. Dormer window.
2. Louvered window.
3. Bay window.

Largest door in the
world:
I t is located in NASA.
There are four entries
to the bays located inside the VAB
buildings which are fours of the larg-
est doors in the world. Each door is
456 feet high, has 7 vertical panels 7.2.5.2 Louvered Window
and 4 horizontal panels, and takes 45
minutes to completely open or close. In this type, the styles of shutter
are grooved to receive a series of louvers.
The louvers are set within the grooves
in inclined position. So that, they slope
downward to outside in order to obstruct
the horizontal vision. Louvers should be
fixed or pivoted. Mostly it is used in the
residential buildings in bathrooms and
toilets.
4. Lantern window.
5. Skylight window.
6. Gable window.
7. Corner window.
8. Sliding window.
9. Glazed or sash window.
7.2.5.1 Dormer Window 7.2.5.3 Bay Window

It is a vertical window built in the A window projecting outward
sloping side of a pitched roof. This win- from the walls of a room is termed as a
dow is provided to achieve proper ventila- bay window. Bay window may be square,
tion and lighting to the room constructed rectangular or polygonal in plan. It is
below the roof.

introduced with a view to provide an 7.2.5.5 Skylight Window
increased area of opening to admit light
and ventilation.
In this type, a fixed window pro-

vided on the sloping surface of the pitched
7.2.5.4 Lantern Window roof. The frame work of skylight window
If the light from the windows in supports the glass panels. This type of
the walls is not enough, windows are pro- windows are provided to get more light.
vided on the roof also. These are called
as lantern window. It should be square or 7.2.5.6 Gable Window
rectangular in shape.
The triangular wall constructed to
provide sloped roof in a building is known
as gable wall. The window provided in the
gable wall of a building is termed as gable
window.

7.2.5.7 Corner Window
This type of window is essentially
located in the corner of a room. It serves
an architectural features for improving
the elevation of the building.
7.2.6 Fixtures For Doors and

Windows
(i) HINGES
1. Back flap hinge: It should be used
when the thickness of door shutter is
less.
7.2.5.8 Sliding Window 2. Butt hinge: It is commonly used type
of hinge.
In this type of window the shutters
3. Counter flap hinge: While closing
move on the roller bearing and can slided
the door the two parts of the door
either horizontally or vertically depending
should join together.
upon the provision made.
4. Garnet hinge: It is used in ledged
and braced doors.
Do you know about UPVC

doors and windows? What is
UPVC?
U PVC is the general abbreviation for

Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride. The
recent material mostly used in all commercial
and other buildings for making doors and
windows is UPVC.
7.2.5.9 Glazed Window UPVC is extensively used because it is
not easily affected by climatic changes unlike
The shutter of this window should be
other substances like wood. The best part
glass. The glass panels are secured in either about it is it lasts longer without any such prior
by putty or by small fillets known as glazing repairs.
beads. These windows gives light even when Search link: https://aparanavenstar.com
it is closed.

5. Rising butt hinge: It increases height 3. Latch: These are used for all types of
by 10mm when opening. doors and windows.
6. Strip hinge: It is used for heavy 4. Hasp and staple bolt: These are used
d o ors . for external doors.
5. Tower bolt: It is nearly the same as
barrel bolt. But three or two rings
used instead of the barrel.
(iii) LOCKS
1. Cupboard lock: This is used for
small doors.
(ii) BOLTS
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 3
1. Aldrop bolts: These are used in
Prepare a report on various fix-
external doors of the building.
tures and fittings used in doors and
2. Barrel bolt: These are fixed in the windows with pictures.
backside of doors.

2. Hook and eye: To keep the windows
in open condition and also in the
door of almirahs where there is no
need of safety these bolts are used.
3. Mortise lock: To lock the doors from
outside of the rooms.
4. Padlock: These are used together
with aldrop bolt. ACTIVITY
PROJECT 4
1. Prepare a report about UPVC doors
and windows with photos.
2. Prepare report about fixtures and fit-
tings with photos.

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
Choose the correct answers
1. The vertical members in both the sides
of shutter is ........
a. Rail
b. Sash
c. Style
PART II (3 Marks)
d. Panel Answer in one or two sentences
2. ........ are the horizontal members used in 5. Define window?
ledged doors? 6. What are the parts of a door shutter?
a. Style 7. Write short notes on ‘putty’.
b. Transom 8. List the hinges used in doors.
c. Head
d. Ledges PART III (5 Marks)
3. Dormer window is a ........ window built Answer shortly
in the sloping side of a pitched roof. 9. What are the types of doors?
a. Vertical 10. List the types of windows.
b. Inclined 11. List the types of bolts and locks used in
c. Horizontal doors and windows.
d. Sloped
4. A window projecting outward from the
PART IV (10 Marks)
walls of a room is ........ Answer in detail
a. Corner window
12. Explain flush doors with sketches.
b. Pivoted window
13. Explain framed and panelled doors with
c. Bay window
a neat sketch.
d. Lantern window
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (c)
Part – I Answers

BUILDING Unit 8
Basic Civil
8.1 STAIRS AND LIFTS
8.2 ROOFS
8.3 FLOORS AND
FLOORING

TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.1 Stairs and Lifts 8.2.4 Advantages and Disadvan-
8.1.1 Introduction tages of Flat Roof
8.1.2 Terms Used in Stairs 8.2.5 Roof Covering Materials
8.1.3 Location of Staircase for Pitched Roof
8.1.4 Types of Stairs 8.2.6 Modern Roofing Sheets
8.1.5 Moving Stairs or Escalators 8.3 Floors and Flooring
8.1.6 Lift or Elevators 8.3.1 Introduction
8.2 Roofs 8.3.2 Types of Floors
8.2.1 Introduction 8.3.3 Definition of Flooring
8.2.2 Characteristics
Learning Objectivesof a Good 8.3.4 Materials used for the
Roof Flooring
8.2.3 Classification of Roofs 8.3.5 Selection of Flooring
8.3.6 Types of Flooring
8.1 STAIRS AND LIFTS
Learning Objectives
• Understand the terms used in staircase.
• State the types of stairs
• Define lift and its uses.
8.1.1 Introduction 1. Tread: The horizontal upper part of a

A stair is defined as a series of steps step which is used to rest the foot while
and it is provided to go up or come down ascending or descending the stairs.
between the floors or landings. 2. Riser: The vertical portion of a step pro-
viding a support of the tread.
8.1.2 Terms Used in Stairs 3. Rise: It is the vertical distance between
the surfaces of two consecutive steps.
Hand Rail
4. Flight: A series of steps without any
Riser platform or landing is known as flight.
Tread
String Balusters 5. Nosing: The outer projection of a tread
Fascia
Newel Post is known as nosing.
Balusters
String 6. Going: It is the horizontal distance between
Newel Post the faces of two consecutive steps.
Building Construction | Stairs and Lifts 180

7. Landing: A platform provided between
two flights of stair is called landing. The longest stairway in
the world:
8. Soffit: It is under surface of a stair.
9. Pitch: It is the angle which the line of
nosing of the stair makes with horizontal. T he steps that run
alongside the Niesen
mountain railway in Switzerland are
10. Winders: They are angular or radiating
officially the longest stairway in the
steps and provided to change the direc-
world. There are 11,674 steps in all, and
tion of a stair.
it’s only possible to hike them one day
11. Hand Rail: Wooden or metallic rail is
a year during the Niesen run. It is only
generally provided at convenient height
3.4 km but there is 1669 m of altitude
over balustrades.
to climb.
12. Newel Post: Posts set at the begining and
Search link: www.dmx.co.uk>worlds-
end of a to stair support the handrail.
longest-stairs
13. Baluster: Vertical members supporting
the hand rail.
8.1.3 Location of Staircase

It should be centrally located such
that it is easily accessible from the vari-
ous rooms of the building. In the advent
of fire or any such calamity stairs provide
the only means of communication.
Sufficient light and proper ven-

tilation should be made available in the
staircase for easy and safe communication
between the various floors.
181 Stairs and Lifts | Building Construction

In public building the staircase
should be located near the main entrance. The world’s longest
wooden stairs
8.1.4 Types of Stairs
I. According to the materials used
i. Brick stairs
T
he longest wooden
stairs in the world,
4444 steps, is in Florli, Norway.
ii. Wooden stairs
iii. Stone stairs
iv. Steel stairs
v. Concrete stairs.
vi. Glazed stairs
II. According to the shapes
1. Straight flight stairs
2. Dog legged stairs
3. Open well stairs
4. Circular stairs or spiral stairs 8.1.4.2 Dog Legged Stairs
5. Bifurcated stairs UP
1.200
6. Geometrical stairs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2.500
8.1.4.1 Straight Flight Stairs

1.200
1.125 2.250 1.125

0.230 0.230
In these stairs all the steps lead in

one direction. Straight stairs may be con-
tinuous with landings in between flights.
This type is used for small houses, where
sufficient width is not available. It consists of two straight flights
of steps with abrupt turn between them.
Usually, a level landing is placed across

Heaven’s gate, China:
T
he stairway consists
of 999 steps. It passes
through the hole in the
rock to the temple situated at the top of
the mountain.
It is similar to dog legged stair

but there is a rectangular well or open-
ing between the backward and forward
flights. The width of stair would be sum
of twice the width of stair and well hole.
The well hole allows lighting.
8.1.4.4 Circular Stairs or Spiral Stairs
the two flights at the change of direction.

This type of stair is useful where the width
of the staircase hall is just sufficient to
accommodate two widths of stair.
8.1.4.3 Open Well Stairs

II-FLIGHT
LANDING
OPEN OPEN
WELL WELL
I-FLIGHT III-FLIGHT
WITH INTERMEDIATE FLIGHT WITHOUT INTERMEDIATE FLIGHT

Stairway to heaven:
T he 300 feet spiral

staircase has been
installed on the wall of
the Taihang Mountains in Linzhou
to offer the thrill of mountaineering
without the danger.
These stairs are circular in shape.

In spiral stair the radius of curvature is
small and the stairs may be supported by
a centre post. Over all diameter of such
stairs may range from 2 to 2.5 metre.
8.1.4.5 Bifurcated Stairs
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 1
Collect the pictures of the most
luxurious unique and spectacular stair-
case in the word and make an album.
Search link:
http://inhabitat.com> architecture
http://www.alux.com>most-luxurious
staircase
These stairs are so arranged that

there is a wide flight at the start which is
sub divided into narrow flights at the mid
landing.
The two narrow flights start from

either side of the mid landing. Generally,
these stairs are more suitable for modern
public buildings.

8.1.5 Moving Stairs or Escalators
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 2
Visit the buildings with lifts and
escalators around your town and pre-
pare a report with photos
Escalators are a sort of moving stair-

way between two successive floors driven by
power.
In place of staircase, escalators may

be used in any building where there is a con-
tinuous heavy traffic flow, such as depart-
mental stores, exhibition halls, railway
stations, office buildings, airports, etc.
It is a power driven inclined continu-

This is an appliance designed to
ous stairway. Stair users are not required to
transport persons or goods between two
walk but stairs themselves keep on moving.
or more floors in a vertical or substantially
vertical direction by means of a guided car
8.1.6 Lift or Elevators
or platform.
For efficient use of lifts, they should

be provided near the centre of building
and also it should be easily accessible from
all entrances of the building.
A lift is designed for the transport

of passengers is known as passenger lift.
Whereas a lift designed for the transport
of goods, is termed as goods lift. It occu-
pies least space.

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. The vertical distance between two con-
secutive steps is …..
a. Going
b. Pitch PART II ( 3 Marks)
c. Tread Answer in one or two sentences
d. Rise
6. Define stair.
2. …….. are provided to change the direc- 7. Distinguish between rise and riser.
tion of geometrical stairs. 8. List any three types of stairs according to
a. Going the materials used.
b. Winders 9. List any three types of stairs according to
c. Riser the shapes.
d. Baluster
3. Posts set at the top and bottom of a stair PART III (5 Marks)
supporting the hand rail is …….. Answer shortly
a. Baluster
10. Explain dog logged stairs.
b. Head rail
11. Write short notes on any five terms in
c. Newel post
staircase.
d. Flight
12. Explain the location of staircase.
4. The angle which the line of nosing of the
stair makes with the horizontal is ……. PART IV (10 Marks)
a. Soffit Answer in detail
b. Pitch
c. Rise 13. List the different types of stairs accord-
d. Tread ing to the shapes and explain any one in
detail with neat sketch.
5. The outer projection of a tread is known 14. Explain open well stair case with sketch.
as ………
a. Landing
b. Going
c. Nosing
d. Winder
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c)

Answers

Learning Objectives
8.2 ROOFS
Learning Objectives
• State the classification of roofs and its requirements.
• List the advantages of flat roof.
• Understand the modern roofing sheets.
8.2.1 Introduction 8.2.2 Requirements of a Good Roof

A roof is the uppermost part of a The following requirements are to
building, provided as a structural cover- be satisfied by well planned roof.
ing to protect the building from rain, sun,
wind etc. Roof protects the building from i. It should be durable against the adverse
the damages starting from the top. effects of wind, sun, rain, etc.
ii. It should give good insulation against
heat and sound.
Construction & Style
Mansard
Shed
Gambrel
Gable
Flat Hip
Combination roof
Butterfly
187 Roofs | Building Construction

constructed out of wood, steel or combi-
Matrimandir, Auroville. nations of both and the edges of their tri-
The Matri mandir is angular portions are supported by walls.

an edifice of spiritual The slope of the roof depends upon the
significance for practi- distance between the two supporting
tioners of Integral yoga, situated at walls. Covering material to be used as per
the center of Auroville initiated by the the climatic conditions in that locality.
Mother of the Sri Aurobindo Ashram.
It is in the form of a huge

sphere surrounded by twelve petals.
It took 37 years to built this structure
(from Feb. 1971 to Feb. 2008).
Type of Pitched Roof

1. Single Roof
2. Double (or) Purlin Roof
3. Trussed Roof
Types of Single Roof

1. Lean-to-Roof
2. Couple Roof
3. Couple closed Roof
iii. It should be structurally sound and
4. Collar beam Roof
stable.
iv. It should permit good drainage.
v. It should have good water proofing
Battens
ar rangement.
Common Rafter
vi. It should be fire resistant.
Corbel Stone Roof Covering
8.2.3 Classification of Roofs
Wall Plate
1. Sloping / Pitched Roof
2. Flat Roof Main Wall
3. Curved or Shell Roof Eaves Board
VerandahWall
2.40m
8.2.3.1 Sloping / Pitched Roof Lean-to-Roof
Roofs with sloping surfaces are

known as pitched roofs. These roofs are
Building Construction | Roofs 188

Ridge cover are supported by wooden frame work
called truss at required intervals. The
Roof Covering Batten
Ridge Piece frame work consists of two principal raft-
Common
Rafter ers, the beam, two struts and a king post.
Wall Plate
Purlins are placed longitudinally over the
principal rafters to support the common
Eaves board rafters. The spacing of the king post truss
Couple Roof is generally adopted as 3m
Ridge cover Ridge Piece Ridge Board
Common
Purlin Rafter
Roof Covering King Batten Principle
Purlin Cleat Rafter
Rod Common
Binder Wall Plate
Rafter Brick Fill
Wall Plate
Tie Beam Stone
Strut
King Template
Tie Beam Post Supporting Wall
Eaves board
Couple Close Roof King Post Roof Truss
Ridge Piece
ii. Queen Post Truss
Batten
Rafter This is used for spans from 9m to 14m.
In queen post truss the frame work consists
Wall Plate Wall Plate
Collar Beam of two principal rafters, two queen posts, two
struts, one straining beam, one straining sill
and a tie beam. Common rafters are placed
Eaves board
Collar Beam Roof over the purlins which are placed over the
principle rafters.
Trussed Roof
Ridge Board
These types of roofs are con- Purlin
Common Cleat
structed in triangular shape and made up Rafter Purlin
Infill Brick Straining Beam Purlin Cleat
of steel or timber. These are used when the Work Cleat Wall Plate
Straining Sill
span exceeds 5.5m. The spacing of trusses
depends upon the load on the roof. Strut Queen Post Stone Template
Tie Beam Supporting Wall
The following are some important Queen Post Truss
types of trussed roof

iii. Steel Roof Truss
i. King post truss For spans greater than 12m, steel
ii. Queen post truss trusses are economical. Mild steel rolled
iii. Steel truss sections of standard shapes and sizes are
available in the market. It facilitates the
I. King Post Truss construction of steel trusses for small
This is used for spans from 5m to spans, the steel roof trusses consist of
9m. In king post truss, the common rafters angles connected by rivets or welds. The

i) Centering
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 3 The concrete is in a semisolid state
Collect pictures of different types during placing, it is necessary to give sup-
of roof and prepare an album. port until it gains sufficient strength. This
temporary supports which are formed by
using wooden planks and drops or steel
designs of steel trusses become simple plates and steel pipes is called Centering.
because steel can take both compression It should be strong enough to withstand
and tension. A few types of steel trusses the weight of the roof concrete. Before
are shown. laying the steel rods on the surface of
centering, waste oil should be applied for
easy removal of plank. The steel rods are
Scissors Clerestory then placed in position and are tied by
Polynesian
using binding wires. Usually the concrete
Vaulted Parallel Chord Cantilevered Mansard
Gambrel
W/Parapets mix proportion of 1:1.5:3 is placed over
HIP
the centering and they are compacted by
Vault
using vibrator.
Room-in-Attic
Flat Vault Dual Pitch
8.2.3.2 Flat Roof

the roof which is nearly flat or at a
slope upto 10° is known as flat roof
Types of Flat Roof

1. RCC roof
ii) Curing and Removal of Form Work
2. Madras terrace roof
After laying of concrete, the surface
1. RCC Roof of concrete should be cured for about
21 to 28 days. Only then the concrete
Method of construction of Rein-
will attain its strength. The form work
forced Cement Concrete (RCC) roof slab:
should be removed after 14 days.

iii) Weathering Course between them. The furring piece gives
The weathering course will protect necessary slope to the flat roof.
the surface of the roof from weathering 3. A course of well burnt bricks is laid in
actions. The surkhi mortar 1:1.5 (1 lime lime mortar and keeping the bricks on
and 1.5 brick bats) ratio is laid on the roof their edges diagonally across the posts.
surface for about 100mm thick. Above 4. A 10cm thick brick bat concrete is laid
this, flat tiles are laid by using cement over it and thoroughly compacted by
mortar 1:3. The joints in between the frequent wetting with water.
tiles are pointed by using cement mortar. 5. Flat tiles are laid in 3 layers over this in
Proper slope is maintained for easy drain- lime mortar.
age of rain water.
6. Finally three coats of plaster are applied
for finishing the surface and a slope of
about 1 in 30 is given for draining rain
water.
3 Coats of Plaster
Flat Tiles
Brickbat Concrete
Terrace Bricks
Teakwood Joists
Furring Piece
R.S.J.
Stone Template
2. Madras Terrace Roof

1. Madras terrace roof was widely used in
Madras Province.
2. It consists of teak wood posts placed
over the steel girders with a furring piece
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 4
Visit a construction site near
your school and prepare a detailed
report about the stages of construction
of RCC roof slab with photos.

8.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Flat Roof
Advantages
I. It is easy for construction and mainte-
nance.
ii. Upper floor can be easily constructed.
iii. Flat roof possesses good insulation
properties. Thatches
iv. It posses more fire resistance than a
pitched roof.
v. A flat roof provides better light, ventila-
tion and architectural appearance to the
building.
vi. False ceiling is not necessary for flat roof.
Disadvantages
Wooden Shringles
i. Initial cost is higher than the pitched
roof.
ii. Flat roof is not suitable for long span,
without the introduction of columns
and beams.
iii. Flat roof is not suitable for places of
snowfall.
iv. Construction speed is slower than the
pitched roof.
8.2.5 Roof Covering Materials for Tiles

Pitched Roof
1. Thatches.
2. Wooden Shringles.
3. Mangalore Tiles.
4. A.C. Sheets.
5. G.I. Sheets.
6. Light Weight Roofing Materials.
7. Poly Vinyl Chloride Sheets.
A.C.Sheets(Trafford)
8. Galvalume Sheets

5. Construction and Maintenance Cost of
the Building.
6. Resistance to Fire and Heat.
7. Weight of the Roofing Materials.
8. Appearance and Beauty of Materials.
8.2.7 Types of Covering Sheets for

Pitched Roof
A.C. Sheets (Corrugated)
1. Asbestos Cement Sheets.
2. Light Roofing Sheets.
3. Galvanized Iron Sheets.
8.2.7.1 A
sbestos Cement Sheets
(A.C. Sheets)
They are manufactured by mix-
Light Weight Roofing
ing the cement with about 15% of asbes-
tos fibre. The paste so formed is pressed
under rollers. These fibres are so soft like
silk. The corrugations help to increase the
strength and rigidity and they permit easy
flow of rain water.
Types of AC Sheets
Poly Vinyl
i. Trafford Sheet
ii. Corrugated Sheet
i. Trafford Sheet

1.05 msheet consists of four
Each Trafford
deep corrugationsSide Lap
alternating with flat por-
Galvalume sheet tions. The thickness of these sheets is 6mm.
They are available with a breadth of 1.02 m
8.2.6 Points to Be Considered During the Steel Purlin
and length of 2.5m, 3m, 3.5m and 4m.
Selections of Roofing Materials
44-45 mm
1. Climate of the Locality.
1.02 m
2. Slope of the Roof. 1.09 m
Nut
3. Type of the Building. G.I.Washer
4. Durability.
Purlin
Hook Bolt

ii. Corrugated Sheet iv. The Maintenance cost is low.
These sheets are prepared by press- v. They are used for decorative purpose.
ing plates between rollers. These sheets
are manufactured with series of parallel AC Ridge Piece Cover
depression (Corrugations) from one end To avoid water entering into the
to the other. These sheets are more resist- roof, the cover pieces laid at the top
ant to fire. These sheets produce noise junction of the two sloped AC sheets are
when rain water falls on them. known as AC ridge covers.
Crank bolts and J hooks are used to 8.2.7.2 Light Roofing Sheets
fix these sheets with the purlins. To avoid These roof coverings are manufac-
the leakage of water bituminous washers tured by inserting wool cloth in between
are used. There are 7.5 corrugations in the two asbestos clothes with corruga-
this sheet. The upper and lower corru- tions. The thickness of these sheets is
gations are equal. The thickness of these 3mm. They are available in a breadth of
sheets is 6mm. They are available with a 1m and length of 2m, 2.5m and 3m. They
breadth of 1.05m and lengths of 2.5m, 3.0, are painted with aluminium paint on both
3.5m and 4m. sides. They are easily bendable. They
are easy to cut and nail. These sheets are
1.05 m cheap in cost but has less strength. This
Side Lap type of roof covering is suitable for cattle
sheds and nutrition centres.
Steel Purlin Types of light roofing sheets

i. Tar sheet
44-45 mm ii. Plastic sheet
Uses of AC Sheets iii. Poly vinyl chloride sheet
1.02 m
1.09 m
Nut and not easily
i. AC sheets are fairly cheap
G.I.Washer 8.2.7.3 Galvanized Iron Sheets
affected by fire.
These sheets are prepared by press-
ii. They need not be painted.
Purlin ing wrought iron plates between rollers.
iii. It is not affected by insects. They are galvanized with a zinc coat to
Hook Bolt
iv. It is used in industries, large buildings avoid rusting due to climatic change. They
and workshops. are strong due to corrugations. They are
Characteristics of AC Sheet also manufactured as plain sheets.
i. Asbestos cement sheet can be sawn, Advantages of Galvanised Iron Sheet

nailed or punched.
i. They need not be painted, so cost
ii. They are sound proof.
reduces.
iii. They are not affected by acids and
ii. It is weightless. So, handling is easy.
alkalies.

iii. Low conductor of heat.
iv. Not easily corrodible.
8.2.8 Modern Roofing Sheets

The following are the different
modern roofing sheets.
1. Corrugated aluminium sheets

2. PVC roofing sheets 8.2.8.3 Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic
3. Glass fibre reinforced plastic sheets Sheets
4. Bituminous sheets Corrugated glass fibre reinforced
5. Red mud corrugated roofing sheets plastic sheets with different profiles and
light transmissions are used as light roof-
6. Galvalume sheets
ing materials. Unlike GI and aluminium
8.2.8.1 Corrugated Aluminium Sheets sheets, these sheets have little resale value.
Aluminium is a light weight metal

and does not corrode like a steel. The
thickness of corrugated sheets vary from
0.5 to 0.8 mm. They require no mainte-
nance and has also a good resale value.
The only disadvantage is that they are
more expensive.
8.2.8.4 Bituminous Sheets

Light roofing sheets made of bitu-
men and paper pulp is generally used for
8.2.8.2 PVC Roofing Sheets covering of temporary sheds. They are
cheap but their life is very short (3 to 5
Rigid PVC Corrugated sheets are
years).They do not have a resale value.
transparent with a light transmission of
not less than 70 to 80 percent. Since these
sheets do not perform well with direct
exposure to sunlight and are also not fire
proof. They are mainly used in temporary
constructions, car parks etc where a very
light roofing of pleasing appearance is
required.

8.2.8.5 Red Mud Corrugated Roofing up of low tensile steel or mild steel. These
Sheets sheets are 4 times more corrosive resist-
Red mud is obtained from waste ant than GI sheets and are one of the most
materials derived in aluminium indus- economical and durable material. The
try. It is combined with polymers to form versatility case of use, aesthetics and long
corrugated roofing sheets. They are cheap term performance of the material makes it
and more durable. Since red mud cor- best preferred material for roofing.
rugated roofing sheets are very flexible,
they are extensively used as a light roofing
material for temporary construction.
8.2.8.6 Galvalume Sheet

Galvalume sheets are commercially
available light steel roofing sheets made

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. The upper most part of a building is ……
a. Wall
b. Floor
c. Roof PART II (3 Marks)
d. Door
2. King post truss is used for spans from
…… 6. List any three types of flat roofs.
a. 3m to 6m 7. What are the important types of roof
b. 5m to 9m trusses?
c. 2m to 4m 8. What are the types of light roofing sheets.
d. 4m to 8m PART III (5 Marks)
3. For spans greater than ….. steel trusses
Answer shortly
are economical.
a. 12m 9. What are the characteristics of A.C
b. 6m sheets?
c. 10m 10. State the requirements of a good roof?
d. 20m 11. List the advantages of flat roof?
4. Flat tiles are laid in ……layers in madras PART IV (10 Marks)
terrace roof.
a. 4 Answer in detail
b. 2 12. Explain king post truss with sketch.
c. 3 13. Explain about modern roofing sheets.
d. 5
5. The content of asbestos fiber in the man-
ufacture of A.C sheet is …..
a. 10%
b. 15%
c. 20%
d. 25%
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b)

Answers

Learning Objectives
8.3 FLOORS AND FLOORING
Learning Objectives
•  State the types of floors and flooring.
•  Understand the materials used in flooring and its selections.
8.3.1 Introduction-Floors
Floors are the horizontal elements of
a building structure which divide the build-
ing into different levels for the purpose of
creating more accommodation within a
restricted space one above the other. They
provide support for the occupants, furniture
and equipment of a building.
Ground Floor: The floor of a
building immediately above ground level
8.3.2.1 Timber Floors
is known as ground floor.
Basement Floor: In case part of In this type of floors, only timber is
the building is constructed below ground used as a material. Following are the types
level or the building has basement, the of timber floors.
floor is termed as basement floor.
I. Sleeper Wall Timber Floors
Upper Floor: If the
building is a multi-storeyed
one, the floors above ground
floors are called upper
Plaster Floor boards
floors.
Skirting
8.3.2 Types of Floors Damp proof
course Joist
Wall plate Sleeper
Floors are classified Damp proof
Ground
into two categories. They are, level
Air from exterior flows
through air bricks & passes
course
through honeycomb
1. Timber floors sleeper walls Honeycomb sleeper wall
supporting floor joists &
2. Composite floors allowing free passage of
Foundations air under floor
3. RCC floors Soil
Building Construction | Floors and Flooring 198

ii. Single joist timber floors i. Filler joist floors
ii. Jack arch floors
iii. Double flagstone floors
iv. Hallow block and rib floors
v. RCC Floor
In these above types of floors RCC

floors are most common nowadays.
8.3.2.3 RCC Floors
iii. Double joist timber floors In this type of floors, steel bars and
concrete are used to form a floor. This type
of floor is widely used in modern con-
struction. The slab and beam are designed
as per loading comes on the floor and
proper reinforcement is placed at suitable
places. The following are the advantages
of RCC floors when compared to others.
 Maintenance cost is low

 Strong
iv. Framed or triple joist timber floors.  Fire proof
 Easy to construct
8.3.3 Definition of Flooring

The permanent covering of the
top surface of a floor structure to provide
an even and smooth walking surface is
known as “Flooring”.
8.3.4 Materials Used for Flooring

8.3.2.2 Composite Floors The following are some of the mate-
Floors composed of more than one rials used for flooring.
material are known as composite floors.
Following are the types of composite i. Brick
floors. ii. Concrete
iii. Wood
iv. Stone
199 Floors and Flooring | Building Construction

v. Tiles 8. Fire Resistant: This quality is more
vi. Terrazzo important for upper floors. The material
vii. Asphalt should offer sufficient fire resistance. So
that fire barriers are obtained between
viii. Rubber
different levels of a building. Concrete
ix. Glass tiles, terrazo and marble have this quality
x. Linoleum
8.3.6 Types of Flooring
8.3.5 Selection of Material For Flooring
Following are the various types of
Following factors are to be carefully flooring based on the materials used.
considered before selecting the material
for flooring: 1. Tiled flooring
2. Granite flooring
1. Appearance: The flooring material
3. Marble flooring
should have desired appearance and it
should produce the colour effect in con- 4. Precast concrete flooring
formity with the use of building. 5. Plastic and PVC tile flooring
2. Comfort: The flooring material should 6. Carpet flooring
give comfort when used. Flooring mate- 7. Rubber flooring
rial should have good thermal insula-
tion, imparts, comfort to the residents of 8.3.6.1 Tiled Flooring
the building to a great extent. Tiles of either clay or cement con-
3. Cost: The cost of flooring materials crete or terrazzo manufactured in various
should be reasonable when compared to shapes, size and thickness are used in this
the utility of the building. type of flooring. This flooring can be laid
4. Cleaning : The flooring materials should in shorter time.
be such that it can be easily and effec-
tively cleaned.
5. Durability: The flooring material should
be durable and it should be strong
enough to impart resistance to wear,
tear, chemical action etc.,
6. Noise: Flooring should insulate noise i.e.
it should not produce noise when users
walk on it. Floor covering of wood, rubber,
cork, PVC tiles are suitable for this type. 8.3.6.2 Granite Flooring
7. Slipperiness: Flooring material should Granite flooring is similar to gran-
be smooth and should have an even sur- olithic flooring. Here instead of chips hard
face. It should not be slippery. granite stones are laid on the sub grade of
concrete. The usual thickness is 20mm to
35 mm.

8.3.6.3 Marble Flooring
This is a superior type of floor-
ing used in important public buildings,
residential building etc., where extra
cleanliness is essential. Marble slabs are
rectangular or square in shape.
World’s Most Expensive

Flooring Tiles.
Lux Touch is a ONE MIL-
LION US DOLLER per square meter
rated DIAMOND floor, wall and ceil-
ing tile, the most expensive in the 8.3.6.4 Precast Concrete Flooring
world. Each square meter of marble The precast slabs are available in
tile is inlaid with over 1000 diamonds, different sizes. They are supported either
2400 pieces of mother of pearl, 400 on walls or rolled steel joints. The sides of
pieces of abalone shell and 500 pieces each unit contain grooves which enhance
of black onyx. good connection with adjacent joints.
Search link: www.blackdiamond-life-

style.com>diamondfloorings
8.3.6.5 Plastic and Pvc Tile Flooring

This type of flooring is a recent
development in flooring construction.
The material poly vinyl chloride is fabri-
cated in the form of tiles of different size,
shapes and colour.

GLASS FLOOR
G lass floors are made

with transparent
glass when it is useful
to view something from above or
below; whereas translucent glass is
used when there is no need to view
through. In either case toughened
glass is usually chosen for its durabil-
ity and resistance to breakage
Search link: https://www.homefloor-

ingpros.com>8 best luxury floorings.
8.3.6.6 Carpet Tile

this flooring is generally used to
obtain a noiseless floor in case of libraries.
Studios, prayer hall etc.
ACTIVITY
PROJECT 5
Prepare a report on Luxury and
high quality flooring with pictures.
8.3.6.7 Rubber Flooring

Rubber floorings are in a large
extent used in public and industrial
buildings.

Tiles Laying Patterns
Stack Bond
Stretcher (Half-Bond) Brick (Half-Bond)
Random (Staggered) Chequer Board Basket
Herringbone Diagonal

Model Questions
PART I (1 Mark)
1. The floor of a building immediately
above ground level is …..
a. First floor
b. Basement floor
c. Ground floor PART II (3 Marks)
d. Second floor
2. The floors above ground floors are called
4. List the types of timber floors.
…….
5. Define flooring
a. Basement floors
6. List any three types of floorings.
b. Composite floors
c. Upper floors PART III (5 Marks)
d. Jack arch floors.
Answer shortly
3. The usual thickness of granite flooring is
…….. 7. Explain R.C.C floors.
a. 5mm to 10mm
PART IV (10 Marks)
b. 10mm to 20mm
c. 20mm to 35mm Answer in detail
d. 30mm to 50mm. 8. What are the factors to be considered
before selection of material for flooring?
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (c)

Answers

Case Study - Nateswaran
I am B. Nateswaran.
I feel proud to write about my school, The Government Higher Secondary School,
Agasteeswaram which is one among the best school in Kanniyakumari District. It iden-
tifies the unique skills of each and every student and help them channelize their energy to
excel in that field .
After completing my SSLC in Govt. High school, Elanthayadivilai, I had an opportunity

to continue my studies in Govt. Hr. Sec. School, Agasteeswaram during the year 1994-
96. My happiness could not be spell bound, on the day, when I was declared state rank(-
First) in vocational course “Draftsman Civil”. The pillars behind my achievements were
my headmaster, teachers and my family members.
A Teacher guides like a scholar
A Teacher cares like a parent
A Teacher scolds like a brother
A Teacher loves like a sister
A Teacher shows concern like God… I saw them there….
I completed my B.E at C.S.I institute of Technology, Thovalai and M.B.A in Madurai

Kamaraj University.
Then , I joined in as a clerk in Indian Overseas Bank during 2008 and rose to the position
of Manager. I render my service here about 10 years with full dedication and sincerity. All
this journey through a spectrum of fields with agile and ease was made possible only by
my School and teachers.
Through this opportunity, I once again thank everyone, who taught, guided, motivated,
inspired and supported me to get this good position.
P. Nateswaran
205
Civil_English_BM.indd 205 21-04-2018 13:19:15

Case Study - Deepika
I, Deepika studied in KGKG Girls Hr.Sec.School, Vedharanyam was known for vigorous
and witty among my classmates when I was studying VI standard. I got passed in Analyti-
cal Skill examination in IX standard with the firm support of my Head Mistress and Teach-
ers. I had chosen Draughtsman Civil group for my further higher secondary studies. I got
attained third place in Public examinations by the guidance of my teachers. Draughtsman
Civil taught the basic concepts which helped me a lot when I pursued Engineering.
I secured first class in BE Civil Engineering. As I have been inspired by the thoughts and
knowledge of my teachers, I have selected the teaching profession. Initially, I was worked
as a Lecturer in SRV Polytechnic, Sembodai. After completing my ME in Structural Engi-
neering, I have been placed as Head of Civil Engineering Department in Sir Issac Newton
College of Engineering and Technology, Pappakovil. I am guiding my students as my
teachers guided me.
“ If you believe, life is a circle,
You will round only inside the circle.
Come out of the circle then only
You can see the fruitfulness of life”
I am always grateful to my parents, teachers and the people who helped me to reach this
height in my career.
Deepika. K
206

Case Study - Arunkumar Mohanraj
My name is Arunkumar Mohanraj native of Puducherry. I studied in Jeevanandam Govt.

Higher secondary school at Mudaliarpet, Puducherry, then continued in Venkatasubba
Reddiar Govt.Technical Higher Secondary school at Lawspet, Puducherry. I consider this
school as something very unique in Puducherry, where you can learn and study at the
same time. I got an opportunity to study Draughtsman Civil which had excellent course
works and practical field study with appreciative class teachers.
After completing my schooling, my parents insisted me to perceive study in a different

field abroad. I decided to go to France where I perceived my bachelor degree and double
master degree program in the prestigious university of Paris Sud (Paris Descartes). I stud-
ied Public Health for my first degree which also included clinical research and epidemiol-
ogy studies. My second degree was master in Physiology and Pathology in ageing. It was a
crucial stage in my life, and I struggled really hard to obtain my master degree in France.
After my battle, Now I got an opportunity to pursue PhD in Neuroscience in Ben Gurion
University at Israel.
Finally, I conclude that “Hard work never fails”. I wish you all for your bright future.
Arunkumar Mohanraj.
207

Case Study - Joseph Marie Dass
“Life is a festival only to the wise” – Ralph Waldo Emerson
My name is Joseph Marie Dass and I am one amongst few people who considers life
as a festival and celebrates it. Here, with immense pleasure I am sharing my wonderful
experience with you. I was a student from a middle class family in the union territory of
Puducherry.
In my view, giving a book knowledge alone cannot be considered as education, the

moral values which shapes us to be good citizen is needed for a complete education.
I got that kind of complete education in Venkatasubba Reddiar Govt. Technical Higher
Secondary School, Lawspet, Puducherry where I mastered the concept of Draughtsman
Civil and secured 70%. This scucess under my subject teacher’s guidance induced me
to choose Civil Engineering in CIT, Puducherry. I secured 75 % and got placed in MST
Rebar Pvt. Ltd.
Then I shifted to Ashirwad analytical laboratory as a Civil supervisor (Structural divi-

sion), now I have attained the post of JE-I for my hard and dedicated work.
Now, I have received an invite from ISRO, where i have been qualified and waiting for
results.
Education is not a destination, it is a life long journey. It is the passport to the future,
tomorrow belongs to those who prepare for it today. The function of education is to teach
one to think intensively and critically.
I am sure you all know about the importance of getting a complete education. I wish you
all an enjoyable schooling and a successful future.
Joseph Marie Dass
208

Marks Allocation
Basic Civil Engineering - Theory - 1st Year
Part A Choose the correct answer 15 × 1 = 15 marks
Part B Answer any ten questions 10 × 3 = 30 marks
Part C Answer any five questions in brief 5 × 5 = 25 marks
Part D Answer all the questions in details 2 × 10 = 20 marks
Total 90 marks
Internal Assessment 10 marks
Total 100 marks
209

Model Question Paper I
Basic Civil Engineering – Theory

Total Marks: 90
Part A
Choose the correct answer 15 × 1 = 15
1. Engineering drawing is a _______________language which consists of different types

of lines and letters.
a) Tamil b) western c) World wide d) Indian
2. The only line which intersects object line is__________________.
a) Hidden line b) Leader line c) Extension line d) Dimension

line.
3. __________ software is mostly used to draw drawing.
a) Auto Desk b) NISA c) Auto Cad d) ARCHICAD
4. _________is mentioning the real dimension near t he object.
a) Dimension style b) Dimension text c) Dimension line d) None of the
above
5. _________ rocks cannot split in to thin layers.
a) Stratified b) Un-Stratified c) Foliated d) None of the
above
6. The percentage of Iron oxide content in good brick earth is __________.
a) 5-6% b)3-4% c)2-3% d)4-5%
7. In a Layman’s view cement means _______.
a) Natural cement b) Artificial cement c) Quick setting cement
d) Portland cement
8. The proportion of cement mortar used for brick work is _________.
a) CM 1:4 b) CM 1:6 c) CM 1:3 d) CM 1:2
9. The ratio of Reinforced cement concrete is __________.
a) 1:4:8 b) 1:3:6 c) 1:5:10 d) 1:2:4
210

10. ______ timber is used for ship building .
a) Teak b) Sal c) Mango d)Jack
11. The title used to carry irrigation water is _______.
a) Corrugated tile b) Drain tile c) Floor tile d)Roof tile
12. The foundation used to transmit heavy loads from steel column to the soil having low
bearing capacity is ____________.
a) Isolated footing b) Continuous footing c) Grillage foundation
d) Combined footing
13. The Layer of brick which is projecting at roof level of every floor is known as_________.
a) coping b) Plinth c) String course d) Cornice
14. The inner surface of an arch is termed as ________.
a) abutment b) intrados c) extrados d) Springing
stone
15. The vertical wooden member which splits the doors or windows into two parts is
______.
a) Style b)Bottom rail c) Panel d) Mullion
Part B
Answer any ten questions in one or two sentences 10 × 3 = 30

Note : Question No 25 is Compulsory
16. List the general classification of rocks.
17. Write any three uses of stones.
18. List the ingredients and its proportions of brick earth.
19. Write any three Properties of good mortar.
20. Write short note on : Fiber board
21. List any three types of ceramic tiles.
22. What are the objects of providing foundation?
23. Write the types of dressing of stones.
24. List the types of arches based on the materials for construction.
25. List and three types of hinges used in doors and windows.
26. List any three types of stairs based on the shapes.
27. List the types of pitched roof .
27. What are the materials used to constructed roofs ?
211

Part C
Answer any five questions in brief 5 × 5 = 25

29. Write briefly about set square with neat sketch.
30. Write any five advantages of using software to draw drawing .
31. List the steps involved in preparation of brick earth and explain any two of them.
32. List the field tests conducted on cement and explain any two of them.
33. What is seasoning of timber ? List the objects of seasoning of timber.
34. Write name and uses of any five tools used in masonry work.
35. Draw a straight stair and indicate its parts.
Part D
Answer all questions in detail 2 × 10 = 20

36. Explain any ten principles adopted in dimensioning with sketch.
(or)
Differentiate between River sand and Manufactured sand (M-sand).
37. Draw neatly a panel door and indicate its parts.
(or)
Explain about any four modern roofing sheets.
212

Model Question Paper II
Basic Civil Engineering – Theory

Total Marks: 90
Part A
Choose the correct answer 15 × 1 = 15

1. The ebony edge of drawing board should be projected _____________ from the edge
of drawing board.
a) 6 to 10 mm b) 5 to 6 mm c) 2 to 3 mm d) 7 to 8 mm
2. The software used for design of highways is _____________.
a) M.S. ROADS b) KANAL ++ c) AQUA ++ d) GEO
3. The specific gravity of good stones should be more than _____________.
a) 1.8 b) 2.1 c) 2.5 d) 2.7
4. The clay content in brick earth should be ________________.
a) 20 to 30 % b) 20 to 35 % c) 35 to 50 % d) 40 to 45 %
5. In block test the cement block is immersed in water for ______________.
a) 5 days b) 3 days c) 7 days d) 10 days
6. ________________ is the small groove cut on the underside of cornice, coping and sill
to drain the rain water.
a) Layer b) Throating c) Plinth d) Through Stone
7. The wedge shaped stones to form arch are called as ______________.
a) Voussoirs b) Extrados c) Springing stone d) Springing line
8. The horizontal member which splits window frame into two parts is ______________.
a) Transome b) Sash c) Louver d) Mullion
9. The minimum height of door is ______________.
a) 2.0 m b) 1.5 m c) 1.8 m d) 2.2 m
10. The horizontal portion of the step where we rest the foot is _______________.
a) Rise b) Tread c) Riser d) Going
213

11. The roof having sloped surface is known as _____________.
a) Shell roof b) Pitched roof c) Flat roof
d) Madras terrace roof
12. The weight of rose wood after seasoning is __________________.
a) 7900 N/m3 b) 6900 N/m3 c) 8600 N/m3 d)7700 N/m3
13. The thickness of hard board is ______________.
a) 2 mm b) 3 mm c) 30 mm d) 5 mm
14. The percentage of calcium oxide in fat lime is _____________.
a) 80 % b) 85 % c) 95 % d) 90 %
15. The other name of pot tiles is ____________.
a) Ceramic tiles b) Mangalore tiles c) Flat tiles d) Hand tiles
Part B
Answer any ten questions in one or two sentences 10 × 3 = 30

16. Define centre line.
17. What are the uses of STAAD PRO – Software ?
18. What do you meant by ‘Dimension text’ ?
19. What are the physical classification of rocks ?
20. State the importance of ‘Alumina’ in brick earth.
21. Write short notes on hollow block.
22. What is meant by natural cement ?
23. Define lime mortar ?
24. What are the methods of seasoning of timber ?
25. List any three types of locks ?
26. State the types of staircases according to the materials used ?
27. List the types of trussed roofs ?
28. Mention the types of stone masonry ?
214

Part C
Answer any five questions in brief 5 × 5 = 25

29. Name any five commands used in Auto CAD.
30. what are the types of bricks ?
31. List any five types of artificial cement ?
32. What are the uses of timber in construction ?
33. What are the types of shallow foundations ?
34. What are the differences between lintels and arches ?
35. Write any five uses of mortar ?
Part D
Answer all the questions in detail 2 × 10 = 20

36. Explain about Setsquare and Drawing pencils with sketch.
(or)
Tabulate the differences between stone masonry and brick masonry ?
37. Explain revolving door with sketch.
(or)
List the timber products and explain any two of them in brief.
215

References
1. Engineering Drawing”, by Basant Agrawal ,C M Agrawal.
2. “Engineering drawing and Graphics”, by K.Venugopal.
3. “Engineering Graphics”, by B.Bhattacharyya.
4. “Mastering AutoCAD 2013 And AutoCAD LT 2013”, by George Omura, Brian C. Benton
5. “AutoCAD 2015 And AutoCAD LT 2015 Essentials”, by Scott Onstott
6. “Building Materials”, by P.C.Varghese.
7. “Building Materials”, by S.K.Duggal.
8. “Building Construction and Materials”, by Sushil Kumar.
9. “Building Materials and Construction “, by S.Bhavikatti.
10. “Building Construction”, by S.C. Rangwala.
11. “Building Construction”, by P.C.Varghese.
12. “Building Construction”, by B.C.Punmia and Ashok Kumar Jain
13. “A textbook of Building Construction”, by S.K.Sharma
14. Building Construction Materials &Techniques ", by P.Purushothama Raj.
216

Glossary
1.1 BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

Crafts man கைவினைஞர், ஒரு த�ொழிலில்
ஈடுபட்டுள்ளவர்
Laminated மெ தகடுகளாலான
Drafting machine வரைவுப்பொறி
Rubbing அழித்தல் அல்லது தேய்த்தல்
Trimmed size ஒழுங்கு செய்யப்பட்ட வடிவம்
Slotted joint ப�ொருத்து இணைப்பு
Mechanism இயந்திர நுட்பம்
1.2 LINES, LETTERING AND DIMENSIONING

Hidden மறைவான, மறைத்து வைக்கப்பட்ட
Projection வீழல், ஒளி நிழல்எறிவுறு
Hatching நேர்த்தியான க�ோடுகள் மூலம் நிழல்
வண்ணங்காட்டுதல்
Interrupted குறுக்கிடப்பட்ட, இடைமறிக்கப்பட்ட
Intermediate இடைப்பட்ட
2.1 AUTO CAD SOFTWARES

Software மென்பொருள்
Environmental சுற்றுப்புறச் சூழ்நிலை
Management மேலாண்மை
Modelling வடிவமைப்பு
Structural கட்டமைப்புச் சார்ந்த
2.2 AUTOCAD BASICS

Characteristics பண்புகள்
Circumference சுற்றளவு
Command கட்டளை
Symmetrical சமச்சீருள்ள
Fulfilment நிறைவேற்றம், செயல்தீர்வு
217

Isometric சம அளவுத் த�ோற்றம்
Orthographic செங்கோண கூட்டுமுறை
3.1 STONES
Bedding படுகை
Disintegration சிதைதல்
Distinctly முற்றிலும்
Predominates பெரும்பான்மையுடையதாக
Preserving பாதுகாத்தல்
Contributing பங்களித்தல்
Tolerable ஏற்றுக்கொள்ளத்தக்க
Seasoned பதப்படுத்தப்பட்ட
3.2 BRICKS
Blending கலத்தல்
Reliability நம்பகத்தன்மை
Wrapping ப�ோர்த்துதல்
Cohesion ஒட்டுந்தன்மை
Brittle உடையக்கூடிய
Kneaded பிசையப்பட்ட
Accumulation திரளுதல்
Oxidized ஆக்ஸிஜனேற்றப்பட்ட
Crystallization படிகமாக்கல்
Vitrified கண்ணாடி ப�ோன்று மாற்றப்பட்ட,
3.3 SAND
M-Sand செயற்கை மணல், தயாரிப்பு மணல்
Huge பெரிய
4.1 CEMENT
Wetting ability ஈரமாகும் திறன்

Volcanic powder எரிமலைத்துகள்
Lean mix குறை கலவை
Ornamental work அலங்கார வேலைப்பாடுகள்
Tarpaulin ஒரு வகை அடர்நெகிழி தாள்
Silos குதிர், பதனக்கலன்
218

4.2 MORTAR
Water resisting property நீர்த் தடுப்புத் தன்மை
Water saturated soil நீர்ச்செறிவுள்ள மண்
Re-tempering மீளப்பக்குவப்படுத்துதல்
Consistency சீர்பதம்
Erosion அரித்தல்
Abrasion தேய்மானம்
4.3 CONCRETE
Admixtures துணைச் சேர்க்கைப் ப�ொருள்கள்
Virtue தனித்தன்மை, சிறந்தபண்பு
Segregation தனித்தனியே பிரிதல்
Agitated condition தன்மைமாறா நிலை
Hydration நீரேற்றம்
Appreciation பாராட்டத்தக்க
Work ability பணி எளிமைத் திறன்
Spilling சிதறச்செய்தல்
5.1 TIMBER
Decorative அலங்கரிக்கப்பட்ட
Proportionate விகிதாச்சாரம்
Nourishment ஊட்டச்சத்து
Distortion விலகல்
Adhesive பிசின்
Trenches குழிகள், அகழிகள்
5.2 LIME
Plasticity இளகுதிறன்
Dissolving கரையும் தன்மையுடைய, கரைக்கும்
Eminently மேம்பட்ட
Predominantly முதன்மையானதாக
Substantial கணிசமான
5.3 TILES
Logged area பதிவு செய்யப்பட்ட பகுதி
Irrigation பாசனம்
Comparatively ஒப்பீட்டளவில்
Nonabsorbent உறிஞ்சாத
219

6.1 FOUNDATION
Grillage அஸ்திவாரத்தைத் தாங்க இரும்பு
(அல்லது) மரத்தாலான
சட்டத் த�ொகுப்பு
Gusset plate உத்திரங்களை இரும்புத்
தூண்கள�ோடு இணைக்கப் பயன்படும்
முக்கோணவடிவ இரும்புத் தகடுகள்
Raft கட்டுமானங்களைத் தாங்க
அமைக்கப்படும் தட்டையான அமைப்பு
Pile நிலத்தூண் அடித்தளம் (அல்லது)
அடிமானம்
Undulations அலையலையான, மேடுபள்ளமான
Excavation குழி, பள்ளம் த�ோண்டுதல்
Transpiration ஆவியாக வெளிவிடுதல்
Penetration ஊடுருவுதல்
Stagnate தேங்கிநில்
6.2 STONE MASONRY

Masonry கட்டுமான வேலை
Distinct தனிவேறுபட்ட, தெளிவாகத் தெரிகிற
Quoins மூலைக்கற்கள்
Corbel பளு தாங்குவதற்காகச் சுவரில்
வைத்திணைக்கப்பட்ட கல் அல்லது
தண்டையக்கட்டு
Spalls பாறை உடைசல், சிம்பு
Seepage கசிவு , ஒழுக்கு
String மேற்பரப்பில் உள்ள படுக்கைக்
க�ோட்டுவரி
Furrow வரிசையாக நீண்ட பள்ளங்களாக்கு
Rubble க�ொத்தாத கட்டுமானக் கல்
Ashlar செங்கல் ப�ோல சதுக்கமாக
செதுக்கப்பட்ட கட்டுமானக் கல்
Chamfered சரிவுடைய, சாய் செதுக்கு மூலை
Tensile stress இழுவிசைத் தகவு
220

6.3 BRICK MASONRY
Stretcher நீட்டம்
Header தலைப்பி
Closer செங்கல் பகுதி
Brick bat செங்கல் துண்டு
Suction உறிஞ்சும்
Tendency ப�ோக்கு
Scaffolding சாரக்கட்டு
Consumption நுகர்வு
Dampness ஈரத்தன்மை
7 LINTELS AND ARCHES, DOORS AND WINDOWS

Shear resistance வெட்டு எதிர்ப்பு
Joggled brick lintel செங்கலால் துருத்தம் செய்யப்படுதல்
Joist சிறு விட்டம்
Voussoirs ஆப்புவடிவக் கற்கள்
Apparently த�ோற்றநிலை வெளிப்படையாக
Glued வரபசை
Helical சுருள்வலய
8 STAIRS, ROOFS, FLOORS AND FLOORING

Facilitates வசதிசெய்
Vibrator அதிர்வுருவது
Furring Piece கட்டச் சட்டங்கள்
Possesses ஆட்கொள்வது
Wooden Shingles மர ஓடுகள்
Durability நீடித்த உழைப்பு
Appearance த�ோற்றம்
Corrugations நெளிவு
Bituminous Washer தார்பட்டை வளையம்
Sawn ரம்பத்தால் அறுத்தல்
Alkalis காரத்தன்மை
Rusting துருப்பிடித்தல்
Corrode அரித்தல்
Versatility பலதுறை லமை
Aesthetics அழகியல் சார்ந்த
Occupants குடியிருப்பவர், வசிப்பவர்
Composite கூட்டு, கலந்த, இணைந்த
221

Higher Secondary – Class XI – Basic Civil Engineering - Theory
List of Authors and Reviewers
Chair Person Authors

Mr.R.Balasubramanian, Lecturer (Sel.Gr), Mr.A.Sivanesan, Vocational Teacher,
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Govt. Hr. Sec. School,
P.T Lee Chengalvaraya Naicker Polytechnic College, Agasteeswaram, Kanyakumari District.
Vepery, Chennai.
Mr.C.Babu, Vocational Teacher,
Govt. Girls Hr. Sec. School,
Fort, Salem District.
Reviewer Mr.K.Senthilvelan, Vocational Teacher,

General Cariappa Hr. Sec. School,
Mrs.Balasubramanian Malathi, Lecturer, Saligramam, Chennai.
Dept.of Civil Engineering,
P.T Lee Chengalvaraya Naicker Polytechnic College, Mr.N.Rozario Victor, Instructor,
Vepery, Chennai. V.V. R Govt. Tech. Hr. Sec. School,
Lawspet, Puducherry.
Mrs.L.Ambikadevi, Vocational Teacher,

K.G.K.G.Girls Hr. Sec. School,
Vedaraniyam, Nagapattinam District.
Mrs.S.Deepa Patchiammai, Vocational Teacher,

NLC Girls Hr. Sec. School,
Block 11, Neyveli, Cuddalore District.
Mrs.S.Visalakshi, Vocational Teacher,

K.G.K.G.Girls Hr. Sec. School,
Vedaraniyam, Nagapattinam District.
Quality Control Academic Coordinators

S. Gopu – Eye Think Creations, A.Ilangovan, Lecturer,
Vadapalani, Chennai DIET, Thirur,
Thiruvallur District.
M. Karan – Infinite Animation Studio,
Nandhanam, Chennai. K.Ravichandran, PG Assistant,
Thanthai Periyar Govt. Hr. Sec. School, Puzhuthivakkam,
Kancheepuram District.
P.Malarvizhi, BT Assistant,
PUMS, Padiyanallur,
Book Design ( Typing, Pagination, Layout Thiruvallur District.
Designing and Illustration)
Student Xerox, Adayar, Chennai.
This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M.
Elegant Maplitho paper.
Printed by offset at:

Coordination
Ramesh Munisamy

Notes

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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU

HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING - THEORY

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime

Department of School Education

Civil_English_FM.indd 1 21-04-2018 13:20:02

First Edition - 2018

NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

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Civil_English_FM.indd 3 21-04-2018 13:20:02

Chapter Outline Illustrate the complete overview of chapter

Amazing facts, Rhetorical questions to lead students

Activity Directions are provided to students to conduct activities

Infographics Visual representation of the lesson to enrich learning

To motivate the students to further explore the content

Career corner List of professions related to the subject

References List of related books for further details of the topic

Web links List of digital resources

Glossary Explanation of Engineering terms

Civil_English_FM.indd 4 21-04-2018 13:20:02

Vertical Mobility - Higher Education

Horizontal Mobility (Employment/Self Employment)

Civil_English_FM.indd 5 21-04-2018 13:20:02

Civil_English_FM.indd 6 21-04-2018 13:20:02

Unit 1 Basic Engineering Drawing 1

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E-book Assessment DIGI-Links

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1.1 - DRAWING INSTRUMENTS

1.2 - LINES, LETTERING AND STRAIGHT LETTERS & NUMBERALS

10 INCLINED LETTERS & NUMBERALS

1 Basic Engineering Drawing

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1.1 DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR USES

1.1.1 Introduction craftsman are expected to communicate

Basic Engineering Drawing | Drawing Instruments 2

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1.1.3 Drawing Instruments Drawing board is one of the main

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The T-Square can move up and down

Basic Engineering Drawing | Drawing Instruments 4

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Transparent plastic edge

Set Squares with French Curve

T-Square with Set Squares and 1.1.3.4 Protractor

Protractor With Scale

30°–60° Set Square 45° Set Square

5 Drawing Instruments | Basic Engineering Drawing

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In short, the mini drafter is used for

Movable arms 1.1.3.6 Clinograph

Basic Engineering Drawing | Drawing Instruments 6

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degrees given with centre and fixed firmly

French Curve Models

7 Drawing Instruments | Basic Engineering Drawing

Unit 1 Basic Engineering Drawing 1

1.1 - DRAWING INSTRUMENTS

1.2 - LINES, LETTERING AND STRAIGHT LETTERS & NUMBERALS

Basic Engineering Drawing | Drawing Instruments 2

Basic Engineering Drawing | Drawing Instruments 4

Basic Engineering Drawing | Drawing Instruments 6

Basic Engineering Drawing | Drawing Instruments 10

Basic Engineering Drawing | Drawing Instruments 12

Basic Engineering Drawing | Drawing Instruments 14

Basic Engineering Drawing |Lines,LetteringAndDimensioning 16

Basic Engineering Drawing |Lines,LetteringAndDimensioning 18

Basic Engineering Drawing |Lines,LetteringAndDimensioning 20

9. Write briefly about any two types of lines

2.2 AUTOCAD BASICS