Refrigeracion en Edificios
Refrigeracion en Edificios
Refrigeracion en Edificios
Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: This study investigates the use of a direct ground cooling system (DGCS) using active chilled beams for
Received 16 January 2020 the cooling of office buildings in Sweden. The methodology of the study entails laboratory experiments
Received in revised form to develop and validate a simulation model of the cooling system. The sensitivity of the input parameters,
1 September 2020
such as borehole heat exchanger (BHE) length, internal heat gains and room temperature set point, are
Accepted 14 September 2020
Available online 17 September 2020
studied with respect to BHE outlet fluid temperature and room thermal comfort. The results provide a
practical insight into designing DGCSs with regard to borehole outlet fluid temperatures. The results also
show that the thermal comfort criteria in the room are met by applying the DGCS even under the most
Keywords:
Direct ground cooling system
critical design conditions of undisturbed ground temperature and internal heat gains. The sensitivity
High-temperature cooling study quantifies the influence of the room temperature setpoint and internal heat gain intensity on the
Borehole heat exchanger BHE length. The BHE outlet temperature level is more sensitive in shorter BHEs than in the longer ones,
Active chilled beam and BHE length and room temperature levels are highly correlated. Thus, the sizing of DGCS can benefit
Design optimisation from a control system to allow the room temperature to float within a certain range.
© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.09.066
0960-1481/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
T. Arghand, S. Javed, A. Trüschel et al. Renewable Energy 164 (2021) 122e132
This study started by conducting laboratory experiments on a heat gains consisted of a thermal dummy of 75 W (6 W/m2) and
mock-up of an office room to investigate the borehole outlet fluid lighting of 110 W (8.7 W/m2). The electrical foils on the wall and
temperature ranges for a ground-coupled ACB cooling system. floor simulated the external heat gains from solar radiation. The
Although the experiments were to be conducted in a single office heat gains intensity of the foils was either 0 or 500 W (0 or 40 W/
room, the results were still useful for analysing the typical thermal m2), depending on the experimental conditions.
zone of a building consisting of several offices with similar cooling The cooling load in the test room was handled by an ACB, an
loads. Therefore, the simulation model, which was first developed integrated water-based terminal unit. In a typical ACB application,
based on the experimental results from the laboratory room, was the cooling load in the room is mainly handled by the cooling coil
extended to simulate a thermal zone in an office building with and to some extent by the cold supply air. In this study, the water to
realistic cooling loads. the cooling coil was supplied by the borehole system described in
It should be reemphasised that this study was designed for a section 4.2. The supply air to the ACB was provided through recir-
thermally balanced DGCS operating under cold climate conditions culation of the room air. Therefore, the supply air temperature was
using design inputs from Sweden. The yearly average temperature approximately equal to room temperature and thus in this study air
of the ground with thermally balanced DGCSs remains approxi- cooling did not contribute to the thermal conditioning of the room.
mately constant if the heat rejection to and extraction from the The supply air was provided at a constant rate of 25 l/s.
ground are equal over the year, as explained in section 2. As a result, The room air temperature, the supply and return water tem-
the BHE fluid temperatures simulated for the first year are expected peratures of the ACB, and the inlet and outlet temperatures of the
to be similar for other cooling periods in other years. BHE were measured using calibrated temperature sensors. The
The range of values for the parameters investigated in this study, fluid temperatures were measured using screw-in type PT-100
including the room temperature setpoint, internal gains and oc- sensors. For the ACB, the fluid temperature sensors were located
cupants’ comfort levels, has been chosen based on the prescribed on the supply and return pipes at the closest proximity to the ter-
values in the national or international standards and handbooks minal unit. The room air temperature sensor was a probe-type PT-
[26e28]. 100. The sensor was located 1.10 m above the floor at the mea-
surement point shown in Fig. 2. The accuracy (bias) of all PT-100
4. Experimental system thermometers was (0.1 þ 0.0017 measured value) C. The water
flow was measured with vortex-type flow meters installed in the
This section describes the experimental set-up and methods ground and the building loop. The flow meter sensor had an ac-
used to perform the measurements in the test room. The results curacy of ±1.5% of the full scale (20 l/min) and a resolution of about
from the experimental tests are used in section 5 to develop a 0.2 l/min. The sensors were calibrated before the measurements.
model of the DGCS. The cooling capacity of the ACB was controlled using the on/off
flow control method. The control system for the ACB comprised of
the room air temperature sensor, a control box, a two-way control
4.1. System description
valve and a circulation pump (see Fig. 3).
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T. Arghand, S. Javed, A. Trüschel et al. Renewable Energy 164 (2021) 122e132
Fig. 3. A) Pipework and control components in the ground and room loops, and B) borehole cross-section.
Parameter (unit) Specification This section describes the development and validation of a
Borehole
model simulating the DGCS explained in section 4. The model
Active depth (m) 80 contained the test room and the borehole system. The model was
Diameter (mm) 110 validated against the experimental results under the experimental
Filling material Groundwater conditions described in section 4.3.
Thermal resistance (m.K/W) 0.059
Undisturbed ground temperature ( C) 8.3
Soil thermal conductivity (W/m.K) 2.88
5.1. Simulation model
U-tube
Pipe type () Polypropylene, PN8 DN40
Inner diameter (mm) 35.4 IDA ICE 4.8 simulation software was chosen to develop the
Outer diameter (mm) 40.0 model of the test room and the borehole described in section 4.2.
Thermal conductivity (W/m.K) 0.42 The software is validated against measurements under the frame-
Circulating fluid
work of various standards such as CIBSE TM33 [34], ANSI/ASHRAE
Type Ethanol (29.5%)
Thermal conductivity (W/m.K) 0.401 140 [35] and EN 13791 [36]. Besides, the model was validated with
Specific heat capacity (J/kg.K) 4180 the data obtained from the experiments.
The borehole model in IDA ICE is based on the finite-difference
approach and uses the superposition principle of heat transfer from
(TRT) carried out by Javed [30]. The values for the thermal prop- a cylindrical 2D field around a borehole [37]. The model solves
erties of the ground are typical for Sweden [3]. The borehole field transient energy balance in the fluid, the filling material, and the
has been extensively tested and reported in the literature [31,32]. surrounding ground using (1) one-dimensional heat transport
The ground loop was equipped with a circulation pump and a equation in U-pipe liquid downward and upward with heat transfer
control valve (see Fig. 3). However, the circulation rate of the heat to grout and ground, (2) one-dimensional heat equation in grout
fluid carrier in the ground loop was kept constant in this study at with heat transfer to liquid and ground and (3) two-dimensional
0.33 ± 0.07 kg/s. The ground loop and the building loop were heat equation in cylindrical coordinates around borehole with
connected through the heat exchanger 1 (see Fig. 3). heat transfer to grout and liquid. It also considers the geometrical
and physical properties of the ground and the surface layer, as well
as the physical and thermal properties of the borehole. The model is
4.3. Experimental conditions decribed in detail in Ref. [38]. The simulated borehole had similar
features as those shown in Table 1. However, the software considers
The thermal performance of the DGCS was examined under the following assumptions in heat transfer modelling of boreholes:
periodic heat gain conditions in the test room. The periodic heat
gains consisted of 2 h of low heat gains (16 W/m2) and 2 h of high The ground is a uniform geological structure.
heat gains (55 W/m2). The heat gain intensity was regulated by The thermal resistance of the borehole is considered constant
turning the electrical foils on and off. The heat gains from the lights for turbulent flow.
and the thermal dummy were always constant. The duration of Vertical and horizontal seepages of groundwater are not
each heat gain period was designed based on the time constant of considered.
the room, as previously studied by Arghand et al. [33]. Vertical temperature variation in the underground is neglected.
The experiments were performed at a room temperature set-
point of 23 C. The control method for the ACB was on/off with no The simulated room was modelled based on the experimental
dead band. The water was circulated at a constant rate of 4.2 l/min data from the test room, as described in section 4.1. The exterior
through the terminal unit if the room air temperature was above side of the internal walls was exposed to the spaces with an air
the set point. When the room air temperature fell below the set temperature of 20.5 C, equal to the exterior air temperature of the
point, the control valve was shut until the room temperature rose test room in the experimental set-up. A drop ceiling at 2.40 m
above the set point. A comparison between the actual room tem- divided the room into two spaces: the main space and the drop-
perature and the setpoint temperature was performed by an on/off ceiling space. The main space represented the area where all the
controller located in the control box. internal heat sources and measurement equipment were located.
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T. Arghand, S. Javed, A. Trüschel et al. Renewable Energy 164 (2021) 122e132
Table 2
Simulation input data for validating the DGCS for the test-room model.
Heat gain intensity Exp- room temp
Sim- room temp
Parameter (unit)
Fig. 6. Plan view of the extended test-room model representing a single-perimeter zone of an office building.
Table 3
Description of the input parameters to the extended simulation model.
Parameter (unit)
External wall
Dimensions (m) 21.1 2.4 (W H)
U-value (W/m2.K) 0.33
Thickness (m) 0.27
Internal wall
Dimensions (m) 21.1 2.4, 4.2 2.4 (W H)
U-value (W/m2.K) 0.54
Thickness (m) 0.11
Window
Number of windows 7
Dimensions (m) 1.2 2.2 (H W)
U-value (W/m2.K) 1.19
G-value (%) 43
Floor area (m2) 88.7
Borehole
Length (m) 60 - 200 (Variable based on the case study)
Undisturbed ground temperature ( C) 3 or 11 (Variable based on the case study)
BHE fluid mass flow rate (kg/s) 0.8
Other specifications See Table 1
Active chilled beam
Number of the ACB 7
Supply water temperature ( C) 15 - 22 (Variable based on the case study)
Other specifications See Table 2
6.1. Influence of BHE length on borehole outlet temperature more practical, especially for DGCSs, to associate the thermal
environment in the room with BHE size.
The common approach to sizing BHEs is to adjust the borehole However, the aim of this section is not to evaluate the sizing
field size iteratively to meet the user-prescribed limits for the BHE methods for the BHEs, but rather to investigate the correlation
outlet temperature. The BHE outlet temperature is usually defined between BHE size, the borehole outlet fluid temperature and the
to meet the peak building cooling/heating loads. Thus, BHE size is ground loads. This is done by investigating the BHE outlet tem-
usually described in relation to the building peak loads. However, perature and ground loads, as well as the operative temperature
the primary aim of having any heating and cooling systems in a range in the room in relation to various combinations of BHE length
building is to satisfy the occupants’ thermal comfort. Thus, it is and climate (undisturbed ground temperature). The simulations
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T. Arghand, S. Javed, A. Trüschel et al. Renewable Energy 164 (2021) 122e132
Fig. 7. BHE outlet temperatures for different lengths at undisturbed ground temperatures of A) 3 C and B) 11 C. The room set point was 24 C and the internal gain was set at
31.2 W/m2.
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T. Arghand, S. Javed, A. Trüschel et al. Renewable Energy 164 (2021) 122e132
Fig. 9. BHE outlet temperature levels as a function of room temperature set point. The simulations were performed for the whole cooling period for the undisturbed ground
temperature of A) 3 C and B) 11 C. The internal gain was 31.2 W/m2 for all cases.
Fig. 10. BHE outlet temperature variations with internal gains simulated for BHEs of 6.4. Influence of BHE length on the indoor thermal environment
60 m, 120 m, and 180 m. The undisturbed ground temperature was 3 C and the room
temperature setpoint was 24 C.
The results presented so far are helpful in sizing the BHEs but it
would be better still to be able to determine the room comfort
water flow rate and the pump energy use in the building cooling criteria for different borehole design conditions. For this reason, the
system. This is because when the overall temperature levels of the room’s operative temperature (Top) was used to evaluate the room’s
cooling fluid medium increase, a higher flow rate is required to thermal environment, as suggested in other studies [25,26]. Sim-
remove a given cooling load from the building. A change in the ulations in this section were performed for the whole summer
overall outlet temperature level with room temperature seems to period. The room temperature setpoint was 24 C. The simulated
be stronger for lower undisturbed ground temperatures, due to the internal loads ranged from 14.7 W/m2, for an office with no office
larger difference between the fluid and the ground temperatures. electrical equipment, to 31.2 W/m2, for an office equipped with a
workstation connected to three screens for each person and one
printer for eight people [28].
6.3. Influence of internal heat gain intensity on borehole outlet Fig. 11 presents the distribution of Top during the working hours,
temperature from 6:00 to 18:00, in the cooling period. Each boxplot shows the
maximum and minimum Top in the room by the upper and the
The box plots in Fig. 10 show the BHE outlet temperature levels, lower whiskers, respectively. The quartile range, that is, the area
including the maximum, minimum and median temperatures for shown by the box, presents the lower quartile, median and upper
common internal gains in office buildings based on ASHRAE Fun- quartile values. The median illustrates the middle value of all room
damentals 2017 Chapter 18 [28]. The simulated internal loads range temperatures during the simulation period. The points above the
from 14.7 W/m2, for an office with no office electrical equipment, to upper whisker, if any, are outliers. Temperatures lower than 24 C
31.2 W/m2, for an office equipped with a workstation connected to are temperature undershoots caused by the time lag of the system.
three screens for each person and one printer for eight people. As Fig. 11 has three major features of interest: the Top spread during
expected, increasing the internal gain intensity causes the the cooling period, the peak temperatures and the room thermal
maximum outlet temperature to increase. It seems that the outlet comfort categories. A comparison of the temperature spread
temperature in the shorter BHE is more sensitive to changes in heat enclosed between the upper and the lower whiskers show that
gains than that in the longer one. This deals with the higher increasing the BHE length causes a reduction in the Top range. The
available cooling capacity in the longer BHEs. reduction is relatively small, especially for the undisturbed ground
A comparison of Figs. 9 and 10 reveals that the magnitude of the temperature of 3 C. This is because the temperature spread shown
changes made by changing the room set points is considerably by each boxplot is mostly formed and influenced by the tempera-
greater than that achieved by varying the heat gains. One likely tures occurring during the part-load periods. Since the ground
reason is that amount of the heat load changed by varying the loads with a 60 m BHE is most likely enough to cool the room
setpoint is higher than that of the amount of heat load changed by during the majority of the part-load periods, increasing the length
altering the heat gains. Another explanation is the intermittent does not lower the Top range to any great extent.
operation of the cooling system. On weekdays, the building cooling However, increasing the BHE length is more pronounced in
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T. Arghand, S. Javed, A. Trüschel et al. Renewable Energy 164 (2021) 122e132
Fig. 11. Room operative temperature (Top) levels simulated under different internal gains for BHE lengths of 60 m and 120 m at an undisturbed ground temperature of A) 3 C and B)
11 C. The blue lines represent the maximum allowed Top in the room. The maximum Top for categories A, B and C are 25.5 C, 26 C and 27 C, respectively, based on ISO 7730 [26].
The room temperature set point is 24 C. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
reducing the maximum Top. Maximum temperatures occurred 6.5. General discussion and practical implications
during the peak hour loads and are shown by the upper whisker
and the outliers. As can be seen in Fig. 11 the maximum tempera- BHEs are usually sized to reach the user-defined BHE outlet fluid
tures were reduced by increasing the length, since the longer BHE temperature. This temperature is defined based on the cooling
provides a higher cooling capacity. In fact, the influence of changing demand of the building under peak cooling conditions. Sizing the
the length can best be observed in the number of overheating hours BHEs in DGCSs based on the peak loads guarantees that the bore-
in the room. The optimum size for the BHE can be calculated by hole system provides the necessary cooling power for the peak
compromising between the number and/or duration of the over- conditions. A detailed description of these methods can be found in
heating hours and the length of the ground heat exchanger. other studies [41,42]. This article does not deal with sizing the BHEs
Fig. 11 also shows the correlation between BHE length and the but the results in section 6 can be useful for optimising their size.
room thermal comfort categories. The blue lines in Fig. 11 define the The results suggest designing the building temperature control
maximum allowed Top in the room according to the indoor thermal system so that the room temperature increases to a certain extent
environment categories suggested in ISO 7730 [26]. As can be seen during the peak period in order to reduce the peak cooling load.
in the figure, categories B and C can be met with 120 m BHEs for the This peak shaving method certainly reduces the BHE length
entire range of undisturbed ground temperatures between 3 C and without violating the thermal comfort limits of the occupants. One
11 C. With the 60 m BHE, fulfilling category B and C is feasible with example of such a design is the application of a supply temperature
BHEs at a 3 C undisturbed temperature. This result points to the control method, also known as a self-regulating control method, for
idea that a ground-coupled ACB can provide a comfortable envi- high-temperature cooling terminal units. In this method, the water
ronment for the occupants even in those spaces with high cooling to the terminal units is supplied at a constant flow rate and tem-
demand. perature. The room temperature varies within a certain range
Although Fig. 11 shows the distribution of Top during the cooling corresponding to the changes in the internal room gains. Other
season, details regarding the number of overheating hours for works have described the application of this method for ACB
different design configurations are not provided. Overheating [43,44] and ceiling cooling panels [18]. Future work should
hours occur during the peaks and their duration is proportional to concentrate on the challenges of sizing BHEs for different cooling
the maximum cooling capacity provided by the borehole. capacity control methods for building terminal units.
Table 4 summarises the number of overheating hours of Top for The development of ground-coupled ACBs is attracting more
each thermal environment category according to ISO 7730 [26]. For attention in Scandinavian countries because ACBs are the most
95 working days during the simulated period, there were 1140 common high-temperature terminal units. A high cooling capacity,
cooling hours. As can be seen in the table, both the internal gains easy cooling capacity control and fast response for stabilising the
and the BHE length affect the number of overheating hours. These room temperature are some of the advantages of ACBs. The
factors appear to be more significant in the shorter BHE. In the Ympa €risto
€ talo office building in Helsinki, Finland [20], and the
longer BHE, concerns about overheating are alleviated. In general, Entre Lindhagen office building in Stockholm, Sweden [21] are
Table 4 shows that achieving category C with the ground-coupled examples of buildings applying ground-coupled ACB system for
ACB system is viable even with short BHEs and high internal cooling. More studies on the long-term cooling performance of this
gains up to 31.2 W/m2. system and how to implement it not only for cooling but also for
As can be seen from Table 4 and Fig. 11, sizing the BHE to meet heating purposes, especially from the ground thermal storage
the cooling peaks may result in a large BHE system. Therefore, perspective, will encourage the widespread use of this system.
considering some overheating hours in the design significantly
contributes to reducing the cooling demand and lowering the BHE
6.6. Limitations
size. The extent to which the impact of overheating hours needs to
be considered depends on the designed comfort levels in the room.
As mentioned in section 5.1, the heat transfer modelling of
For instance, the Swiss technical standard SIA Norm 382/1 allows a
boreholes in IDA ICE has certain limitations. However, these limi-
maximum room temperature of 26.5 C for no longer than 100 h
tations can be addressed by using in-situ measured values of
[16].
ground thermal properties as done in this study. The in-situ
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T. Arghand, S. Javed, A. Trüschel et al. Renewable Energy 164 (2021) 122e132
Table 4
Number of overheating hours based on the thermal environment categories in ISO 7730 [26] for BHEs of 60 m and 120 m and various internal gains. The simulations were
performed for 1140 working hours during the cooling period. The room temperature setpoint was 24 C and the internal gains were 31.2 W/m2 for all conditions. The maximum
Top for categories A, B and C were 25.5 C, 26 C and 27 C, respectively.
Undisturbed ground temperature ( C) Internal heat gains (W/m2) Thermal comfort Thermal comfort Thermal comfort
category A category B category C
3 14.7 1 0 0 0 0 0
22.6 18 0 2 0 0 0
31.2 72 10 28 0 0 0
11 14.7 62 22 25 3 0 0
22.6 196 70 88 27 8 0
31.2 400 209 262 93 46 7
measured undisturbed ground temperature accounts for the tem- screens and one printer for eight office workers) had a modest
perature gradient in the ground. Moreover, using average ground effect on reducing the maximum BHE temperature by 2.5 K and
temperature instead of actual ground temperature with geothermal 2.0 K for 60 m and 120 m BHEs, respectively.
gradient gives trivial errors in the heat extraction performance of Given the results from the parametric study, we suggest
BHEs [45]. Similarly, the in-situ measured values of ground thermal designing the control system to allow the room temperature to
conductivity and borehole thermal resistance account both for the float within a certain range. Increasing the room temperature
non-uniform geological structure of the underground and the during the peak cooling period reduces the peak intensity and
groundwater movement. The authors, however, recommend taking requires shorter BHEs.
geothermal gradient and groundwater movement into account for
systems with a high geothermal gradient or a significant ground- A likely future study will investigate the sizing of BHEs with
water movement and/or a small temperature difference between regard to different methods for controlling the cooling capacity of
the undisturbed ground and the room indoor temperature. Under direct ground-coupled ACB systems.
these circumstances, the calculated borehole outlet temperatures
may deviate from the actual values. CRediT authorship contribution statement
131
T. Arghand, S. Javed, A. Trüschel et al. Renewable Energy 164 (2021) 122e132
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