Morgan B. 2004 - Teacher Identity As Ped
Morgan B. 2004 - Teacher Identity As Ped
Morgan B. 2004 - Teacher Identity As Ped
Field-Internal Conceptualisation in
Bilingual and Second Language
Education
Brian Morgan
York University, Toronto, Canada
This article explores the transformative potential of a teacher’s identity in the context
of bilingual and second language education (SLE) programmes. The rst section
examines several theoretical options by which this potential might be conceptual-
ised. Drawing on post-structural notions of discourse, subjectivity and performa-
tivity, the author emphasises the contingent and relational processes through which
teachers and students come to understand themselves and negotiate their varying
roles in language classrooms. Simon’s (1995) notion of an ‘image-text’ further
develops this dynamic, co-constructed understanding and shifts it more specically
towards pedagogical applications: the strategic performance of a teacher’s identity
in ways that counteract stereotypes held by a particular group of students.
These post-structural ideas on teachers’ identities are then evaluated in reference
to the knowledge base of bilingual and SLE. The author then proposes a ‘eld-
internal’ conceptualisation by which such theories might be rooted in the types of
practices characteristic of language education programmes. The next section of the
article describes the author’s personal efforts to realise these concepts in practice.
‘Gong Li – Brian’s Imaginary Lover’ is a story of how the author’s identity became
a classroom resource, a text to be performed in ways that challenged group assump-
tions around culture, gender, and family roles in a community, adult ESL pro-
gramme serving mostly Chinese seniors in Toronto.
Introduction
As noted by Varghese (2001), teacher identity in bilingual and second langu-
age education has only recently emerged as a subtopic within the eld of
language teacher education. Several key issues, to date, have dened a grow-
ing research agenda in this area. One of importance, given the complex status
of World English (e.g. Brutt-Grifer, 2002), has been the colonial legacy of a
‘native speaker fallacy’ (see Canagarajah, 1999; McKay, 2002; Phillipson, 1992),
a vague cluster of linguistic and pragmatic norms by which the bilingual and
intercultural skills of Non-Native Speaker (NNS) teachers have been mar-
ginalised (see e.g. Braine, 1999; Brutt-Grifer & Samimy, 1999; Kramsch, 1998;
Lin et al., 2002; Liu, 1999).
A second line of inquiry looks closely at the concept of identity itself, not
as a xed and coherent set of traits, but as something complex, often contradic-
tory, and subject to change across time and place. Inspired, in large part, by
Norton’s (2000) feminist poststructural investigation of subjectivity,1 a number
of researchers have examined how a teacher’s experiences of identity – gender,
172
Teacher Identity as Pedagogy 173
race, class, culture, or sexual orientation, as examples – both shape and are
shaped by the processes of instruction and interaction that evolve within spe-
cic sites of bilingual and second/foreign language education (see e.g. Amin,
1999; Duff & Uchida, 1997; James, 2002; Johnston, 1999; Varghese, 2001, in
press). Both a professional and a personal identity, in this perspective, co-
develop as instantiations of discourses, systems of power/knowledge (cf. Fou-
cault, 1980, 1982; Pennycook, 1994) that regulate and ascribe social values to
all forms of human activity – oral and written texts, gestures, images, and
spaces – within particular institutions, academic disciplines, and larger
social formations.
An expanded understanding of discourse is important here in that it sets
certain parameters regarding the declarative and procedural knowledge to be
conveyed in language teacher education programmes. In poststructural
theory, discourses constitute rather than determine a teacher’s identity, the latter
concept inferring a (neo)Marxist notion of ‘false consciousness’, in which
teachers are relatively passive vis-à-vis the reproduction of dominant class
interests through schooling. ‘Constitution’, on the other hand, is intentionally
distanced from a humanist, modernist perspective – a fully autonomous, self-
aware subject, who is able to freely choose which aspects of his or her identity
are of pedagogical value or to know in advance how his or her identity
matches up with a particular group of students (see e.g. Belsley, 1980; Butler,
1992; Norton, 2000; Pennycook, 2001; Weedon, 1987).
Poststructural theory seeks to articulate a metaphorical space ‘in between’.
Acts of conformity are never identical to the subject positions offered in dis-
course. Cross-cutting experiences (i.e. other discourses and other subject
positions) create dissonance between role expectations and actual ‘perform-
ance’ (cf. Butler, 1990; Nelson, 1999).2 Simply put, in class I may act like a
teacher – or like a white, male teacher – seeking approval from a particular
group of students and fullling my professional ‘responsibilities’. But by
repeatedly doing, rather than just being, I become more aware of the degree
to which it is an act or ‘im-personation’ (Gallop, 1995), a text of myself that I
have, in part, unknowingly scripted. With each performance and the responses
it engenders from students, I become aware of other ways to re-script myself;
that is, I gain insights into ways of subverting or transforming the ‘rules’ (e.g.
educational practices) to which I have been ‘subjected’. In this perspective,
conformity to discourse is a precondition for agency or resistance.
Simon’s (1995) notion of an ‘image-text’ serves as an example. In graduate
programmes, Simon (1995) has observed the tendency of students to ‘produce
a series of overdetermined and affect-laden image-texts’ (1995: 98) of faculty,
which ‘become important resources for identication and the focus of student
desires within the intimate pedagogy of doctoral education’ (1995: 99). Within
this setting, Simon performs (cf. Butler, 1990) his own identity – ‘to teach as a
Jew’ – in ways that resist the institutional discourses that position Jewish
scholars in the academy. Simon’s agency, however, has broader intentions. By
challenging the stereotypes students may have of Jewish academics, Simon
seeks to undermine the tendency of both students and colleagues to essen-
tialise ‘others’ in demeaning and sometimes oppressive categories (see e.g.
Kubota, 1999).
174 Bilingual Education and Bilingualism
A key point to draw from Simon is that a teacher’s identity, his or her
image-text, is a pedagogical resource for bilingual and second language edu-
cation. An image-text, however, is unlike other teaching resources in that its
outward appearance and application cannot be formalised in a pre-determined
way. Moreover, an image-text is co-created, its authorship belonging to both
teacher and students. Thus, an image-text must be discovered contingently
and relationally if it is to be utilised. Although I have focused primarily on
describing teacher identity in this section, student identity formation is an
inseparable dimension of this process. In a later section, ‘teacher identity as
pedagogy’, I will offer a more concrete, narrative-based perspective on how
this performative model was realised within a particular setting, a community-
based ESL programme located in downtown Toronto’s Chinatown.
As we theorise teacher identity, however, it would be misleading to attri-
bute innovation entirely to concepts loosely dened as postmodern or post-
structural. Lave and Wenger’s (1991) work on situated learning and cognition,3
and Vygotskian-based sociocultural theories (Lantolf, 2000), for example, offer
complementary perspectives on the participatory aspects of learning and the
continuous (re)organisation of self and collective understanding that takes
place within bilingual and ESL/EFL classrooms.
In sum, teachers’ identities, following these conceptual frames, are always
implicated in the types of social futures imagined and produced through
schooling. But the abstract perspectives of these frames, or their ne-tuned
differences, potentially leave both teachers and teacher educators in a kind of
theoretical vertigo. A research agenda on teacher identity in bilingual and
second language education would need to explore the degree to which
theories from other disciplines can be ‘imported’, as Freeman (2000) cautions,
and the types of local ‘translations’ they require if they are to inform
pedagogical concerns – in other words, a eld-internal4 conceptualisation. A
eld-internal perspective recognises the need to expand the knowledge base
and interdisciplinary scope of our profession – but in an intra-disciplinary
way, grounded in familiar contexts of language research and practice.
Still, as we work through and compare concepts or experiences from the
eld, it is important to remember that poststructural theory is particularly
vigorous and insightful in this respect. Any theory, whether about identity or
pedagogy or their conation, cannot be viewed in isolation, not as a timeless
‘thing-in-itself’. Poststructuralism urges us to look, simultaneously, at the
human activity that takes place around a theory, and at the conicts that have
preceded it and are now concealed – ‘subjugated knowledges’, according to
Foucault (1980), ‘those blocks of historical knowledge which were present but
disguised within the body of functionalist and systematising theory’ (1980:
82). Butler (1992) extends similar criteria to theorists, through whom
power/knowledge operates at an often-imperceptible level:
sonal spaces negotiated between teachers and students have the potential of
either challenging or reproducing dominant power structures in society.
Micro-interactions between educators, students and communities are
never neutral; in varying degrees, they either reinforce coercive relations
of power or collaborative relations of power. In the former case, they
contribute to the disempowerment of culturally diverse students and
communities; in the latter the micro-interactions constitute a process of
empowerment that enables educators, students and communities to chal-
lenge the operation of coercive power structures. (Cummins, 2000: 44–45)
Cummins’ perspective here resonates with the work of Foucault (1980, 1982)
and Bourdieu (1991), and even more explicitly with the social justice concerns
of Corson (2001). There are no neutral spaces in schooling, no ways to insulate
oneself from the social consequences of one’s activities. Standardised tests,
psychometric models, reading methodologies, constructs of language pro-
ciency, ‘scientic’ research on bilingualism – all are interconnected, in some
key way, with power relations. To apply these technologies or instruments
uncritically or without regard to the prior learning experiences of a particular
group of students is to hasten the likelihood of academic underachievement
and social marginalisation for minority students.
Cummins’ work is also important in that it offers a eld-internal set of peda-
gogical priorities for teacher identity in bilingual and second language edu-
cation. Moreover, it bridges the fragmentation of language that underpins
much applied linguistics research. By fragmentation, I mean a way of thinking
about language as if it were an end in itself – realised by the reproduction of
discrete forms/texts, or by the performance of closely-specied tasks – rather
than a means towards enriched social capacities and human creativities. None-
theless, in spite of the strengths of Cummins’ framework, such perspectives
on teacher identity are mostly positioned as outside the core content offered
in language teacher education programmes (see e.g. Grabe et al., 2000). I will
briey outline two discourses responsible for this positioning.
First, the scope of teacher identity that I have outlined above lacks ‘cur-
rency’, both in a metaphoric and literal sense, at a time when governments
increasingly view ‘human beings [as] inhabit[ing] a market place where the
quality of something is decided according to the price it can fetch, rather than
any intrinsic qualities it might have’ (Corson, 2002: 6). Such a world-view, as
Corson (2002) trenchantly observes, gives rise to the ‘evaluative state’ in which
high-stakes, standardised testing comes to both dene and delimit knowledge
in schools.
Identity negotiation, against this backdrop, is not easily isolated or meas-
ured and is thus an unlikely foundation for ‘teaching and learning for market-
place utility’ (Corson, 2002). To date, there are no ‘identity benchmarks’ or
task descriptors in bilingual or second language education that adequately
capture its holistic features. Similarly, it is a notion that eludes standardisation.
Teacher–student interactions can have direct and immediate effects on ident-
ity, but indirect and long-term inuences need to be considered as well. Seat-
ing arrangements, classroom materials, peer relations, extra-curricular activi-
ties, in addition to home and community language practices, family relations
Teacher Identity as Pedagogy 177
Data collection
The primary source of data collection for the next section was through
participant observation eld notes made over approximately 5 months, from
February to June in 1998. Following Robson (1993) and Lynch (1996), practical
considerations required that I quickly jot down abbreviated notes and
180 Bilingual Education and Bilingualism
Gong Li’. Her intent was to do something with language, bring about or pre-
vent a change in social relations – through the invocation of an exclusionary
norm – rather than establish the truth validity of a proposition.
Later that same day, we went out together for dim sum lunch. Near the
end as the bill arrived, a student named Yawen reached into her husband’s
jacket pocket, got out his wallet and counted out their share of the bill.
Immediately, Yang grabbed my arm, pointed and said out loud, ‘Look, Li
Ping [the wife] controls the family nances’. Embarrassed and anxious to
refute Yang, the husband quickly responded, ‘bu, bu [no, no]’. I saw how
embarrassed he was, and I tried to intervene on his behalf in a ‘face-saving’
effort. I started talking to the group about how my wife makes most of the
nancial decisions in our marriage. Then I started to talk about credit cards,
as the couple’s wallet was open revealing their gold card. I told them I had
the same card and that my wife, Allison, had got mine for me – a point I
emphasised: I couldn’t have got one on my own.6
These two incidents, especially with the credit card, instigated a lot of
thought. Similar to Simon, I started to reect on the possible ‘image-text’ that
my class constructed of me, the relational privileges inscribed within that text
based on my being a white, male, native-speaking teacher, and the symbolic
capital (cf. Bourdieu, 1991) gained through my experiences of teaching in
China. I thought that I should utilise these privileges – deploy them or
resignify them, in the poststructural sense of shifting/rupturing the social
referents/meaning students ascribed to my ‘image-text’. I wanted to attempt
this in a way that was not threatening, but rather thought-provoking, opening
up possibilities for other identity options (cf. Cummins, 2000, 2001) around
our collective assumptions about gender.
To my surprise, this became a dialogical activity in the performative sense
that I have described above. How I viewed myself and presented myself in
class changed frequently in response to students’ comments and queries. One
example revolved around the topic of cooking. I enjoy cooking, and do most
of it in our home. This aspect of my life was a shock for many students the
rst time they found out and something of which I should be ashamed, in
the eyes of some. Instead of underplaying it, I started to ask openly for advice
on preparing Chinese dishes and soon began bringing students along on shop-
ping trips to local Chinese markets. Other aspects of my domestic life were
similarly deployed. I started to talk more about difculties in childrearing (I
have a 7-year-old daughter), house cleaning tips, shopping, and my wife’s
preeminent role in family nancial matters.
In the months soon after the Gong Li ‘affair’, a couple of incidents in class
indicated that a re-scripted ‘image-text’ was being circulated in class. One day
in March 1998, Ling mentioned to the class that she would be very busy all
weekend cleaning the house and preparing food for her out of town guests.
Eileen admonished her and said, ‘That’s out of date. Ask your son and
husband to help you’. Su Ying then commented, ‘Brian does house work’.
Another incident occurred on International Women’s Day. We were looking
at related words such as gender, sexism, male chauvinism, patriarchy, matri-
archy. One student from Hong Kong used ‘Big Mannism’ as a literal Can-
tonese synonym for male chauvinism. Eileen then started to tease another
182 Bilingual Education and Bilingualism
student named Wong: ‘You’re a “big man”. I see your wife carrying all the
groceries’. Immediately, Joyce looked at me and asked, ‘Who’s the boss in
your marriage?’ (everyone in class started howling with laughter). I replied,
‘In money matters, my wife makes most of the decisions. I do most of the
cooking and grocery shopping, and I don’t mind. Most of my male friends
cook. If they didn’t, they’d have to eat at restaurants all the time’. Then, Eileen
said, ‘Guai Lo [foreign, non-Chinese] men are good’. Ling added ‘Brian is a
good husband’.
These types of teacher–student interactions would happen once or twice a
week, or lead to discussions that lasted a half an hour, or only a minute. As
mentioned earlier, identity negotiation does not conform easily to standard-
ised measurement, so I cannot provide empirical evidence of changes in atti-
tude as a direct effect of my activities. However, classroom interactions and
interpersonal relations do articulate with students’ memories, beliefs, and per-
ceptions of the dominant society. Together, these aligning factors potentially
bring about gradual and cumulative shifts in the identity options students
imagine for themselves and their communities. The student composition in
Appendix 1, serves as an example. Although it was not an assignment, its
controversial content – a challenge to traditional, cultural proscriptions against
remarriage for widows – indicates its close intertextuality with the events I
have described.
also representative of the fact that in spite of the apparent homogeneity of the
class, students both supported and resisted the identity options being
offered them.
Conclusions
Let me return to an idea, speculative to some degree, about the relative
uniqueness of our work and our students, and the value of contributing ‘eld-
internal’ insights towards theory-formation that is interdisciplinary in scope.
I tend to overstate this point, but I do so as a reection of the collective self-
doubt that lingers from our professional origins – linguistics applied (see e.g.
Pennycook, 2001: 2–3; Widdowson, 1980). Borrowing, rather than creating, sits
easier when named in this derivative fashion.
Teachers’ identities and their place in bilingual and second language edu-
cation are a case in point. An intuitive argument could be made that dis-
courses, subjectivity, power relations, or identity negotiation are domain-
specic, ‘higher order’ phenomena – hence, disarticulated from the kinds of
form-focused, instrumental tasks that can preoccupy an L2 classroom. For
example, in an insightful chapter on identity and second language learning,
Pavlenko and Lantolf (2000) state:
If we transcend the domain of phonology and morphosyntax and move
into the domain where meanings and selves are constituted by language-
…agency and intentionality take centre stage. The individual may feel
comfortable being who he or she is and may not wish to ‘become’ a
native of another language and culture. Thus, negotiation of new mean-
ings and construction of new subjectivities may be irrelevant to her/his
personal agenda. (2000: 170)
I want to suggest that the points being made here about ‘domains’ and ‘sub-
jectivities’ are, in part, ‘eld-external’ when placed against the narrative I have
constructed. Based on my experiences at CCSAT, I would counter that there
are no linguistic ‘domains’ in which ‘agency’, ‘intentionality’, or ‘choice’ are
unconstituted by discourses. Elsewhere (Morgan, 1997) I have tried to demon-
strate that even at the suprasegmental, phonological level, identity negotiation
takes place and is interwoven through every facet of L2 instruction. The ‘Gong
Li’ story similarly demonstrates a continuously intertextual, ‘multidomain’ of
practices – some, in retrospect, laboriously morphosyntactic – through which
teacher–student identities are negotiated.
For me, the Gong Li story emphasises that intentionality, like the subject
who assumes its sole possession, is always ‘in process’. The symbols and
meanings that anchor one’s nativeness are always open to resignication, pro-
ducing new liminalities that can be profoundly discomforting, as in the poten-
tial validation of Gong Li’s ‘immorality’ or the image-text of a ‘domesticated’
male teacher. The subject doesn’t choose to ‘stay’ or ‘go’ so much as he or she
is compelled to continuously ‘perform’ what is required of difference, both
within and between categories of identity.
This performative model has great explanatory power in helping me under-
stand my experiences at CCSAT. As I learned new things about my students,
I was compelled to learn new things about myself through their responses.
184 Bilingual Education and Bilingualism
Correspondence
Any correspondence should be directed to Brian Morgan, Department of
Languages, Literature and Linguistics, York University, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada ([email protected]).
Notes
1. In this article, the terms subject and subjectivity are used interchangeably with identity
and conceptualised primarily by way of poststructural ideas. This conation does
not negate other ways of theorising human experience but reects, instead, my pref-
erence for the sharp insights on language, power, and identity that I see poststruc-
turalism offering classroom-based research.
2. Identity as ‘performance’ originates with Austin’s (1975) distinction between con-
stative and performative utterances. The former are statements that refer to prior or
existing ‘realities’ and can therefore be evaluated in terms of their truth or falsity.
In contrast, the latter are statements that create or bring into being that which is
named by language (e.g. ‘Let the games begin’). In a famous passage, Butler (1990)
adopts the performative to describe gender as ‘the repeated stylisation of the body,
a set of repeated acts within a highly rigid regulatory frame that congeal over time
to produce the appearance of substance, of a natural sort of being’ (p. 33). A per-
formative model illuminates the creative and contingent means by which individ-
uals employ language to differentiate themselves, and ‘shifts the focus away from a
simple cataloging of differences’ (Cameron, 1997: 49; Ehrlich, 1997) based on static,
homogeneous group boundaries.
3. Varghese (in this issue), for example, uses a ‘community of practice’ frame (Lave &
Wenger, 1991) in her ethnographic study of a professional development programme
for bilingual teachers. Structured around forms of academic ‘expert’ knowledge,
the programme, through both its conventional content and delivery, brought about
participants’ awareness of its underlying limitations and biases. The dominant dis-
course of the programme – the assumption of a unied knowledge base in bilingual
education – subsequently became ‘a locale for the articulation and contestation of
bilingual teachers’ roles’.
4. I am indebted to Atkinson (in press) for introducing me to this term, which he
develops in his forthcoming book, TESOL and Culture: Modernism, Postmodernism,
and Beyond.
5. I refer here again to Simon’s (1995) description of the ‘intimate pedagogy of doctoral
education’ (1995: 99). The ‘intimacy’ he discusses is an inseparable aspect of both
Teacher Identity as Pedagogy 185
theory-formation and pedagogy in such settings, and unparalleled in adult ESL pro-
grammes. Almost all doctoral students desire to be professors and live academic
lives; hence their identities are strongly invested in the social prestige of the univer-
sity and in acquiring the textual strategies of their professors. Such intimacies, I
believe, are not unrelated to the kinds of practices/techniques associated with post-
structural thought (i.e. critical introspection, textual deconstruction). What can often
take place in such doctoral settings is an excessively self-conscious form of dia-
logue – aware, troubled and skeptical of the ‘deep’ consent that underpins it.
6. Some might wonder why I refer to Allison as my ‘wife’ rather than ‘partner’ – which
I sometimes do in other settings. In this class of mostly Chinese seniors, the lexical
term ‘partner’ is not easily substituted for the traditional status accorded the word
‘wife’ and could, in the eyes of some, imply a lower social ranking, thus making
the purported equality of such a relationship seem irrelevant to married life. While
lexical change can be an important strategy for gender-based language reform (e.g.
Ehrlich & King, 1998), within particular speech communities, re-articulations that
attach new meanings/referents to ‘old’ signiers can be more effective.
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