Feature

AC Drives and Soft Starter

Application Guide
by Walter J Lukitsch PE, Gary Woltersdorf
Jeff Theisen, and John Streicher
Allen-Bradley Company

Abstract: There are usually several choices for starting mo- The first section uses a diode or SCR full-wave bridge
tors. Two of these, ac variable frequency drives (VFD’s) and to convert the ac line voltage to dc. Filtering of this dc is
done in the second section with a capacitor to supply the
soft starters, seem to have similar characteristics. Terms and inverter bridge with a stable dc power source. A dc link
descriptions used in product literature are nearly the same. choke is normally present on 10 horsepower and larger
drives. The final section uses a transistor or IGBT bridge to
Even the list of possible applications is similar. However,
deliver a pulse width modulated (PWM) dc voltage to the
the technology and performance are significantly different. motor. The effective rms voltage delivered to the motor is
When these differences are understood, it becomes clear dependent on the fundamental output frequency that the
inverter bridge is commanding. This is what leads to the
when and where to properly apply each of them. term “volts per hertz drive.”
The control or logic section of the inverter and user
Introduction programmed settings determine the frequency output of
the inverter. During acceleration, the frequency will vary
The objective of this paper is to provide the basic technical according to a predetermined algorithm such as linear ramp
information to understand the differences. First covered are or s-curve, from minimum or 0 Hz up to commanded speed.
the operating principles of the VFD and soft starter. How The drive can also be programmed to skip over certain fre-
motor performance is affected is the other key to selection quencies that may cause a mechanical resonance.
of the proper starting method. Finally, guidelines will then
be presented.

Variable Speed Drives

The VFD works on the principle that the ac line voltage
is converted to a dc voltage. This dc voltage is then inverted
back to a pulsed dc whose rms value simulates an ac voltage.
The output frequency of this ac voltage normally varies for
0 up to the ac input line frequency. On certain applications
the frequency may actually go above the line frequency. Figure 1 — Typical Inverter Block Diagram
Though high performance current regulated ac drives ca-
pable of operating in “torque mode” are available, the more
prevalent volts per hertz drive is addressed here. Soft Starters
The most common VFD’s manufactured today work using The soft starter operates on a different premise. This prin-
pulse width modulation to create the output sine wave. The ciple is that by adjusting the voltage applied to the motor
conducting components used in drives are diodes, SCR’s, during starting, the current and torque characteristics can
transistors and IGBT’s. These inverters have three distinct be limited and controlled.
and different sections to their power circuits as shown in For induction motors, the starting torque (LRT) is ap-
the typical inverter block diagram figure 1 below. proximately proportional to the square of the starting cur-
2
rent (LRA) drawn from the line. LRT ∞ I . This starting

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 current is proportional to the applied voltage (V). So the
torque can also be considered to be approximately pro-
2.
portional to the applied voltage. LRT ∞ V . By adjusting
voltage during starting, the current drawn by the motor
and the torque produced by the motor can be reduced and
controlled.
By using six SCR’s in a back-to-back configuration as
shown in figure 2, the soft starter is able to regulate the
voltage applied to the motor during starting from 0 volts
up to line voltage. Unlike the VFD, line frequency is always
applied to the motor. Only the voltage changes.
Figure 4 — Line Voltage and Current
Six-Pulse Full Wave Diode Rectifier

Inverters use pulse width modulation to create the output

waveforms. A triangle waveform is generated at the carrier
frequency where the inverter IGBT’s will switch.

Figure 2 — Six Back to Back SCR Configuration

Feedback from the motor to the logic circuit controlling Figure 5 —Inverter Output Voltage Wave Form
the SCR firing is required to stabilize motor acceleration.
This waveform is compared with a sinusoidal waveform at
Variable Speed Drive Operation the fundamental frequency that is to be delivered to the mo-
The ac line voltage, figure 3, is rectified with a passive tor. The result is the voltage waveform shown in figure 5.
diode bridge. This means that the diode(s) conduct when- Figure 6 shows the resulting current waveform at the
ever the line voltage is greater than the voltage on the motor with a PWM signal applied.
capacitor section. The resulting current waveform has two
pulses during each half-cycle, one for each diode conduc-
tion window.

Figure 3 — Line Voltage

The waveform, figure 4, shows some continuous current

when the conduction transitions from one diode to the next.
This is typical when a reactor is used in the dc link of the
drive and some load is present.

Figure 6 — Inverter Output Current Wave Form Bipolar (top)

and IGBT

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 The inverter output can be any frequency below or above When this voltage is applied to a motor, the output cur-
the line frequency up to the limits of the inverter and/or rent looks like figure 8. As the frequency of the voltage is
the mechanical limits of the motor. Note that the drive is the same as the line frequency, the frequency of the current
always operating within the motor slip rating is also the same. As the SCR’s are phased on to full conduc-
tion, the gaps in current fill in until the wave form looks the
Operation of Soft Starters same as applying the motor directly across the line.
Timing of when to turn on the SCR’s is the key to
controlling the voltage output of a soft starter. During the Motor Characteristics Using VFD’s
starting sequence the logic of the soft starter determines During acceleration, the inverter applies different fre-
when to turn on the SCR’s. It does not turn on the SCR’s quencies to the motor. It also changes the voltage but in
at the point that the voltage goes from negative to positive, direct proportion to the frequency. This is know as constant
but waits for some time after that. This is known as “phasing volts per hertz and provides constant torque while the mo-
back” the SCR’s. The point that the SCR’s are turned on is tor accelerates.
set or programmed by what is called either initial torque, A series of speed torque curves is shown in figure 9.
initial current or current limit setting. These relate to speed torque curves at various frequencies.
The input voltage to the soft starter is the same as the The “constant torque” line represents the full load or rated
VFD shown in figure 3. The result of phasing back the torque of the motor.
SCR’s is a nonsinusoidal reduced voltage at the terminals This “constant torque” line is actually the full load point
of the motor which is shown in figures 7. Since the motor on a locus of curves representing the speed torque curves of
is inductive and the current lags the voltage, the SCR stays the motor from 0 to full speed. The inverter produces rated
turned on and conducts until the current goes to zero. This motor torque from 0 to rated speed. It will produce full
is after the voltage has gone negative. load torque while drawing much less than full load current
If compared to the full voltage waveform in figure 3, it from the power line during starting. This is due to the fact
can be seen that the peak voltage is the same as the full that the motor is effectively always running at speed for the
voltage wave. However the current does not increase to the applied frequency.
same level as when full voltage is applied due to the induc- When full voltage starting, the slip of the motor at 0
tive nature of motors. speed is 100 percent and the motor is highly inductive. This
results is the very high inrush current, 600–800 percent, and
relatively low starting torque, 150–180 percent of full load
torque, compared to the current draw. Almost all of the
motor current here is reactive. Reactive current, by nature,
does not produce torque.
When a motor runs at speed the slip is typically in the
area of one to three percent. Under this condition the reac-
tive current is much less and the motor produces rated torque
at rated current. With a VFD the motor runs virtually at
speed during acceleration. Since the voltage is reduced at
Figure 7 — Voltage Output of Individual SCR
Soft Starter Voltage Wave Form
low speeds, the input current can be 10 percent or less with
more than 150 percent torque.

Figure 8 — Soft Start Starting Current Wave

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 When applying soft starters, the same constraint as
electromechanical reduced starters applies. That constraint
is “will the motor be able to produce enough torque to get
the load started with the current the soft starter is allowing
to flow to the motor?”
Soft starters do have an advantage over conventional
reduced voltage starting. They are able to adjust voltage,
current, and, therefore, torque over a wide range instead of
single or a few fixed values. This can be seen in Figure 10.
When voltage or current is held to a constant value, the
speed-torque curve labeled “Current Limit” is produced.
This curve would move up or down depending on the cur-
Figure 9 — Inverter Speed Torque Curves rent limit setting. The upper boundary of this adjustment
is the “Full Voltage” curve.
The soft starter can also ramp the voltage from an adjust-
Since the motor always runs at speed, or within rated able initial value up to full voltage over an adjustable time
slip, the acceleration time is dependent on the ramp time frame. This is represented by the “Soft Start” curve. A step-
setting. This assumes that the drive has been properly se- less transition, which is designed to eliminate current/torque
lected for the load. transients, is produced by this ramp.
The operating speed of the motor cannot be varied be-
Motor Characteristics Using Soft Starters cause the soft starter only adjusts the voltage to the motor
and not the frequency. The frequency applied to the motor
Unlike the ac drive, the line current and motor current is always the line frequency. Because of this, the acceleration
for a soft starter is always the same. During starting the time is more dependent on the load than the ramp time.
current varies directly with the magnitude of the applied
voltage. The motor torque varies as the square of either the
applied voltage or current.
The most critical factor when evaluating a soft starter is
the motor torque. Standard motors produce approximately
180 percent of the full load torque at starting. Therefore,
a 25 percent reduction in voltage or current will result in
the locked rotor torque equal to the full load torque
2
(180%*(.75) = 101%). If the motor draws 600 percent of
the full load current on starting, then the current in this
example will reduce the normal 600 percent starting current
to 450 percent of the full load current.
Table 1 below gives more examples of the effects of reduc-
ing the voltage or current on a motor’s locked rotor torque.
This data is valid for soft start and series impedance starting. Figure 10 — Soft Start Speed Torque Curves
They do not apply to other types of reduced voltage starting
such as autotransformer and wye-delta starting.
Application Differences
With the knowledge of VFD and soft starter principles
Table 1 Locked Rotor Torque Vs Locked of operation and motor performance with each, application
Rotor Amperes for Soft Starters differences can be reviewed. With the list of applications
percent Current percent Full Load percent Full Load
being very similar, the general application parameters will
or Voltage Current Torque be covered along with several application examples.
Motor speed is a parameter where a VFD has an ad-
100 600 180
vantage over soft starters. First, and most obvious, is where
90 540 146 the speed of the motor needs to be varied from 0 to line
80 480 115 frequency and sometimes higher than line frequency. The
75 450 101 soft starter applies line voltage and frequency; therefore, the
70 420 88 operating speed is fixed.
60 360 65 The second speed-related advantage to which an inverter
50 300 45 relates is processes that require a constant speed. If a fixed
frequency is applied to a motor, the actual speed of that
40 240 29
motor is not precisely regulated by the input frequency. The
output speed is actually regulated by the load applied to the

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motor. So if a process requires very tight speed regulation, Application 1) A pump is being started on full voltage.
the frequency applied to the motor must be changed in There is significant water hammer and the pipe bracing
relation to the load that is applied. With the use of feed- needs constant maintenance.
back to the VFD this can be accomplished. Again the soft
Answer: A soft starter will fit the application. It provides
starter only applies line frequency so any speed regulation
controlled torque during acceleration and has been shown to
is not possible.
minimize and in many cases eliminate water hammer. There
On applications where acceleration time needs to be
is no concern about current limitations as the application is
consistent, an inverter should be used. This is due to the fact
now being started on full voltage.
that acceleration time for a soft starter is more dependent
on the load than the selected ramp time. If acceleration Application 2) A new irrigation pump is being installed
time is not an issue and controlling the torque or current is in a rural location. Because of this, the maximum current
what is needed, then a soft starter is a good candidate for draw from the utility line without significant voltage drop
the application. (Note: some soft starters use feedback, such has been calculated as 200 percent of the motor nameplate
as tachometers. These units can provide timed acceleration reading.
with varying loads. It should be noted that current during
Answer: An inverter is preferred over a soft starter. In some
feedback acceleration could reach the same level as starting
instances soft starters can accelerate pumps with as little
at full voltage – 600 – 800 percent of full load).
as 200 percent current. Application experience indicates
With regard to stopping, a VFD will bring the motor to
that more often 250 – 300 percent current is required. The
a rest in a specified time. This may be built into an inverter
VFD can provide the torque required to accelerate the
or may require a dynamic braking optional function for high
pump within the current limit restrictions of the distribu-
inertia and overhauling type loads. The soft starter with a
tion system.
soft stop feature can only extend the stopping time, and
just like acceleration, the stopping time is dependent on the Application 3) An overland conveyor requires 100 percent
load. If stopping time and stopping characteristics are not torque to accelerate when starting fully loaded. The maxi-
critical then a soft stop may fit the application. mum current draw from the utility is limited to 500 percent
Some specially designed soft starters can also provide of the motor full load amperes. The conveyor will normally
braking. These are designed to reduce stopping time where be started unloaded; however, on occasion it may need to
coast to rest is very long. If the load is not a pure inertia and be started when it is loaded. Rate of acceleration is critical
can vary, the stopping time will also vary. to prevent the conveyor belt from being damaged
Where limiting current is the prime reason for not start-
Answer: Initially a soft starter seems to be the correct choice.
ing at full voltage, the first method to be considered today
The soft starter can provide 101 percent torque with 450
is usually soft starters. This is due to the cost differential
percent current (table 1). However the rate of acceleration,
between a soft starter and a VFD at the ampere ratings that
which equates to starting time is critical. The load also varies
current limiting becomes a factor. In most instances the soft
from unloaded to fully loaded. In this case a VFD would
starter is an appropriate choice.
be the correct solution.
There are applications where the additional cost of an
inverter is appropriate. These cases are where the motor Application 4) A 20 horsepower motor drives an overhead
cannot provide sufficient torque to start the load with the plastic chain conveyor through a gearbox. It starts and stops
ampere limitations imposed by the distribution system. frequently. Full voltage starting could be used, but if the
Table 1 shows the motor torque provided at various levels conveyor starts too quickly the product will swing and may
of soft starter current limit. Unlike soft starters, drives can be damaged or the chain may break.
accelerate a motor to full speed at full load torque with
Answer: A soft starter would fit the application. There is no
line current that does not exceed the full load amperes of
time constraint and no limitation on current. Ramp start
the motor. Keep in mind that the power into the VFD is
would typically be used to allow for minor load variations
equal to the power out plus the losses. Therefore, for those
reflected back to the motor. If the gear reduction is high
loads that require higher torque than the soft starter can
enough, a current limit start could provide a smoother
provide with the limits imposed by the distribution system,
start.
an inverter may be the required solution.
If starting torque is a concern when selecting a drive or
starter, keep in mind the drastic difference in the amount of Conclusion
torque that can be developed for a given amount of line cur- These examples were designed to show how slight ap-
rent. The drive has a much higher torque per ampere ratio. plication variations can change the type of motor starting
that is required. Each application must be evaluated on its
Sample Applications own merits. Neither soft starters nor VFD’s are the perfect
solution for all situations.
Provided here are four sample applications. Two will be
for pumps, and two will be for conveyors. These examples
do not require variable speed or precise speed regulation,
so a VFD or soft starter could be used.

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