Chapter 5 Normal Stress: Learning Objectives

CON4331 STRUCTURAL MECHANICS
│CHAPTER 5│
Normal Stress
 Learning Objectives
 Determine normal stress
 Define elastic constants and Poisson’s ratio.
 Apply Hooke’s Law
 Apply factor of safety and the use of allowable stress.
 Explain Saint-Venant’s Principle
Chapter 5 1
HD in Civil Engineering
1. Normal Stress
The simplest form of stress is normal stress/direct stress, which is the

stress perpendicular to the surface on which it acts.
 = force/area = P/A
where  = the normal stress

P = the centric axial load
A = the area of the section
The normal stress is usually expressed in pascals (Pa), where one pascal
is equal to one newton per square metre, that is, 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. A
pascal is a very small unit of stress, so one can usually expect to see
stresses expressed in kPa (kN/m2) or MPa (MN/m2 or 106N/m2 =
106N/106mm2 = N/mm2).
Chapter 5 2
Example 1
A steel bar of rectangular cross-section, 3 cm by 2 cm, carries an axial

load of 30 kN. Estimate the average tensile stress over a normal
cross-section of the bar.
Solution
The area of the normal cross-section of the bar is

A = 30*20
= 600 mm2
The average tensile stress over this cross-section is then
 = P/A
= 30 x 103 / 600
= 50 N/mm2
= 50 MPa
Chapter 5 3
2. Hooke’s Law
For many materials, the lower end of the stress-strain curve is a straight
line. This behaviour was recognised by Robert Hooke and stated as
Hooke’s Law.
Hooke’s Law:
“For an elastic body, stress is proportional to strain.”
=E
The constant E is called the elastic modulus, modulus of elasticity, or

Young’s modulus. E is equal to the slope of the stress-strain curve.
E = stress/strain =/
Since strain is dimensionless, E has the same units as stress, e.g. Pa, MPa.
The value of E for a given material is a constant. Materials with a high
modulus of elasticity have a high resistance to elastic deformation, and
are said to be stiff.
Chapter 5 4
3. Normal Strain
A member carrying a tensile load will stretch. The stretch is usually

called deformation, and the symbol for deformation is . The strain is
dimensionless.
=/L
where  = the normal strain

 = the normal deformation
L = the original length of the member before deformation
From Hooke’s law,

 =E
When the stress and strain are caused by axial loads, we have
P/A = E* (  / L )
Hence,  = PL/AE
Chapter 5 5
Chapter 5 6
4. Tensile Test
The mechanical properties of materials used in engineering are

determined by tests performed on small specimens of the material.
The tests are conducted in materials-testing laboratories equipped with
testing machines.
A tensile test machine is shown as below:-
A stress-strain diagram for a structural steel in tension is shown in the

following figure.
(Extracted from ref. 1, pages 82, 84 & 85)
Chapter 5 7
There are several points of interest, which can be identified on the

curves as follows:
1. Proportional Limit (pl)

The maximum stress for which stress is proportional to strain.
2. Elastic Limit
If the stress is slightly exceeds the proportional limit, the curve
tends to bend and flatten out. This continues until the stress
reaches the elastic limit.
3. Yield Point (y)

A slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will result in a
breakdown of the material and cause it to deform permanently.
The behavior is called yielding (i.e. stress reaches the yield point).
4. Ultimate Stress
Maximum stress material can support up to failure. At this point
the test piece begins, visibly, to ‘neck’. The material in the test
piece in the region of the ‘neck’ as almost perfectly plastic at this
stage and from thence, onwards to fracture, there is a reduction in
nominal stress.
5. Fracture Stress
Stress in the material based on original cross-sectional area at the
time it breaks. It is also called fracture or rupture strength.
6. True Stress-Strain Diagram

The actual cross-sectional area and specimen length at the instant
the load is measured can be used to determine the “TRUE” stress
and “TRUE” strain.
Different materials have different stress-strain curves. The followings

are the stress-strain curves for aluminum alloy and concrete.
Chapter 5 8
Aluminum alloy
It is a ductile material, which does not have a yield point. A line drawn
parallel to the linear portion of the stress-strain curve from a strain of
0.002 (i.e. 0.2%) intersects the stress-strain curve. The intersection
point is defined as a yield point.
Concrete
It is a brittle material.
Chapter 5 9
5. Poisson’s Ratio
When a load is applied along the axis of a bar, axial strain is produced.
At the same time, a lateral (perpendicular to the axis) strain is also
produced. If the axial force is in tension, the length of the bar
increases and the cross-section contracts or decreases. That is, a
positive axial stress produces a positive axial strain and a negative
lateral strain. For a negative axial stress, the axial strain is negative
and the lateral strain is positive.
The ratio of lateral strain to axial strain is called Poisson’s ratio. It is

constant for a given material provided that the material is not stressed
above the proportional limit, is homogeneous, and has the same physical
properties in all directions.
 = lateral strain / axial strain

= - lateral strain / axial strain
The negative sign ensures that Poisson’s ratio is a positive number.
The value of Poisson’s ratio, , varies from 0.25 to 0.35 for different
metals. For concrete, it may be as low as  = 0.1 and for rubber as high
as  = 0.5.
Chapter 5 10
(Extract from Ref. 2, P.758)
Chapter 5 11
Example 2
An aluminum alloy sample is tested in tension. When the stress is 150

MPa the normal strain is 2.1 x 10-3 m/m. Calculate the modulus of
elasticity for this alloy.
Solution
The modulus of elasticity (E):
E = /
= 150 x 106/2.1 x 10-3
= 71.429 x 109 Pa
= 71.429 GPa
Example 3
A 2m long round bar of polystyrene plastic with a diameter of 25 mm

carries a 5 kN tensile load. If the modulus of elasticity of the
polystyrene is 3.1 GPa, calculate the longitudinal deformation in the bar.
Solution
The deformation,
 = L
= L/E
= PL/AE
= 5000*2/[(*0.0252 /4)*3.1 x 109)
= 6.57 x 10-3 m
= 6.57 mm
Chapter 5 12
Example 4
An accurate experimental measurement in a compression test of a 200

mm long square sample with a 50 by 50 mm cross section gives a
longitudinal deformation of –0.1 mm and a transverse deformation of
0.008 mm. Determine Poisson’s ratio for the material.
Solution
To calculate Poisson’s ratio, it is necessary to first determine both the

longitudinal and transverse strains:
l = l / L
= -0.1/200
= -0.0005 m/m
t = t / L
= 0.008/50
= 0.00016 m/m
Now Poisson’s ratio may be calculated:
 = - t /l
= -0.00016/-0.0005
= 0.32
Chapter 5 13
Example 5
A steel bar has the dimensions shown in the following figure. If an axial
force of P = 80 kN is applied to the bar, determine the change in its
length and the change in the dimensions of its cross section after
applying the load. Take Est = 200 GPa and st = 0.3. The material
behaves elastically.
Solution
The normal stress in the bar is, z = 80 x 103 / (0.1*0.05)

= 16 x 106 Pa = 16 MPa
Thus the strain in the z direction is, z = z / Est

= 16 / 200 x 103
= 80 x 10-6
The axial elongation of the bar is therefore,

Lz =  z *Lz
= 80 x 10-6*1500
= 0.12 mm
= 120 m
The contraction strains in both x and y directions are,

 x =  y = - st *z
= -0.3* 80 x 10-6
= -24*10-6
Chapter 5 14
Thus the changes in the dimensions of the cross section are,

Lx = x*Lx = -24 x 10-6 *100 = 2.4*10-3 mm
= -2.4 m
LY = Y*LY = -24 x 10-6 * 50 = 1.2*10-3 mm

=-1.2 m
Chapter 5 15
Example 6
A steel rod is loaded as shown in the following figure. Determine the

deformation of the steel rod.
Solution
We divide the rod into the three-component parts as indicated in the

following figures.
Chapter 5 16
To find the internal forces P1, P2 and P3, we must cut sections through each
of the component parts, drawing each time the free-body diagram of the
portion of rod located to the right of the section. Expressing that each of
the free bodies is in equilibrium, we obtain successively.
P1 = 400 kN
P2 = -100 kN
P3 = 200 kN
 P L 
By using     i i  to determine the elongation of the member:
 Ai  Ei 
= 400 x 103*300 /(600 * 200 x 103)

+ (-100 x 103*300 /(600 * 200 x 103)
+200 x 103*400 /(200 * 200 x 103)
= 2.75 mm
Chapter 5 17
Example 7
The assembly shown in the figure consists of an alloy tube AB having a

cross-sectional area of 500 mm2. A steel rod having a diameter of 12
mm is attached to a rigid collar and passes through the tube. If a
tensile load of 100 kN is applied to the rod, determine the displacement
of the end C of the rod. Take Est = 205 GPa and Ealloy = 100 GPa.
Solution
Displacement of end C with respect to end B of the steel rod
C / B 
PL


100 *103 * 800 
 3.45mm
 
AE  * 62 * 205 *103
C moves to the right relative to B and the steel rod elongates.
Displacement of end B with respect to fixed end A
B  

PL  100 *103 * 600 
 1.2mm
AE 500 *100 *103
-ve sign indicates shortening of BA.
As both displacements are towards right, the final displacement of C

relative to the fixed end A is:
total = 3.45 + 1.2 = 4.65 mm.
Chapter 5 18
6. Allowable Stress
The allowable stress is the maximum stress that is considered safe for a
material to support under certain loading conditions. The stress may
be used to design load-supporting members of structures and machines.
Allowable stress values are determined by tests and from experience
gained from the performance of previous designs under service
conditions. Allowable stress is also sometimes called the working or
design stress.
7. Factor of Safety
The factor of safety is defined as the ratio of some load that represents
the strength for the member to the allowable load for the member.
That is,
Ultimate Load for the Member

Factor of safety, F .S . 
Allowable Load for the Member
For tension member, where the load is equal to stress multiplied by area,
the ratio of the loads is identical to the ratio of stresses. Accordingly,
for a tension member a factor of safety that is based on the ultimate
stress is equal to the ratio of the ultimate stress to the allowable stress.
Thus,
F.S. = u / a
Values of the factor of safety used to design members depend on many

factors. Among these are the nature of the loads, variation in material
properties, types of failures, uncertainty in analysis and the
environment to which the member is exposed.
Chapter 5 19
Example 8
A hollow cylinder is to be designed to support a compressive load of 650

kN. The allowable compressive stress a = 69.2 MPa. Compute the
outer diameter of the cylinder if the wall thickness is 25 mm.
Solution
Solving for the required area, we have
Areq = P/a
= 650 x 103/69.2
= 9393 mm2
Considering a hollow cylinder, the area is equal to
Areq =  * (do2 – di2) /4
where do = outer diameter of the hollow cylinder

di = inner diameter of the hollow cylinder
Therefore,
Areq =  * (do2 – di2) /4 = 9393 mm2 (1)
Given that the wall thickness is 25 mm,
do – di = 50 mm (2)
By solving the above equations 1 and 2,
di = 94.6 mm
do = 144.6 mm
Chapter 5 20
8. Stress Concentrations
The formula  = P/A for the stress in an axially loaded bar is based on a
uniform stress distribution over the cross-sectional area of the bar. If
the loads are applied through two rigid plates at the two ends of the bar,
this assumption of uniform stress distribution is reasonable.
But if the load is concentrated at a point, very high local stresses can
appear and the stresses will not be uniformly distributed. The high
local stresses are known as stress concentrations.
(Extracted from ref 1, page 158)
Chapter 5 21
(Extracted from ref 1, page 158 & 159)
8.1 Saint-Venant’s Principle
At a point directly under the load, the maximum stress may be several
times the average stress ave = P/A. As we move away from the point of
load application, the maximum stress drops rapidly. At a distance b (b
=the width of the bar) away from the end of the bar, the stress
distribution becomes nearly uniform.
The above observation illustrates the Saint-Venant’s Principle, which

states that:
At a reasonable distance away from the loaded region, the

effects of local stress concentration become unimportant.
The ‘reasonable distance’ may be taken to be the largest dimension of

the loaded region (in the above case, it is the width of the bar).
Saint-Venant’s Principle applies not only to axial loads but also to
practically any type of load. The practical meaning of this important
principle is that stresses can be calculated by the usual mechanics of
materials formulas (such as  = P/A), except in the immediate
neighbourhood of loaded regions or changes in geometry.
Chapter 5 22
Chapter 5 23
 Revision
Read reference 1 on P.119 – 163.
Read reference 2 on P.435 - 457.
 Main Reference
1. Mechanics of Materials, 8th Edition (2011), R.C. Hibbeler, Prentice Hall.
2. Statics and Mechanics of Materials, SI Edition (2004), R.C. Hibbeler,
Prentice Hall
Chapter 5 24
│TUTORIAL 5│
Q1. A 10 m long tie rod stretches 4.7 mm. Calculate the strain in the tie rod.
(Ans.  = 0.470 x 10-3 m / m)
Q2. A 600 mm long concrete sample has a deformation of 1.70 mm when it fails under an axial
compressive load. Determine the average normal strain in the sample at failure.
(Ans.  = - 0.00283 m/m)
Q3. The strain in a 4 m long steel tension member was found to he 450 x 10-6 m/m. Calculate the
total deformation in the member.
(Ans.  = 1.80 mm)
Q4. A member subject to an axial load of 25 kN compression has a strain of -0.0025 m/m. If the
original length of the member was 0.40 m, determine the deformation of the member.
(Ans.  = -1.00 mm)
Q5. A strip of bronze 5 by 20 mm carries an axial tensile load of 30 kN. In a length of 200 mm, there
is a deformation of 0.513 mm. Calculate the modulus of elasticity for the bronze.
(Ans. E = 117 GPa)
Q6. A 50 m steel surveyor’s chain has a length of 50.0020 m when an axial tensile load is applied.
Find the percent deformation in the chain.
(Ans. % deformation = 0.00400 %)
Q7. Determine the modulus of elasticity for steel piano wire if it has a strain of 2.62 x 10-3 m/m when
the stress in it is 550 MPa.
(Ans. E = 210 GPa)
Chapter 5 25
│TUTORIAL 5│
Q8. If a medium-strength concrete has a modulus of elasticity of 20 GPa, find the strain in the
concrete when the stress is -8.0 MPa.
(Ans.  = - 0.400 x 10-3 m/m)
Q9. A sample of platinum was tested in tension. The longitudinal strain was found to be 0.800 x 10-3
m/m and the transverse strain was -0.300 x 10-3 m/m when the normal stress was 120 MPa.
Determine Poisson's ratio for platinum.
(Ans.  = 0.375)
Q10. When the shear stress in invar was found to be 75 MPa, the corresponding shear strain was 1.33 x
10-3 m/m. Determine the shear modulus of elasticity for invar.
(Ans. G = 56.4 GPa)
Q11. Determine the shear modulus of elasticity for zinc if E = 110 GPa and  = 0.25.
[Note: E = 2 G(1+  ) ]
(Ans. G = 44.0 GPa)
Q12. A tie bar is 2 m in length, has a circular cross-section of 19 mm diameter and carries a
longitudinal load of 35 kN. Calculate the stress in the bar and the change in length (E = 200
kN/mm2).
Ans. (123.44 N/mm2, 1.23 mm)
Q13. A steel tie is 1.4 m long, has a cross-sectional area of 110 mm2 and carries a tensile load of 10.5
kN. If the value of Young's Modulus of Elasticity (E) is 200 kN/mm2 and Poisson's ratio  =
0.3, calculate: (i) the direct tensile stress, (ii) the longitudinal strain, (iii) the lateral strain and (iv)
the change in length.
Ans. (i) 95.45 N/mm2, (ii) 0.48 x 10-3, (iii) -0.14 x 10-3, (iv) 0.67 mm)
Chapter 5 26
│TUTORIAL 5│
Q14. A hollow cylindrical steel tube with an outer diameter of 300 mm is to be used as a column to
carry a vertical load of 2000 kN. If the direct stress in the steel is not to exceed 120 N/mm2,
calculate: (i) the thickness of metal required in the wall of the tube (Hint: calculate the internal
diameter) and (ii) the change in external diameter under load.
Assume that E = 200 kN/mm2 and  = 0.3.
Ans. (i) 18.87 mm, (ii) +0.054 mm)
Q15. A steel tie bar 1.1 m long and 50 mm diameter is subject to a tensile stress of 120 N/mm2.
Determine:
(i) the extension
(ii) the change in lateral dimension and
(iii) the change in volume.
Assume that E = 200 kN/mm2 and Poisson's ratio  =0.3.
Ans. (i) 0.66 mm, (ii) -0.009 mm, (iii) 518 mm3)
Q16. A square bar, 10 by 10 mm, is tested in tension. At a load of 5 kN the deformation in a 50 mm

length is 0.024 mm, and at a load of 25 kN the deformation is 0.117 mm. If the stress-strain
diagram is a straight line between these two points, calculate the modulus of elasticity for this
material.
(Ans: E = 108 GPa)
Q17. A concrete cylinder with a diameter of 150 mm is tested in compression. At a load of 88.0 kN the
deformation in 200 mm is 0.030 mm, and at a load of 400.0 kN the deformation is 0.135 mm.
Calculate the modulus of elasticity if the stress-strain diagram is assumed to be straight between
these two points.
Chapter 5 27
│TUTORIAL 5│
Chapter 5 28

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CON4331 STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

The simplest form of stress is normal stress/direct stress, which is the

where  = the normal stress

A steel bar of rectangular cross-section, 3 cm by 2 cm, carries an axial

The area of the normal cross-section of the bar is

The average tensile stress over this cross-section is then

“For an elastic body, stress is proportional to strain.”

The constant E is called the elastic modulus, modulus of elasticity, or

A member carrying a tensile load will stretch. The stretch is usually

where  = the normal strain

From Hooke’s law,

The mechanical properties of materials used in engineering are

A tensile test machine is shown as below:-

A stress-strain diagram for a structural steel in tension is shown in the

(Extracted from ref. 1, pages 82, 84 & 85)

There are several points of interest, which can be identified on the

1. Proportional Limit (pl)

3. Yield Point (y)

6. True Stress-Strain Diagram

Different materials have different stress-strain curves. The followings

The ratio of lateral strain to axial strain is called Poisson’s ratio. It is

 = lateral strain / axial strain

The negative sign ensures that Poisson’s ratio is a positive number.

(Extract from Ref. 2, P.758)

An aluminum alloy sample is tested in tension. When the stress is 150

The modulus of elasticity (E):

A 2m long round bar of polystyrene plastic with a diameter of 25 mm

An accurate experimental measurement in a compression test of a 200

To calculate Poisson’s ratio, it is necessary to first determine both the

Now Poisson’s ratio may be calculated:

The normal stress in the bar is, z = 80 x 103 / (0.1*0.05)

Thus the strain in the z direction is, z = z / Est

The axial elongation of the bar is therefore,

The contraction strains in both x and y directions are,

Thus the changes in the dimensions of the cross section are,

LY = Y*LY = -24 x 10-6 * 50 = 1.2*10-3 mm

A steel rod is loaded as shown in the following figure. Determine the

We divide the rod into the three-component parts as indicated in the

= 400 x 103*300 /(600 * 200 x 103)

The assembly shown in the figure consists of an alloy tube AB having a

Displacement of end C with respect to end B of the steel rod

C moves to the right relative to B and the steel rod elongates.

Displacement of end B with respect to fixed end A

As both displacements are towards right, the final displacement of C

total = 3.45 + 1.2 = 4.65 mm.

Ultimate Load for the Member

Values of the factor of safety used to design members depend on many

A hollow cylinder is to be designed to support a compressive load of 650

Solving for the required area, we have

Considering a hollow cylinder, the area is equal to

Areq =  * (do2 – di2) /4

where do = outer diameter of the hollow cylinder

Given that the wall thickness is 25 mm,

By solving the above equations 1 and 2,

(Extracted from ref 1, page 158)

(Extracted from ref 1, page 158 & 159)

8.1 Saint-Venant’s Principle

The above observation illustrates the Saint-Venant’s Principle, which

At a reasonable distance away from the loaded region, the

LY = YLY = -24 x 10-6 50 = 1.2*10-3 mm

= 400 x 103300 /(600 200 x 103)