Contents

List of Figures ix
List of Tables xxi
Foreword
G.L.W. Samarasinghe xxiii
Introduction
Sanjay Garg xxv
Abbreviations xxxix

Part 1: country reports on recent discoveries

1. Mes Aynak: Recent Discovery of a Buddhist Archaeological Site in Afghanistan
Khair Muhammad Khairzada 3
2. Recently Discovered Archaeological Buddhist Sites in Bangladesh
Md. Ataur Rahman 27
3. Archaeology in Bhutan
Karma Tenzin 53
4. Archaeologies of Buddhism and its Landscape Setting in Central India:
The Sanchi Survey Project
Julia Shaw 61
5. Buddhist Heritage of Gujarat in the Context of Recent Findings at Vadnagar
Atul Tripathi 89
6. Archaeological Evidence and Evolution of Buddhism in Rajasthan
Neekee Chaturvedi 113
7. Shifts in the Status of Buddhism in Haryana: Some Reflections
Neelima Dahiya 129
8. Recent Archaeological Discoveries and Ancient Buddhist Settlements of Varanasi
Vidula Jayaswal 153
9. Recently Explored Buddhist Monuments at K_rmilā Adhi_s_thāna: Its Implications
Anil Kumar 169
10. Monastic Centre of Sirpur: Analysing the Stylistics of Harshagupta Vihara
Subash Khamari and Vishi Upadhyay 183
11. Newly Discovered Buddhist Heritage of the Baramulla District (Kashmir)
Sonia Jasrotia 197
vi Contents

12. Archaeological Research on Buddhism in the Maldives

Shiura Jaufar 207
13. Archaelogical Excavations of a Monastery at Kaashidhoo (Maldives)
Hawwa Shaheen, Aishath Sanya, Abdul Maniu Abdul Samad
and Aishath Ageedha Hassan 211
14. Archaeological Test-excavations on the Maldive Islands (1983-1984)
Ismail Nasru and Ahmed Zameer 219
15. Archaeology of Buddhism: Recent Discoveries within the
Koliya Republican Region of Nepal
Prakash Darnal 223
16. An Overview of Archaeological Research in the Gandhara Region:
Pre- and Post-Independence Period
Fazal Dad Kakar 239
17. Discovery of Buddhist Archaeology of Gandhara and its Development
Tauqeer Ahmad Warraich 245
18. Buddhist Traditions in Rock Art of Sindh
Zulfiqar Ali Kalhoro 253
19. Recent Excavations of Some Significant Stupas in Sri Lanka
Senerath Dissanayake and Nimal Perera 271

Part 2: Revisiting Stupa

20. The Stupa as Narrative-in-Place: The Dialectics of
Stupa and Rock Art in the Landscapes of Central India
L. Lamminthang Simte 285
21. Antiquity of the Stupas
Prathapachandran S. 299

Part 3: Buddhist Archaeology and the Society

22. The Archaeology of Buddhist Monastic Hospitals
Leelananda Prematilleke 305
23. Surgical Instruments at the Alahana Parivena Hospital in Polonnaruwa
Arjuna Aluwihare 317

Part 4: Archaeology of Buddhist Monasteries

24. The Relationship between Buddhist Monasteries and

Trade Guilds in India and Sri Lanka
K.W.C. Tharangani 329
 Contents vii

25. Stone-paved Terrace of the Anuradhapura Jetavana Stupa:

A Study about the People who Contributed in Laying Slabs
Piyatissa Senanayake 333
26. Simple Cave Dwellings and Mansions of Royal Standards for the
Buddhist Sangha in Ancient Sri Lanka: An Epigraphical Overview
Malini Dias 341

Part 5: Mapping Buddhist Archaeological Sites

27. Cultural Cartography: Prospects and Perils

Pratapanand Jha 347
28. Mapping the Contours of a Buddhist World: An Online Database of
Geo-referenced Buddhist Monasteries, 200-1200 ce
T. Matthew Ciolek and Stewart Gordon 355
29. Recently Discovered Archeological Sites Showing Evidence of Buddhism in
Mullaitivu District in Northern Sri Lanka: A Study Using Geo-Informatics Tools
Uditha Jinadasa, Wasana Premachandra, Kalpa Asanga,
I.P.S. Nishantha, P.M.R. Priyadarshani and Tarindi Ranchagoda 369

Part 6: Buddhist Archaeology,

Art and Architecture

30. Art History and Archaeology of Buddhism in Early Historic North-west India
(First Century bce-Third Century ce): Recent Trends and Methodologies
Chandreyi Basu 387
31. The Buddhist Art and Architecture at Zar Dheri Mansehra, Hazara
Zain ul Wahab 399
32. Buddhist Complex of Nimogram Swat, Pakistan:
Its History, Classification, Analysis and Chronology
Badshah Sardar 411
33. Hitherto Unknown Buddhist Metal Images and Stupa from Mainamati, Bangladesh
Mokammal H. Bhuiyan 449
34. The Two Statues of Tara
Deshika van Haght 463

Part 7: Cultural Geography of

the Buddhist Archaeological Sites
35. Sacred Sites, Identity and Embedded Meanings
Diwakar Kumar Singh 473
viii Contents

36. Sculptural Style as a Parameter for Deriving a Chronological

Index for Buddhist Caves in Western Maharashtra
(c. First Century bc-c. Third Century ad)
Ajit Kumar 481
37. Values, Valorization, and the ‘Package’: The Conservation
of Early Buddhist Heritage-Sites of Central India
Prerana Srimaal and L.L. Simte 501
38. Pedigree and Deviations: Tracing the Antiquity of Relic
Worship among the Early Buddhists with Special Reference
to Relic Deposits and its Interrelatedness with Coetaneous
Buddhist Religious Architecture in South Asia
D.P. Tewari and Tishyarakshita Singh 515
39. Archaeological Evidence of the Cultural Relations
between Ancient Sri Lanka and China
Priyantha Jayasingha 533
40. Historical Archaeology at the Somawathiya Sacred
Area in North Central Province, Sri Lanka
R.M.M. Chandraratne and Dilan Chathuranga Ranaweera 547
List of Contributors 557
Index
 Figures

1.1. An overview of the Aynak mountain – (a) view shows the eastern part of the Aynak
mountain, and (b) view from north showing the south east and western part of
Aynak mountain 3
1.2. Top of the Mes Aynak mountain during the excavation – view from the north, 2012 5
1.3. Overview of the Tepe Shah site after further excavations 2012 5
1.4. Remains of iron ore on the slope and eastern part of Aynak mountain, which could
have been the workshop area, 2012 6
1.5. Silver plate with the head of Shapur II found at the Aynak mountain, 2012 6
1.6. A slag trench showing a slag high, 2011 7
1.7. Slag trench, 2011 7
1.8. Aerial view of the Baba Wali settlement, c. 2011 8
1.9. Jewellery hoard, 2011 9
1.10. (a) Sitting statue of bodhisattva made of schist stone, from Baba Wali village, 2011;
(b) Standing Buddha without head made of schist stone, from the western part and
bottom of Tepe Shah, 2012 9
1.11. (a) Painted and gilded statuette depicting a scene from the Dipankara Jataka,
made of schist stone (third-fifth century ce), from Mes Aynak; (b) Rear view, 2012 10
1.12. Aerial view of Site no. 13 (Baghcha Ghondi) showing the stupa court, 2012 11
1.13. (a) Half part of the stupa; (b) Signs of destruction by looters; (c) Floor design,
Site no. 13 (Baghcha Ghondi), 2013 11
1.14. Overview of Kamar Ghari Sangchen (Site no. 45), located on the southern
part of the Aynak mountain, 2012 12
1.15. Kamar Ghari Sangchen (Site no. 45): Preliminary map, 2012 12
1.16. A local worker cleaning a statue of the seated Buddha inside one of the niches,
Kamar Ghari Sangchen (Site no. 45): Preliminary map, 2012 13
1.17. Stupa from Kamar Ghari Sangchen (Site no. 45) with flat stone floor
(fourth-seventh centuries ce), 2012 13
1.18. Coin hoard found under the wall of the monastery from Site no. 45, 2012 14
1.19. Gul Hamid village before excavation; inset shows signs of rampant looting, 2009 15
1.20. (a) Remains of statues in the chapel at Gul Hamid monastery, 2009; (b) Head of the
statue discovered at the Gul Hamid monastery, 2009 15
1.21. (a) and (b): Wall paintings from Gul Hamid monastery,
fifth-seventh century ce, c. 2010-11 16
1.22. Overview of Kafiriyat Tepe, 2011 17
1.23. Central stupa with stupa court at Kafiriyat Tepe, 2012 18
1.24. Gilded clay figure of seated Buddha in dhyana mudra (meditation posture), without
hands and painted in red colour, in the central room on Kafiriyat Tepe, 2012 19
x List of Figures

1.25. Big clay Buddha (more than 6 m high) from one of the chapels at
Kafiriyat Tepe, 2010 19
1.26. Wall paintings (fourth-seventh centuries ce) at Kafiriyat Tepe, 2010 20
1.27. Sassanid gold coins (fourth century ce) found at Kafiriyat Tepe, 2010 21
1.28. Sassanid silver coins found at Kafiriyat Tepe, 2010 21
1.29. Aeriel view of Shamar Tepe, 2011 22
1.30. Medium stone stupa with three Buddha niches and a staircase on the
south part of the stupa, Shamar Tepe, 2012 22
1.31. Pottery shards found from different sites of Mes Aynak, 2012 23
1.32. Stamped pottery with the heads of local kings, and animal designs found from
different sites of Mes Aynak, 2012 23
1.33. East-facing view of the Chinese compound from top of the Aynak Mountain, 2013 24
2.1. Mahasthangarh, Bogra (c. sixth century bc) 28
2.2. Wari-Bateshwar, Narsingdi (fifth century bc) 29
2.3. Biharial Vihara, Rajshahi (fifth century ad) 30
2.4. Bhitargarh Panchagarh (fifth century ad) 31
2.5. Bharat-Bhayna, Jessore (fifth century ad) 32
2.6. Bhasu Vihara (sixth century ad) 33
2.7. Sitakot Vihara, Dinajpur (fifth century ad) 34
2.8. The palace of Raja Harish Chandra, Savar, Dhaka (sixth century ad) 34
2.9. Gokul Medh, Mahasthan (sixth century ad) 35
2.10. Bihara-Dhap, Bogra (seventh century ad) 36
2.11. Halud Vihara, Naogaon (eighth century ad) 37
2.12. Rupban Mura, Comilla (sixth-seventh centuries ad) 38
2.13. Queen Mainamati Palace Mound (seventh-eighth centuries ad) 39
2.14. Itakhola Mound (seventh-eighth centuries ad) 39
2.15. Kutla Mura, Comilla (seventh-eighth centuries ad) 40
2.16. Boja Vihara, Comilla (seventh-eighth centuries ad) 40
2.17. Ananda Raja Vihara, Comilla (seventh-eighth centuries ad) 41
2.18. Salban Vihara, Comilla (seventh-eighth centuries ad) 42
2.19. Rupban Kanya Vihara (seventh-eighth centuries ad) 43
2.20. Paharpur Vihara, Naogaon district (eighth century ad) 44
2.21. Satyapir Bhita, Paharpur (eleventh century ad) 45
2.22. Chaprakot Vihara, Rangpur (eleventh century ad) 46
2.23. Ramakot Vihara, Chittagong (eleventh century ad) 46
2.24. Pandita Vihara, Chittagong district (ninth century ad) 47
2.25. Jagaddala Mahavihara, Naogaon (tenth-eleventh centuries ad) 48
2.26. Latikot Mura, Comilla (seventh-tenth centuries ad) 48
2.27. Vikrampuri Vihara, Munshiganj (ninth-tenth centuries ad) 49
3.1. Aeriel view of Drapham Dzong archaeological site 54
3.2. Drapham Dzong Site 55
3.3. Drapham Site, year 2007, before clearing 55
3.4. Drapham Site, year 2008, after clearing 56
 List of Figures xi

3.5. Drapham Site, year 2008, after clearing 56

3.6. Finds from the Drapham Dzong Excavation 57
3.7. Bones 57
3.8. Finds (pottery) 58
4.1. Map of India showing key Buddhist sites and early historic urban centres 62
4.2. Sanchi Survey Project: site distribution (habitational settlements,
Buddhist sites and reservoirs) 63
4.3. Map of Sanchi hill and archaeological complex, including dam below 67
4.4. Map showing components of Buddhist sites: monastery types, stūpas,
elements of fortification 71
4.5. Map of Buddhist sites in the Sanchi area according to earliest building phase
(SG level), and prehistoric sites (rock-shelters and stone tools) 75
4.6. The development of the ritual landscape: building phases Id-VII (SG level) 80
4.7. Settlements Phases Id-VII (SG) and Buddhist sites
(hilltop monastic, urban and mixed ritual contexts) 83
5.1. Map of Gujarat 89
5.2. Map showing the important Indus Civilization sites including that of the
Gujarat region 90
5.3. A float representing the Gujarat state rolls past during the Republic Day
parade in New Delhi, on 26 January 2011 – state government’s initiative to
project Gujarat as a Buddhist tourist destination 92
5.4. A round stone-box with a lid, containing the relics unearthed in
1963 from the Buddhist stupa, Devnimori, in north-east Gujarat,
with Brahmi inscriptions bearing the year 127 (c. 375 ce) 96
5.5. Terracotta seated Buddha, from the Buddhist stupa at Devnimori,
north-east Gujarat (fourth century ce) 98
5.6. Chaitya cave and vihara, Sana 99
5.7. Buddhist caves, c. second century ce, Sana, Gir hills, Junagadh 100
5.8. Ground plan of the group of caves near Bawa Pyara Matha, Junagadh 101
5.9. Entrance of the chaitya at Khambalida (Central Saurashtra) flanked by two
large-sized sculptures of Bodhisattva Padmapani on the right and
Vajrapani on the left and is surrounded by attendants 102
5.10. Plan of the Buddhist Uparkot Caves, Junagadh 103
5.11. Bodhisattva image (third-fourth centuries ce) from Mathura with inscription
in Brahmi script on its pedestal found at Vadnagar 104
5.12. General view of the excavated monastery 105
5.13. Cross-section showing elevation of the monastery, Vadnagar 106
5.14. Votive stupas near the monastery in the recently excavated Buddhist Complex 107
5.15. (a) Mutilated Buddha head; (b) Depicting a Buddhist tale 108
6.1. The State of Rajasthan highlighted in the map of India 114
6.2. (a) Bairat 118
(b) Kholvi 118
(c) Bhandarej 118
xii List of Figures

6.3. Bairat: The circular shrine 119

6.4. Bairat: Monastery cell 120
6.5. Kholvi: Multi-storeyed cells 121
6.6. Kholvi: Chaitya, image of the Buddha 122
6.7. Kholvi: Stupa 123
6.8. Bhandarej: Railing coping stone first ce, front and back view 124
6.9. Bhandarej: Railing pillar 125
6.10. Lalsot: Details of a pillar 126
7.1. Map of Kuru Janpada: cities, towns and villages of Haryana region 130
7.2. a. Stupa mound at Chaneti (before restoration) 133
b. Stupa mound at Chaneti (undergoing restoration) 133
7.3. a. Topra Ashokan Pillar at Firozshah Kotla 135
7.3. b. Topra Ashokan Pillar at Firozshah Kotla 135
7.4. Ashokan Figure in Hissar fort 136
7.5. Ashokan Pillar at Idgah in Fatehabad 136
7.6. Railing Post from Hathin 137
7.7. Railing Post from Bhadsa 137
7.8. Fragment of crossbar from Lalpur 138
7.9. a. Kushana stone danpatra 139
b. Kushana stone danpatra 139
7.10. a. Lion Capital, two-winged lion 140
7.10. b. Khokrakot Lion Capital, showing yaksha and yakshi 140
7.11. Buddha Kanakmuni from Brahmanvas 141
7.12. Gandhara Buddha from Jhajjar 141
7.13. Terracotta bodhisattva from Sugh 142
7.14. Terracotta tablet showing Buddha from Sugh 142
7.15. a. Railing Pillar from Bhuna 143
b. Central panel of other side of the Railing Pillar from Bhuna 143
7.16. Buddha head from Rohtak 143
7.17. Terracotta bodhisattva head from Agroha 143
7.18. Remains of a shrine from Agroha 144
7.19. a. Remains of stupa from Kurukshetra 145
b. Remains of stupa from Kurukshetra 145
7.20. Bronze image of Buddha from Hansi 146
7.21. Buddha head from Rohtak 146
7.22. Buddha head, Adbadri 146
7.23. Buddha head from Taraori 147
8.1. Lion Capital of Ashokan Pillar, Sarnath Museum 154
8.2. Preaching Buddha, Sarnath Museum 154
8.3. Stone carving in process, with collection of stone blocks, Lallapura, Varanasi 155
8.4. View of icon-making centre, Lallapura, Varanasi 156
8.5. General view of excavations at stone carving workshop, Kotwa 157
8.6. Chiselling floor of Kushana period, Kotwa 158
 List of Figures xiii

8.7. View of ancient quarry, Chunar hills 160

8.8. Sandstone patia being transported by trucks, Chunar 161
8.9. View of blocks of sandstone on the slope of Chunar hills 162
8.10. Sandstone block submerged in the river Ganga, Chunar 162
8.11. Sandstone block inscribed in Mauryan Kharoshti script, Chunar 163
8.12. Sandstone block inscribed in Mauryan Brahmi script, Chunar 163
8.13. Map locating Ashokan pillars and rock edicts 165
8.14. Shaft of Ashokan pillar at Lauriya-Nandangarh 167
9.1. Early historical remains in Lakhisarai 171
9.2. Religious centres of early medieval Bihar 172
9.3. Inscription on the pedestal of Buddha sculpture from Rajounā 172
9.4. Architectural Remains and A=mla from Rajounā 174
9.5. First Phase: Sculptures of Umā-Maheśvara and Vi_s]nu 174
9.6. Second Phase: Sculptures of Phase two Buddha and Sūrya 175
9.7. Third Phase Sculptures of Ga]neśa and Mahi]sāsuramardinī 175
9.8. Pūr]neśvarī 177
9.9. Durgā and Kālabhairava 177
9.10. Durgā 177
9.11. Eye Copy of Inscription from the Pedestal of Buddhist Deity 178
9.12. Photograph of Remains of stūpa at Chāliyā Parvat Ghosī-Ku]n]dī stūpa. 179
9.13. Durgā from Rāmpur 180
10.1. Archaeological site of Sirpur, Chhattisgarh 185
10.2. Plan of Harshagupta Vihara 186
10.3. a. Ornate gateway 187
b. Erotic figures on doorjamb 188
10.4. Decorative patterns 188
10.5. Central courtyard 189
10.6. Annexe 190
10.7. Buddha in sanctum 191
10.8. Panchatantra episode 192
10.9. Decorative pattern 192
11.1. Paraspora Stupa, Baramulla 199
11.2. Rajavihara, Baramulla 199
11.3. Chaitya, Baramulla 200
11.4. Excavated site, Ushkura 201
11.5-6. First mound (on the right bank of river Jhelum), Zehenpora (Baramulla) 202
11.7. Presumably three-tier stupa of Zehanpora 202
11.8-9. Second mound, Zehanpora (Baramulla) 203
11.10. Inscribed stone found on the second mound, Zehenpora (Baramulla) 203
11.11. Third mound, Zehenpora (Baramulla) 204
13.1. Cowrie shell deposit. About 62,000 were found in the corner of the
flight of stairs of North Ruin II 212
13.2. The 16-sided structure (Ruin XXXIII) 212
xiv List of Figures

13.3. The circular well discovered during excavations 213

13.4. Circular platforms, probably a relic shrine (Ruin XLII) 214
13.5. Skeletons discovered during excavations 214
13.6. Cracked ruins covered in moss and mould 215
13.7. Boundary well built around the excavated area 215
13.8. Ruin XXIII 216
15.1. Some important archaeological sites in Kapilavastu, Lumbini and Nawalparasi 223
15.2. Lumbini 225
15.3. Western gate of Tilaurakot 225
15.4. Structure of Kanyamai 227
15.5. Bhusparhsa Buddha from Kanyamai 227
15.6. Head of male from Kanyamai 227
15.7. Female deity from Kanyamai 228
15.8. Trench of BPR-1 229
15.9. Trench of BPR-2 229
15.10. Terracotta bull from BPR-II 230
15.11. Stone female sculpture, BPR-II 230
15.12. Stone Ganesh, BPR-II 230
15.13. Stone Shree Lakshmi, BPR-II 230
15.14. Terracotta dabber from BPR-III 231
15.15. Wattle & daub, BPR-IV 231
15.16. Posthole, BPR-IV 231
15.17. Ramagrama Stupa exposed after excavation (1999-2000) 232
15.18. Terracotta ring well, PDR-I 233
15.19. Painted grey ware, PDR-II 234
15.20. Trench of PDR-III 234
15.21. Kushana terracotta figurine 234
15.22. Excavation at Khoksar, Saptari 235
15.23. Terracotta Buddha from Khoksar, Saptari 236
15.24. Terracotta siddha, Khoksar 236
15.25. A Brahmi inscription brick, Dhando chaitya 237
18.1. Stupa image at Gaptar rock art site, Nari Valley 256
18.2. Stupa petroglyphs at Pipal Kumb in Nari 256
18.3. Representaion of a stupa with pillars at Chuchar dhoro, Nari Valley (1) 257
18.4. Stupa image at Kalri, Nari Valley 258
18.5. Stupa image at Chit rock-art site, Nari Valley 258
18.6. Tracing of a stupa image at Chiti rock-art site, Gaj Valley 260
18.7. Stupa image with decorative ornaments at Chiti, Gaj Valley 260
18.8. Representation of multi-tiered stupa at Zahargani Thal, Gaj Valley 261
18.9. Stupa images at Seeta Dath, Seeta Valley 262
18.10. Stupa image at Shaho Kumb, Seeta Valley 262
18.11. Stupa image at Sor Dako, Mazarrani Valley 262
18.12. Stupa image at Karo Dako, Mazarrani Valley 263
 List of Figures xv

18.13. Representation of so-called vihara at Chiti, Nari Valley 264

18.14. Representation of the fortified stupa at Chiti, Nari Valley 265
18.15. The petroglyph of shrine of three Kushana deities at Loi Dan, Gaj Valley 266
18.16. Representation of dharmachakra at Loi Diref, Makhi Valley 267
18.17. Drawing of a treasure of vase in lower Khashani dhoro, Taki Valley 268
18.18. Representation of a left facing swastika at lower Khashani dhoro, Taki Valley 269
19.1. Stupa-shaped reliquary of gold from Deliwala 272
19.2. The bronze reliquary 274
19.3. Wrapped with textile 274
19.4. Sandagiri Stupa in 2002 275
19.5. Neelagiri Stupa before excavations in 2011 277
19.6. The excavations of Neelagiri Stupa 277
19.7. A limestone receptacle shaped like a stupa dome 279
19.8. The gold stupa reliquary 280
19.9. A crystal reliquary 280
20.1. Location and overview map of the sites 290
20.2. Overview map of Saru Maru Monastic Complex 290
20.3. Approach leading to the main stupa at Saru Maru Monastic Complex 291
20.4. Lakhajuar from the main stupa at Talpura 292
20.5. Talpura from Lakhajuar rock-art panel 292
20.6. View of the main stupa at Saru Maru Monastic Complex from the rock-edict site 293
20.7. Bagwanpaga rock-art panel at Saru Maru Monastic Complex 294
20.8. Sheer cliff edge at Bagwanpaga, Saru Maru Monastic Complex 294
20.9. View of Lakhajuar from a distance 295
22.1. The Monastic Hospital at Mihintale (Sri Lanka) 306
22.2. Plan of the Monastic Hospital at Mihintale (Sri Lanka) 307
22.3. Alahana Parivena complex at Polonnaruva 308
22.4. Topography of the Alahana Parivena complex at Polonnaruva 309
22.5. Plan of the Alahana Parivena complex at Polonnaruva 310
22.6. Outer Court of the Alahana Parivena complex at Polonnaruva 311
22.7. Attached toilet and bath at the Alahana Parivena complex at Polonnaruva 311
22.8. a. Medicine Trough 312
b. Medicine Trough: Elevation and Plan 312
22.9. Grinding Stones 313
22.10. Storage vessels 314
22.11. Micro-balance (Polonnaruva) 314
22.12. a. Spoon 315
b. Probes 315
23.1. Polonnaruwa: The Hospital skeleton 318
23.2. The stone medicinal trough that provides archaeological evidence
that the building was a hospital 318
23.3. An oblong grindstone, used for making medications 319
23.4. A circular grindstone used for making medications 319
xvi List of Figures

23.5. Slaked lime containers 320

23.6. Arecanut cutters. Arecanut was chewed with betel leaves and tobacco for relaxation 320
23.7. A spoon: a very non-specific object 320
23.8. Weighing scales and pans 321
23.9. Weighing scales and case 321
23.10. Metal applicators for applying medications or cosmetics around the eye? 322
23.11. Probes – known to have been used to sound cavities 322
23.12. Large scissors of which there are several examples – of the kind used to cut cloth for
bandages and dressings 322
23.13. Smaller scissors – to be fitted with wooden handles – perhaps used for cutting tissue 322
23.14. A lance – a type of instrument used for ‘stabbing’ to open tissues very quickly to
drain pus from an abscess or cut through the perineum (between the anus and the
scrotum) for stones in the urinary bladder. 323
23.15. Forceps with very strong jaws, as perhaps might used for removing dead bone or
extracting tooth 323
23.16. Forceps with a more delicate structure that perhaps have been used to handle tissues
like skin or intestine  323
23.17. A scalpel to be used with a wooden handle 323
25.1. Jetavana Stupa 333
25.2. Some inscribed stone slabs on a stone-paved terrace 334
25.3. Inscription of the lay devotee Baga, who paved two stone slabs 336
25.4. The inscription of Lord Avaragana Aba Sen 337
25.5. Inscription of Samanun who gave ten gold coins for laying stone slabs 338
23.6. Inscription mentioned about the lady Kotti’s donation 339
27.1. Map of Indian subcontinent highlighting ancient kingdoms 348
27.2. Selected archaeological sites of Orissa 351
28.1. Offline and online digital tools and environments involved in creation
and maintenance of the MBM database and MBM digital maps 359
29.1. Archaeological sites, Mullaitivu district in northern Sri Lanka 371
29.2. Archaeological sites with evidence of Buddhism,
Mullativu district in northern Sri Lanka 372
29.3. Types of Monuments/Sites with evidence of Buddhism,
Mullativu district in northern Sri Lanka 373
29.4. NMU 48, Stone beds, Punchi Kiriibbanwewa 374
29.5. NMU 48, Dripledge cave, Punchi Kiriibbanwewa 374
29.6. NMU 13, entrance to a building, Monastery complex in Kanniyar Kovil 374
29.7. NMU 06, Buddha statue, Udiyakuruppukulam 375
29.8. NMU 16, guard stone from Kokavil 375
29.9. NMU 09, architectural piece, Alankulum Muthiyankattukulum 375
29.10. NMU 01, stupa mound in Padanaghara 375
29.11. Ruins of stupas, Mullativu district in northern Sri Lanka 376
 List of Figures xvii

29.12. Current condition of the archeological sites with evidence of Buddhism,

Mullaitivu district in northern Sri Lanka 377
31.1. Ashoka rock edict at Mansehra 399
31.2. Plan of archaeological site Zar Dheri 401
31.3. Object 1: Buddha in abhaya-mudra 403
31.4. Object 1: Relief Panel 403
31.5. Object 3: Relief Panel (b) 404
31.6. Object 4: Relief Panel (c) 404
31.7. Object 5: Relief Panel (d) 404
31.8. Object 6: Jamb of false niche (a) 404
31.9. Object 7: Jamb of false niche (b) 405
31.10. Object 8: Jamb of false niche (c) 405
31.11. Object 9: Jamb of false niche (d) 406
31.12. Object 10: Jamb of false niche 406
31.13. Object 11: Buddha is sitting on an elevated place in abhaya pose 406
31.14. Object 12: The relief panel of Cakravartin 407
31.15. Archaeological site of Zar Dheri, district Mansehra 408
32.1. Dipankara Jataka 413
32.2. Bodhisattva Maitreya in Tushita Heaven 414
32.3. Birth and Seven Steps of Siddhartha 415
32.4. Birth and Seven Steps of Siddhartha 416
32.5. Birth and Seven Steps of Siddhartha 417
32.6. First Meditation of Siddhartha 418
32.7. Great Departure of Siddhartha 419
32.8. Great Departure of Siddhartha 420
32.9. Exchange of Clothes with the Hunter 421
32.10. Brahma and Indra Entreat the Buddha to Preach 422
32.11. Symbolic Representation of the First Sermon 423
32.12. Turning the Wheel of the Law 424
32.13. Offering of the Handful of Dust 425
32.14. Indra’s Visit to the Indrasala Cave 426
32.15. Adoration of Buddha 427
32.16. Adoration of Buddha 427
32.17. Two Miracles of Buddha in front of Kashyapa 428
32.18. Conversion of Kashyapa 429
32.19. Subjugation of Nalagiri Elephant 430
32.20. Taming of the White Dog 431
32.21. Offering of Bowls 432
32.22. Standing Buddha 433
32.23. Standing Buddha 433
32.24. Seated Buddha 434
32.25. Seated Buddha 435
xviii List of Figures

32.26. Buddha Head 436

32.27. Buddha Head 436
32.28. Buddha Head 437
32.29. Standing Bodhisattva Maitreya 438
32.30. Standing Bodhisattva 439
32.31. Standing Bodhisattva on a bracket 439
32.32. Narrative relief with two scenes 440
32.33. Amorini under chaitya arches 441
32.34. Human figures under carinated arches 441
32.35. Naked Heracles 442
32.36. Winged Atlas 443
32.37. Two Atlases in a frieze 444
33.1. Location of Mainamati 449
33.2. Archaeological sites at Mainamati 451
33.3. Padmapani, Salban Vihara, Mainamati, Bangladesh 452
33.4. Padmapani, Salban Vihara, Mainamati, Bangladesh 454
33.5. Shakyamuni/Akshobya, Salban Vihara, Mainamati, Bangladesh 455
33.6. Backside of Figure 33.5. 455
33.7. Stupa, Salban Vihara, Mainamati, Bangladesh 457
33.8. Stupa, Ashrafpur, Narsingdhi district, Bangladesh 458
33.9. Stupa, Salban Vihara, Comilla, Bangladesh 458
33.10. Stupa, Jhiuri, Chittagong district, Bangladesh 458
33.11. Kutila Mura, Comilla, Bangladesh 459
36.1. Dvarapala yaksha in Bhaja, cave 2 482
36.2. King Prasenajita’s visit of Buddha 482
36.3. Kulavaka Jataka, cave 22 483
36.4. Yakshi, Bhaja, cave 12 483
36.5. Bharavahaka yaksha and the winged horse, Pitalkhora 484
36.6. Dvarapala yaksha 484
36.7. Plinth of cave 4 with sculptures 485
36.8. Dwarf bowl bearing yaksha 485
36.9. Mithunas, Pitalkhora 486
36.10. Mithunas, Nadsur 486
36.11. Mithunas, Kondane 487
36.12. Amohini panel 488
36.13. Bodh-Gaya panel 488
36.14. Bodh-Gaya panel 489
36.15. Figures from Bhutling cave 40 490
36.16. Figures from Bedsa 490
36.17. Figures from Karle 491
36.18. Figures from Karle 491
36.19. Figures from Karle 492
 List of Figures xix

36.20. Nasik cave no. 10 493

36.21. Nasik cave no. 3 494
36.22. Torana, Nasik cave no. 3 494
36.23. Nasik cave no. 4, human figures astride elephants 495
36.24. Mithunas, Kuda cave no. 6 495
36.25. Mithunas, Kuda cave no. 6 495
36.26. Kanheri cave no. 3, yaksha and naga 496
36.27. Kanheri cave no. 3, mithuna figures 497
36.28. Kanheri cave no. 3, mithuna figures 497
36.29. Kanheri cave no. 3, mithuna figures 498
37.1. A Robber’s Hole at Saru Maru, Panguraria village, district Sehore 501
37.2. Sanchi, main stupa 507
37.3. Satdhara, smaller stupa 508
37.4. Sonari, main stupa 509
37.5. A view of the main stupas at Satdhara 510
37.6. a. Stupa 2 at Saru Maru Stupa complex, Pangoraria
village (M.P., India) in January 2011 512
b. Stupa 2 at Saru Maru Stupa complex, Pangoraria
village (M.P., India) in March 2011 512
38.1. War of relics, back of western gateway, middle section, Sanchi 516
38.2. Drona dividing the Buddha’s relics, second-third centuries ad,
North-West Frontier, Pakistan 517
38.3. Map showing the distribution of the Buddhist sites in South Asia
from where relic caskets have been reported 518
38.4. Relic caskets and images of the Saptamanushi Buddhas
kept inside it, Sopara 520
38.5. Steatite relic casket from Sonari 521
38.6. Relics in gold and silver caskets, Ambaran 521
38.7. Devnimori reliquary and its contents 522
38.8. Lalitgiri relic casket and its inner content 523
38.9. The reliquary recess with the pyxis-shaped relic casket visible in situ
from the vicinity of stupa no. 23, Butkara, Swat region, Pakistan 525
39.1. Sri Lanka’s location as a central point in the Indian Ocean 533
39.2. Sri Lanka map showing the diffusion of Chinese ceramics and other artefacts 535
39.3. Chinese porcelain-ware unearthed from Abayagiriya and
Mahavihara excavations (2002-9) 536
39.4. Tang and Song Chinese ceramics in Sri Lanka – glazed pottery,
celadon, white ware, and Changsha 535
39.5. Types of Tang dynasty ware (kettle, jar, bowl, basin) 537
39.6. a and b. Types of Song dynasty bowls 538
39.7. a and b. Blue and white and polychrome ware 539
39.8. Chinese copper coins found in Sri Lanka 540
xx List of Figures

39.9. Ming dynasty Chinese stone slab inscribed Trilingual Inscription 541
39.10. a. Deliwala Kotavehera at Rambukkana 542
b. Buddhist reliquary covering 542
39.11. a. Sigiri frescoes (fifth-eighth centuries ad) 543
b. ‘…sina-pata beji e rana-vana’ eighth century Sigiri graffiti 543
39.12. Twelfth-century ‘Sath Mahal Prasadaya’ Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka 543
39.13. The ‘Wild Gees’ Pagoda (ad 652) at Xi-annin western China 544
40.1. Macro-location of the Somawathiya archaeological site 548
40.2. Micro-location the excavated area at the Somawathiya archaeological site 549
40.3. West section of the excavation. A brick pavement in the layer no. 5 dates back to
the Anuradhapura period 550
40.4. West section of the excavation. A brick pavement in the layer no. 1 dates back to
the Polonnaruwa period 551
40.5-6. A
 brick pavement in the layer no. 1 dates back to the Polonnaruwa period 552
40.7-8. A
 brick pavement in the layer no. 5 dates back to the Anuradhapura period 553
40.9-10. Hand drawing of the excavation site 554
 Tables

  4.1. Marshall’s phasing at Sanchi 64

  4.2. Summary of phasing at Vidisha based on five excavation seasons 68
  4.3. The Sanchi Survey: Phasing and dating criteria 69
10.1. Religious Endowments to Buddhist Establishments in Chhattisgarh 184
10.2. Spatio-temporal Dimension of Monastic Structures, Sirpur 194
38.1. Table Showing the Distribution of Auspicious Symbols in the
Garbhapatras (Relic-chambers) of Sri Lanka 527
40.1. Identification of Layers at SNAE-2010 551