1 - Basic Principles

Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 1-1
Section Basic Principles of Read it

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1 Communications Engineering Hertz!
DEFINITION. Electronic Communication is the transmission, reception, and

processing of information between two or more locations using electronic
circuits.
DEFINITION. Allocation: Entry in the Table of Frequency Allocations of a

given frequency band for the purpose of its use by one or more terrestrial or
space radio communication services or the radio astronomy service under
specified conditions.
DEFINITION. Allotment: Entry of a designated frequency channel in the

agreed plan, adopted by the ITU, for use by one or more nations for a
terrestrial or space radio communication services in one or more identified
countries or geographic areas and under specified conditions.
DEFINITION. Assignment: Authorization given by a nation for a radio

station to use a radio-frequency channel under specified conditions.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
1820 Hans Christian Oersted discovered the relation between electricity and
magnetism, later known as electromagnetism.
1821 Andre Marie Ampere already observed momentarily the phenomenon

we now call electromagnetic induction and hypothesized the existence
of magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor.
1822 Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction, the reverse of

Oersted discovery.
1830 An American, Joseph Henry, demonstrated telecommand by sending

an electronic current over one mile of wire to activate an
electromagnet which caused a bell to strike, thus wire telegraphy was
born.
Samuel F.B. Morse, successfully exploited Henry’s invention

commercially.
1866 James Clerk Maxwell put together the principles of Oersted, Faraday
and hypothesized the existence of electromagnetic waves.
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1-2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATIONS Engineering
1886 German physicist, Heinrich Hertz performed an experiment on spark

gap transmission verifying Maxwell statement. Hertz experimentally
showed the existence of such waves which he called radio waves that
paved the way for wireless communication.
1896 An Italian, Guglielmo Marconi developed the first wireless telegraph

and successfully sent a message over a distance of few kilometers
using a spark gap transmitter.
1900 Reginald Aubrey Fessenden, invented AM and successfully transmits a

few words using spark gap transmitter.
1936 Major Edwin Armstrong developed the first successful FM radio

system.
A. .NOMENCLATURE OF RADIO FREQUENCY BAND.
Based on ITU-R Recommendations V.431-6
Adjectival
Frequency Range Metric Subdivision
Designation
0.03 to 0.3 Hz Gigametric ELF
0.3 to 3 Hz Hectomegametric ELF
3 to 30 Hz Decamegametric ELF
30 to 300 Hz Megametric ELF
300 to 3400 Hz Hectokilometric ULF (Voice)
3 to 30 kHz Myriametric VLF
30 to 300 kHz kilometric LF
300 to 3000 kHz Hectometric MF
3 to 30 MHz Decametric HF
30 to 300 MHz metric VHF
300 to 3000 MHz decimetric UHF
3 to 30 GHz centimetric SHF
30 to 300 GHz millimetric EHF
300 to 3000 GHz decimillimetric EHF
3 to 30 THz centimillimetric EHF
30 to 300 THz Micrometric EHF
300 to 3000 THz Decimicrometric EHF
B. .ELEMENTS OF BASIC COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM.
1. Transmitter
A collection of electronic components and circuits designed to convert
the information or intelligence into a signal suitable for transmission
over a given communication medium.
2. Channel
The medium by which the electronic/electromagnetic signal is sent
from one place to another.
2 General Categories
i. Wire Medium
The signal is confined within the proximity of the channel or
medium.
a.k.a. Bounded or Guided medium
ii. Wireless Medium
The signal is not subjected to limits, boundaries, or channel
restrictions.
a.k.a. Unbounded or Unguided Medium
Noise
Noise is a random, undesirable electrical energy that enters the
communications system and interferes with the transmitted message.
3. Receiver
The receiver is another collection of electronic components and circuits
that accept the transmitted message from the channel and convert it
back into a form understandable by humans.

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Noise SPECTRUM
ª White Noise - White noise is defined as a noise that has equal amount
of energy per frequency.
This means that if you could measure the amount of white noise energy between
100 Hz and 200 Hz it would equal the amount of energy between 1000 Hz and
1100 Hz.
ª Pink Noise - Pink noise is noise that has an equal amount of energy
per octave.
This means that pink noise would have equal power in the frequency range from
40 to 60 Hz as in the band from 4000 to 6000 Hz.
ª Brown noise - Brown noise is similar to pink noise, but with a power
density decrease of 6 dB per octave with increasing frequency (density
proportional to 1/f2) over a frequency range which does not include
DC.
ª Blue Noise - Blue noise is noise that is the opposite of pink noise in
that it doubles the amount of energy each time you go up 1 octave.
ª Purple noise - Purple noise's power density increases 6 dB per octave

with increasing frequency (density proportional to f2) over a finite
frequency range.
It is also known as differentiated white noise or violet noise.
ª Orange noise - Orange noise is quasi-stationary noise with a finite

power spectrum with a finite number of small bands of zero energy
dispersed throughout a continuous spectrum.
ª Black Noise - Noise that has a frequency spectrum of predominately

zero power level over all frequencies except for a few narrow bands or
spikes.
C. .MODULATION.
Modulation is the process of varying a carrier signal, typically a sinusoidal

signal, in order to use that signal to convey information. The three key
parameters of a sinusoid are its amplitude, its phase and its frequency, all
of which can be modified in accordance with an information signal to
obtain the modulated signal.
Three General Subdivisions
1. Analog modulation
Amplitude modulation (AM)

Double-sideband Full Carrier (A3E)
Single-sideband Full Carrier (H3E)
Single-sideband Suppressed Carrier (J3E)
Single-sideband Reduced Carrier (R3E)
Vestigial-sideband Modulation (C3F)
Angle Modulation
Frequency modulation (FM)
Phase modulation (PM)
2. Digital Modulation
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

On Off Keying
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Audio FSK (AFSK)
Continuous Phase FSK (CP-FSK)
i. Minimum-shift keying (MSK)
ii. Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK)
iii. Very minimum-shift keying (VMSK)
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Trellis Code Modulation (TCM)
3. Hybrid Modulation (combined analog digital techniques)
Pulse modulation
Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM)
Pulse-code modulation (PCM)
i. Differential PCM (DPCM)
ii. Delta Modulation (DM)
iii. Adaptive DM (ADM)
iv. Continuously Variable Slope Delta (CVSD)
v. Sigma-Delta Modulation (∑Δ)

Pulse Frequency Modulation (PFM)

Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)
i. Pulse-width modulation (PWM)
ii. Pulse-position modulation (PPM)
D. .WAVEFORM REPRESENTATION.
1. Time Domain Representation
A standard oscilloscope is
used to display the amplitude
versus time representation of
the input signal.
i. Frequency (f)
The number of times a particular phenomenon occurs in a given
period of time expressed in Hertz.
ii. Wavelength (λ)

Wavelength is the distance between two points of similar cycles of
a periodic wave or the distance traveled by an electromagnetic
wave during the time of one cycle typically expressed in meters.
iii. Period (T)

The time required for one complete cycle of a repetitive system, or
simply the reciprocal of frequency.
Relation between Wavelength, Frequency, and Period
c c 1
λ= f= T=
f λ f
where:
λ = wavelength in meters
c = speed of light
= 3 x 108 m/s
f = frequency in Hertz
T = period in sec
ECE Board Exam: APRIL 2005

Determine the wavelength of radio waves propagated using a frequency of 30
MHz.
Solution:
Wavelength :
c 3 x 108
λ= =
f 30 x 106
= 10 m
2. Frequency Domain Representation
A spectrum analyzer is
used to display the
amplitude versus
frequency representation
of the input signal.
The time and frequency domain representation of three sine waves
A
A
t
f

DOPPLER EFFECT
A perceived change in the frequency of a wave as the distance between
the source and the observer changes.
Doppler Frequency of Sound Waves

fo = Observed frequency in Hz
ν ± νo ν o = Velocity of observer in m/s
fo = fs
ν ∓ νs ν s = Velocity of source in m/s
fs = Source frequency in Hz
The top sign apply if the source and/or object are moving toward each
other and the bottom sign apply if they move away from each other.
Sample Problem:
An ambulance travels down a highway at a speed of 75.0 mi/h with its siren
emitting a sound with a frequency of 400 Hz. What frequency is heard
(a) by someone standing still when the ambulance approaches?
(b) by a passenger in a car traveling at 55 mi/h in the opposite direction as
it approaches the ambulance?
(c) by a passenger in a car traveling at 55 mi/h in the opposite direction as
it moves away from the ambulance? 75 mi/h = 33.5 m/s, 55 mi/h =
24.6 m/s.
Solution:
(a) ν ≈ 345 m s , ν s = 33.5 m s, ν o = 0 (observer is not moving)

ν + νo ⎛ 345 + 0 ⎞
fo = fs = 400⎜ ⎟ = 443 Hz
ν − νs ⎝ 345 − 33.5 ⎠
(b) ν ≈ 345 m s , ν s = 33.5 m s , ν o = 24.6 m s

ν + νo ⎛ 345 + 24.6 ⎞
fo = fs = 400⎜ ⎟ = 475 Hz
ν − νs ⎝ 345 − 33.5 ⎠
(c) ν ≈ 345 m s , ν s = 33.5 m s , ν o = 24.6 m s

ν − νo ⎛ 345 − 24.6 ⎞
fo = fs = 400⎜ ⎟ = 339 Hz
ν + νs ⎝ 345 + 33.5 ⎠
Doppler Frequency of Electromagnetic Waves
c ± νr
fo = fs
c ∓ νr
fo = Observed frequency in Hz
c = Speed of light
= 3 x 10 8 m / s
νr = Velocity of source relative to observer in m/s
fs = Source frequency in Hz
The top sign apply if the source and/or object are moving toward each
other and the bottom sign apply if they move away from each other.
Sample Problem:
A LEO communications satellite is orbiting the earth at 27,000 kph
(7,500 m/s). Calculate the frequency received by a mobile station antenna
due to Doppler shift 450 km below if the satellite is operating at 1.28 GHz.
Also compute the Doppler shift. (Assume the satellite is moving away from
the subscriber)
Solution:
c − νr
fo = fs 27,000 kph
c + νr
c − 7500 m
s
= 1.28 GHz
c + 7500 m
s
450 km
= 1.279968 GHz
For the Doppler Shift :

fD = fs − fo = 1.28 GHz − 1.279968 GHz
= 31.99 kHz
E. .ENGINEERING DEFINITIONS OF BANDWIDTH.
1. Absolute bandwidth
Absolute bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower
frequency limits (f2-f1), where the spectrum is zero outside the interval
f1<f<f2 along the positive frequency axis.

2. -3dB bandwidth (Half-power BW)

-3dB bandwidth is f2-f1, where for frequencies inside the f1<f<f2 the
magnitude spectra fall no lower than 0.707 times the maximum value
magnitude, and the maximum value occurs at a frequency inside the
band.
3. Null-to-null bandwidth (zero-crossing BW)

Null-to-null bandwidth is f2-f1, where f2 is the first null in the envelope
of the magnitude spectrum above f0 and, for bandpass system, f1 is
the first null in the enveloped below f0, where f0 is the frequency
where the magnitude spectrum is maximum.
4. Bounded spectrum bandwidth

Bounded spectrum bandwidth is f2-f1 such that outside the band
f1<f<f2, the power spectrum density (PSD) must be at least a certain
amount, say 50 dB, below the maximum value of the PSD.
5. Power bandwidth
Power bandwidth is f2-f1, where f1<f<f2 defines the frequency band in
which 99% of the total power resides.
…2 LEGAL DEFINITIONS OF BANDWIDTH
ª FCC bandwidth
FCC bandwidth is an authorized bandwidth parameter assigned by
the FCC to specify the spectrum allowed in communication
systems.
ª ITU Necessary Bandwidth

Necessary bandwidth for a given class of emission is defined as
the width of the frequency band that is just sufficient to ensure
the transmission of information at the rate and with the quality
required under specified conditions.
ITU Necessary Bandwidth
ª Between 0.001 and 999 Hz shall be expressed in hertz H

ª Between 1.00 and 999 kHz shall be expressed in kilohertz K
ª Between 1.00 and 999 MHz shall be expressed in megahertz M
ª Between 1.00 and 999 GHz shall be expressed in gigahertz G
Example:
What is the necessary bandwidth designation for 180.5 kHz?
A. 181K B. 180K5
C. 181K5 D. 180.5K
Answer. A
.HInt. The necessary bandwidth shall be expressed by 3 numerals and one

letter. The letter occupies the position of the decimal point and represents
the unit of bandwidth.
ª The ITU divides the world into three regions, with each region having
its own allocations although there is much commonality between the
regions.
ª Philippines frequency allocations belong to Region 3 of the ITU Radio

Regulations.
F. .ITU EMISSION DESIGNATION.
According to ITU (Article 4; Radio Regulations, Geneva, 1982 revised

1985), emission shall be designated according to their necessary
bandwidth and their classification.
DEFINITION. Classification of the signal is given by three alphanumeric

symbols.
FIRST SYMBOL
Type of Modulation of the Main Carrier
(1.1) Emission of unmodulated carrier N
(1.2) Emission in which the main carrier is AMPLITUDE MODULATED
(1.2.1) Double Sideband A
(1.2.2) Independent Sideband B
(1.2.3) Vestigial Sideband C
(1.2.4) Single Sideband, full carrier H
(1.2.5) Single Sideband, reduced or variable-level carrier R
(1.2.6) Single Sideband, suppressed carrier J

(1.3) Emission in which the main carrier is ANGLE-MODULATED

(1.3.1) Frequency Modulation F
(1.3.2) Phase Modulation G
(1.4) Emission in which the main carrier is amplitude and D
angle-modulated either simultaneously or in a
pre-established sequence.
(1.5) Emission of PULSES
(1.5.1) Sequence of unmodulated pulses P
(1.5.2) A sequence of pulse
(1.5.2.1) PAM K
(1.5.2.2) PDM/PWM L
(1.5.2.3) PPM M
(1.5.2.4) in which the carrier is angle-modulated
during the period of the pulse. Q
(1.5.2.5) which is a combination of the foregoing or

is produced by other means V
SECOND SYMBOL
Nature of Signal(s) Modulating the Main
(2.1) No modulating signal 0

(2.2) A single channel containing quantized or digital information 1
WITHOUT the use of a modulating subcarrier
(2.3) A single channel containing quantized or digital information 2
WITH the use of a modulating subcarrier
(2.4) A single channel containing analog information 3
(2.5) Two or more channels containing quantized or digital information 7
(2.6) Two or more channels containing analog information 8
(2.7) Composite system with one or more channels containing 9
quantized or digital information, together with one or more
channels containing analog information
(2.8) Case not otherwise covered X
THIRD SYMBOL
Type of Information(s) to be transmitted
(3.1) No information transmitted N

(3.2) Telegraphy (manual) A
(3.3) Telegraphy (automatic) B
(3.4) Facsimile C
(3.5) Data transmission, Telemetry, Telecommand D
(3.6) Telephony (including sound broadcasting) E
(3.7) Television (video) F
(3.8) Combination of the above W
(3.9) Case not otherwise covered X
ª Two or more optional symbols can be added to the basic

characteristics described above for a more complete description of an
emission (Appendix 6, Radio Regulation, ITU; Geneva, 1982).
T N T D N
FOURTH SYMBOL Details of Signal(s)

FIFTH SYMBOL Nature of Multiplexing
FOURTH SYMBOL
Details of Signal(s)
(4.1) Two-condition code with elements of differing numbers A

and/or conditions
(4.2) Two-condition code with elements of the same number and B
duration without error correction
(4.3) Two-condition code with elements of the same number and C
duration with error correction
(4.4) Four-condition code in which each condition represents a D
signal element (of one or more bits)
(4.5) Multi-condition code in which each condition represents a E
signal element (of one or more bits)
(4.6) Multi-condition code in which each condition or combinations F
of conditions represent a character.
(4.7) Sound broadcasting quality (monophonic) G
(4.8) Sound broadcasting quality (stereophonic or quadraphonic) H
(4.9) Sound of commercial quality J
(4.10) Sound commercial quality with the use of frequency inversion K
or band splitting
(4.11) Sound commercial quality with separate frequency-modulated L
signals to control the levels of demodulated signal
(4.12) Monochrome M
(4.13) Color N
(4.14) Combination of the above W
(4.15) Cases not otherwise covered X

FIFTH SYMBOL
Nature of Multiplexing
(5.1) None N
(5.2) Code Division Multiplex C
(5.3) Frequency Division Multiplex F
(5.4) Time Division Multiplex T
(5.5) Combination of frequency division multiplex and W
time division multiplex
(5.6) Other types of multiplexing X
G. .FCC EMISSION DESIGNATION.
FIRST SYMBOL
Type of Modulation of the Main Carrier
(1.1) Amplitude A
(1.2) Frequency or Phase F
(1.3) Pulse P
SECOND SYMBOL
Type of Transmission
(2.1) Absence of any modulation intended to carry information 0
(2.2) Telegraphy without the use of a modulating audio frequency 1
(2.3) Telegraphy by the on-off keying of a modulating audio frequency, 2
or by the on-off keying of the modulated emission (special case:
an unkeyed modulated emission)
(2.4) Telephony (including sound broadcasting) 3
(2.5) Facsimile (with modulation of main carrier directly or by a 4
Frequency-modulated subcarrier)
(2.6) Television (visual only) 5
(2.7) Four-frequency duplex telegraphy 6
(2.8) Multichannel voice-frequency telegraphy 7
(2.9) Cases not otherwise covered 9
THIRD SYMBOL
Supplementary Characteristics
(3.1) Double sideband
(3.2) Single sideband
(3.2.1) Reduced carrier A
(3.2.2) Full carrier H
(3.2.3) Suppressed carrier J
(3.3) Two independent sideband B
(3.4) Vestigial sideband C
(3.5) Pulse
(3.5.1) Amplitude modulated D
(3.5.2) Width (or duration) modulated E
(3.5.3) Phase (or position) modulated F
(3.5.4) Code modulated G
(3.6) Digital modulations Y
H. .FORMER DESIGNATION.
1. Amplitude Modulated (AM)
A0 No modulation
A1 Telegraphy; on-off ; no other modulation
A2 Telegraphy; on-off ; amplitude-modulated tone
A3 Telephony; DSBFC
A3A Telephony; SSBRC
A3J Telephony; SSBSC
A3H Telephony; SSBFC
A3B Telephony; ISB
A3Y Digital voice modulation
A4 Facsimile
A5C Television with vestigial sideband
A9B Telephony or telegraphy with ISB
A9Y Nonvoice digital modulation
2. Frequency or Phase–Modulated (FM/PM)
F1 Telegraphy; FSK
F2 Telegraphy; on-off ; frequency-modulated tone
F3 Telephony; FM or PM
F3Y Digital voice modulation
F9Y Nonvoice digital modulation
F4 Facsimile
F5 Television
F6 Telegraphy; four-frequency duplex
3. Pulse–Modulated
P0 RADAR
P1D Telegraphy; ASK
P2D Telegraphy; pulse-carrier tone-modulated
P2E Telegraphy; pulse-width tone-modulated
P2F Telegraphy; phase or position tone-modulated
P3D Telephony; amplitude-modulated pulses
P3E Telephony; pulse-width modulated
P3F Telephony; pulse phase or position-modulated

I. .TRANSMISSION MODES.
1. Simplex
Transmissions can occur only in one direction. Sometimes called one-
way-only, receive-only, or transmit-only.
2. Half-Duplex
Transmissions can occur in both directions, but not at the same time.
Sometimes called two-way-alternate, either-way, or over-and-out
systems.
3. Full Duplex
Transmissions can occur in both directions at the same time.
Sometimes called two-way-simultaneous, duplex, or both-way line.
4. Full/Full Duplex
Possible to transmit and receive simultaneously, but not necessary
between the same two locations (i.e. one station can transmit to a
second station and receive from a third station at the same time).
J. .CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS.
1. Two-Wire Transmission
Two-wire circuits are those that

carry information signals in both
directions over the same physical
link or path. Typically, such a circuit
is provisioned through the use of a
single twisted pair, copper wire
connection.
2. Four-Wire Transmission
Four-wire circuits are those that

carry information signals in both
directions over separate physical
links or paths, and in support of
simultaneous, two way
transmission.
K. .MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUE.
Multiplexing is a technique used in communications and input/output

operations for transmitting a number of separate signals simultaneously
over a single channel or line.
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
A unique band of frequencies within the wideband frequency spectrum

of the medium is allotted to each communication channel on a
continuous time basis.
2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Each communication channel is allotted a fixed time slot within a
sampling frame, occupying essentially the entire wideband frequency
spectrum for the allocated time.

Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM)

Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM) is much improved over
TDM, as the MUXs are intelligent. STDMs can allocate bandwidth, in
the form of time slots, in consideration of the transmission
requirements of individual devices serving specific applications.
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
WDM resembles FDM in that the idea is to send information signals

that occupy the same frequency band of frequencies through the same
fiber at the same time without them interfering with each other.
L. .TRANSMISSION FACILITIES.
In terms of bandwidth, and in contemporary digital context, transmission

facilities can be categorized as narrowband, wideband or broadband.
1. Narrowband
A single channel (64 Kbps) or some number of 64 Kbps channels (N ×
64 Kbps), but less than wideband.
2. Wideband
Wideband is multi-channel capacity that is between 1.544 Mbps and
45 Mbps according to U.S. standards (2.048 Mbps-34 Mbps according
to European/international standards.)
3. Broadband
Broadband is multi-channel capacity which is 45 Mbps according to
U.S. standards and 34 Mbps according to European/international
standards.
M. .TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS.
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The
imperfection causes signal impairment. This means that the signal at the
beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the
medium. What is sent is not what is received. Three causes of impairment
are attenuation, distortion, and noise.
1. Attenuation
A type of transmission impairment in which the signal loses strength due to
the resistance and length of the transmission medium.
A
TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
2. Distortion
The alteration of information in which the original proportions are
changed, resulting from a defect in communication system.
CHANNEL
SOURCE RECEIVER

3. Noise
A type of transmission impairment in which an outside source such as
crosstalk corrupts a signal.
SOURCE RECEIVER
N. .CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATIONS.
1. Distress
A mobile station in distress is in need of immediate assistance.
Communication Distress Signal
…---… or SOS sent as one character

Radiotelegraph
with no spacing between letters.
MAYDAY (from the French m’aider),

Radiotelephone usually transmitted three or more
times to attract attention.
2. Urgency
Radio messages with an urgency classification refer to a situation that
requires immediate attention and might conceivably become distress
in nature.
Radiotelegraph XXX
Radiotelephone PAN PAN
3. Safety
Radio communications with a safety classification refer to
meteorological information, particularly about storms, hurricanes, etc.
Radiotelegraph TTT
Radiotelephone SECURITY
O. .MESSAGE PRIORITIES.
1. Distress calls, messages, and traffic

2. Communications preceded by the urgency signal
3. Communications preceded by the safety signal
4. Communications relative to radio direction finding
5. Message relative to navigation of aircraft
6. Message relative to navigation, movements, and needs of ships
and official weather-observation messages
P. .OPERATIONAL WORDS.
Code Meaning
Roger I received your message.
I have completed transmitting and await

Over
your reply.
Go ahead Same as over.
I have completed my communication and

Out
do not expect to transmit again.
I have no further traffic. (Sometimes

Clear
used in place of Out)
Wait for another call or further
Stand by
instructions.
I am changing from one part of the
message to another. (Also used to
Break request the received operator to indicate
if he has received the portion of the
message transmitted thus far.)
Copy Respond to Break

Q. .INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET.
A Alpha J Juliet S Sierra

B Bravo K Kilo T Tango
C Charlie L Lima U Uniform
D Delta M Mike V Victor
E Echo N November W Whiskey
F Foxtrot O Oscar X X-ray
G Golf P Papa Y Yankee
H Hotel Q Quebec Z Zulu
I India R Romeo ---
I H
1. A 5-frame TDM multiplexer has a total frame period of 625 μs. If the timeslot
per channel is 5.208 μsec, determine the number of channels per frame and
the total number of digital channels.
A. 60, 12 B. 120, 24
C. 12, 60 D. 24, 120
2. If the measured wavelength is 6 m, calculate the frequency in MHz.

A. 25 MHz B. 10 MHz
C. 50 MHz D. 100 MHz
3. If several musical instruments are playing the same note, you should be able to
distinguish one instrument from another because of which of the following
characteristics of sound?
A. Frequency B. Intensity
C. Overtones D. Quality
4. A large volume of light radiating in a given direction is referred to as a

A. pencil B. beam
C. ray D. shaft
5. What are the primary colors of light?

A. Red, blue, and green B. Red, violet, and indigo
C. Blue, green, and violet D. Red, blue, and yellow
6. ____ noise is noise that has an equal amount of energy per octave.
A. Pink B. Yellow
C. White D. Blue
7. _______ is multi-channel capacity that is between 1.544 Mbps and 45 Mbps

according to U.S. standards (2.048 Mbps-34 Mbps according to
European/international standards.)
A. Wideband B. Baseband
C. Narrowband D. Broadband
8. Based on ITU-R Recommendations V.431-6, the adjectival designation of 30 to

300 kHz is _____.
A. ELF B. LF
C. ULF D. VLF

9. The world's first operational packet switching network, and the progenitor of
the global Internet.
A. DECNET B. ARPANET
C. ISDN D. NMT
10. ______ would have equal power in the frequency range from 40 to 60 Hz as in
the band from 4000 to 6000 Hz.
A. pink noise B. blue noise
C. white noise D. green noise
11. He hypothesized the existence of magnetic field around a current-carrying

conductor.
A. Michael Faraday B. Nikola Tesla
C. Andre Marie Ampere D. Karl Gauss
12. In FCC former designation, F3Y means ______.

A. Telegraphy; four-frequency duplex
B. Digital voice modulation
C. Telegraphy; FSK
D. Telephony; amplitude-modulated pulses
13. Based on ITU-R Recommendations V.431-6, the metric subdivision of 0.030 to

0.300 Hz is _____.
A. Decamegametric B. Gigametric
C. Myriametric D. Hectomegametric
14. ______ would have equal power in the frequency range from 40 to 60 Hz as in
the band from 4000 to 4020 Hz.
15. What is the wavelength for a color in the middle of the visible light band if the
visible light frequency range is from 0.39 PHz (red) to 0.79 PHz (violet)?
A. 5000 nm B. 50 nm
C. 5 D. 500 nm
16. The person who sent the first radio signal across the Atlantic ocean was:
A. Marconi B. Bell
C. Maxwell D. Hertz
17. What percentage of the VHF band does a 6-MHz TV signal occupy?
A. 2.2% B. 8.8%
C. 4.4% D. 1.1%
18. How many AM stations can be accommodated in a 0.15 MHz BW if the allocated
BW per station is 10 KHz?
A. 100 B. 50
C. 150 D. 15
19. How many international commercial AM broadcast channels (assume BW=10

KHz) can fit into the bandwidth occupied by a commercial FM broadcast channel
(assume BW=200 KHz)?
A. 20 B. 200
C. 10 D. 5
20. Determine the BW of sonic frequency range if the infrasonic frequency ends at
20 Hz while ultrasonic frequency begins at 20, 000 Hz.
A. 4 kHz C. 10 kHz
B. 8 kHz D. 19.98 kHz
21. What percentage of the audio passband does a high fidelity CD quality music
occupy?
A. 66.67% B. 43.25%
C. 74.82% D. 50%
22. A standard TV channel occupies 6 MHz of BW. If a standard commercial FM

broadcast channels is 200 KHz wide, how many of this channel can fit into the
bandwidth occupied by a commercial TV station?
A. 200 B. 30
C. 20 D. 300
23. In FCC former designation, A4 means ______.

A. Telegraphy; on-off ; amplitude-modulated tone
B. Facsimile
C. Nonvoice digital modulation
D. Digital voice modulation
24. Based on ITU-R Recommendations V.431-6, the adjectival designation of 0.003

to 0.030 GHz is _____.
A. VHF B. MF
C. SHF D. EHF
25. In AT&T FDM hierarchy the group BW is 48 KHz, determine the number of voice
channel that a supergroup can handled if it needs 5 groups to form a
supergroup.
A. 12 B. 300
B. 60 D. 600
26. Another name for amplitude shift keying

A. variable angle modulation B. minimum shift keying
C. continuous wave modulation D. beat frequency modulation
27. AM radio's main limitation is its susceptibility to

A. ignition noise B. Rayleigh fading
C. transit time noise D. atmospheric interference
28. A quasi-stationary noise with a finite power spectrum with a finite number of
small bands of zero energy dispersed throughout a continuous spectrum
A. white noise B. orange noise
C. violet noise D. blue noise
29. ______ is an arrangement of conductors designed to radiate (transmit) an

electromagnetic field in response to an applied alternating voltage and the
associated alternating electric current
A. transmission lines B. antenna
C. counterpoise D. stub

30. The transmission of radio waves was first done by:

A. Marconi B. Bell
C. Maxwell D. Hertz
31. A complete communication system must include:

A. a transmitter and receiver
B. a transmitter, a receiver, and a channel
C. a transmitter, a receiver, and a spectrum analyzer
D. a multiplexer, a demultiplexer, and a channel
32. In FCC former designation, P0 means ______.

A. Telephony; pulse-width modulated
B. Telephony; amplitude-modulated pulses
C. Digital voice modulation
D. RADAR
33. Radians per second is equal to:

A. 2πf B. f/2π
C. 2πλ D. 2π/λ
34. The bandwidth required for a modulated carrier depends on:

A. the carrier frequency
B. the signal-to-noise ratio
C. the signal-plus-noise to noise ratio
D. the baseband frequency range
35. When two or more signals share a common channel, it is called:

A. sub-channeling B. signal switching
C. SINAD D. Multiplexing
36. The wavelength of a radio signal is:

A. equal to f /c
B. equal to c /2πf
C. the distance a wave travels in one period
D. how far the signal can travel without distortion
37. In FCC former designation, A9B means ______.

A. Facsimile
B. Television with vestigial sideband
C. Telephony or telegraphy with ISB
D. Telephony; SSBRC
38. Distortion is caused by:

A. creation of harmonics of baseband frequencies
B. baseband frequencies "mixing" with each other
C. shift in phase relationships between baseband frequencies
D. all of the above
39. The power density of "flicker" noise is:

A. the same at all frequencies B. greater at high frequencies
C. greater at low frequencies D. the same as "white" noise
40. So called "1/f" noise is also called:

A. random noise B. pink noise
C. white noise D. partition noise
41. The part, or parts, of a sinusoidal carrier that can be modulated are:
A. its amplitude
B. its amplitude and frequency
C. its amplitude, frequency, and direction
D. its amplitude, frequency, and phase angle
42. In FCC former designation, F5 means ______.

A. Telephony; SSBFC B. Facsimile
C. Television D. Telephony; FM or PM
43. It is also known as differentiated white noise or violet noise

A. pink noise B. green noise
C. blue noise D. purple noise
44. In 1820, he discovered the relation between electricity and magnetism, later
known as electromagnetism.
A. Michael Faraday B. Hans Christian Oersted
C. Karl Gauss D. Nikolai Tesla
45. In 1886, a German physicist performed an experiment on spark gap

transmission verifying Maxwell statement experimentally showed the existence
of such waves which he called radio waves that paved the way for wireless
communication.
A. Guglielmo Marconi B. Dr. Hidetsugi Yagi
C. Heinrich Hertz D. Isaac Asimov
46. A transmission technique where each communication channel is allotted an

epoch or time slot within a sampling frame, occupying essentially the entire
wideband frequency spectrum for the allocated time.
A. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
B. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
C. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
D. Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM)
47. He developed the first wireless telegraph and successfully sent a message over
a distance of few kilometers using a spark gap transmitter.
A. James Clerk Maxwell B. Edwin Arsmtrong
C. Guglielmo Marconi D. Heinrich Hertz

0.300 THz is _____.
A. micrometric B. kilometric
C. millimetric D. decimicrometric
49. In FCC former designation, F6 means ______.

A. Telephony; FM or PM
B. Television
C. Telegraphy; four-frequency duplex
D. Telegraphy; FSK

50. The theory of radio waves was originated by:

A. Marconi B. Bell
C. Maxwell D. Hertz

30.0 kHz is _____.
A. Hectomegametric B. Hectokilometric
C. Myriametric D. Decamegametric
52. Defined as the noise that has equal amount of energy per frequency.
A. Pink Noise B. Transit-time noise
C. Blue Noise D. White Noise
53. In FCC former designation, P3D means ______.

A. Telegraphy; pulse-width tone-modulated
C. Telegraphy; phase or position tone-modulated
D. Telephony; pulse-width modulated
54. Radio waves travel at what speed?

A. Speed of the Earth's rotation
B. Speed of light
C. Speed of the Earth's orbit around the sun
D. Speed of sound
55. Which of the following types of energy cannot be seen, heard, or felt?
A. Heat waves B. Sound waves
C. Light waves D. Radio waves
56. The operational word “I have completed transmitting and await your reply”
means
A. Break B. Over
C. Roger D. Copy
57. Hectomegametric occupies the frequency band of ______.

A. 0.3 to 3 Hz B. 0.030 to 0.300 kHz
C. 300 to 3000 MHz D. 30 to 300 kHz
58. In FCC former designation, P2E means ______.

A. Telegraphy; pulse-carrier tone-modulated
C. Telegraphy; pulse-width tone-modulated
59. A sound wave that moves back and forth in the direction of propagation is an
example of which of the following types of wave motion?
A. Longitudinal B. Composite
C. Concentric D. Transverse
60. What wave propagation principle accounts for the apparent increase in
frequency as a train whistle approaches and the apparent decrease in
frequency as it moves away?
A. Reflection B. Diffraction
C. Refraction D. Doppler effect
61. What is the urgency signal in radiotelegraphy?

A. MAYDAY B. XXX
C. SOS D. PANPAN
62. What are the three audible frequency ranges?

A. Infrasonic, sonic, and ultrasonic
B. Infrasonic, subsonic, and ultrasonic
C. Infrasonic, subsonic, and supersonic
D. Subsonic, sonic, and supersonic
63. The operational word “I have completed my communication and do not expect
to transmit again” means
A. Over B. Copy
C. Out D. Roger
64. Noise that is the opposite of pink noise in that it doubles the amount of energy
each time you go up 1 octave.
A. Yellow B. White
C. Blue D. Magenta
65. The number of times a particular phenomenon occurs in a given period of time
expressed in Hertz.
A. Period B. Crest
C. Frequency D. Wavelength
66. ______ is the distance between two points of similar cycles of a periodic wave
or the distance traveled by an electromagnetic wave during the time of one
cycle typically expressed in meters.
A. Peak-to-peak value B. Crest
C. Wavelength D. Period
67. ______ is f2-f1, where for frequencies inside the f1<f<f2 the magnitude spectra
fall no lower than 0.707 times the maximum value magnitude, and the
maximum value occurs at a frequency inside the band.
A. -3dB bandwidth B. FCC bandwidth
C. zero-crossing BW D. Bounded spectrum bandwidth
68. What is the distress signal in radiotelephony?

A. PANPAN B. XXX
C. TTT D. MAYDAY
69. In FCC former designation, A3A means ______.

A. Telephony; FM or PM B. Telephony; SSBRC
C. Telephony; SSBSC D. Telephony; DSBFC
70. Radio signals are made up of

A. Electrons and protons B. Electric and magnetic fields
C. Voltages and currents D. Noise and data
71. Electromagnetic waves produced primarily by heat are called

A. Microwaves B. Shortwaves
C. X-rays D. Infrared rays

72. Noise whose power density increases 3 dB per octave with increasing frequency
over a finite frequency range.
73. In FCC former designation, P3F means ______.

A. Telephony; amplitude-modulated pulses
B. Telephony; pulse phase or position-modulated
74. Another name for signals in the HF range is

A. Shortwaves B. Microwaves
C. Millimeter waves D. RF waves
75. A micron is
A. One-millionth of a foot B. One-thousandth of a meter
C. One ten-thousandth of an inch D. One-millionth of a meter
76. Radio-frequency waves cannot be seen for which of the following reasons?
A. Because the human eye detects only magnetic energy
B. Because radio-frequency waves are below the sensitivity range of the
human eye
C. Because radio-frequency waves are above the sensitivity range of the
human eye
D. Because radio-frequency energy is low powered
77. In FCC former designation, A3J means ______.

A. Telephony; SSBSC B. Telephony; SSBRC
C. Telephony; SSBFC D. Telephony; DSBFC
78. In FCC former designation, P2D means ______.

B. Telephony; pulse-width modulated
C. Telephony; amplitude-modulated pulses
D. Telegraphy; pulse-width tone-modulated
79. ______ is the difference between the upper and lower frequency limits (f2-f1),
where the spectrum is zero outside the interval f1<f<f2 along the positive
frequency axis.
A. half-power BW B. zero-crossing BW
C. -3dB bandwidth D. Absolute bandwidth
80. In FCC former designation, P2F means ______.

A. Telephony; amplitude-modulated pulses
B. Telegraphy; pulse-carrier tone-modulated
81. The process of transmitting two or more information signals simultaneously

over the same channel is called
A. Mixing B. Telemetry
C. Modulation D. Multiplexing
82. Recovering information from a carrier is known as

A. Modulation B. Detection
C. Demultiplexing D. Carrier recovery
83. In FCC former designation, P3E means ______.

A. Telephony; pulse-width modulated
B. Telegraphy; phase or position tone-modulated
C. Telephony; amplitude-modulated pulses
84. ______ is a technique used in communications and input/output operations for

transmitting a number of separate signals simultaneously over a single channel
or line.
A. Accessing B. Polling
C. Multiplexing D. Contention
85. Centimetric wave occupies the frequency band of ______.

A. 0.3 to 3 GHz B. 0.030 to 0.300 MHz
C. 3 to 30 GHz D. 30 to 300 MHz
86. A unique band of frequencies within the wideband frequency spectrum of the
medium is allotted to each communication channel on a continuous time basis.
A. Time Division Duplexing (TDD)
B. Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
D. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
87. In FCC former designation, A3H means ______.

A. Telephony; DSBFC B. Telegraphy; SSBSC
C. Telegraphy; FSK D. Telephony; SSBFC
88. _____ can allocate bandwidth, in the form of time slots, in consideration of the
transmission requirements of individual devices serving specific applications.
A. Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM)
B. Passive Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
D. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
89. A single channel (64 Kbps) or some number of 64 Kbps channels.

90. _______ is multi-channel capacity which is 45 Mbps according to U.S.

standards and 34 Mbps according to European/international standards.
91. What is the distress signal in radiotelegraphy?

A. SOS B. PANPAN
C. MAYDAY D. XXX

92. Based on ITU-R Recommendations V.431-6, the adjectival designation of 30 to

300 Hz is _____.
A. ULF B. VLF
C. ELF D. LF
93. The operational word “I am changing from one part of the message to another”
means
A. Roger B. Copy
C. Break D. Over
94. Noise whose power density increases 6 dB per octave with increasing frequency
over a finite frequency range.
A. pink noise B. green noise
C. blue noise D. purple noise
95. ______ for a given class of emission is defined as the width of the frequency
band that is just sufficient to ensure the transmission of information at the rate
and with the quality required under specified conditions.
A. -3dB bandwidth B. Necessary Bandwidth
C. Absolute bandwidth D. half-power BW
96. In FCC former designation, A3 means ______.

B. Telephony; DSBFC
C. Telephony; ISB
D. Telephony; SSBRC
97. In 1822, he discovered electromagnetic induction, the reverse of Oersted

discovery.
A. Michael Faraday B. Joseph Henry
C. James Clerk Maxwell D. Wilhelm Weber
98. In 1866, put together the principles of Oersted and Faraday and hypothesized
the existence of electromagnetic waves.
A. Guglielmo Marconi B. Arthur Clarke
C. Heinrich Hertz D. James Clerk Maxwell
99. decimillimetric occupies the frequency band of ______.

A. 30 to 300 kHz B. 300 to 3000 GHz
C. 0.3 to 3 GHz D. 0.030 to 0.300 THz
100. What is the urgency signal in radiotelephony?

A. PANPAN B. XXX
C. MAYDAY D. SECURITY
101. In a time-domain plot, the horizontal axis is a measure of ________.

A. signal amplitude B. frequency
C. phase D. time
102. If the bandwidth of a signal is 5 kHz and the lowest frequency is 52 kHz,
what is the highest frequency?
A. 57 KHz B. 47 KHz
C. 10 KHz D. 5 KHz
103. Electronic communications was discovered in which century?

A. 16th century B. 19th century
th
C. 18 century D. 20th century
104. One-way communications is called

A. Half duplex B. Full duplex
C. Monocomm D. Simplex
105. ________ is a type of transmission impairment in which the signal loses

strength due to the different propagation speeds of each frequency that makes
up the signal.
A. Attenuation B. Distortion
C. Noise D. Decibel
106. Television broadcasting occurs in which ranges?

A. HF B. EHF
C. VHF D. SHF
107. The frequency range of infrared rays is approximately

A. 30 to 300 GHz B. 4000 to 8000 Ǻ
C. 1000 to 10,000 A D. 0.7 to 100 μm
108. Given two sine waves A and B, if the frequency of A is twice that of B, then
the period of B is ________ that of A.
A. one-half B. twice
C. the same as D. indeterminate from
109. _________ can impair a signal.

A. Attenuation B. Noise
C. Distortion D. All of the above
110. ________ is a type of transmission impairment in which the signal loses

strength due to the resistance of the transmission medium.
C. Noise D. Decibel
111. The communications medium causes the signal to be

A. Amplified B. Modulated
C. Attenuated D. Interfered with
112. Which of the following is not a source of noise?

A. Another communications signal
B. Atmospheric effects
C. Manufactured electrical systems
D. Thermal agitation in electronic components
113. When propagation speed is multiplied by propagation time, we get the

________.
A. throughput
B. wavelength of the signal
C. distortion factor
D. distance a signal or bit has traveled

114. The _________ product defines the number of bits that can fill the link.
A. bandwidth-period B. frequency-amplitude
C. bandwidth-delay D. delay-amplitude
115. Baseband transmission of a digital signal is possible only if we have a ____

channel.
A. low-pass B. low rate
C. bandpass D. high rate
116. In the United States, the electromagnetic spectrum is regulated and

managed by
A. Business and industry B. ITU
C. FCC D. The United Nations
117. For a given bandwidth signal, more channel space is available for signals in
the range of
A. VHF B. UHF
C. SHF D. EHF
118. Frequency and period are ______.

A. inverse of each other B. proportional to each other
C. the same D. B and C
119. A _________ sine wave is not useful in data communications; we need to

send a _______ signal.
A. composite; single-frequency
B. single-frequency; composite
C. single-frequency; double-frequency
D. complex, composite
120. ________is the rate of change with respect to time.

A. Amplitude B. Frequency
C. Time D. Voltage
121. Calculate the energy related to the frequency occupied by VLF.

A. 124 μeV to 1.24 μeV B. 1.24 peV to 12.4 peV
C. 12.4 peV to 124 peV D. 124 meV to 1.24 eV
122. Communication is the process of

A. Keeping in touch B. Broadcasting
C. Exchanging information D. Entertainment by electronics
123. ________ is a type of transmission impairment in which an outside source

such as crosstalk corrupts a signal.
C. Noise D. Decibel
124. As frequency increases, the period ________.

A. decreases B. increases
C. remains the same D. doubles
125. The approximate wavelength of red light is

A. 1000 μm B. 7000 Ǻ
C. 3500 A D. 4000 A
126. Which of the following is not used for communications?

A. X-rays B. Millimeter waves
C. Infrared D. Microwaves
127. A sine wave in the ______ domain can be represented by one single spike in
the _____ domain.
A. time; frequency B. frequency; time
C. time; phase D. phase; time
128. Receiving electromagnetic emissions from stars is called

A. Astrology B. Optical astronomy
C. Radio astronomy D. Space surveillance
129. A person communications hobby for individuals is

A. Ham radio B. Electronic bulletin board
C. CB radio D. Cellular radio
130. For a ______ channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical
maximum bit rate.
A. noisy B. noiseless
C. bandpass D. low-pass
131. If the available channel is a ____ channel, we cannot send a digital signal
directly to the channel.
A. low-pass B. bandpass
C. low rate D. high rate
132. The original electrical information signal to be transmitted is called the

A. Modulating signal B. Carrier
C. Baseband signal D. Source signal
133. The process of modifying a high-frequency carrier with the information to be

transmitted is called
A. Multiplexing B. Telemetry
C. Modulation D. Detection
134. A periodic signal completes one cycle in 0.001 s. What is the frequency?
A. 1 MHz B. 1 kHz
C. 100 Hz D. 1 Hz
135. In a frequency-domain plot, the horizontal axis measures the ________.

A. peak amplitude B. frequency
C. phase D. slope
136. The _____ of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies contained in that signal.
A. frequency B. period
C. bandwidth D. amplitude

137. _______ describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0.

A. Frequency B. Phase
C. Amplitude D. Voltage
138. Calculate the energy related to the frequency occupied by ELF.

A. 124 feV to 1.24 peV B. 1.24 peV to 12.4 peV
C. 12.4 peV to 124 peV D. 124 peV to 1.24 neV
139. Simultaneous two-way communications is called

A. Half duplex B. Full duplex
C. Bicomm D. Simplex
140. Continuous voice or video signals are referred to as being

A. Baseband B. Analog
C. Digital D. Continuous waves
141. Transmission of graphical information over the telephone network is

accomplished by
A. Television B. CATV
C. Videotext D. Facsimile
142. A sine wave is ________.

A. periodic and continuous B. aperiodic and continuous
C. periodic and discrete D. aperiodic and discrete
143. If the maximum amplitude of a sine wave is 2 V, the minimum amplitude is

________ V.
A. 2 B. 1
C. -2 D. between -2 and 2
144. Measuring physical conditions at some remote location and transmitting this
data for analysis is the process of
A. Telemetry B. Instrumentation
C. Modulation D. Multiplexing
145. Radar is bases upon

A. Microwaves
B. A water medium
C. The directional nature of radio signals
D. Reflected radio signals
146. A frequency of 27 MHz has a wavelength of approximately

A. 11 m B. 27 m
C. 30 m D. 81 m
147. The voice frequency range is

A. 30 to 300 Hz B. 300 to 3000 Hz
C. 20 Hz to 20 kHz D. 0 Hz to 15 kHz
148. A signal occupies the spectrum space from 1.115 to 1.122 GHz. The
bandwidth is
A. 0.007 MHz B. 7 MHz
C. 237 MHz D. 700 MHz
149. A signal is measured at two different points. The power is P1 at the first point
and P2 at the second point. The dB is 0. This means ________.
A. P2 is zero B. P2 equals P1
C. P2 is much larger than P1 D. P2 is much smaller than P1
150. For a ______ channel, we need to use the Shannon capacity to find the
maximum bit rate.
A. noisy B. noiseless
C. bandpass D. low-pass
--End of Text--

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Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 1-1

Section Basic Principles of Read it

DEFINITION. Electronic Communication is the transmission, reception, and

DEFINITION. Allocation: Entry in the Table of Frequency Allocations of a

DEFINITION. Allotment: Entry of a designated frequency channel in the

DEFINITION. Assignment: Authorization given by a nation for a radio

1821 Andre Marie Ampere already observed momentarily the phenomenon

1822 Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction, the reverse of

1830 An American, Joseph Henry, demonstrated telecommand by sending

Samuel F.B. Morse, successfully exploited Henry’s invention

Loading ECE SUPERBook

1886 German physicist, Heinrich Hertz performed an experiment on spark

1896 An Italian, Guglielmo Marconi developed the first wireless telegraph

1900 Reginald Aubrey Fessenden, invented AM and successfully transmits a

1936 Major Edwin Armstrong developed the first successful FM radio

A. .NOMENCLATURE OF RADIO FREQUENCY BAND.

Based on ITU-R Recommendations V.431-6

B. .ELEMENTS OF BASIC COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM.

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Read it till it Hertz…jma

ª Purple noise - Purple noise's power density increases 6 dB per octave

It is also known as differentiated white noise or violet noise.

ª Orange noise - Orange noise is quasi-stationary noise with a finite

ª Black Noise - Noise that has a frequency spectrum of predominately

Modulation is the process of varying a carrier signal, typically a sinusoidal

Three General Subdivisions

 Amplitude modulation (AM)

 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

3. Hybrid Modulation (combined analog digital techniques)

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 Pulse Frequency Modulation (PFM)

1. Time Domain Representation

ii. Wavelength (λ)

iii. Period (T)

Relation between Wavelength, Frequency, and Period

ECE Board Exam: APRIL 2005

2. Frequency Domain Representation

The time and frequency domain representation of three sine waves

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 Doppler Frequency of Sound Waves

(a) ν ≈ 345 m s , ν s = 33.5 m s, ν o = 0 (observer is not moving)

(b) ν ≈ 345 m s , ν s = 33.5 m s , ν o = 24.6 m s

(c) ν ≈ 345 m s , ν s = 33.5 m s , ν o = 24.6 m s

 Doppler Frequency of Electromagnetic Waves

For the Doppler Shift :

E. .ENGINEERING DEFINITIONS OF BANDWIDTH.

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2. -3dB bandwidth (Half-power BW)

3. Null-to-null bandwidth (zero-crossing BW)

4. Bounded spectrum bandwidth

Read it till it Hertz…jma

…2 LEGAL DEFINITIONS OF BANDWIDTH

ª ITU Necessary Bandwidth

ITU Necessary Bandwidth

ª Between 0.001 and 999 Hz shall be expressed in hertz H

.HInt. The necessary bandwidth shall be expressed by 3 numerals and one

Amplitude modulation (AM)

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Pulse Frequency Modulation (PFM)

Doppler Frequency of Sound Waves

Doppler Frequency of Electromagnetic Waves