EVOLUTION

“Variability of Evolution”
Lecturer: Dr. H. Syahmi Edi, M.Si

Submitted By: Group 4

1. Dinda Anggita Maysarah (4183141061)
2. Ivana Odelia Nainggolan (4183141021)
3. Tyas Kinanti (4181141014)

Bilingual Biology Education 2018

BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCE
UNIVERSITAS NEGERI MEDAN
2020
 FOREWORD

We thank to Allah SWT because His blessing and mercy we can complete
Evolution assignment, also this paper about “Variability of Evolution”. We feel very
grateful to our lecturer and our assistant laboratory who teach us patiently.
The authors realize that this paper assignment still has many shortcomings,
therefore the writer expects criticism and suggestions. Hopefully this assignment can
be useful for all of us Amin.

Medan, September 2020

Group 4

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
FOREWORD i
TABLE OF CONTENT ii
CHAPTER I PRELIMINARY 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Problem Formulation 2
1.3 Objectives 2

CHAPTER II DISCUSSION 3
2.1 Variability 3
2.2 Factors That Can Cause Diversity of Individuals 3
2.3 Factors of Diversity 5
2.4 Mutation 5
2.5 Type of substitution mutation 7

CHAPTER III CLOSING 13

3.1 Conclusion 13
3.2 Suggestion 13

BIBLIOGRAPHY 14

ii
 CHAPTER I
PRELIMINARY
1.1. Background
Evolution is a cornerstone of modern science, accepted as one of the most
reliably established of all facts and theories of science, based on evidence not just
from the biological sciences but also from anthropology, psychology,
astrophysics, chemistry, geology, physics, mathematics, and other scientific
disciplines, as well as behavioral and social sciences. Evolution is the change
inheritable traits of biological populations over successive generations.
Evolutionary processes give rise to diversity at every biological organization level
(IFC - Editorial board, 2016).
This change is caused by a combination of three main processes, namely
variation, reproduction, and selection. The characteristics that form the basis of
evolution are carried by genes that are passed on to the offspring of living things
and become variables in a population. When organisms reproduce, the offspring
will have new traits. New traits can be obtained from changes in genes due to
mutations or gene transter between populations and between species. In species
that reproduce sexually, new gene combinations are also generated by genetic
recombination, which can increase the variation between organisms (Kardong,
2005).
Variability (diversity) is a major factor of evolution. The diversity of the
population can be caused by environmental influences, namely due to the non-
uniform and constant conditions of living organisms. The environment often
obscures the genetic characteristics possessed by an organism, whereas genetic
variability is the diversity caused by genetic differences due to segregation and
interactions with other genes. Genetic diversity indicates the criteria for genetic
diversity. A wide genetic diversity is one of the requirements for an effective
selection program, and the selection of the desired characters will be more
meaningful if these characters are easily inherited (Safuan, et al., 2014).
The population consists of a number of individuals but no two individuals are
the same. This difference will be visible or not. If there is a selection to determine
a variant and a favorable selection for other variants in a population, then the
composition can change over time because the characteristics of the population
are determined by the individuals in it. Phenotypic variation within a population
can lead to selection (differential reproduction) between individuals. These
variations do not necessarily indicate genetic differences. The variation due to
various external conditions in the timing of growth can be recognized by natural
selection. The act of natural selection on all kinds of variations can change the

1
 make-up of a population in a short time, but on the other hand, the action on
variations that reflect genetic differences has a long-term effect. So, phenotypic
variation is not the raw material for evolution. Evolution is about genetic traits of
a population, not traits of individuals. The variation due to meiosis and
recombination in the vertilization of organisms is a very important factor. Cross
displacement, translocation, chromosomal aberration is the next recombination.
To know diversity, you have to start from a very small, but very important
structure in determining offspring. That structure is DNA. Genetic variation is the
only possibility that can explain the evolutionary process. Genetically, variations
can arise from mutations (Hall, 2012).

1.2. Problem Formulation

1. How does the variability process occur?
2. What are the factors that cause diversity to emerge?
3. What is the ability of organisms to adapt to different environments?

1.3. Objectives
1. To explain the process of variability;
2. To describe the factors that cause the emergence of diversity;
3. To explain the ability of organisms to adapt to different environments.

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 CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
2.1 Variability
Genetic variability is a measure for the predisposition of various individuals
in a population to have different genotypes of different genotypes. Variability in a
trait (character) describes how the trait is mutable for respond to environmental
and genetic influences. Modern evolutionary theory argues that traits the nature of
living things changes and that change is directed by natural selection. Example:
human population shows variation in human population shows variation in facial
expression, skin pigmentation, face color, skin pigmentation, hair and hair color
and the form of hair shape, hair, body shape, height and weight, blood type and so
on(Mariadi, 2013).
Diversity (variability) is a major factor of evolution. This matterproposed by
Lamarck, Darwin, and other experts after them. Withoutdiversity, evolution won't
happen. Evolution means a change in traitsheredity is inherited a population of
organisms population of organisms from one generation to the next. from one
generation to the next. Something individuals cannot be said to have evolved, but
it is the population that has the change that the individual obtains is a change in
the expression of potential growth that contains genes that contain the genes that
are carried (Agung, 2011). brought (Agung, 2011).

2.2 Factors That Can Cause Diversity of Individuals

The modern theory of evolution holds the view that:
1. The properties of living things change with time
2. These changes are directed by natural selection
3. Sex, can introduce new gene combinations into population. This genetic
shuffling is another important source of genetic variation
The changes discussed are not changes in the individual throughout his life
(although these changes can occur because of an important contribution to his
life), but these changes in character concern a population over several
generations. An individual cannot be said to have evolved, only the population
can experience that. The genetic makeup of an individual has been determined
since the event has been determined since the occurrence fertilization process,
namely the union between the fertilization process, namely the union between
spermatozoid and egg cell. The changes obtained by theozoid and egg. Obtained
change. This individual is a change in the expression of the growth potential
contained in the genebrought. However, within the population both the
composition and expression of potency growth can experience growth can

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change. change. Changes in genetic composition This change in genetic
composition is what is called evolution.
In nature there are two factors that work in harmony, namely causal factors
diversity and the factors that work to maintain the integrity of a species.
1. Genetic variation as a basis for evolution
A population consists of a number of individuals, but in that
population there are not two similar individuals. In the human population we
can see the differences from anatomical, physiological and behavioral
characteristics. We can also see this in the animals we encounter around us
around us (Widodo et al., 2003). (Widodo et al., 2003). The population
consists of a number of individuals from a number of individuals who have
important characteristics but are different but different one another in many
ways. This difference is visible or not real. If there is a selection to find
several variants and selection favorable to other variants in the population, the
composition is subject to change over time because the nature of the
population is determined by the individuals who are in in depth Phenotypic
variation (depth phenotypic variation (Agung, 2011). Agung, 2011).
Phenotypic variations in a population can lead to selection (reproduction
differential) between individuals. These variations do not necessarily indicate
differences. So, genetic variation. Thus, the variation due to various
conditions is due to various external circumstances in time and due to time
growth can be recognized by selection al growth can be recognized by natural
selection. Am action. The action of natural selection on sega; a kind of natural
selection on sega; a kind of natural selection variation can change the makeup
of a population in a not long time span, however on the other hand, the action
of the variation which reflects genetic differences has long term impact. So
variations are long term influences. So the truly phenotypic variation is not a
raw material in the phenotypic enaris not an internal raw material evolution.
Athletic body shape with hard training, formation of high thinking power
Studying or maintaining health by eating a balanced diet cannot
change gene composition in sex cells. Genes remain in the composition do not
see if it has been do hard training, study hard and so on. This means outside
factors being exemplified cannot change the genetic trait or it cannot produce
an evolution by producing a biological evolution (Widodo, biological
(Widodo, et al., 2003). et al., 2003). One thing that is in genetic variation, but
not useful as material standard of evolution, evolution, namely variations in
variations caused by somatic mutations. somatic. Important important
mutations can occur in ectoderm cells of a young embryonic ectoderm of an
animal. The cells of the differentiation result of the cell differentiation

4
 experiencing this mutation will be inherited in the growth and development
range this individu. The result of this mutation will affect the nervous system,
but this mutation will not be passed on to the next generation because these
mutations do not occur in cells sex. Ectoderm cells are not cells that will
become gametes. Therefore, that selection the resulting somatic mutation
cannot produce an evolutionary change in living things that reproduce
sexually living things that reproduce sexually (Widodo, (Widodo, et al.,
2003). et al., 2003).
2. Genotypic variation
Evolution is about the genetic traits of a population, not the traits of
individuals. As we know that new alleles always arise from variations. Once
formed a variation of various alleles, recombination is a mechanism given
variation genotypic infinity in a population. Variations as a result of meiosis
and recombination in the fertilization of organisms is a very important factor.
Move cross, translocation, translocation chromosome aberration, chromosome
aberration is a recombination which is the next recombination (Widodo, et al.,
200 next (Widodo, et al., 2003).

2.3 Factors of Diversity

To be able to understand this we have to start from one structure the smallest,
but very important in the determination of heredity. That structure is DNA. DNA
consists of four kinds of nucleic acids, namely Adenine (A), Cytosine (C),
Guanine (G), and Thymidine (T). The last acid in the RNA is replaced by Uracil
(U). The four kinds of nucleic acids form 20 kinds of essential amino acids. It is
now known that a combination of all fourkinds of nucleic acids will form one
type of nucleic acid will form one amino acid. amino acid. This combination is
known as a triplet. This combination is known as a triplet codon or genetic code
(Widodo, et al., 2003). If there are 2 kinds of nucleic acids that make up one
amino acid, then only obtained 16 kinds of combinations for 16 amino acids so
that will not be found 4 kinds of other essential amino acids. With three
combinations, you will get 64 kinds possibility. It turns out that in general, each
one amino acid is coded by about 3 kinds combination. There are amino acids
encoded by a single combination, whereas there are amino acids coded by 6 kinds
of combinations. Thus, an amno acid can be produced more, not only because the
code is repeated but because there is more many possible many possibilities
(Widodo, et al., 2003).

2.4 Mutation

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 Mutations are the main source of all genetic variation and they are things
essential in evolution by natural selection as a large part of the genome of living
things formed by mutations and random gene flow (Barton, 2010). A mutation is
changes in the genetic genetic material of an organism that an organism can be
inherited from offspring. Mutations can change a gene, so that it can produce an
allele new or affect the structure of the structure and expression of gene
expression depending on the location of the mutation site this occurs (Lewis-
Rogerset al. 2004). Snustad et al. (2012) stated that mutations include changes in
a specific areas in a gene are called point mutations. Point mutations include
substitutions a base pair with another base pair, insertion, or deletion of one of
several nucleotide pairs in a specific area of a particular gene. Point mutations
include three types, namely transition, transversion, and frameshift frameshift
mutation. Transition mutations are the substitution of purine bases with purines
and pyrimidines with pyrimidines. Transversion mutations are the substitution of
purine bases with pyrimidines and pyrimidines with purines; whereas frameshift
mutation is the addition or deletion of one or two base pairs nucleotides that
change the reading frame of the gene (Snustad et al. 2012).
The role of recombination in the evolutionary process of the evolutionary
process Crossing over free combinations results in new gene combinations.
Selection nature will retain the appropriate combinations. Recombination is a
genetic variation in addition to other alternatives. Another role of recombination,
namely the evolution of the mechanisms that promote the exchange of genetic
material between individuals, is evident at all organisms (from prokaryotes to
eukaryotes) (Klug, et al. 2012) Recombination will allow the cell to repair its
nucleotide sequences lost when DNA molecules are damaged by radiation or
chemical compounds. Replacement sequence is done by replacing the damaged
part with a piece of skewer The DNA of its homologous chromosomes. The DNA
involved in recombination is generally different molecules having a homologous
area with the nucleotide sequence which is very similar. Homologous molecules
side by side and interact through exchange of identical polynucleotide portions
catalyzed identical polynucleotide enzyme endonucleases. Recombination is also
assisted by a shift in the strings that causes it to occur crossover events. cross.
Branching Branching crossovers produces aheteroduplex. heteroduplex.
OnTheheterodulex polynucleotides were interrupted closed by DNA ligase
enzymes. Subsequently, editing is exchanged through branch migration (Lewis-
Rogerset al. 2004). If recombination does not occur, a destructive mutant allele
will result the entire chromosome is eliminated from the population. However,
with recombination, the allele mutates it can separate from other genes on the
chromosome. Then negative selection can be removes imperfect alleles of a gene

6
 from the population at once affect the frequency of alleles linked to the mutant
gene. This thing, can keep the size the target for mutations is still within the scope
of genes, not the entire chromosome (Klug et al. 2012).

2.5 Type of substitution mutation

Mutations are the source of all genetic variation, and are the ingredients of
evolution. The ability of organisms to adapt to environmental changes depends on
the presence of genetic variation in natural populations and genetic variation that
is partly generated by mutations. However, mutations also have harmful effects
and mutations are also a source of various diseases (Pierce, 2012).
Based on the types of cells that have mutations, there are known somatic and
mutations germinal mutation. Germinal mutations, also known as germ line
mutations, are gametic mutations that occur in germ cells. Whereas somatic
mutations occur in somatic cells. Somatic mutations in animals (including
humans) until now cannot be inherited, while in plants (for example,
dicotyledons) somatic mutations can be inherited through asexual or sexual
reproduction. Germinal mutations, the result of dominant mutations can be
immediately expressed in the offspring. Conversely, if the result of the germinal
mutation is recessive, the effect of the mutation is not detected (even though it is
inherited) because of the heterozygous. If the germinal mutation occurs in a
spermatozoa or ovum gamete cell, then only one offspring can inherit the mutant
gene if the gamete involved in the fertilization process but if the mutation is one
spermatogonia cell or one oogonia then some gametes will inherit the mutant
gene (in one round of meiosis) (Pierce, 2012).
On the basis of the scope of events, there are known gene mutations and
chromosomal mutations. Gene mutations can take the form of changes to DNA
sequences including base pair substitution and adhesion or deletion of one or
more base pairs. Gene mutations consist of kinds of gene mutations, namely point
mutations, base pair change mutations, transverse mutations, misen mutations,
nonsense mutations, neutral mutations, silent mutations, skeletal change
mutations, forward mutations, reverse mutations, and suppressor mutations.
Chromosome mutations are mutations that occur in chromosomes. These changes
can be in the form of changes in chromosome structure or changes in the number
of chromosomes (Klug, et al. 2012)
Base pair replacement mutations are changes that occur in a gene in the form
of replacement of one base pair by another base pair. Transition mutations are one
type of base change mutation, for example, substitution of pyrimidine bases with
other pyrimidines. Transverse mutation is another type of base change mutation,

7
for example, the replacement of purine bases with pyrimidines or vice versa
(Pierce, 2012).
Misensation mutations are mutations that occur due to changes in a base pair
(in genes) which results in a change in a genetic code, so that the associated
amino acid (in the polypeptide) changes. One base change mutation can give rise
to a misensation mutation. Examples of misensation mutations in humans, for
example, occur in the beta globin gene which results in a change in an amino acid
in the beta hemoglobin chain so that it can cause sickle-cell anemia (Tamarin,
2001; Klug et al, 2012; Pierce, 2012).
A nonsense mutation is a change in base pairs that result in the occurrence
changes in a genetic code coding for amino acids into a genetic code coding for
termination. Neutral mutation is the replacement of a base pair associated with the
occurrence changes in a genetic code which also causes changes in related amino
acids but does not result in changes in protein function (Pierce, 2012). The silent
mutation is a special type of neutral mutation. In silent mutations occur
replacement of a base pair in a gene that causes changes in one genetic code, but
does not result in changes / changes in the coded amino acids. Mutation skeletal
changes occur due to the addition or adhesion of one or more base pairs in one
gene. A point mutation is a gene mutation that affects only one pair of nucleotides
in a gene. In general, point mutations can be divided into 2 types, namely front
mutations and reverse mutation. Forward mutations are mutations that change the
wild-type. Back mutations can restore polypeptides that were previously partially
functional or non-functional due to mutation of genes into fully or partially
functional polypeptides. A reverse mutation that fully restores protein function
occurs when the mutation occurs at exactly the same site (in the gene) where the
previous mutation took place that restores the original (wild-type) nucleotide
sequences (Pierce, 2012).
Other mutations are mutations that are influenced by morphological
characteristics. For example, all the characters that J.G. Mendel and most of the
characters in Drosophila ever reviewed. Some mutations give rise to nutritional or
biochemical variations deviating from normal conditions. There are groups or
types of mutations called mutations lethal. Lethal mutations result in a cell or
living being unable to live. An example of a lethal mutation is in bacteria
associated with an inability to synthesize specific amino acids. The bacteria will
die if cultured on a medium that does not contain these amino acids (Pierce,
2012).
a. Chromosome Mutations
Chromosome mutations are divided into two types, namely in the form
of changes in chromosome structure and changes in the number of

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chromosomes. Changes in chromosome structure, which are chromosome
mutations, can be in the form of changes in the number of genes and changes
in gene location. Changethe number of genes occurs due to deletions and
duplications whereas changes in gene location occur due to inversion and
translocation. Kinds of chromosome mutations that cause changes the number
of chromosomes is centric fusion, centric fission, aneuploidy, and monoploidy
as well polyploidy (Pierce, 2012).
Deletion is a chromosome aberration (chromosome mutation) in the
form of a structural change that results in the loss of a segment of genetic
material from a chromosome. If deletion occurs at the end of the chromosome
it is called a terminal deletion, whereas if deletion occurs not at the end of the
chromosome it is called intercalar deletion.
Deletions occur due to chromosome break induced by causative
factors such as heat, radiation, viruses, and chemical compounds or even by
errors in the enzyme recombination. Deletion detection can occur with the
help of karyotype analysis, if the deleted chromosome is large enough that it
can be seen when homologous chromosomes are juxtaposed. Deletion
detection can also be done with the help of observations about the presence or
absence of curvature when the two homologous chromosomes are paired
(Klug et al. 2012). Examples of deletions that have been reported are
Drosophila and humans. The deletion in Drosophila causes the Notch effect.
The phenotype of the notch can be seen by the indentation of the wing on the
posterolateral edge. Whereas in humans examples of deletions areDuplication
is a chromosome aberration that occurs due to the presence of a chromosome
segment more than once on the same chromosome. If the duplicated segments
are sequential, it is called tandem duplication. Otherwise it is called reverse
tandem, and if the duplication is located at the end of the chromosome it is
called terminal duplication. One example of duplication is the one that gave
rise to Bar's eye on D. melanogaster. Bar-eyed D. melanogaster individuals
have slit-like eyes due to reduced eye facets.
Inversion is a chromosome mutation, a part of a chromosome has
genes that are reversed in order compared to the sequence of genes on normal
chromosomes. Inversion causes a segment of the chromosome to be reversed
180 degrees. inversion can also cause some genes to be damaged and can
transfer other genes at a new location. The translocation is an event of moving
a part of a chromosome to part of other chromosomes that are not homologous
(Pierce, 2012).
The fusion (fusion) of chromosomes and the separation (fission) of
chromosomes are sometimes referred to as Robertson changes or

9
 Robertsonium changes. Chromosome fusion occurs when two homologous
chromosomes combine to form one chromosome while fission occurs when
one chromosome is separated into two. Robersonium translocation is a type of
non-reciprocal translocation which results in the joining of the long arms of
two acrocentric chromosomes (only the centromere is included). One example
of Robersonium translocation is that which gives rise to the Familial Down
Syndrome that has been described previously. In
nonreciprocatingtranslocations it is the armchromosome length 14. The
subsequent development of such individuals (normal phenotype) will act as
carriers which will lead to familial down syndrome when mating with a
normal partner (Pierce, 2012).

b. Aneuploidi
Aneuploidy is an abnormal condition caused by the loss of one or
more chromosomes in one pair of chromosomes, or caused by an increase in
the number of chromosomes. chromosomes in a pair of chromosomes than the
number they should be. Aneuploidy can be divided into nullisomy,
monosomy, trisomy, tetrasomypentasomy, and so on. In the nullisomy of both
chromosomes of a missing chromosome pair, the total number of
chromosomes is expressed as 2n - 2 if the nullisomy occurs in only one
chromosome pairs. In monosomy only one chromosome from a pair of
chromosomes is missing, the total number of chromosomes is expressed as 2n
- 1 (if monosomy only occurs on one pair of chromosomes). In triosomy the
number of chromosomes is something chromosome pairs increase by one, the
total number of chromosomes is expressed as 2n (if trisomy occurs in only
one chromosome pair). Aneuploidy can occurs from abnormal segregation
(there is an event of failure to separate) at the time of meiosis (Klug, et al.,
2012). In general, tetrasomy, pentasomy and so on are less common than
trisomy. Monosomic and nulisomic individuals often cannot survive.
However, monosomic individuals have been found in the wheat plant
Triticumaestivum. It has already been mentioned that in humans examples of
aneuploidy have been found both nullisomy, monosomy, trisomy, and so on
(Pierce, 2012).
Down syndrome which is also called Mongolism is caused by
chromosome 21, Down syndrome was practiced in the 19th century. People
with Down Syndrome experience severe mental retardation, have abnormal
palms, and facial features. typical, as well as below average height. These
sufferers reach an average age of 16 years, although some who can reach
adulthood, rarely have children. Palau syndrome is caused by trisomy on

10
 chromosome 13. Patients with this syndrome have cleft lip and palate, as well
as severe eye, brain and cardiofascular defects. Edwards syndrome is also
caused by trisomy, on chromosome 18. This patient has malformations in only
every organ system.

c. Polyploidy
Polyploidy occurs due to the doubling of the whole chromosome set.
In this case, triploid and tetraploid derivatives can appear from individuals
classified as diploid. Polypoidy can also produce pentaploid, hexaploid, and
so on. The phenomenon of polyploidy is more common in plant species than
in animal species. In the relationship polyploidy phenomenon is rare among
animals, the following reasons or explanations are presented.
1. Polyploidy disturbs the balance between autosomes and the sex
chromosomes useful for gender determination.
2. Most animals perform cross-fertilization in the case of a polyploid
individual newly formed unable to reproduce on their own.
3. Animals have more complex developments which can be influenced by
changes caused by polyploidy for example in relation to cell size which
ultimately changes the size of the organs.
4. If among plants, polyploid individuals often arise from duplication in the
hybrids, but among animals the hybrids are usually inviable or sterile.
Because polyploidy is rarely found among animals (for example as a
result of hybrids or inviable derivatives), detection of this phenomenon in
animal groups is often carried out through direct and spontaneous analysis of
the absorbed fetus. The odd number of chromosome sets in ploiploidy usually
does not last from generation to generation. A polyploid living being that has
The unbalanced (unequal) number of homologous chromosomes usually does
not produce gametes that are genetically balanced (Klug, et al. 2012).
Polyploidy is related to meiosis, other information states that polyploidy
can occur as a result of distortion during meiosis which results in gametes that
do not experience reduction. In this case it is argued that if a gamete that is
not reduced (for example in a diploid individual) joins a normal (haploid)
gamete then the zygote formed is classified as triploid and vice versa if the
joined gametes are not reduced (in diploid individual) then the zygote formed
is classified as a tetraploid (Pierce, 2012)
d. Monoploidy

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 An event that causes a living thing, for example, which is usually
classified as a diploid, only has one set of chromosomes is called monoploidy.
Sometimes menoploidy is referred to as haploidy, but the latter term is usually
used specifically among gamete cells. Monoploidy rarely occurs probably
because of many individuals monoploids cannot survive due to the influence
of lethal mutant genes (including recessive ones) (Klug, et al., 2012).

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 CHAPTER III
CLOSING
3.1 Conclusion
Genetic variability is a measure for the predisposition of various
individuals in a population to have different genotypes of different genotypes.
Diversity (variability) is a major factor of evolution. This matterproposed by
Lamarck, Darwin, and other experts after them. Without variability, evolution
will not happen. The modern theory of evolution holds the view that: The
properties of living things change with time, These changes are directed by
natural selection and sex, can introduce new gene combinations into
population. The changes discussed are not changes in the individual
throughout his life (although these changes can occur because of an important
contribution to his life), but these changes in character concern a population
over several generations. In nature there are two factors that work in harmony,
namely causal factors diversity and the factors that work to maintain the
integrity of a species. The ability of organisms to adapt to environmental
changes depends on the presence of genetic variation in natural populations
and genetic variation that is partly generated by mutations. However,
mutations also have harmful effects and mutations are also a source of various
diseases

3.2 Suggestion
This paper contains variability of evolution, this paper is very suitable
for students to read for the development of science, especially in the course of
evolution, for the development of future papers it is hoped that a more
structured completeness is expected in terms of the discussion presented
regarding variability of evolution, the factors that cause diversity and the
ability of organisms to adapt to different environments.

13
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Barton, N. H. 2010. Mutation and the evolution of recombination. Philosophical
Transaction of the Royal Society, B 365: 1281 –1294.
Hall, S. S. (2012). Journey to the genetic interior. Scientific American, 307(4) : 80-84.
https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican1012-80
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Widodo, Lestari U., Amin, M. 2003. Bahan Ajar Evolusi. Malang: UM Press

Definisi variabilitas
Asal usul variabilitas
Penyebab variabilitas
Genetika populasi
Seleksi alam

Penyebab variabilitas (genetika,populasi,seleksi alam)

Faktor yang menyebabkan variabilitas (genetik dan lingkungan) yang membentuk
organisme
Apa saja yang berkaitan dengan variabilitas, berkaitan dengan evolusinya
Macam macam variabilitas
Perbedaan genotip dan venotip

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