The Main Battletank worldwide

by Wolfgang Schneider

The desintegration of the Warsaw Treaty and the discontinuation of the decades long East-
West conflict – once again – rang the bell for the supposed end of the main battle tank.
Conceptional theorists in many countries did their best to give reasons for that in eloquent
papers, more or less comprehensible. They use to point out that in future conflicts the MBT is
not useful because it is only optimized for frontal engagement versus equal systems. Facing
asymmetric threats and for combat in urban terrain under future engagement profiles rather
„light“ or „medium“ systems are required. Right from the start these theories lacked logic and
were simply based on wrong assumptions. In fact an MBT is far more cross country mobile
than a wheeled vehicle, and especially when facing opponents in heavily built-up areas highly
protected systems are required. This was just recently painfully experienced by the US and
UK forces in the last Iraqi war. Other mentally confused thinkers maintained that an MBT
will always escalate the situation on the spot, light systems would calm down aggression
because they look more peaceful. Believe me, nothing is more de-escalating than the sound of
a 1500 HP engine and the muzzle of a large caliber gun some bad guy is looking into!
The wide-spread Shinseki euphoria has been superseded by certain disillusionment. The
„Medium-Forces“ theories more and more turn out to be „medium nonsense“.
The new IED threat has been inflicting devastating damage even to heavily protected vehicles
let alone to poorly protected ones.
Decisive factor for these wanderings has been mostly for those who looked at a simple way to
trade complex and costly systems for low-cost wheeled ones. Unfortunately threat does not
show consideration for ignorant mental constructs like this at the expense of the affected
persons, the fighting soldiers.

Another aspect is the question about the specific „requirement“, i.e. a good many countries
link the requirement for an MBT on their (missing) intention to be able to fight under HIW
options, to say reduced to the purpose of national defense. Under these aspects it is highly
debatable whether South American countries should carry out conflicts with each other with
MBT fleets or whether it is reasonable that a certain NATO country procures large numbers
of modern MBTs in order to prepared against another NATO ally. But also countries which
are „only surrounded by friends“ has to decide whether they should maintain MBT units out
of foreign policy reasons in order to be able to look after their national interest or that of a
coalition in other parts of the world.

Still under the deep impact of the last Iraqi war both, the USA and UK, had adjusted their
original equipment plans or changed the mission profile of some units (e.g. STRYKER
brigades in the USA).
In spite of all these errors the MBT is still the most powerful ground system because it
combines high protection and an effective armament. So it is not astonishing at all that in
many countries the MBT still forms the backbone of the fighting elements and that there are
numerous modernizations and follow-on procurement plans.
Looking at the specific consideration of the single geo-strategic regions it will be analysed in
the subsequent chapters how the major players in that region are currently equipped and
which changes has to be expected in the near future. The different states of modernization will
be taken into consideration because they result in significant gradings with regard to quality.
Middle East

Contrary to the current situation in Europe the security environment in this region has been
remained almost unchanged. Due to clear statements of several political representatives the
existence of Israel still remains under dispute keeping tension high and causing a lasting
threat for Israel. In spite of the presently calm relations with Egypt and Jordan there is no
guaranty that potential ground attacks could only come from the Syrian side. According to
that Israel maintains a large armoured force and belongs to those countries which constantly
modernize system components and improve armament.
Israel has succeeded in supplementing resp. replacing the British and US systems gradually
with its high standard indigenous tank MERKAVA. Having retrieved the majority of the
CENTURIONS and M48s – which underwent numerous upgrading by the time – the active
MBT fleet is now much more uniform, and consists beside 1400 MERKAVA of 1085
M60A1/M60A3 tanks. In slow production at the moment is the MERKAVA 4.
The MERKAVA has been developed in the early 70ies predominantly focusing on crew
protection and is world-wide the only heavy MBT with the powerpack in the front. After
introduction of KE ammunition this fact has been proved problematic. Necessary armour
add-on in the frontal hull area has increased nose heaviness of the vehicle generating a nasty
pitching effect during cross-country rides. Anyway, mobility is not the MERKAVA´s most
conspicuous feature due to the layout of the running gear and the low specific weight. The
main goal to realize a high ballistic protection level has been reached and again increased in
the MERKAVA 4.
The Mark 1 and 2 tanks were armed with the 105 mm M68 gun. Ammunition stowage is 62
or more. One 7.62 mm MG is mounted coaxially on the left side of the gun. Two 7.62 mm
ADMG are mounted externally and occasionally for training purposes or during urban
fighting a 12.7 mm MG is mounted on top of the gun mantlet. 10.000 rounds of 7.62 mm
ammunition are carried. A 60 mm SOLTAM mortar is carried externally with a stowage of 30
mortar bombs. The Mark 1 was protected by laminated armour, the Mark 2 has additional
external armour plates on the turret and special armour on the hull front. The gunner's
periscope has a magnification of x1 or x8 and incorporates a laser rangefinder. Mark 1 was
equipped with the Matador Mk 1 digital fire control system. Mark 1 and 2 have the
CENTURION type helical spring suspension. They are powered by the Teledyne Continental
AVDS-1790-6A V-12 diesel engine of 662 kW. The MERKAVA Mark 2 is equipped with
the more advanced Matador Mk 2 fire-control system. All Mark 1 tanks were upgraded to this
standard.
During the production the Mark 2 Bet were characterized by the introduction of thermal
sights. Another upgrade step was the adoption of additional armour plates on the chassis and
the turret (sometimes designated Mark 2D = Dalet modules). The visual difference is that the
additional modules on the turret sides are curved downwards as to the later Merkava Mark 3
modules which extend sideways.
The MERKAVA Mark 3 is armed with a 120 mm smoothbore gun with 50 rounds of
stowage. Turret controls are now electric. The gunner's fully stabilized sight has a
magnification of x12. This version has the Matador Mark 3 FCS. Turret and hull have special
armour. This version is powered by the Teledyne AVDS-1790-9AR diesel of 882 kW coupled
to a new Ashot transmission. The suspension consists of roadwheels mounted independently
on trailing arms and pairs of concentric coil springs. The tank is provided with a threat
warning system developed by Amcoram.
Later Mark 3 received improved armour (Mark 3 Bet tanks).
The MERKAVA Mark 3 Bet BAZ has a revised armour package, an improved suspension
and a new fire control system designated BAZ (Barak Zoher which means "Shining
Lightning") with an auto-tracking system based on the video output from a TV camera (either
day or IR light). The commander has now an independent panoramic sight. Later this version
was also equipped with new modular add-on Dalet armour easily identified by the extended
side modules on the turret (sometimes called Mark 3D).
The Mark 4 is powered with a 1100 kW engine (license of German MTU GD883) coupled to
the Renk RK325 automatic transmission with 5 forward gears, has upgraded armour, fire
control improvements, a battlefield management system, an independent thermal viewer in the
commander´s periscope, an air-conditioning system and is able to fire tube-launched missiles.
Israeli M60 MBTs have several modifications including Urdan cdr's cupola. Most tanks have
Blazer explosive reactive add-on armour and a third external 12.7 mm MG behind the gun
mantlet and a fourth 7.62 mm MG in front of loader's hatch. Latest upgrades (MAGACH-7)
include a passive armour package fitted to the front parts, turret front and sides and forward
roof section and comprise a new type of skirts. To compensate the 5 tons add in weight an
upgraded AVDS-1790-5A engine with 668 kW is installed. The Elbit/ELOP Matador
computerized fire control system is also being installed.

In this geographical region nearly all MBTs can be found which exist in the world.
The neighbouring countries follow different procurement planning. While Syria still relies on
Russian support, Egypt has moved towards US systems; Jordan took over the
CHALLENGERS Mk. 1 discharged by the United Kingdom and is looking for upgrade
options. On the other hand the technical setbacks of the CHALLENGERs has been taken into
account and Jordan also fields 268 M60A1/A3 tanks. Additionally several technical studies
has been launched to re-gun the CHALLENGERs including considerations to replace the
whole turret by an own development. Still in the inventory are also 350 KHALID tanks
(derived from the British CHIEFTAIN but with Perkins Condor 12V 1200 diesel engine (882
kW) coupled to a TN37 transmission with bogie type suspension. This tank is fitted with a
Pilkington PE Condor commander's day/night sight. Main armament is the standard L11A5
120 mm gun firing separate ammunition. The Marconi IFCS fire-control system has a laser
rangefinder.
The current main opponent Syria – as already mentioned equipped with Russian tanks
-operates as its most advanced type the T-72M1 of which 122 has been upgraded with the
TURMS-T package. This Tank Universal Reconfiguration Modular System for the T-series
(TURMS-T) from Galileo Avionica comprises a modular third-generation computerized
day/thermal fire-control system. It includes gunner´s and commander´s stabilized sights and a
turret management computer. The program includes installing of new armour and integration
of the KBP 9K119 Refleks tube-launched ATGM.

It is necessary not only to look at the neighbour countries of Israel but also to the remaining
Arabic region where other potential anti-Israel force providers like Iran or Saudi-Arabia are.
Especially the latter one is in the focus of massive external and internal destabilizing efforts
with the risk that parts of its large high quality armour could be misused by a third party. Also
countries like the UAE, Oman or Bahrain dispose of MBTs and could slip into the role as
contingent providers for conflict parties. These Gulf countries have British, American or
French tanks. Bahrain has 180 M60A3, Oman 38 CHALLENGER 2 (the CHALLENGER 2
ordered by Oman have an improved cooling system for the engine, a single pin track and has
the 7.62 mm loader's MG replaced by a 12.7 mm pintle-mounted one) but also 47 M60A3, the
UAE have 388 tropicalised LECLERC. For hot climate employment the tank is equipped with
an MTU 883 V-12 diesel engine with 1103 kW coupled to a Renk HSWL 295 TM five gear
automatic transmission, improved cooling and filter system. Other modifications for the UAE
version include the installation of the GIAT FINDERS (Fast Information Navigation Decision
and Reporting System), additional side armour protection, externally mounted auxiliary
power unit and an air-conditioning system. The commander´s SFIM HL-80 stabilized sight
has a laser range finder and a thermal imager. The roof mounted 7.62 mm MG can be aimed
and fired by remote control.
Qatar still operates 32 obsolete AMX 30.
The Iran has a mixture fleet of British, American and Russian systems, due to lack of spare-
parts its operational status is partially critical. The locally designed MBT ZULFIQAR is
remarkable but its performance do not match with advanced models. In license production is
the T-72S of which more than 200 have been introduced.
The new Iraqi Army has 100 T-72 (77 from Hungary) as well as 50 refurbished T-55.
Egypt has its former Soviet arsenal almost complete replaced with US systems. Main system
is the M1A1 ABRAMS of which until now 555 has been license produced, another 325 are in
integration. Aside from that Egypt has acquired 835 M60A3 within FMS and has another 680
M60A1 in use.
Saudi-Arabia, too, has the ABRAMS in its disposal but in the A2 – configuration, however
not in the US heavy armor variant. In all 315 are in the inventory. Moreover Saudi Arabia has
406 stored M60A3; some 200 also mothballed AMX 30s are not any more serviceable and
will be put out of service use. The third ABRAMS user is Kuwait with 236 in the A2 variant.
Some 150 still existing M-84 as well as 45 CHIEFTAIN are in storage but not any more
operational.
Due to the re-unification Yemen has an east-west mixture (57 T-72, 706 T-54/55, 120 T-62,
140 M60A1).

With all these countries in common is that their relatively large fleets cannot be manned by
regular peacetime strength. All units are to a high degree dependent on mobilization. This
raises problems with regard to depot organization; accordingly critical is the numerical
service readiness. Exercises above platoon level are only occasionally conducted, the know-
how for armour employment on higher unit level is partially not in existence. Gunnery
training has a low standard, modern gunnery and tactical simulators are not in use. As proved
in several conflicts in this region an average training standard is sufficient to gain local
superiority in combat.

Asia

Moving away from the Middle East to Asia the situation is characterized by the Indo–
Pakistan and the Korean conflict areas, the quantitative dominance of the People´s Republic
of China and the presence of really different states of equipment. They reach from upright
indigenous constructions in Japan up to totally obsolete equipment in countries like Vietnam.
Numerically considerable arsenals are in use in Pakistan and India. At least 35 tank regiments
in India are equipped with 1700 T-72 AJEYA (mostly in the M1 version). As the most
advanced tank the T-90S BHISMA is under delivery, a further 255 are already in service use.
124 has been delivered from Russia, another 441 will be assembled locally. The ill-fated
indigeneous project ARJUN started serial production in July 2004. 124 of this clumsy tank
are ordered, obviously due to pure political reasons.
For some time Pakistan has been relying on quite effective Chinese systems which gradually
will replace the old systems (250 Type 69 and 1200 Type 59). The most modern systems are
200 Type 85IIAP tanks and the Type 90 tanks currently under delivery; out of 300 ordered
more than 100 are already delivered. Local designation is AL KHALID. The technical
description is shown in the chapter about China. Parts of the old Type 59 tanks will be
upgraded (designation then AL ZARAR). The Pakistan AL-ZARRAR is armed with the 125
mm gun common to the T-80UD with a semi-automatic loading system, an image-stabilized
fire-control system, explosive reactive armour, improved suspension, an explosion
suppression system and an Ukrainian 5TDRF diesel developing 537 kW.
Technically widespread is the equipment in China. Actually the majority of the tank fleet is
formed by obsolete tanks of Type 59/69 (still more than 5000 in service) but in the last 10
years remarkable efficient systems have been developed. These are the Type 80, 85 and 96
tanks. Of these 1000, 450 resp. 1200 are in service use.
The Type 80/85-II/85-IIA is still armed with 105 mm rifled gun with 46 rounds. I has torsion
bar suspension with hydraulic shock absorbers on the first two and last two wheel stations.
The Type 80 has an individual NBC protection system, the other versions a collective one.
The Type 80 is a hybrid tank using the Soviet-style cast turret on a new hull. The driver has
been moved to the front left of the hull. Production tanks were later all designated Type 88.
The Type 88 has the laser rangefinder and the main sight integrated into one unit placed on
top of the turret. It incorporates Built-in-Test functions.
Type 88B is an improved variant with the gun-loading system redesigned to handle the 105
mm ammunition. The original Type 37A light spot fire-control was replaced by an image-
stabilized FCS JSFCS-212.
The Type 88A is a further improved version of the Type 88B armed with the Type 83-I 105
mm gun with longer gun tube. Later the Type 88A were fitted with FY series double
explosive reactive armour. The combat load is 48 rounds.
Type 85-I is a basic Type 80 with a new welded turret and thermal gun sleeve.
Type 85-II was modernized with solid-state electronics.
Type 85-IIA is slightly heavier (39.5 t) than Type 85-II and has a combat load of 44 rounds.
Type 85-IIM prototype was the first Chinese tank with 125 mm gun and automatic loader, as
Type 85IIAP it was exported to Pakistan. It has a welded turret design with the use of
composite armour. Early type still with external laser range finder on the gun mantlet later
integrated in the main sight. These 125 mm tanks have cross-wind sensors on top of the rear
turret roof. Later versions have automatic transmission. The Type 85-IIAP has a weight of 41
tons and a hull length of 9.3 m (overall length is 10.28 m); the width is 3.45 m and the height
is 2.3 m. It has a powerpack of 537 kW and is equipped with steel tracks for rough terrain
employment. Maximum speed is 57 km/h with a maximum range of 600 km. Combat load is
52 rounds 125 mm (22 in the autoloader), 500 12.7 mm and 2250 7.62 mm.
The Type 90 series had strong resemblance with the Soviet T-72 and was the basis for export
efforts while the Chinese Army later introduced the Type 98 MBT. The original Type 90-II
prototype was powered with a 882 kW Perkins CV12-1200 engine and had already a digital
FCS. The Type 90-IIA was intended for Pakistan with a French 1103 kW engine. Due to
embargo reasons the Ukrainian 6TD engine was chosen (Type 90-IIM); it was license built as
AL-KHALID. Combat weight is 48 tons, combat load is 39 rounds 125 mm ammunition.
Type 96 (formerly designated Type 88C or Type 85-III) tanks have new roof-mounted gunner
´s sight and the ISFCS-212 fire control system. The tank has a weight of 42.5 tons and is still
powered with a 735 kW engine. This version has composite armour in the front turret and
hull sections.
The most advanced tank is the currently issued Type 98 of which approximately 80 has been
delivered yet.
The Type 98 has increased armour protection including spaced armour track skirts in the front
part and a stronger engine (883 kW) based on the German MB871-Ka5091 MTU model
resulting in a higher weight of 50 tons. Maximum speed is 70 km/h with a maximum range of
450 km. The tank can be equipped with a ZM-87 low-energy laser weapon for engaging
optronics of opposing tanks and helicopters. The 125 mm 50-calibre gun is an indigenous
design derived from the Chinese 120 mm smoothbore gun technology. It can fire a Chinese
version of the 9K119 Refleks tube launched missile with a maximum range of 5000 m. The
commander is equipped with a roof-mounted stabilized periscope and a display showing the
gunner' s thermal image. The tank has an information processing system using the vehicle' s
navigation (GPS/inertia) system and sensor data like laser warning signals.
All versions can ford up to 5 metres depth using a snorkel attached in front of the
commander's cupola. Combat load for both versions is 41 rounds.
Both Type 96 and Type 98 were introduced in parallel. The latter one has considerably higher
unit costs and is issued to a limited number of elite units. A further developed variant is the
Type 99 tank. The Type 99 (Type 98G) has a more advanced arrowhead passive armour
package over the frontal arc. Additional armour packages are attached on the front turret arc.
The tank is powered by a stronger 1102 kW engine resulting in a road top speed of 80 km/h.
The vehicle weight is 54 tons. The dimensions are 11 m length, 2.2 m height and 3.4 m width.
This modern tank has an advanced FCS. The commander also has a roof-mounted stabilized
sight with day and night channels. The tank commander has a display showing the gunner´s
thermal image enabling him to fire on the move. The thermal imaging system uses cooled
detectors of the SPRITE technology and has a magnification of x11.4 narrow field of view
and x5 in the wide field of view.
The above mentioned Pakistani AL KHALID is based on the Type 90-IIM prototype. The 46
tons tank retains the 125 mm gun and has explosive-reactive add-on armour. It is powered by
the Ukrainian 6TD-2 engine producing 882 kW and an auxiliary power unit. Maximum speed
is 70 km/h. The tank can perform submerged driving up to 5 m and is equipped with a GPS
hybrid navigation system.
On the Korean peninsula large inventories on both side of the two Korean countries are
opposing each other, admittedly with big technical differences. Core of the South Korean
tank corps are about 1000 Type K1 tanks, in fact a miniaturized M1 ABRAMS. The new 120
mm variant A1 is currently in production, 320 are expected for delivery. Exotically are the 43
T-80U delivered by Russia. In reserve units are also old M47 and M48; only 597 M48A5s are
still in the regular units. It has been revealed that a new generation tank is under development
with a weight of 55 tons and a 1500 HP engine. This XK-2 or KNMB is expected to start
serial production in 2011.
The hostile North has a numerically large fleet but it consists without any exception of
obsolete systems. These are 1500 T-54/55s and 1200 T-62s as well as 175 Chinese Type 59
tanks.
Contrary to the country size Taiwan has with 910 PATTON tanks (450 M48H and 460
M60A3) a – threat oriented – large inventory. Besides that there are also 675 M41 light tanks
(partly modernized). The M48H (local designation CM-12 „Brave Tiger“) is a dubious hybrid
tank with M48A3 turrets (upgunned with 105 mm gun) on a standard M60A3 hull. In the end
it would have been cheaper just simply to buy more M60A3 tanks.
The remaining country inventories are low. Only Japan has with more than 1000 tanks a
major fleet of which are 861 Type 74 and currently 229 Type 90 tanks which is still in low
scale production. The almost worn-out Type 74 (produced since 1975) has weapon
stabilization in both axis and a simple ballistic computer with laser rangefinder housed in the
commander's sight (x1 and x8 magnification). The gunner sitting in front of the commander
has the J2 infra-red periscope with x1 and x8 magnification. Main armament is the 105 mm
L7A3 (55 rounds), secondary armament consists of coaxial 7.62 mm MG (4500 rounds) and
12.7 mm ADMG outside armour with external ammunition feed (660 rounds). It has a raised
driver's hatch with three periscopes protruding over glacis. The hydro-pneumatic suspension
can be raised or lowered to give a ground clearance of 0.2 to 0.65 m. Automotive features are
the Mitsubishi 10ZF Type 22 WT 10-cylinder air-cooled diesel engine and the manual
Mitsubishi MT75A transmission (6 forward, 1 reverse gears). The tank has deep wading
capabilities and an NBC collective protection system.
I was later upgraded with gun thermal sleeves, add-on turret roof and front armour, passive
thermal infra-red night vision system.
The Type 90 tank has as main armament the Rheinmetall 120 mm smooth-bore gun as used in
the LEOPARD 2. The gun is fitted with an auto-loader in the rear turret bustle with blow-up
roof plates. A 7.62 mm coaxial MG and one 12.7 mm ADMG are in use. The computerized
fire control system includes a Neodym-YAG laser rangefinder, a digital ballistic computer
and a mast mounted cross wind sensor. The gunner's sight is provided with a thermal sight.
The gun controls are either electric or manual. Behind the mantlet a laser warning sensor is
placed on the turret roof. The hybrid suspension consists of four hydro-pneumatic units and
two torsion bars for the two centre wheels, it enables longitudinal hull adjustments (+/- 15
cm). An NBC system is installed, there is no deep-wading capability.

America

The situation in South America is quite heterogeneous. When taken into account the pending
acquisition of 118 Leopard 2A4s from German surplus by Chile it can be said that there is a
latent danger of “resonant rise” of power. A similar situation aroused after the procurement of
LEOPARD 1 tanks from different sources by Brazil and Chile.
Aside from 128 (formerly Belgian) LEOPARD 1A1 has Brazil 91 M60A3TTSs and 287 M41
light tanks in use. The Marines have 18 SK-105A2 KÜRASSIER light tanks. Chile had
received 200 LEOPARD 1V tanks from the Dutch Army and had – like the Brazilians –
logistical problems right from the start. At least it was logical to correct this bad investment,
the leap to LEOPARD 2 is remarkable. Chile will operate the most potent system on this
continent.
Since a long time Peru disposes of a remarkable fleet of 375 T-55 tanks (plus 110 AMX-13
light tanks). Other MBT users are Argentina with a mixture of light vehicles. Numerical core
is with 376 TAM tanks the license version based on the hull of the German; moreover there
are 118 SK105 KÜRASSIER tanks and 55 AMX-13 light tanks. The latter ones are being
withdrawn and replaced by 40 locally assembled PATAGON light tanks which in fact are
SK105 hulls acquired from Austrian surplus and equipped with FL-12 turrets taken from the
AMX-13. Combat value of this light tank fleet is lower than a LEOPARD 1 equipped
formation but mobility of smaller tanks is more suitable in problematic terrain conditions
which are quite common in many South American regions. This is the reason that several
countries operate systems like that. Also Bolivia is KÜRASSIER user with 34 units. The
Dominican Republic has 2 AMX-13 and 12 M41A1 tanks. Ecuador ´s army is equipped with
104 AMX-13 (81 retrofitted with Soptac 18 fire-control system), Uruguay operates 22
M41A1 equipped with 90 mm Cockerill gun. Also in the inventory are 15 ex-Israeli T-55
armed with the L7 105 mm gun. Venezuela operates 70 AMX-30 and 50 SCORPIONS with
90 mm gun.
The other South and Central American countries do not operate MBTs resp. light tanks except
Cuba, of course. But the quantitative large arsenal of 400 T-62 and 600 T-54/55 is mostly not
operational and could mainly only be used in stationary mode like the 400 depot stored T-34.
Also the other former “socialist” country Nicaragua has Soviet delivered tanks (31 T-55).
At least it is striking how financial capabilities and procurements made due to security
considerations gape apart.
Worldwide operating the USA keep a large powerful MBT fleet, mainly consisting of M1A1
and M1A2 ABRAMS.
The M1A1 is armed with the Rheinmetall 120 mm smooth-bore gun. Many internal
improvements compared with the original M1 which was armed with the 105 mm main gun
were made. The tank has a collective NBC and ventilation system initiated automatically by a
sensor. It has a new improved two-stage heating system, modified final drives, transmission
upgrading, stronger shock absorbers. The M1A1 for the USMC (182) have the deep water
fording kit with two snorkels.
M1A2 features important modifications. A commander's stabilized independent day/thermal
sight on the front left turret roof is integrated. A carbon dioxide laser rangefinder, an
improved commander's weapon station and a battlefield management system are in use. The
armour protection is further enhanced (depleted uranium) comparable with M1A1 HA.
Current M1A2s are produced in the "SEP" (System Enhanced Package) configuration.
Previously converted A2 will be modified, too. The SEP include upgraded digital electronics,
colour digital map for the tank command and control system, 2nd generation FLIR (forward
looking infra-red), UAAPU (Under Armor Auxiliary Power Unit) and environmental cooling.
1535 M1A1 will be converted to M1A1 D standard with appliqué C3 digitization, EPLRS
(Enhanced Position Location Reporting System), improved navigation, eye safe laser, external
APU.
Parts of the USMC M1A1 will receive the "Firepower Enhancemant Program (FEP) replacing
the first generation FLIR by second generation one, Far-Target Location device (for locating
targets for indirect fire-support engagement) and updating electronics.
Equipment target are 1174 M1A2 SEP; one half of the approximately 3700 M1A1 has heavy
armor. More M1 ABRAMS were either transferred to the National Guard (inventory 403
M1A1) or to the training centers, or used for rebuilt measures (e.g. for engineer missions) or
used for export. The M60A1/A3 removed from active service has constantly been sold,
mostly after previous overhaul.
Canada plans the replacements of the 114 LEOPARD C2 by 66 MGS; a final decision has
still to be taken.

Africa

This continent shows – similar to the political heterogeneity – extremely different inventories
of which only the Northern muslim countries have a numerical importance. Algeria will
modernize its inventory by replacing the old T-55 and T-62 with 352 upgraded T-72. Libya
has 145 T-72, 280 outdated T-62 and 210 T-55. Except 70 T-72 has Morocco an US
equipment of 240 M60A3 and 184 M48A5. Sudan fields a mixture of Chinese (10 Type 59,
65 Type 62), Russian (180 T-54/55, 20 T-62) and US (20 M60A3), Tunesia (84 M60A1/A3).
A major MBT user is South Africa operating 172 locally modified CENTURION type tanks
called OLIFANT.
The other countries have tiny inventories which are partially inoperable. Many countries do
not have MBTs at all or only light tanks like SCORPIONS or KÜRASSIER.

Europe

Europe has developed some sort of a two-class society featuring countries with and without
MBT equipment. For smaller countries it does not make much sense to operate MBTs. On one
hand they are – integrated into multinational structures - in the foreseeable future only
contingent provider, on the other hand goes a complex system like an MBT far beyond their
financial capacities. At least it is not appropriate to keep obsolete systems or to maintain tiny
formations. These are the reasons that several countries are about to disband MBTs within the
next years and to concentrate on other capabilities. Thereby, in fact, structures based on
„division of labour“ will come into existence which very often has been sought after.
The majority of countries is equipped with the „European standard MBT“ which – regardless
its individual configuration – offers an acknowledged economical cooperative logistic
organization. Also upgrades generally are carried out in a cost sharing matter by several
countries. By that the remarkable growth potential of this system has been made use of since
its service enter in 1979. The most advanced configurations are currently been introduced in
Spain and Greece, a comparable standard has the LEOPARD 2A6 in Germany and in the
Netherlands. Other armies intend to implement upgradings in the next future.
Germany itself has reduced its large MBT fleet drastically. It is mainly formed of 225
LEOPARD 2A6s and 125 A5s; the latter ones could be upgraded to A6 with minor effort.
Only inside the training organization the old A4s are still in use. This version has the
development state of the 70s and its level of ballistic protection does not any more correspond
to the current threat. This deficiency has been effectively remedied with the A5 upgrade
package.
Apart from that the German LEOPARD 2 fleet also makes profit out of the numerous
technical adaptations within the Leopard user nations. Not any more serviceable components
(like the commander´s control unit, electrical installation etc.) are replaced by spare parts
which has been developed for new vehicles thus continually keeping the vehicles modernized.
Further upgrades like an urgent replacement of the 1st generation FLIR are easily possible.
Use of digital video or data-bus systems, of course, make only sense in new production
vehicles.
Due to the drastic fleet reductions in Germany and in the Netherlands and the replacement of
the obsolete LEOPARD 1 in these countries a lively transfer of tanks started.
Also Spain and Greece received – like Sweden before – surplus LEOPARD 2A4s as an initial
stop-gap solution (Spain 108 A4, Greece 183 A4).
As already mentioned the most advanced LEOPARD 2 variants are not in the inventory of the
system producer country Germany but are operated in Spain and (very soon) in Greece. Apart
from the A6 armament status those tanks are also provided with increased hull protection,
digital bus architectures and battlefield management systems as well. Germany plans the
introduction of IFIS not earlier than 2008. Sweden has in its 120 new production vehicles
additional hull armour packages plus additional turret roof protection integrated and the
TCCS. A further 160 A4s (Strv 121) are in the inventory, too.
The LEOPARD 2 has won all the international comparative trials without exception.
Main armament is the 120 mm Rheinmetall smooth-bore L44 gun. Full primary stabilization
of main-sight (combined day/thermal sight) and commander´s periscope in azimuth and
elevation. Fire-control computer with laser rangefinder. Collective NBC system. Submerged
driving up to four meters using a snorkel on top of commander´s hatch.
A5 with new generation special armour, add-on armour on turret front, separate thermal sight
integrated in commander´s periscope, electric turret drive.
The next German/Dutch upgrade step (A6) features a longer gun tube (L55) and a new KE
round (DM53). This ammunition is already on delivery to Switzerland. Newly offered is the
DM-63, a round with reduced tube erosion. DM-53 and DM-63 are currently the most
powerful non-DU KE rounds, other competitors come from Israel and the USA.
The Strv 122 is like A5 plus add-on hull front and turret roof armour, tank command and
control system (TCCS) with separate data transmission radio.
The Norwegian A4s (ex-Dutch) were retrofitted with the KMW smoke grenade launchers and
were fitted with a large basket on the turret rear. The tanks have three antennas and a GPS
navigation system.
The Spanish LEOPARDO 2E is almost identical to the Strv 122 version with 2nd generation
thermal imaging and Thomson PR4G radio sets but with the L55 gun tube. It will be the first
LEOPARD 2 with an air conditioning system and an auxiliary power unit from the Japanese
producer Kubota.
The Greek LEOPARD 2 HEL will have an auxiliary power unit and an air conditioning
system, a meteorogical data sensor, additional roof protection, the L55 barrel, the Ophelios
commander, s sight and a third radio set for 56 command tanks. The Tank Command Control
System Iniochos has been developed by STN Atlas (now RDE).
Denmark received a modified A5 with hull protection, auxiliary power unit in the right rear
sponson, a 3.5 kW climatization package in the turret basket and a 800 LUX white light
searchlight on top of the gun mantlet.
Switzerland, one of the early LEOPARD 2 users, plans to keep 208 Panzer 87s (local
designation) and has been offered 150 for sale.
55 German and several Swedish tanks will be provided with a mine-protection kit comprising
additional passive armour modules, a redesigned escape hatch, modified seating and stowage
arrangement. The letter "M" will be added to the designation.
Just recently a technical study called Leopard 2 PSO (peace support operations) has been
financed by KMW and the German BWB. Additional equipment like added armour, front
dozer blade, hull mine protection, side looking cameras and a new loader´s weapon station
(operated under cover) improves the MBT´s ability to fight under MOUT conditions.
Another interesting feature is the new PELE ammunition which is a re-configurated KE round
with low collateral damage but extremely useful against targets behind walls etc.).

Own ways are followed (as always) by France and Britain. The latter ones created with the
CHALLENGER 2 a distinct better solution than the ill-fated CHALLENGER 1 version, but
they were still not competitive with the LEOPARD 2. The “island solution” of a British 120
mm gun firing separate ammunition was retained which now has lead to concrete
considerations to replace it by the L55 120 mm smooth-bore gun on the basis of the
Rheinmetall variant, also in order to increase the performance.
Main armament of the CHALLENGER 1 is the standard L11A5 120 mm rifled gun firing
separate ammunition. It has the Marconi IFCS fire-control system with laser rangefinder.
After the decision to phase out CHALLENGER 1 the CHALLENGER Improvement Program
(CHIP) has been reduced to the exchange of the ill-fated TN37 transmission by the TN54 type
with six forward and two reverse gears. New Perkins auxiliary power unit already integrated
in late production vehicles, and a new generator.
The CHALLENGER 2 has a new-designed turret with the RO 120 mm L30 rifled gun firing
separate ammunition. The fire-control system is derived from the M1A1 ABRAMS type. The
roof-mounted SFIM stabilized day-sight periscope is identical that of the LECLERC MBT.
The gunner is provided with a roof-mounted stabilized day and night sight. The hull is almost
identical to CHALLENGER 1. A new designed double pin track is used.
The CHALLENGER 2 ordered by Oman have an improved cooling system for the engine, a
single pin track and has the 7.62 mm loader's MG replaced by a 12.7 mm pintle-mounted one.
Part of the UK fleet will be equipped with the Platform Battlefield Information System
Application (PBISA) comprising a commander' s crew station display, inertial navigation
system, digitized computer and a driver' s display panel.
The French LECLERC experienced several modernization measures during its production
life.
Main armament is the CN 120-26 120 mm gun with a caliber length of 52. APFSDS rounds
can be fired at muzzle velocities exceeding 1750 m/s. A 12.7 mm coaxial MG and a 7.62 mm
ADMG are used. In the rear of the two-man turret an autoloader with 22 rounds is integrated.
Another 18 rounds are stowed in a drum located to the right side of the driver. Other features
are an advanced fire-control system, electric turret drive, thermal imaging, independent
stabilized commander's day sight periscope HL-70, a battlefield managing system, an
auxiliary power unit, special armour. The commander is also provided with a 15 cm TV
monitor displaying the gunner's vision.
A hydro-pneumatic damper system is used. Explosive suppression system and a NBC system
will be integrated. On either rear side of the turret there are nine launcher tubes for various
types of grenades (smoke, infra-red decoy and anti-personnel). The tank is amphibious using a
snorkel.
After production of 132 vehicles a second batch features a hybrid air-conditioning system
combined with NBC protection and software improvements to the battlefield management
system.
For hot climate employment the tank is also offered with an MTU 883 V-12 diesel engine
with 1103 kW coupled to a Renk HSWL 295 TM five gear automatic transmission, improved
cooling and filter system. Other modifications for the UAE version include the installation of
the GIAT FINDERS (Fast Information Navigation Decision and Reporting System),
additional side armour protection, externally mounted auxiliary power unit and an air-
conditioning system. The commander´s SFIM HL-80 stabilized sight has a laser range finder
and a thermal imager. The roof mounted 7.62 mm MG can be aimed and fired by remote
control.
The second version of the LECLERC (178 vehicles) features an electronic engine control
system, new fire-control software, a climate-control system, add-on armour plates on the hull
sides, remote track-tensioning and an oil cooler for the final drives. The last batch of the
series has commanders periscopes fitted with IRIS thermal camera.
96 tanks produced in 2003 - 2006 are of the Block II+ (series 21) standard with improved
passive armour on the forward turret front and sides. The commander and gunner´s sight will
incorporate the SAGEM Iris second-generation FLIR camera. The tanks are also fitted with
the ICONE battlefield management system.
Italy, too, has introduced an own tank, the ARIETE which combat power clearly lies below of
the LEOPARD 2. Main armament is a 120 mm smooth-bore L44 gun built by OTO Melara
with 42 rounds stowage. Elevation arc is from -9 to +20 degrees. One 7.62 mm MG is
mounted coaxially another one is externally mounted as ADMG (2500 rounds). The fire-
control system. The gunner has a combined primary stabilized day/thermal sight
(magnification x5) with integrated Neodym-YAG laser rangefinder. The commander uses a
Galileo/SFIM panoramic binocular periscope with primary stabilization. The day channel has
two magnifications (x2.5 and x10), the thermal image of the gunner's sight is projected into
the periscope, too. A COSMO digital ballistic computer is installed. Armour protection
includes special armour in the frontal parts. The tank will possibly be fitted with explosive
reactive add-on armour. The tank is powered by an IVECO MTCA V12 supercharged direct-
injected diesel engine coupled to a ZF LSG3000 automatic transmission. The former large
LEOPARD 1 fleet has been reduced to 120 (with ex-German A5 turrets on old A2 hulls. They
also will be phased out. 200 of the ARIETE have been put into service.
The former large LEOPARD 1 equipment – also of the other European countries – is almost
history. Only Greece and Turkey will keep them in service. Greece will retain 523 A5s for
some time, Turley 396 in different configurations. Apart from that both countries operate
oversized numbers of American tanks. Greece has 618 M48s and 530 M60A1/A3s, Turkey
1980 M48A5s and 932 M60A1/A3s. Parts of them will be upgraded like in Turkey where 170
M60A3s will be brought to the Israeli SABRA configuration including a 120 mm smooth-
bore gun and an El-Op Electro-Optics fire-control system, Urdan armour package and Askot
Ashkelon suspension enhancements.
Belgium will retrieve the 52 remaining LEOPARD 1A5s, Norway will take their 62 out of
service soon; also Denmark will do this (both countries will keep the LEOPARD 2 tanks).
Portugal is one of the few non-LEOPARD users in Europe with their 93 M60A3. Spain has
244 of them.
The countries of the former Eastern bloc have the regular Russian borne equipment. Almost
without exception the obsolete T-54/55s has been put out of active service. In spite of the
transfer of 128 LEOPARD 2 from Germany Poland still has 662 T-72s (of which 287 are of
the M1 variant as well as 233 PT-91s, a local upgrade variant. The other T-72 users are
Bulgaria (475 of which 200 are due for modernization), Czech Republic (298, only 150 will
be kept in service plus 120 in reserve; 31 will be upgraded to T-72CZ M4, probably later
more will be converted), Hungary (238, only 46 in active service), Romania (40 plus 313 TR-
85 of which 37 are being modernized to TR-85M1), Slovakia (268, decreasing).
Inside the CIS has of course Russia the largest arsenal with 4500 T-80/T-80U, 9700 T-72
(different versions). The latter one is still in low scale production with the most advanced
version T-90; slightly more than 200 are delivered. Many old tanks T55, T-62 and T-64 are
stored but of questionable service value.
The T-80 with the powerful 122 mm main armament has forced the NATO allies to react,
especially since the introduction of the “U” variant starting in 1985.
Most T-80 versions are propelled by a gas-turbine coupled to a manual transmission with five
forward and one reverse gear and use a new type of track with double steel pins. The T-80
reverted to the torsion bar suspension contrary to the T-64 hydro-pneumatic type.
While the T-80 (weight 42 t) is propelled by the initial gas turbine version GTD-1000T
developing 735 kW, the later versions have the GTD-1000TF version with 809 kW. The T-
80A (45,2 t weight) is a pre-step of the T-80U already provided with increased ammunition
stowage of 45 rounds (still 28 in the loader carousel) compared to formerly 38 and has the
GTD-1000M turbine with 882 kW. The three early versions have a fuel capacity of 1800 l (of
which 700 are externally on top of the mud-guards) with a range of approx. 400 km.
Main armament is the 125 mm 2A46M-1 gun. The fire-control system is designated 1A45
with the 2Eh42 stabilizer and the 1V528 computer. The 1G46 gunner's day/night sight has a
magnification from 3.6 to 12 times and a laser range-finder The commander has the TKN-4S
stabilized day/night sight. The T-80U can fire the 9K119 SVIR tube-launched missile
(NATO: AT-11 SNIPER) laser beam-rider missile of range of up to 5 km. The T-80B
versions fired the 9K112-1 (AT-8 SONGSTER).
Beginning in 1985 the T-80 was fitted with explosive reactive add-on armour. The T-80BV is
actually a T-80B chassis with the T-80U turret.
T-80U has improved armour protection and second-generation explosive add-on armour all
around resp. on top of the turret and on the front hull, too. It has the GTD-1000TF turbine.
The T-80UM is a re-engined T-80U with the GTD-1250 with 919 kW and the AGAVA and
Shtora systems.
The T-80UD has a 6TD-1 6 cylinder opposed-piston 735 kW diesel engine. The fuel capacity
is 1300 l (560 externally) and the range is 560 km.
The Ukrainian T-84 has either the 6TD-1 diesel engine developing 735 kW at 2800 rpm or the
6TD-2 diesel with 919 kW at 2600 rpm. The tank has a planetary gear box with 7 forward and
1 reverse gears. The tank is also capable of firing the AT-11 SNIPER missile.
All command versions have the additional suffix "K". All T-80 tanks can be fitted with three
215 l extra fuel barrels at the end of the engine deck. Late versions may be equipped with the
IR interference counter-missile system SHTORA-1, a missile hard-kill system ARENA with
radar sensors and laser warning systems.
Initially the T-72 was equipped with four hinged skirting fold-out plates on the front track
guard. Later Soviet T-72 had slightly thickened front turret armour. The armour plates were
later removed by side skirts, and the T-72 were gradually fitted with smoke dischargers.
The T-72A dispensed with the optical rangefinder and received a laser range-finder housed in
the gunner's sight. Later T-72A received a layer of anti-radiation cladding on the roof. The T-
72A has a thickened turret front and an additional glacis armour plate with a rhomboidal cut-
out around the driver's periscope. The engine received an improved cooling system. Later the
Soviet T-72M1 were fitted with an external anti-radiation cladding on the turret top and the
front hull section. The export and license produced T-72A are called T-72M1.
Earlier license versions lack thickened frontal turret armour and are called T-72M.
The T-72B has an even more extended turret front, the stronger V-84-1 engine (618 kW), the
2E42-2 stabilizer and is capable to fire the 9M119 REFLEKS tube-launched missile. The
smoke dischargers are arranged in a single group of eight on the left turret side thus preparing
the tank for the adaption of external reactive armour blocks on the turret and the hull front.
Total weight is 44.5 tons. The T-72B1 is down-scaled not to fire the missile. The export
versions of the T-72B/B1 are the T-72M resp. T-72M1.
T-72S/S1 with 155 ERA blocks, T-72A tanks have 175, T-72B 195, sometimes up to 227.
The T-72BM features a different arrangement of second-generation ERA and also three
panels of KONTAKT 5 on the forward side skirts.
The T-90 has the new fire control system 1A45T with the 1V528 fire control computer
comparable to the T-80U and the 2E42-4 stabilization system. The gunner has the 1A43 day
sight with 1G46 laser rangefinder with missile guidance channel, 2E24-4 stabilizer, 1V528
ballistic computer, DVE-BS wind gauge and the TO1-KO1 night sight with IR sight and
thermal channel. The commander is equipped with the PNK-4S day/night sight. The export
version is called T-90S. Total weight is 46.5 tons. It is powered by a liquid-cooled V-84MS
four-stroke V-12 piston engine with 618 kW.
Tanks retrofitted with explosive reactive armour have the suffix "V".
All T-72 version are also built in a command ("K") version with one additional radio set and
an additional antenna pod behind the gunner's hatch.
The Yugoslavian M-84 is similar to the T-72M but incorporates an indigenously-developed
fire control system (SUV-84) with a large DNNS-2 gunner's day/night sight in front of the
gunner's hatch. The tank commander is provided with a new DNKS-2 sight. Externally
distinguishable is the M-84 also by the meteorological sensor mounted on a small pylon on
the centre turret roof. M-84A has a 735 kW engine and improved armour protection.
The M-84A has the improved SUV-M-84 FCS and a PK-59 gyrocompass.
The Polish PT-91 TWARDY features a number of improvements including the stronger S-
12U 625 engine with 625 kW, ERAWA-1/2 add-on armour blocks, the Savan-15T FCS with a
thermal sight from El-Op and the OBRA laser warning system. Total weight is 45.5 tons. It is
offered for export as T-72M1Z with different protection level.
The TR-125 is a Romanian conversion of the T-72 with a longer hull (seven roadwheels) and
a heavier weight (48 t). The tank is powered by a stronger engine of 647 kW. A single-piece
side skirt is fitted and a bank of eight smoke dischargers on the left turret side.
Main armament of all T-72 versions is the 125 mm smooth-bore gun fitted also to the T-64
and the T-80. The tank carries 44 rounds, 24 of them in an automatic loader carousel in a
cassette system with charge above and projectile below loaded in two cycles. The stub of the
combustable cartridge is ejected via a small hatch in the turret rear. Internal lining of synthetic
material against neutron radiation, PAZ NBC detection system, FVU filtration system. Deep
wading system with one snorkel mounted on the gunner's hatch. Attachment points for KMT-
4 and KMT-6 mine clearing device.
The Slovakian T-72M2 can easily be distinguished by an external 30 mm 2A42 cannon on the
right turret rear. The 46.5 ton tank retains the original TPD-K1 gunner´s sight but it is now
connected to a TIGS thermal sight from FONTANA with an integrated electronic module
with ballistic computer, control panel and CRT display. The commander has the SFIM MVS
580 panoramic sight including thermal imaging. The driver has the NV-3P passive night
vision device. On top of the turret is a LIRD-4D laser radiation detector. In the frontal arc of
the turret and the hull tiles of the 2nd generation DYNAS explosive reactive armour are
attached. The tank has also the S12U engine with 625 kW.
The Czech T-72M4CZ will be equipped with the Officine Galileo TURMS-T gunner´s and
the ATTILA commander´s periscopic sight both with thermal imaging. The tank features also
the DYNA ERA and an OBRA laser warning system. The engine will be replaced by the
Caterpillar Perkins CV-12 diesel engine developing 735 kW. It is coupled to an Allison XTG-
411-6 fully automatic transmission.
Numerous modernization kits are offered for upgrading the T-72.
Another major CIS tank user is Ukraine with 271 T-80, 1180 T-72 and 2215 T-64. In slow
production is the locally produced T-80 diesel variant, the T-84. The other former Soviet
countries have the following inventories: Armenia 102 T-72, Azerbaijan 200 T-72 (plus 70 T-
54/55), Belarus 92 T-80 and 1465 T-72, Georgia 251 T-72 (plus 151 T-55), Kazakhstan 600
T-72 (plus 110 T-62) all mostly stored, Kyrgyzstan 215 T-72 (stored), Tajikistan 44 T-72,
Uzbekistan 100 T-72 (plus 179 T-62).
The situation on the Balkan was dominated by the former country of Yugoslavia originally
with close ties to the Soviet Union. The MBT M-84 was derived from the T-72. The new born
countries have the following inventories: Bosnia-Herzegovina has a heterogen equipment
composed by ex-Yugoslav vehicles (6 M-84, 82 T-54/55) and donated tanks (45 M60A3 and
50 AMX-30) which is about to be cleared in favor of the least obsolete M60A3. The other
countries are Croatia (146 M-84, 140 T-54/55), Macedonia (31 T-72 from the Ukraine and 94
T-55), Slovenia (54 M-84, 40 T-55 of which 30 were upgraded to S1 standard). Serbia itself
has 228 M-84; other “T” vehicles are put out of service.
Albania has been delivered by China and still operates several dozens of Type 59 tanks.

A view ahead

Despite the turning towards the light and “medium” forces of nations which are focused (too
much) on peace support operations the tactical importance of the MBT in those armies is
undisputed which do not want to go without robust and highly resistable systems. The last
Iraqi war and the recent combat actions between the Israeli Army with the Hizbullah
unmistakably have proved that it is simply irresponsible to employ troops in combat equipped
with poorly protected vehicles. Even the highly protected MERKAVAs were often stopped by
ATGMs and RPGs in the South Lebanon and even penetrated in 21 cases or more, half of
them resulting in crew casualties.
Not surprisingly several countries which were about to close down MBT formations just
corrected their decision. A good example is Australia which just purchased 59 M1A1
ABRAMS as a replacement for their LEOPARD 1 tanks (to big regret of the Australian
Armoured Corps which would have preferred LEOPARD 2). Also Canada is just in a process
to roll back the STRYKER MGS procurement.
Anyway, armies which always looked after the whole mission scope never thought of
disbandment of MBT units. Just the contrary, more and more also IFVs and support vehicles
are provided with high ballistic protection. Best example is Israel which uses IFVs on the
basis of MBT hulls.
The aforementioned experiences and the increasing IED threat have accelerated especially the
development of a hard-kill system (TROPHY) in Israel; also the MERKAVA is planned to be
equipped with such a system in about two years.
Concerning new MBT developments there are only activities in some countries. Traditionally
Russia develops trial vehicles and prototypes from time to time (Black Eagle, T-95 etc.), until
now no specific plans were issued to replace old systems. Only China completes
developments and starts serial production quite often. Vehicles in production at the moment
are without any exception variants of systems which basic configuration has been developed
in the 70s and 80s, updated with modern system components. In the end the number of system
companies capable to develop a complex MBT and manage the whole system integration has
been reduced drastically. Worldwide only less than a dozen of companies are available. Most
of the license producers are only competent to assemble pre-configurated components.
Manifold is the scope of upgrading where numerous suppliers can be found, mostly with
specific expertise (e.g. armament, electronics, propulsion, C3 systems etc.). It is common
practice that many MBT system components are modernized during its (extended) service
life, either due to logistic reasons or in order to increase system performance. It would be far
beyond this analysis to cover all these activities.
At least should be mentioned the technical studies which are currently conducted in Israel,
Russia, Germany, Switzerland, but also in France and in the USA in order to better arm the
MBT for operations in urban environment. For this additional ballistic and standoff protection
not only in the frontal arc is required but also all around including the roof area, coupled to
additional sighting and detection systems, add-on armament which can be operated under
armour, novel main gun ammunition with either high or especially low collateral impact, but
also simple means like dozer blades, external communication box or non lethal effectors.

As a summary we can say that – due to its fighting power- the MBT is invariably the most
potent land fighting system. Often mentioned drawbacks like high vehicle weight (negative
effect on tactical mobility) and high system costs cannot tone down this assessment. Also
supposed limitations concerning strategic mobility are in the view of POMCUS options,
RoRo ships and heavy cargo aircraft, in the end, of minor importance.