Applying information systems and technology in the transportation field; ·

1. Applying system-user interfaces (e.g., interactive graphics) as well as data management and data
sharing; ·

2. Using web technologies (Internet, intranets, and extranets) in transportation;

3. Prioritizing research, development, and demonstration programs to augment work presently

under way; ·

4. Encouraging the use of common information system and information technology semantics and
standards in the transportation field; ·

5. Facilitating and monitoring technology transfer as a “user advocate” among transportation

organizations, vendors, and universities; and ·

6. Evaluating the impact of computer technologies on transportation organizations, including gains

in productivity.

· The growing concerns about the application of advanced computer

technology in transportation involve the following issues:
 · IT,
 · Management, ·
 Data sharing and interoperability,
 Transportation in the New Millennium 2
 · Transportation applications, and · Information dissemination.

The transportation community should emphasize the applications of

the Internet, intranets, and extranets

• Data exchange and communication over the Internet or extranets; •

• Cross-platform integration of transportation information sources;

• Dynamic generation and presentation of transportation information on the Internet;

• Information dissemination and management using organizations’ intranets; and • Integration of

transportation databases with the Internet, intranets, and extranets.

Components of a Microcomputer
A standard microcomputer consists of a microprocessor (CPU), buses, memory, parallel input/output, serial
input/output, programmable I/O interrupt, and direct memory access DMA.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The central processing unit (CPU) is the “brain” of the computer and is responsible for accepting data
from input devices, processing the data into information, and transferring the information to memory
and output devices. The CPU is organized into the following three major sections:

1. Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

The function of the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is to perform arithmetic operations such as addition,
subtraction, division, and multiplication and logic operations such as AND, OR, and NOT.

2. Control unit

The function of the control unit is to control input/output devices, generate control signals to the other
components of the computer such as read and write signals, and perform instruction execution.

3. Registers

Information is moved from memory to the registers; the registers then pass the information to the ALU
for logic and arithmetic operations. Register Register is the fastest memory in a computer which holds
information.

CPU Buses
When more than one wire carries the same type of information, it is called a bus. The most common buses inside
a microcomputer are the address bus, the data bus, and the control bus.
Address Bus The address bus defines the number of addressable locations in a memory IC by using the 2n
formula, where n represents the number of address lines. The size of the address bus directly determines the
maximum numbers of memory locations that can be accessed by the CPU.
Data Bus The data bus is used to carry data to and from the memory. In Fig. 1, each location can hold only four
bits. The size of a memory IC is represented by 2n m where n is the number of address lines and m is the size of
each location. The CPU requires to access memory four times. By increasing data bus from 8 bits to 32 bits, then
CPU can access memory and read entire word “book.” Most CPUs offer instruction to read 1 byte, 2 bytes, or 4
bytes from memory.
Control Bus The control bus carries control signals from the control unit to the computer components in
order to control the operation of each component.. The control unit receives control signals from computer
components.

(Maybe Some of the control signals are as follows: Read signal: The read line is set to high to read from memory
location or input/output (I/O) devices. Write signal: The write line is used to write data into the memory. Interrupt:
Indicates an interrupt request. Bus request: The device is requesting to use the computer bus. Bus Grant: Gives
permission to the requesting device to use the computer bus. I/O Read and Write: I/O read and write are used to read
from or write to I/O devices.)

CPU Technology There are two types of technology used for designing CPU and they are called CISC and
RIS. CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) In 1978, Intel developed the 8086 microprocessor chip.

The major characteristics of CISC processor are as follows:

1. A large number of instructions.

2. Many addressing modes.

3. Variable length of instructions.

4. Most instruction can manipulate operands in the memory.

5. Control unit is microprogrammed.

CPU Architecture
There are two types of CPU architecture and they are von Neumann and Harvard architecture. Von Neumann
Architecture It is a program consists of code (instructions) and data. Harvard Architecture Harvard architecture
uses separate buses for instructions and data

Intel Microprocessor Family

Intel designs and manufactures microprocessors for microcomputers. Each processor has a number or name,
which is used by the computer designer to access the information provided by the manufacturer of the processor.

Register size:
Registers are used to store information inside the processor. Register sizes can vary from 8- to 16- to 32- to 64-bit.
2. Number of registers: A processor with several registers can store more information in the CPU for processing.
3. Data bus size: The size of the data bus determines how many bits of data can be transferred in parallel to or
from memory or input/output ports.
4. Address bus size: The typical address sizes are 16, 32, and 64 bits. The size of the address bus determines the
number of memory locations that may be accessed by the microprocessor.
5. Clock speed: The speed of the clock determines the speed at which the processor executes instructions.
6. Math coprocessor: The math coprocessor is a special processor that performs complex mathematical
operations.
7. Real mode: Real mode allows for software compatibility with older software. It enables the processor to emulate
the lowest Intel 8088 processor and use only the first0 1 MB of memory.
8. Protected mode: Protected mode is a type of memory usage that is available on 80,286 and later model
microprocessors. In protected mode, each program can be allocated a certain section of memory and other
programs cannot use this memory. Protected mode also enables a single program to access more than 1 MB of
memory.
9. Cache size: Cache memory is a small amount of high-speed memory used for temporary data storage based
between the processor and main memory. The size of cache can help to speed up the execution time of a program.
CPU Instruction Execution
In general, CPU performs the following steps to execute one instruction:
1. Fetch instruction (F): Moving Instruction from memory to CPU.
2. Decode instruction (D): Determine types of instruction such as ADD, AND, OR, and Store operands into registers
if needed.
3. Execute instruction (E): Execute the instruction such as addition.
4. Write results (R): Store the result of execution into register or memory.

Multicore Processors
A multicore processor is an integrated circuit (IC) with two or more independent CPU which is called core, and they
are executing multiple instructions simultaneously in order to increase performance. A quad-core processor is a
chip with four independent units called cores that read and execute instructions such as add, move data, and
branch.

CPU Instruction Execution

In general, CPU performs the following steps to execute one instruction:
1. Fetch instruction (F): Moving Instruction from memory to CPU.
2. Decode instruction (D): Determine types of instruction such as ADD, AND, OR, and Store operands into registers
if needed.
3. Execute instruction (E): Execute the instruction such as addition.
4. Write results (R): Store the result of execution into register or memory.
Pipelining.

Pipelining will increase the performance of CPU meaning executing more instructions in less time.

USB Architecture

A USB system consists of USB host controller, USB root hub, USB hub, USB cable, USB device, client software, and
host controller software. Host Controller The host controller initiates all data transfer, and root hub provides a
connection between devices and host controller

Also, USB host controller performs the following functions:

(a) Host controller sets up the device for operation (device configuration).
(b) Packet generation.
(c) Serializer/deserializer.
(d) Process request
from device and host.
(e) Manage USB
protocol.

Analog and digital signals

1.1 Introduction
Numerical values can be represented by analog or digital; examples include an analog watch, digital watch, or
thermometer. The following are advantages of digital representation of numerical values compared to analog
representation:
1. Digital representation is more accurate.
2. Digital information are easier to store
3. Digital systems are easier to design.
4. Noise has less effect.

5. Digital systems can easily be fabricated in an integrated circuit.

 Basic components of a computer

A computer consists of two components: hardware and software. Hardware refers to the physical
components of a computer such as the keyboard, CPU, and memory. Software refers to programs run by
CPU including operating systems and application programs.

1.1 Analog Signals

An analog signal is a signal whose amplitude is a function of time and changes gradually as time changes.
Analog signals can be classified as nonperiodic and periodic signals.
Nonperiodic Signal In a nonperiodic signal, there is no repeated pattern in the signal as shown in An analog
signal is a signal whose amplitude is a function of time and changes gradually as time changes. Analog signals
can be classified as nonperiodic and periodic signals.
Nonperiodic Signal In a nonperiodic signal, there is no repeated pattern in the signal

Periodic Signal A signal that repeats a pattern within a measurable time period is called a periodic signal,
and completion of a full pattern is called a cycle

Universal Gates
In addition to AND, OR, and NOT gates, other logic gates like NAND and NOR are also used in the design of digital
circuits.

The NOT circuit inverts the logic sense of a binary signal.

The small circle (bubble) at the output of the graphic symbol of a NOT gate is formally called a negation
indicator and designates the logical complement.

ROM AND RAM

RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory) are two different forms of
internal memories of a computer. The key difference between RAM and ROM is that RAM is
temporary memory and ROM is a permanent memory. It means that RAM is a volatile
memory and it sores files temporarily in the compute.

ROM is a non-volatile memory and it permanently stores files in the computer. After shutting
down or restarting the computer, these files are not erased.
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. The CPU can get direct access to the address
locations in the RAM. It stores data temporarily and your computer can get access to this
memory quickly. RAM is also known as volatile memory because it stores information only
when the power of the computer is turned on.
The RAMs are available in different capacities i.e from 64MB to 4GM. RAM is also known as
the fastest memory of the computer. It is also known as the read-write memory of the computer.
 Types of RAM
Different types of RAM are explained below;

        DRAM
DRAM is also known as Dynamic RAM. We should refresh DRAM continuously. Its reason is that if we don’t refresh
DRAM continuously, all the contents on the DRAM will be lost.

        SRAM
SRAM stands for Static RAM. It is faster than DRAM and it requires less power to run. We don’t need to refresh it
continuously like DRAM because it can store data for more time. Anyhow, it is more expensive than DRAM.

        SDRAM
SDRAM stands for Synchronous Dynamic RAM. It is the best RAM to work at the high clock speeds.

        DDR
DDR stands for Double Data Rate. It is the best RAM to get synchronous RAM.

ROM
stands for Read-Only Memory. We can’t modify the data of the ROM because it is only read by the CPU. CPU can’t
get direct access to the data of the ROM. ROM is known as non-volatile memory. Its reason is that after switching-
off the computer, it doesn’t lose the stored data. The capacity of the ROM is less than RAM. It is also slower and
cheaper than RAM.

Types of ROM
There are various types of ROM. These types of the ROM are explained below;

        PROM
PROM is known as Programmable ROM. The user can modify this ROM only once.

        EPROM
EPROM is known as Erasable and Programmable ROM. We can easily erase and program the data on this ROM
with the help of ultraviolet rays.

        EEPROM
EEPROM is also known as Electrically Erasable and Programmable ROM. The most important quality of this ROM is
that we can erase and program data on this ROM for ten thousand times.

        Mask ROM
The most important quality of this kind of ROM is that we can program the data on this ROM with the help of
integrated circuit manufacturers.

Difference Between RAM and ROM

Key Differences: RAM VS ROM
1.      RAM is Random Access Memory and ROM is Read-Only Memory.
2.      RAM is volatile and ROM is non-volatile.
3.      RAM allows both reading and writing and ROM allows only reading.
4.      RAM gives easy access to information and ROM doesn’t give easy access to information.
5.      RAM is a temporary storage device and ROM is a permanent storage device.
6.      RAM is expensive than ROM.
7.      RAM is bigger than ROM.
8.      RAM allows both R and W operations whereas ROM allows only R operation on the
information.
9.      RAM requires electricity and ROM doesn’t require electricity to preserve and flow the
information.
10.  Types of RAM are DRAM and SRAM and types of ROM are PROM and EPROM.

(INDI LEKSIYADAKI COPY PASTE ELIYIREM CUNKI MENCE

HER WEY VACIBDIR )
Memory Organization

 The memory unit is an essential component in any digital computer since it is needed for
storing programs and data.

 A very small computer with a limited application may be able to fulfill its intended task
without the need for additional storage capacity.

 Most general purpose computers would run more efficiently if they were equipped with
additional storage beyond the capacity of the main memory.

 There is just not enough space in one memory unit to accommodate all the programs used
in a typical computer.

 Moreover, most computer users accumulate and continue to accumulate large amounts of
data-processing software.

 Not all accumulated information is needed by the processor at the same time.

 Therefore, it is more economical to use low-cost storage devices to serve as a backup for
storing the information that is not currently used by the CPU.

 The memory unit that communicates directly with the CPU is called the main memory.
 Devices that provide backup storage are auxiliary memory.

 The most common auxiliary memory devices used in computer systems are magnetic disks
and tapes.

 They are used for storing system programs, large data files, and other backup information.

 Only programs and data currently needed by the processor reside in main memory.

 All other information is stored in auxiliary memory and transferred to main memory when
needed.

 The total memory capacity of a computer can be visualized as being a hierarchy of

components.

 The memory hierarchy system consists of all storage devices employed in a computer

system from the slow but high-capacity auxiliary memory to a relatively faster main memory,
to an even smaller and faster cache memory accessible to the high-speed processing logic.

 Figure 1 illustrates the components in a typical memory hierarchy. At the bottom of the
hierarchy are the relatively slow magnetic tapes used to store removable files.

 Next are the magnetic disks used as backup storage. The main memory occupies a central
position by being able to communicate directly with the CPU and with auxiliary memory
devices through an I/O processor.

 When programs not residing in main memory are needed by the CPU, they are brought in
from auxiliary memory.

 Programs not currently needed in main memory are transferred into auxiliary memory to
provide space for currently used programs and data.

 A special very-high speed memory called a cache is sometimes used to increase the

speed of processing by making current programs and data available to the CPU at a rapid
rate.
 The cache memory is employed in computer systems to compensate for the speed
differential between main memory access time and processor logic.

 CPU logic is usually faster than main memory access time, with the result that processing
speed is limited primarily by the speed of main memory.

 A technique used to compensate for the mismatch in operating speeds is to employ an

extremely fast, small cache between the CPU and main memory whose access time is close
to processor logic clock cycle time.

 The cache is used for storing segments of programs currently being executed in the CPU
and temporary data frequently needed in the present calculations.

 By making programs and data available at a rapid rate, it is possible to increase the

performance rate of the computer.

 While the I/O processor manages data transfers between auxiliary memory and main
memory, the cache organization is concerned with the transfer of information between main
memory and CPU.

 Thus each is involved with a different level in the memory hierarchy system.

 The reason for having two or three levels of memory hierarchy is economics.

 As the storage capacity of the memory increases, the cost per bit for storing binary
information decreases and the access time of the memory becomes longer.

 The auxiliary memory has a large storage capacity, is relatively inexpensive, but has low
access speed compared to main memory.

 The cache memory is very small, relatively expensive, and has very high access speed.
Thus as the memory access speed increases, so does its relative cost.

 The overall goal of using a memory hierarchy is to obtain the highest-possible average
access speed while minimizing the total cost of the entire memory system.

 Auxiliary and cache memories are used for different purposes. The cache holds those
parts of the program and data that are most heavily used, while the auxiliary memory holds
those parts that are not presently used by the CPU.
 Moreover, the CPU has direct access to both cache and main memory but not to auxiliary
memory. The transfer from auxiliary to main memory is usually done by means of direct
memory access of large blocks of data.

 The typical access time ratio between cache and main memory is about 1 to 7. For
example, a typical cache memory may have an access time of 100 ns, while main memory
access time may be 700 ns.

 Auxiliary memory average access time is usually 1000 times that of main memory. Block
size in auxiliary memory typically ranges from 256 to 2048 words, while cache block size is
typically from 1 to 16 words.

 Many operating systems are designed to enable the CPU to process a number of

independent programs concurrently.

 This concept, called multiprogramming, refers to the existence of two or more programs
in different parts of the memory hierarchy at the same time.

 In this way it is possible to keep all parts of the computer busy by working with several
programs in sequence. For example, suppose that a program is being executed in the CPU
and an VO transfer is required.

 The CPU initiates the I/O processor to start executing the transfer. This leaves the CPU free
to execute another program. In a multiprogramming system, when one program is waiting for
input or output transfer, there is another program ready to utilize the CPU.

 With multiprogramming the need arises for running partial programs, for varying the
amount of main memory in use by a given program, and for moving programs around the
memory hierarchy.

 Computer programs are sometimes too long to be accommodated in the total space

available in main memory.

 Moreover, a computer system uses many programs and all the programs cannot reside in
main memory at all times. A program with its data normally resides in auxiliary memory.

 When the program or a segment of the program is to be executed, it is transferred to main

memory to be executed by the CPU. Thus one may think of auxiliary memory as containing
the totality of information stored in a computer system.
  It is the task of the operating system to maintain in main memory a portion of this
information that is currently active.

 The part of the computer system that supervises the flow of information between auxiliary
memory and main memory is called the memory management system.

Main Memory

 The main memory is the central storage unit in a computer system. It is a relatively large
and fast memory used to store programs and data during the computer operation.

 The principal technology used for the main memory is based on semiconductor integrated
circuits.

 Integrated circuit RAM chips are available in two possible operating modes, static and
dynamic. The static RAM consists essentially of internal flip-flops that store the binary
information.

 The stored information remains valid as long as power is applied to the unit. The dynamic
RAM stores the binary information in the form of electric charges that are applied to
capacitors.

 The capacitors are provided inside the chip by MOS transistors.

 The stored charge on the capacitors tend to discharge with time and the capacitors must be
periodically recharged by refreshing the dynamic memory.

 Refreshing is done by cycling through the words every few milliseconds to restore the
decaying charge. The dynamic RAM offers reduced power consumption and larger storage
capacity in a single memory chip.

 The static RAM is easier to use and has shorter read and write cycles. Most of the main
memory in a general-purpose computer is made up of RAM integrated circuit chips, but a
portion of the memory may be constructed with ROM chips.
 Originally, RAM was used to refer to a random-access memory, but now it is used to
designate a read/write memory to distinguish it from a read-only memory, although ROM is
also random access.

 RAM is used for storing the bulk of the programs and data that are subject to change.

 ROM is used for storing programs that are permanently resident in the computer and for
tables of constants that do not change in value once the production of the computer is
completed.

 Among other things, the ROM portion of main memory is needed for storing an initial
program called a bootstrap loader.

 The bootstrap loader is a program whose function is to start the computer software
operating when power is turned on.

 Since RAM is volatile, its contents are destroyed when power is turned off.

 The contents of ROM remain unchanged after power is turned off and on again.

 The startup of a computer consists of turning the power on and starting the execution of an
initial program.

 Thus when power is turned on, the hardware of the computer sets the program counter to
the first address of the bootstrap loader.

 The bootstrap program loads a portion of the operating system from disk to main memory
and control is then transferred to the operating system, which prepares the computer for
general use.

 RAM and ROM chips are available in a variety of sizes. If the memory needed for the
computer is larger than the capacity of one chip, it is necessary to combine a number of
chips to form the required memory size.

 To demonstrate the chip interconnection, we will show an example of a 1024 x 8 memory

constructed with 128 x 8 RAM chips and 512 x 8 ROM chips.
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