Geotechnical Engineering 2005

Embankment over Soft Clay – Design and Construction Control.

by : Ir. Tan Yean Chin 30-31 May 2005

Embankment over Soft Clay – Design and Construction Control

Ir. Tan Yean Chin

Associate Director, Gue & Partners Sdn Bhd

ABSTRACT: The design and construction of embankment over very soft compressible alluvial deposits has
always been a challenging task for Engineers. This paper presents a set of guidelines for the design and
selection of construction methods for embankment taking into considerations of safety, direct and indirect
costs, duration of completion and other cost benefits. Various commonly used ground treatment techniques
are also briefly discussed.

1 INTRODUCTION Raj & Singh (1990) present an overview of the

alluvial deposits of Peninsular Malaysia. Figure 1
The construction of embankment (including shows the unconsolidated quaternary sediments in
reclamation with hydraulic fills) over very soft Peninsular Malaysia (After Stauffer, 1973).
compressible alluvial deposits (e.g. Clay, silty Clay,
clayey Silt etc.) is increasing due to lack of suitable
land for infrastructures and other developments.
The choice of construction method in this formation
is not only governed by direct costs, but also the
long term maintenance costs, duration of completion
and cost benefits.
This paper presents brief guidelines for the
selection and design of the various commonly used
techniques for construction of embankment on soft
soils. General reviews of each of the methods are
made including a discussion on their use,
applicability and appropriateness. The requirements
for additional subsoil information or instrumentation
during construction will also be addressed.

2 GEOLOGY OF SOFT ALLUVIAL CLAY

IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA

The behaviour of soft alluvial soils is influenced by

the source of the parent material, depositional
processes, erosion, redeposition, consolidation and
fluctuations in groundwater levels. Figure 1 : Quaternary Sediments in Peninsular
Generally, alluvial deposits (materials Malaysia (after Stauffer, 1973
transported and deposited by water action) consist
of finest clays to very coarse gravels and boulders. The deposits at the Butterworth area (after Bosch,
Alluvial soils usually show pronounced 1988) is shown in Figure 2 and the typical
stratification and sometimes organic matter, seashell geological cross-section near Butterworth of the
and decayed wood are present in the alluvial North-South Expressway is presented in Figure 3
deposits.

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Geotechnical Engineering 2005
Embankment over Soft Clay – Design and Construction Control.
by : Ir. Tan Yean Chin 30-31 May 2005

3 SUBSOIL INVESTIGATION proposed developments or

structures.
The subsoil conditions of the proposed embankment - Rate at which embankment fill
need to be established in varying degrees of detail material can be placed;
during the planning and design. The basic - Availability of fill from other parts
information required for planning and preliminary of the site;
design of the embankment includes : - Availability of alternative materials;
- Site Topography; - Cost analysis and implication of the
- Geology and Landuse; ground treatment proposed.
- Soil Stratigraphy; - Future maintenance (frequency and
- Soil Strength; cost)
- Soil Compressibility;
- Groundwater Levels.
Additional soil properties may be needed
depending on the construction methods to be
adopted. The planning and interpretation of the site
investigation and interpretation will not be covered
in this paper. Details of the subject can be obtained
from papers by Gue & Tan (2000), Gue (1999),
Neoh (1999) and Tan (1999).

Figure 3 : Geological Cross-Section near

Butterworth of the North-South Expressway
(Raj & Singh, 1990)

4.1 Embankment Loading

The embankment loading can either be in single

stage or multi-stage.

Single Stage Loading

Figure 2 : Quaternary Sediments in the It will cause an immediate increase in total stress
Butterworth Area (after Bosch, 1988) and if the filling is so rapid such that dissipation
of pore pressure cannot take place or insignificant,
the stability of the embankment will rely on the
4 EMBANKMENT DESIGN in-situ undrained shear strength (su) of the subsoil.

Before carrying out an embankment design and Multi-Stage Loading

selection of the most appropriate construction
The advantage of multi-stage is that the subsoil is
methods, the following issues should be considered:
allowed to increase in strength as consolidation
- Boundary of the embankment;
take place under the embankment load. However,
- Influence of the embankment on
the rate of increase in loading needs to be limited
adjacent structures, services, slopes
so that the ratio of the load to the available
and drainage;
strength of the subsoil is within the acceptable
- Earliest construction start date and
factor of safety. This method also requires longer
completion date;
time of construction.
- Tolerance on settlements and
differential settlements of the

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Geotechnical Engineering 2005
Embankment over Soft Clay – Design and Construction Control.
by : Ir. Tan Yean Chin 30-31 May 2005

4.2 Stability Analysis of Embankment 4.2.1 Total Stress Analysis

The stability of the embankment is commonly The stability of the embankment is analysed based
assessed using a limit equilibrium analysis. It is only on the available undrained shear strength (su)
important in stability analysis of the embankment to of the subsoil prior to start of construction, taking
consider different potential failure surfaces, circular no account of any increase in strength after
and non-circular, as shown in Figure 4. This is consolidation. The su can be based on the results of
because circular failure surfaces may not yield the unconsolidated undrained triaxial compression tests
lowest factor of safety (FOS), particularly for (UU), isotropically consolidated undrained triaxial
embankments on thin clay layers or where discrete compression tests (CIU), vane tests or Piezocone
weaker layers occur, where translational failure (CPTU).
generally dominates. The FOS against failure is
usually defined as :
s 4.2.2 Effective Stress Analysis
FOS =
τ The stability of the embankment can be only be
Where analysed using an effective stress approach,
s = Average shear strength available along the provided that both the total stresses and pore water
failure surface. pressures can be estimated. The available shear
τ = Average shear stress applied along the failure strength, s, along the shear plane can be obtained as:
surface. s = c’ + σn’tanφ’
where c’ and φ’define the Mohr-Coulomb effective
stress failure envelope and
σn’ = σn - ur
where σn is the total normal stress and ur is the pore
pressure at failure.
It should be noted that effective stress analysis
will lead to a more favourable (optimistic, higher
Figure 4 : Circular & Non-Circular Failure FOS) assessment of the stability than the use of
Surfaces undrained analysis (Ladd, 1991).

Computer programs that offer different methods

of limit equilibrium stability analysis are commonly 4.2.3 Undrained Strength Analysis
available. Table 1 below summarises the different
methods of stability analysis together with the Undrained strength method was developed by Ladd
comments. & Foott (1974) and is further refined by Ladd
In general, there are three types of methods in (1991). This method can also take account of the
modelling the soil in the stability analysis and they gain in undrained shear strength (+ Δ su) as a result
are : of consolidation. The Undrained strength analysis
(a) Total Stress Analysis (USA) extends the total stress analysis by using the
(b) Effective Stress Analysis current vertical normalised strength ratio of su/σv’,
(c) Undrained Strength Analysis where σv’ is the current vertical effective stress.
METHOD FAILURE SURFACE COMMENTS
- Consider force and moment equilibrium for each slice. Rigorous method
assumes values for the vertical forces on the sides of each slice until all
Bishop
Circular equations are satisfied. Simplified method assumes the resultant of the
(1955)
vertical forces is zero on each slice.
- Simplified method compares well with finite element deformation methods.
- Generalised procedure considers force and moment equilibrium on each
slice. Assumptions on line of action of interslice forces must be made.
Janbu (1972) Non-Circular
Vertical interslice forces not included in routine procedure and calculated F
then corrected to allow for vertical forces.
Morgenstern - Consider forces and moments on each slice, similar to Janbu Generalised
& Price Non-Circular procedure.
(1965) - Consider more accurate than Janbu. No simplified method.
Sarma - A modification of Morgenstern & Price which reduces the iterations.
Non-Circular
(1979) - Considerable reduction in computing time without loss of accuracy.
Table 1 : Methods of Stability Analysis (adapted from Geotechnical Control Office, 1984)

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Geotechnical Engineering 2005
Embankment over Soft Clay – Design and Construction Control.
by : Ir. Tan Yean Chin 30-31 May 2005

In carrying out stability analyses, it is necessary

There is a few ways to estimate the ratio of su/σv’: to estimate the magnitude of settlement which
a) su/σv’ = 0.11 + 0.0037 PI occurs during construction so that the thickness of
For normally consolidated clay, the ratio tends to the fill can be designed to ensure stability. An
increase with plasticity indeed (PI) (Skempton, iterative process is required in the estimation of
1957). settlement because the extra fill (more load)
b) su(mob)/σp’ = 0.22; required to compensate for settlement will lead to
where su(mob) is the undrained shear strength further settlement.
mobilised on the failure surface in the field, and σp’ Usually the assumptions of one-dimensional
is the preconsolidation pressure (yield stress) consolidation are generally valid for embankment
(Mesri, 1988). which have widths greater than the thickness of the
Unlike effective stress method, the pore water compressible soil layer; Davis and Poulos (1972).
pressures set up during shearing to failure need not This paper only covers the one-dimensional problem
be estimated, thus eliminating an unknown in the For clay layer of larger thickness, horizontal
design procedure. This method is most commonly flow of pore-water may be more significant and the
used in the analysis of short term stability and one-dimensional theory tends to underestimate the
design of staged construction. rate of consolidation. The two-dimensional
consolidation can be solved numerically using
solutions proposed by Terzaghi (1923) and Rendulic
4.2.4 Factor of Safety (1936), as described by Murray (1971 and 1974)

The factor of safety to be used in the stability

analysis will depend on the following factors : 4.3.1 Magnitude of Settlement
- Method of analysis
- Reliability of the design method When a load of finite dimensions is rapidly
- Reliability of the design soil parameters applied to a saturated clay, the resulting settlement
- Consequences of failure in terms of human can be conveniently divided into three stages :
life and economic loss. (A) Initial Settlement (also called immediate or
O’Riordan & Seaman (1993) reports that undrained or shear settlement), ρi
BS6031:1981 gives no specific values or method for (B) Primary Consolidation Settlement, ρc
soil strength determination for use in embankment (C) Secondary Compression, ρs
design. It only refers to a range of factor of safety
between 1.3 and 1.4 for cut slopes.
Generally in practice, the factor of safety on (A) Initial Settlement, ρi
shear strength (FOS) from total stress or undrained
strength analyses used in temporary stage is usually During application of the load, excess pore
taken as between 1.2 to 1.3. FOS of 1.4 and 1.5 are pressures will set up in the clay, but relatively little
normally adopted in effective stress analyses of drainage of water will occur since the clay has a low
embankment for permanent stage. It should be permeability.
noted that designing with low FOS increases the Estimation of initial settlement can be carried
possibility of large vertical and lateral ground out using elastic displacement theory as :
deformations and also risk of failure. 1
ρi = ∑E ( I ⋅ q)dh
U

4.3 Settlement Calculation Where

q = Applied Stress / Pressure on the subsoil
Settlement of the subsoil supporting the (kPa).
embankment will take place during and after filling. dh = thickness of each layer (m).
It is necessary to evaluate both the magnitude and Eu = Undrained Young’s Modulus of the subsoil
rate of settlement of the subsoil supporting the (kPa)
embankment when designing the embankment so I = Influence factor
that the settlement in the long term will not
influence the serviceability of the embankment.

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Geotechnical Engineering 2005
Embankment over Soft Clay – Design and Construction Control.
by : Ir. Tan Yean Chin 30-31 May 2005

A useful chart is given by Osterberg (1957) and eo = Initial voids ratio

shown in Figure 5. The chart allows estimation of CC = Compression Index
the initial settlement of the embankment. Cr = Recompression Index

Values of Δ σ’v at the centre of each soil layer due

to embankment loading can be estimated using
elastic theory, Poulos and Davis (1974). The
parameters σ’p, eo, CC and CR can be obtained from
oedometer consolidation tests. The notation and
terminology used are shown in Figure 6.

Figure 5 : Influence Chart for Vertical Stress

Embankment Loading – Infinite Extent (from
Osterberg, 1957) Figure 6 : Notation and Terminology used for
Oedometer Compression Curves (from
Balasubramaniam & Brenner, 1981)
(B) Consolidation Settlement, ρc

With time, the excess pore water pressures dissipate (C) Secondary Compression, ρs
as drainage occurs and the clay undergoes further
settlement due to volume changes as stress is Even after complete dissipation of the excess pore
transferred from pore pressure u to effective stress. pressures and the effective stresses are about
The rate of volume change and corresponding constant, there will generally be further volume
settlement is governed by how fast the water can changes and increased settlement which is termed as
drain out of the clay under the induced hydraulic Secondary Compression.
gradients. n
C
One dimensional primary consolidation ρs = ∑[1 + αe
i =1
log(t )]H i
settlement can be estimated using the expression : p
n
C σ 'p C σ ' vf where
ρc = ∑ [ r log + C log ]H i ρs = Secondary Compression Magnitude (m)
i =1 1 + eo σ ' vo 1 + eo σ ' vc Hi = Initial thickness of incremental soil layer, i
where of n.
ρc = Consolidation Settlement Magnitude (m) ep = Voids ratio at the end of primary
σ’vo = Initial vertical effective stress consolidation
σ’vf = Final vertical effective stress Cα = Secondary Compression Index.
= σ’vo + Δ σ’v ≥ σ’vc t = Time for calculation.
σ’vc= Preconsolidation Pressure / Yield Stress Other than oedometer tests, the secondary
Hi = Initial thickness of incremental soil layer, compression ratio or Modified Secondary
i of n. Compression Index, (Cα /(1+ ep)) can be estimated

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Geotechnical Engineering 2005
Embankment over Soft Clay – Design and Construction Control.
by : Ir. Tan Yean Chin 30-31 May 2005

from the relationship proposed by Mesri (1973) as cv = k / (mv γw)

shown in Figure 7. where
k = permeability from field permeability tests
(m/sec)
mv = coefficient of compressibility (m2/kN)
γw = density of water (kN/m3)
The use of field values of k will give a better
representative effects of large scale soil structure
and permeability, not able to be reflected in
laboratory tests. Since the permeability and
compressibility of the soil reduce with increase in
effective stress (under embankment loading), the
value of cv should be modified to reflect the state of
stress over the period during which settlement rates
are being calculated.

5 METHODS FOR EMBANKMENT

CONSTRUCTION

Figure 7 : Relation between Secondary From the results of stability analyses results, an
Compression Ration and Water Content (from engineer will be able to know whether it is feasible
Mesri, 1973) or not to construct the embankment in single stage,
or multi-stage and combination of other alternative
construction methods. Figure 8 shows the flow-
4.3.2 Rate of Settlement chart, outlining the summary on selection of
construction methods.
For one dimensional consolidation with vertical In the cost conscious market of today, usually a
drainage, the degree of consolidation, Uv is a cost comparison between the various methods which
function of the time factor, Tv where : are technically feasible will be required by an
Tv = cv t / HD2 engineer throughout the design. Figure 9 shows the
Where basic framework for assessing various factors that
cv = Coefficient of consolidation (m2/year) can influence the cost. Only by carrying out
t = Time following application of loading analysis of the costs and benefits of different
(year) methods, will the engineer able to identify where
HD = Drainage path length (m) possible modification to the initial constraints can
The average degree of consolidation as a be undertaken.
function of time factor for Terzaghi’s theory of The following sections of the paper describes
consolidation by vertical flow can be expressed as : some of the commonly used embankment
construction methods.
4TV
Uv =
π
for Tv = cv t / HD2 < 0.2 5.1 Modification of Embankment Geometry
8 ⎛ − π 2 TV ⎞
Uv = 1 - exp⎜ ⎟
π2 ⎜ 4 ⎟ Reduction of slope angle or construction of
⎝ ⎠
counterweight berms improves the stability of the
for Tv = cv t / HD2 ≥ 0.2
embankment by increasing the length of potential
The coefficient of consolidation, cv, can be
failure surfaces in the soft soils as shown in Figure
obtained from oedometer tests at the levels of
10. The weight of the shallow slope or berm
effective stress similar to those anticipated under
counter-balances the disturbing moment on potential
embankment loading. Another reliable way to
failure surfaces under the embankment.
determine cv is from field in-situ permeability tests
together with mv from laboratory oedometer
consolidation tests :

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Geotechnical Engineering 2005
Embankment over Soft Clay – Design and Construction Control.
by : Ir. Tan Yean Chin 30-31 May 2005

ESTABLISH CONSTRAINTS ON PRELIMINARY DESIGN SITE APPRAISAL

CONSTRUCTION Adopt Initial design parameters with: y Desk study
y Alignment y Maximum slope angle y Topographical survey
y Cost y Available fill y Ground investigation
y Timing y Mimimum site preparation y Laboratory testing
y Long term performance y Single fill construction
y Availability of materials
y Environmental

No
Stability satisfactory?

Yes

No Settlements
satisfactory?

Yes

No Yes Adopt straightforward embankment

Other constraints
construction techniques
satisfactory?

Consider alternative
construction methods

MODIFY THE EMBANKMENT PROVIDE ADDITIONAL STRUCTURAL IMPROVE THE GROUND UNDER
LOAD ON THE GROUND SUPPORT TO THE EMBANKMENT THE EMBANKMENT
y Flatter slopes y Internal reinforcement y Pre-load the ground
y Berms y Support piles y Surcharge the embankment
y Lightweight fills y Sheet piles y Staged construction
y excavate and replace soft
soil
y Vertical drains
Reject unsuitable methods y Stone columns
y Vibro - concrete columns
y Lime columns
y Jet grouting
Identity potential combinations of methods

For each method or combination of

methods:

Additional soils or Yes Obtain data

materials data
required?

No

Stability satisfactory?

No
Yes

Modification to design Yes

Settlements No using proposed Modify design
satisfactory? method possible?

Yes No
No
Reject method
Other constraints
satisfactory?

Yes

Yes Consider another

method?

No

Establish additional requirements for

shortlisted methods:
y Site preparation
y Construction time
y Instrumentation
y Testing

Perform cost comparison between

selected methods

Select most suitable combination of

methods

Fig. 6.1 Flow Chart Showing the Recommended Procedure for the Selection of Construction Methods for Embankments on Soft Alluvial Soils
Figure 8 : Procedure for the Selection of Construction Method (from O’Riordan & Seaman, 1993)

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Geotechnical Engineering 2005
Embankment over Soft Clay – Design and Construction Control.
by : Ir. Tan Yean Chin 30-31 May 2005

Figure 9 : Framework for Establishing Costs of Construction Methods

(from O’Riordan & Seaman, 1993)
5.2 Excavation and Replacement of Soft Soils
The fill should be raised equally across the (Total or Partial)
embankment. However this method has a
disadvantage of greater land-take and volume of fill This method is very old but still viable. The very
materials are needed. soft compressible cohesive soils are excavated out
and replaced with better materials (e.g. compacted
(A) FOS a > FOS b sand or suitable fill) that provide a stronger and less
compressible foundation. The experience on
highway construction in West Malaysia indicates
that the excavation and replacement depth up to a
maximum depth of 4.5m is viable in terms of cost
FOS b
and practicability. Usually the excavation should
extend to at least to the toe of the embankment and
FOS a beyond to increase the stability of the embankment.
If the soft material is much deeper than the
(B) FOS a > FOS b practical excavation depth, partial excavation and
replacement is also possible. However the effect on
stability and long term settlement of the remaining
soft material should be considered. Sometimes
partial excavation and replacement of soft material
FOS b is used with other ground treatment to overcome the
above problems.
FOS a This method will be more difficult if the
groundwater level is high. If pumping of water not
Figure 10 : (A) Reduction in Slope Angle (B) practical, then compacted suitable material cannot
Using Berms be used and underwater replacement materials
(granular materials) should be used. These

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Geotechnical Engineering 2005
Embankment over Soft Clay – Design and Construction Control.
by : Ir. Tan Yean Chin 30-31 May 2005

materials shall be of a grading that it is effectively materials are laid above the ground surface as
self-compacting. The main disadvantage of the platform for the movement of the plant and also as
method is the amount of soft soil which needs to be drainage layer. Pre-fabricated drains are usually left
disposed. about 150mm above the initial drainage layer prior
to placing further drainage material.

5.3 Vertical Drains

5.4 Pre-loading and Surcharging
Vertical prefabricated band-shaped drains are
installed through soft clay soils to accelerate the Pre-loading is to compress the subsoil prior to
speed of consolidation of the subsoil by reducing placing the permanent load. This method involves
the drainage path lengths and utilizing the naturally the placement and removal of fill (pressure) of
higher horizontal permeability of clay deposits. similar to or greater than the permanent load. On
Prefabricated drains using corrugated polymeric the other hand, surcharging is to subject the ground
materials (polyethylene and polypropylene) for the to higher pressure than that during the service life in
core, and woven or non-woven fabric or fibre for the order to achieve a higher initial rate of settlement
filter. They are about 100mm wide, about 4mm thus reducing long term settlements. Unlike pre-
thick and are installed using a closed-end mandrel loading, a large proportion of the fill is left behind
and usually to a depth no more than 30m in very after the surcharge has been removed. Usually these
soft soil or terminate shorter in stronger materials methods are used to control both total settlement
(SPT’N’ ≈ 7 to 10). Pre-boring will be required to and differential settlement at the abutments to bridge
penetrate some surface crust or artificial / flyover and where culverts are crossing beneath the
obstructions at the surface. embankment.
Vertical drains will only be effective when Several important design criteria for this method
using in conjunction with another technique, such as are as follows :
pre-loading, surcharging and staged construction (to - Stability should be checked with pre-
be discussed in the following sections) and the loading or surcharge load
design is governed by the time allowed in the - Pre-loading or surcharging should be
construction programme for consolidation to occur. designed to chosen construction period
The average degree of consolidation for radial - Settlement after construction should be
consolidation by Barron’s theory is given by within the range of tolerances
Hansbo (1981) as : - The option should be economical
⎛ − 8Th ⎞ - Proper planning of construction programme
Uh = 1 - exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ for Th = ch t / D2 for cost effective use of materials available
⎝ μ ⎠ - Does not cause damage to any adjoining
n 2
3n 2 − 1 structures.
Where μ= 2 ln(n) − The magnitude and duration of the pre-loading
n −1 4n 2 or surcharging will be controlled by the magnitude
Where of total settlement (consolidation and secondary
n = drain spacing ratio, D/d settlement). Usually the extra loading must
D = Diameter of an equivalent soil cylinder continue until the effective stress in the subsoil is
influenced by each drain, which is equal to larger than that from the long term loading from the
1.13s for a square pattern and 1.05s for a embankment. This method can also reduce the
triangular pattern. effects of secondary compression slightly. Figure
s = drain spacing 11 shows the concept of pre-loading and
d = equivalent diameter of prefabricated vertical surcharging respectively.
drains = 2(b+t)/π (Hansbo, 1981)
The average degree for combined vertical and
radial consolidation is obtained from Carillo’s 5.5 Staged Construction
theorem (1942) :
U = 1 – (1-Uv)(1-Uh) Staged construction is the method by which the
The vertical drains should have sufficient embankment can be constructed on the soft soil such
capacity to enable the water to discharge to layers that the rate of filling is governed by the increase in
above and below the consolidating layer. Granular

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Geotechnical Engineering 2005
Embankment over Soft Clay – Design and Construction Control.
by : Ir. Tan Yean Chin 30-31 May 2005

soil strength due to consolidation. Usually vertical geosynthetics

drains are used together to increase the - Stone columns (vibro-replacement)
consolidation process. Usually the design of the
staged construction is carried out using undrained
strength method (Ladd, 1991). The stability and 6.0 CONSTRUCTION MONITORING AND
degree of consolidation can be related to gain in CONTROL
strength from the tests carried out and observations
of excess pore water pressures in the ground or It is important to monitor the performance of an
indirect methods stated in Sections 6.2 and 6.3. embankment and the subsoil supporting it during
The use of the staged construction method and after construction. Table 2 list different types of
requires close liaison and communication between instrumentation that can be utilized in embankment
the design engineer, contractor and supervising construction. Figure 11 shows the embankment
engineer. Instruments like settlement markers, instrumentation used in the Muar Flat trial
displacement markers, piezometers, etc. need to be embankment by the Malaysian Highway Authority
placed to monitor the performance of the (1989).
embankment during construction to prevent failure.
In more sensitive cases, confirmation of gain in
strength is needed before the application of the next 6.2 Control of Embankment Stability
stage of loading.
It has been widely recognised that the failure of a
soft ground is closely related to the magnitude and
5.6 Other Methods history of the deformation which taken place before
the final failure. This makes the se of the
There are also other methods to construct information obtained from the practically possible
embankment on very soft soils. They are : measurements in the field to control the construction
- Lightweight fills like expanded and of embankment to be safe and efficient.
extruded polystyrene
- Piled embankment (full slab or pile caps) If a soft ground is under loading, not only
- Reinforcement of embankment using consolidation will occur but also plastic horizontal

Figure 11 : Concept of Pre-Loading and Surcharge

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Geotechnical Engineering 2005
Embankment over Soft Clay – Design and Construction Control.
by : Ir. Tan Yean Chin 30-31 May 2005

Measurement Types and Location

- Settlement gauges on original ground surface or base of
excavation.
- Settlement markers on surface of fill or ground outside the
embankment.
Vertical Settlement
- Full-profile settlement gauges under the embankment.
- Subsurface Settlement gauges or extensometers in the subsoil
beneath the embankment to measure settlement at different
depths of the subsoil.
Horizontal - Inclinometers in the subsoil at toe of embankment.
Movement - Displacement markers at the top and toe of embankment.
Pore Water - Piezometers (preferably vibrating wire type) at several depths
Pressures and locations in the subsoil beneath the embankment.
Table 2 : Types of Instrumentation for Embankment

flow (shear deformation). This fact makes it

difficult to theoretically distinguish the relationship
between the displacement and the failure of a soft
ground. Therefore it is very important to find the
relationship between the displacement and the
failure to help control the construction of
embankment. Qualitatively, failure will occur when
the progress of the shear deformation is faster than
that of consolidation settlement.
Assuming the settlement, ρt at the centre of the
embankment as an index of consolidation settlement
and the lateral displacement, δ of the embankment
as an index of the shear deformation, the progress of
δ in relation to ρt can be used as an indicator of
embankment stability.
Matsuo et. al. (1977) proposed his plot after
observing the deformation of many embankments
and plotted the process of displacement during
construction of each embankment. As reported, it is
astonishing that although the section and the unit
weight of each embankment, the soil properties and
the thickness of each soft layer and other
surroundings are different from each other, but
many embankments under such different conditions
failed near the one curve which can be regarded as
the “Failure Criterion Line” as shown in Figure 13. Figure 12 : Layout of Instrumentation Scheme
Therefore the failure of the embankment can be (MHA, 1989)
predicted by plotting the observed settlements and
horizontal displacements on this diagram.

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Geotechnical Engineering 2005
Embankment over Soft Clay – Design and Construction Control.
by : Ir. Tan Yean Chin 30-31 May 2005

H = clay drainage depth ;

D = drain influence diameter ;
d = drain diameter ;
Tv = time factor for vertical consolidation
U = degree of consolidation of combined vertical and ra-
dial drainage.
Figure 15 : Plot of αi (from Tan et.al. 1996)
Figure 13 : Modified Matsuo Stability Plot

From the figure, we can predict the long term

6.3 Control of Embankment Settlement settlement with time. However the final settlement
estimated through this method by using the
There are two commonly used methods to measured data of early period after loading may be
interpret the measured settlement. They are : on the high side.
(A) Hyperbolic Method (Chin, 1970; Tan (1992) proposes the use of Hyperbolic
Tan, 1971 & Tan, 1995) method for field estimation of total primary
(B) Asaoka Method (Asaoka, 1978) settlement of subsoil treated with vertical drains and
surcharge. The procedure for use of the method
involves four simple steps as outlined below :
6.3.1 Hyperbolic Method Step 1 : Plot the the field settlement data as
(t/ρ) vs t, where t is the time and ρ is the settlement
This method is usually used to evaluate future from the beginning of surcharge load application.
settlement based on measured settlement data. This This method is not applicable if the construction
method is based on the assumption that the time of the embankment with surcharge is more than
settlement-time curve is similar to hyperbolic curve the time to achieve 60% consolidation.
and can be represented by the equation shown in Step 2 : From the plot, identify the first linear
Figure 14. segment immediately after the initially concave
downward or humped segment of the curve, and
measure its slope, Ai (these corresponds to data
between the 60% and 90% settlement points).
Step 3 : From the estimated relevant soil and
drain parameters (n, HD/D and ch/cv), determine by
interpolation of Figure 15, the applicable theoretical
value of the initial linear slope, αi.
Step 4 : Calculate the slope of the lines from the
origin intercepting the 60% and 90% settlement
points by Equations (a) and (b). Draw the three
lines and obtained the interception points. The total
Figure 14 : Hyperbolic Method to Predict primary settlement can be estimated as either (αi /
Future Settlement. S), (ρ60 / 0.6) or (ρ90 / 0.9). All three estimates

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Geotechnical Engineering 2005
Embankment over Soft Clay – Design and Construction Control.
by : Ir. Tan Yean Chin 30-31 May 2005

should be close as a verification to the correctness Step 3 : A straight line (I) is fitted through the
of the prediction points. The point where this line intersects the 45o
α 60 S line gives the final consolidation settlement, ρC.
S60 = Si = (1/0.6) i (Eqn (a))
αi αi The slope β1 is related to the coefficient of
consolidation, cv and can be used to calculate the
α S rate of settlement as follows :
S90 = Si 90 = (1/0.9) i (Eqn (b))
αi αi c = 5 2 ln β1
v − h
Figure 16 shows a typical example of hyperbolic 12 Δt
method. The graphical method above is limited to a
single layer with one-way or two-way drainage.

Figure 16 : Example of Hyperbolic Plot Method

(adapted from Tan et. al., 1996)

6.3.2 Asaoka’s Method (1978) Figure 17 : Graphical Method of Asaoka

A graphical approach to estimate final total primary
consolidation settlement and settlement rates from
settlement data obtained during a certain time period 7 CONCLUSION
has be proposed by Asaoka (1978). The steps in
the graphical procedure are as follows : The basic requirements for a successful construction
Step 1 : The measured time-settlement curve is of embankment over very soft compressible alluvial
plotted to an arithmetic scale and is divided into deposits are summarized below:
equal time intervals, Δ t. Δ t can be about 7 to 60 • Awareness of the project requirements in
days depending on the available information. The terms of serviceability criteria (deformation
settlements ρ1, ρ2, ρ3, ….. corresponding to the time tolerances, bearing capacity, etc.), costs
t1, t2, t3, …. are tabulated as shown Figure 17(a). (construction cost and maintenance cost),
Step 2 : The settlement values ρ1, ρ2, ρ3, ….. site constraint and time (construction time,
service period).
are plotted as points (ρi-1, ρi) in a coordinate system
• Knowledge on the site and subsoil
with axes ρi-1 and, ρi, as shown in Figure 17(b). The
conditions through proper desk study,
45o line ρi = ρi-1 shall also be drawn.

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Geotechnical Engineering 2005
Embankment over Soft Clay – Design and Construction Control.
by : Ir. Tan Yean Chin 30-31 May 2005
th
gathering of geological information and (SCOFG99), 11 & 12 May, 1999, Kuala
well planned and supervised subsurface Lumpur.
investigation and laboratory testing to Gue, S.S. & Tan, Y.C (2000). “Subsurface
acquire the necessary reliable parameters for Investigation and Interpretation of Test Results
geotechnical designs. for Foundation Design in Soft Clay”. Seminar
• Proper geotechnical design to address both on Ground Improvement – Soft Clay (SOGISC-
stability of the embankment and control of 2000), 23rd & 24th August 2000, UTM, Kuala
deformation. Lumpur.
• Full time proper supervision of the Hansbo, S. (1981) “Consolidation of Fine-Grained
construction works by qualified personnel / Soils by Prefabricated Drains”. Paper 12/22 :
engineer. Proc. 10th Intl. Conf. Soil. Mech. Found. Engrg.,
• Careful and proper monitoring on the Stockholm, Swedan, 3, 677-682.
performance of the embankment during and Janbu, N. (1972) “Slope Stability Computations”.
after construction through instrumentation Embankment Deam Engineering: Casagrande
scheme. Vol., John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp.47-86.
Ladd, C.C. (1991) “Stability Evaluation during
Staged Construction”. ASCE, JGED, Vol.117,
No.4, pp.540-615.
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