1 FUNCTIONS

OVERVIEW
In almost all aspects of our daily lives, we see how one quantity affects another. A parent, for instance, would like to find
out the best parenting style that could ensure that his/her child would be a good one. A student might wish to discover the best
study habit technique that would make his/her grades excellent. A teacher might be interested in studying whether or not the use of
technology will improve his/her students’ performance.
The world is a world of relationships. It has been said that “No man is an island”. People need people to exist. A person
needs somebody to live. Examples of their relationships are the following: mother-child, teacher-students, flag-country, employer-
employees, and passengers-bus. The correspondence of the mother to her child is a function, the relationship of a flag to a country
is a function, and the relation of the passengers to the bus where they are going to ride is a function.
This module contains about functions: its definition and classification, domain and range of a function, graph of a function,
functional notation, evaluation of a function, combinations of functions, one-valued and many-valued functions, and odd and even
functions

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. define functions,
2. differentiate the classification of functions,
3. identify the domain and range of the given function,
4. graph the given function,
5. transform each statement into function notation,
6. identify the different operations on function,
7. perform the indicated operations of the given function, and
8. identify the even and odd function

1.1 DEFINITION

A variable y is said to be a function of another variable x, if to every value of x there is a corresponding value of y. In symbols,
y = f(x). The variable x to which any value may be assigned is the independent variable or argument, while y is the dependent
variable or function.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS

The function may be classified as follows:

1. Polynomial or Integral Rational Function. This is the simplest type of function and includes polynomial of the form
a o x n +a1 x n−1+ …+an−1 x+ an=0
where: a o , a 1 , … , an =¿ arbitrary constants
n = positive integer

2. Rational Function or Rational Fraction. This is a quotient of two polynomials, an example of which is
2 x 3−7 x 2 +5
x 2−2 x+3
where: both numerator and denominator are polynomials.
3. Algebraic Functions. In general, y is said to be an algebraic function of x if it is a root of an equation of the nth
degree in y whose coefficient are rational functions of x.
For example, if
y= √ x + √ 2 x
then squaring both members repeatedly, we obtain
2
y −x= √ 2 x
( y ¿¿ 2−x )2=2 x ¿
y 4 −2 x y 2 + x2 −2 x=0
4. Transcendental Function. This function includes all other functions not included in the above-mentioned categories.

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 Examples: Trigonometric, Inverse Trigonometric, Logarithmic, Exponential and Hyperbolic Functions, Advanced
Mathematics like elliptic, gamma and Bessel functions.

1.3 DOMAIN AND RANGE OF A FUNCTION

An ordered pair (x, y) is composed of two coordinates: the x-coordinate or the

abscissa, and the y-coordinate or the ordinate. In a set of ordered pairs, the
domain is the set of all x-coordinates (first coordinates), while the range is the set
of all the y-coordinates (second coordinates).
The set of ordered pairs can be considered as a function if:
1. Every element in the set is composed of different x and y
coordinates; and
2. No common x-coordinates exist in the given set. Fig. 1. The graph of domain and
range of a function
In its simplest form the domain is all the values that go into a function, and the
range is all the values that come out.
There are special names for what can go into, and what can come out of a function:
• What can go into a function is called the Domain
• What may possibly come out of a function is called the Codomain
• What actually comes out of a function is called the Range
Example:
• The set "A" is the Domain,
• The set "B" is the Codomain,
• And the set of elements that get pointed to in B (the actual values produced by
the function) are the Range, also called the Image.

And we have:
Domain: {1, 2, 3, 4}
Codomain: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
Range: {3, 5, 7, 9}

Part of the Function Fig. 2. The mappings of 2x + 1

Now, what comes out (the Range) depends on what we put in (the
Domain) ...
... but WE can define the Domain!

In fact, the Domain is an essential part of the function. Change the Domain and we have a different function.

Example: a simple function like f(x) = x 2 can have the domain (what goes in) of just the counting numbers {1,2,3,...}, and the
range will then be the set {1,4,9,...}

Fig. 3. The function f(x) = x2

And another function g(x) = x2 can have the domain of integers {...,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...}, in which case the range is the set
{0,1,4,9,...}

Fig. 4. The function g(x) = x2

Even though both functions take the input and square it, they have a different set of inputs, and so give a different set of
outputs.
In this case the range of g(x) also includes 0. Also they will have different properties.
For example f(x) always gives a unique answer, but g(x) can give the same answer with two different inputs (such as g(-2)=4,
and also g(2)=4)

Does Every Function Have a Domain?

Yes, but in simpler mathematics we never notice this, because the domain is assumed:

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 • Usually it is assumed to be something like "all numbers that will work".
• Or if we are studying whole numbers, the domain is assumed to be whole numbers. etc.
But in more advanced work we need to be more careful!

Codomain vs Range
The Codomain and Range are both on the output side, but are subtly different.
The Codomain is the set of values that could possibly come out. The Codomain is actually part of the definition of the
function.
And The Range is the set of values that actually do come out.

Example: we can define a function f(x)=2x with a domain and codomain of integers (because we say so).
But by thinking about it we can see that the range (actual output values) is just the even integers.
So the codomain is integers (we defined it that way), but the range is even integers.

The Range is a subset of the Codomain.

Why both? Well, sometimes we don't know the exact range (because the function may be complicated or not fully known), but
we know the set it lies in (such as integers or reals). So, we define the codomain and continue on.

The Importance of Codomain

Let me ask you a question: Is square root a function?
If we say the codomain (the possible outputs) is the set of real numbers, then square root is not a function! ... is that a
surprise?
The reason is that there could be two answers for one input, for example f(9) = 3 or  -3
A function must be single valued. It cannot give back 2 or more results for the same input. So "f(9) = 3 or -3" is not right!
But it can be fixed by simply limiting the codomain to non-negative real numbers.
√In fact, the radical symbol (like √x) always means the principal (positive) square root, so √x is a function because its
codomain is correct.
So, what we choose for the codomain can actually affect whether something is a function or not.
Notation
Mathematicians don't like writing lots of words when a few symbols will do. So there are ways of saying "the domain is", "the
codomain is", etc.
this says that the function "f" has a domain of "N" (the natural numbers), and a
codomain of "N" also.
   

or and either of these say that the function "f" takes in "x" and returns "x2"

There is also:
Dom(f) or Dom f meaning "the domain of the function f"
Ran(f) or Ran f meaning "the range of the function f"

Examples: Given the set of ordered pairs, determine if the given set is a function or merely a relation. Identify the
domain and the range, and state a rule for the given functions.
1. A = {(1,2), (2,4), (3,6), (4,8), (5,10)}
Answer  The given set of ordered pairs is a function because the elements in the set of x and y-coordinates
are different from each other. There is no common element existing on the first coordinates.
 The domain of the given functions is {1,2,3,4,5}. Its range is {2,4,6,8,10}.
 Since the value of y is twice the corresponding value of x, then, we can say that
A = {(x, y): y=2x, x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
2. B = {(2, -3), (3, -2), (4, -1), (5,0), (7,2)
Answer  The given set of ordered pairs is a function.
 Its domain is {2, 3, 4, 5, 7} and its range is {-3, -2, -1, 0, 2}
 Since the value of y is 5 less than the value of x, then
B = {(x,y): y= x-5, x=2,3,4,5,7}
3. C = {(1,1), (1,-1), (2,2), (2, -2), (3, -3), (4, 4), (4, -4)}
Answer  The given set of ordered pairs is just a mere relation because there are common first coordinates
existing in the given set.
 The domain of the given relation is {1,1,2,2,3,3,4,4} or {1,2,3,4}, since each element appears twice
on the set. Its range is {1,-1,2,-2,3,-3,4,-4}
 By observing and analyzing each pair of coordinates, we can state a rule that,

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 C = {(x, y): /y/ = x, x = 1,2,3,4,}

LEARNING TASK # Solve the given problem and write it in your notebook.
1
Given the set of ordered pairs, determine if the given set is a function or merely a relation. Identify
the domain and the range, and state a rule for the given functions.
D = {(-1, 1), (1, 1), (-2, 4), (2, 4), (-3, 9), (3, 9)}

1.4 GRAPH OF A FUNCTION

In mathematics, the graph of a function f is the set of ordered pairs (x,y), where f(x) = y.

1.4.1 VERTICAL LINE TEST

The vertical line test is a method that is used to determine whether a given relation is a function or not. The approach is
rather simple. Draw a vertical line cutting through the graph of the relation, and then observe the points of intersection.
Why does it work?
The vertical line test supports the definition of a function. That is, every x-value of a function must be paired to a single y-
value. If we think of a vertical line as an infinite set of x-values, then intersecting the graph of a relation at exactly one point by a
vertical line implies that a single x-value is only paired to a unique value of y. In contrary, if the vertical line intersects the graph
more than once this suggests that a single x-value is being associated with more than one value of y. This condition causes the
relation to be “disqualified” or not considered as a function. (chilimath.com)

Here are some examples of relations that are also functions because they pass vertical line test.
Fig. 5. Graph of the line f(x) = x +1 Fig. 6 Graph of the cubic function f(x) = x3

Here are some examples of relations that are not functions because they fail the vertical line test.
Fig. 7 Graph of the side-way Parabola, x = y2 Fig. 8 Graph of the relation x = y3 – y + 2

REMEMBER:
 If there is only one point of intersection between the graph and the vertical line, then, the
graph is a graph of a function.
 If there is more than one point of intersection between the graph and the vertical line,
then, the graph is just a relation.

LEARNING TASK # 2 Solve the given problem and write it in your notebook.
Direction: Use the vertical line test in order to determine if each of the given graphs is a function or just relation.
1. f(x) = x2 -2 2. x2 + y2 = 9

1.4.2 GRAPH OF LINEAR FUNCTIONS

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 In a graph of linear functions, you will notice later on, that the graphs are always a straight line. They can either be a
diagonal line slanting downward going to the right or going to the left. Horizontal line is not considered to be a graph of linear
functions, but a graph of Constant Function. At the same time, vertical line cannot be considered as a graph of function for the fact
that, it is not considered to be a function. We can only consider a graph to be a graph of a function, if there is only one point of
intersection between the graph and the vertical line using the vertical line test.

Example: Graph the function f(x) = x + 1. Fig. 9. The graph of f(x)=x+1

Solution:  First, we write the function f(x) = x + 1 in slope-intercept form.
Therefore, we have y = x + 1.
 Assign the value of x as 0 and compute for the value of y. Then,
assign the value of y as 0, and compute for the value of x. So,
If x = 0, then y = 1 If y = 0, then x = -1
 After computing for these values, we are going to summarize the
points in an ordered pair. If you are going to notice, we arrived at
two pairs of x and y-coordinates. We cam write these points as
(0,1) and (-1,0).

 If we are going to graph these points in a Rectangular Coordinate

Plane, the graph will look like this.

REMEMBER: In graphing Linear Functions, the following steps can be applied:

1. Express the given function in slope-intercept form.
2. Assign x as 0 and compute the value of y.
3. Assign y as 0 and compute the value of x.
4. Summarize the derived values in an ordered pair (x,y).
5. Plot the points in a Rectangular Coordinate Plane and connect them.
 If the slope is positive, the graph is slanting upward going to the right.
 If the slope is negative, the graph is slanting downward going to the right.

LEARNING TASK # 3 Solve the given problem and write it in your notebook.
Graph the function y = 25 + 5x

1.4.3 GRAPH OF A QUADRATIC FUNCTION

Definition. A quadratic function is a function defined by the equation,

y=ax2 + bx + c or f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
where a and b are the numerical coefficients of x, c is the constant, and the value of a is not equal to zero.

The graph of a quadratic functions is called a parabola.

Example: The simplest form of a quadratic function is described by the equation, y=x 2. If we are going to graph
this, we can have the location of the points as described by the table of values below.
Solution: when x=-4 then, y = x2 when y = -3 then, y = x2
2
y = (-4) y = (-3) 2
y = 16 y=9
x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
y 16 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 16

Plotting these pairs of x- and y-coordinates in a Rectangular Coordinate Plane, the graph of the function
will look like this.

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 Fig. 10. The graph of a function y=x2

LEARNING TASK # 4 Solve the given problem and write it in your notebook.
Graph the function y = x2/2

1.4.4 GRAPH OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Definition. An exponential function is a function defined by the equation,

y = ax or f(x) = ax
wherein a is a constant positive real number except from 1, and x is the exponent in the equation. The exponent x is
considered to be the independent variable of the function. The domain of the function is a set of real numbers and the range is a
set of positive numbers.

Like any other functions, we can also graph exponential functions. Let us try to graph the given exponential functions and
try to observe the behavior of the graphs.

Example: Graph the function y = 2x

Solution: If we are going to assign values for x and compute for the values of y, we can come up with the following
pairs of points.
When x=-3, y = 2x when x=-2 y = 2x
-3
y=2 y = 2-2
3
y = 1/2 y = 1/2 2
y = 1/8 y = 1/4
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 1/8 1/4 1/2 1 2 4 8
Plotting this pairs of coordinates in the Rectangular Coordinate Plane,

Fig 11 . Graph of y = 2x

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REMEMBER:
The following steps to be applied in graphing Exponential Functions:
 Assign values for x and solve for the values of y. Compute for at least 6 values.
 Summarize the computed values in a table. These values serve as the pairs of points to be
plotted on a Rectangular Coordinate Plane.
 Plot the points and connect them.

LEARNING TASK # 5 Solve the given problem and write it in your notebook.
1 x
Graph the function y=( )
2

1.5 FUNCTIONAL NOTATION

Functions are being written in different ways. For instance, the function in which every element in the range is “3 more than”
the corresponding element in the domain can be written using any of these forms:
1. f : x → x +3 This is being read as “under function f, x maps to x + 3” or “under f, x
is assigned to x + 3” or “the image of x under f is x + 3”
2. x → x+ 3 This is being read the same way as number 1.
3. This is being read as “the function f is the set of all ordered pairs
(x,y), such that y equals x + 3”
f ={ ( x , y ) : y =x+3 ¿
4. f ( x )=x +3 This is being read as “f of x equals x + 3”
5. y=x +3 This is being read as “y equals x + 3”

The 4th and 5th notations are commonly used in the field of Algebra and Calculus.
In the function notation f(x) = x + 3 and y = x+ 3, notice that they are both equal to x + 3. Applying the Transitive property of
Equality, we can say that y = f(x) (read as “y is a function of x”). This is again another way of writing a function.
In this notation, x is being considered to be the independent variable and y is the dependent variable. The value of y varies and
is the one to be computed based on the given value of x. That is why y is totally dependent on x.

Examples:
1 The salary (s) is dependent on Educational attainment €
¿ function notation , this can be written as :
s=f (E)
where: s = dependent variable, salary
E = independent variable, Educational attainment
2.
The circumference of the circle (C) is dependent on its radius (r)
¿ function notation , this can be written as :
C = f (r)
where: C = dependent variable, circumference of the circle
r = independent variable, r
3
Write a function notation in which every element in the range is twice its corresponding element in the
domain in 5 different ways.
a. f : x →2 x
b. x→2 x
c. f ={ ( x , y ) : y =2 x }
d. f ( x )=2 x
e. y=2 x

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REMEMBER:
In order to write a statement into functional, determine first the dependent and independent
variables. Write the dependent variable on the left side and independent variable on the right side

LEARNING TASK # 6 Solve the given problem and write it in your notebook.
Write the given statement in function notation. Identify the dependent and independent variables.
1. Write a function notation in which every element in the range is the cube of 5 less than its corresponding element in
the domain.

1.6 EVALUATION OF A FUNCTION

Like algebraic expressions, functions can also be evaluated. The process on how we evaluate algebraic expressions will be
applied, wherein:
1. we substitute the given numerical value for the given variables; and
2. we simplify the resulting expression.

Try to examine the following examples:

1. Find the numerical value of f(x) = -x + 15 at f(-3).
By substituting and simplifying, f(-3) = -(-3) + 15
= 3 + 15
= 18
We can say that the numerical value of the function f(x) = -x +15 at f(-3) is 18.

2. Given the function, f(x) = x2 - 3x + 5, find:

a) f(1/2)
1 1 2 1 We asked to evaluate the function at f(1/2). Thus, we are going to
f
2 ( )() ()
=
2
−3
2
+5 substitute this value to all x’s of the function.

1 1 3 Get the LCD

f
2 ( )= − +5
4 2
1 1−6+ 20 Find the numerical value
f
2 ( )=
4
1 15 Ans.
f
2 ( )=
4
3. Given f ( x )=−2 x 3 +5 x2 – 6 x +7, find √ 3
3 2
¿−2 ( √3 ) +5 ( √ 3 ) −6 ( √3 )+ 7 = −12 √3+ 22

REMEMBER:
In evaluating functions, the following steps will be followed:
1. Substitute all x’s of the given function by the given numerical value.
2. Simplify. In simplifying, apply the PEMDAS Rule.

LEARNING TASK # 7 Solve the given problem and write it in your notebook.
1. Given the function, f(x) = x2 - 3x + 5, find f( √ 2) Ans. 7−3 √ 2)
2. Given f ( x )=−2 x 3 +5 x2 – 6 x +7 , find f ( −12 ) . Ans. 23/2

1.7 COMBINATION OF FUNCTIONS

Just as numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided, new functions can be created by applying these same
operations.

1.7.1 THE SUM OF TWO FUNCTIONS

Definition. Given two functions f and g, the sum of two functions, f + g, is defined by the equation,
(f + g) (x) = f(x) + g(x)
Examples: Find the sum of the given functions given the following:

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 Given: f(x) = 6x -1 g(x) = x + 5 P(x) = x2 + 3x + 2 h(x) = x2 – 5x + 4
a. f + g
Equation: (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
Substitute the given functions to the equation: (f + g)(x) = 6x -1 + x +5
Simplify (f + g)(x) = 7x + 4
Therefore, the sum of the functions f and g is 7x + 4.

b. g+P
Equation (g + P)(x) = g(x) + P(x)
Substitute the given functions to the equation (g + P)(x) = x + 5 + x2 + 3x + 2
Simplify (g + P)(x) = x2 + 4x + 7
2
Therefore, the sum of the functions g and P is x + 4x + 7

REMEMBER:
In finding the sum of two functions, the following steps will be applied:
1. Write the equation based on the given function.
2. Substitute the given values of the functions to the equation.
3. Simplify the values to get the final answer.

LEARNING TASK # 8 Solve the given problem and write it in your notebook.
Find the sum of the given functions given the following:
Given: f(x) = 6x -1 g(x) = x + 5 P(x) = x2 + 3x + 2 h(x) = x2 – 5x + 4
a. f + h

1.7.2 THE DIFFERENCE OF TWO FUNCTIONS

Definition. Given two functions, f and g, the difference of two functions, f-g is defined by the equation,
(f-g)(x) = f(x) – g(x)

Examples: Find the difference of the given functions given the following:
Given: f(x) = 6x -1 g(x) = x + 5 P(x) = x2 + 3x + 2 h(x) = x2 – 5x + 4
a. f – h
Equation (f-h)(x) = f(x) – h(x)
Substitute the given functions to the equation: (f-h)(x) = 6x -1 –(x2 – 5x + 4)
Distribute the negative sign to the quantities in the
parenthesis. (f-h)(x) = 6x -1 – x2 + 5x - 4
Simplify: (f-h)(x) = – x2 +11x-5
2
Therefore, the difference of the functions f and h is – x +11x-5
b. g-P
Equation (g-P)(x) = g(x) – P(x)
Substitute the given functions to the equation (g-P)(x) = x + 5 – (x2 – 5x + 4)
Distribute the negative sign to the quantities in the
parenthesis. (g-P)(x) = x + 5 – x2 + 5x – 4
Simplify (g-P)(x) = – x2 + 6x + 1
Therefore, the difference of the functions g and P is – x2 + 6x + 1

REMEMBER:
In finding the difference of two functions, the following steps will be applied:
1. Write the equation based on the given functions.
2. Substitute the given values of the functions to the equation.
3. Distribute the negative or minus sign on the quantities inside the parenthesis.
4. Simplify the values to get the final answer.

LEARNING TASK # 9 Solve the given problem and write it in your notebook.
Find the difference of the given functions given the following:
Given: f(x) = 6x -1 g(x) = x + 5 P(x) = x2 + 3x + 2 h(x) = x2 – 5x + 4
a. f - g

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 1.7.3 THE PRODUCT OF TWO FUNCTIONS
Definition: Given two functions, f and g, the product of two functions, f.g, is defined by the equation,
(f.g)(x) = f(x) . g(x)

Examples: Find the products of the following functions given:

Given: f(x)= x-1 g(x) = x+5 P(x) = x2+3x+2 h(x) = x2 – 5x + 4 G(x) = 2x
a. G.f
Equation: (G.f)(x) = G(x). f(x)
Substitute the given functions to the equation (G.f)(x) = 2x (x-1)
Multiply the quantities by applying the Law of Exponents (G.f)(x) = 2x2 – 2x
Therefore, the product of the functions G and f is 2x2 – 2x
b. f.g
Equation: (f.g)(x) = f(x) . g(x)
Substitute the given functions to the equation (f.g)(x) = (x-1).(x+5)
Multiply the quantities by applying the Law of Exponents
horizontally or vertically (f.g)(x) = x2 + 5x – x- 5
Simplify (f.g)(x) = x2 + 4x – 5
2
Therefore, the product of the functions f and g is x + 4x – 5

REMEMBER:
In finding the product of two functions, the following steps will be applied:
1. Write the equation based on the given functions.
2. Substitute the given values of the functions to the equation.
3. Multiply the given functions horizontally or vertically by applying the laws of
exponents.
4. Simplify the values to get the final answer.

LEARNING TASK # 10 Solve the given problem and write it in your notebook.
Find the products of the following functions given:
Given: f(x)= x-1 g(x) = x+5 P(x) = x2+3x+2 h(x) = x2 – 5x + 4 G(x) = 2x f – g
a. g and h

1.7.4 THE QUOTIENT OF TWO FUNCTIONS

f
Definition. Given two functions, f and g, the quotient of two functions, , is defined by the equation,
g
f f (x )
( )(x) =
g g ( x)

Examples: Find the quotient of the following functions:

Given: f(x) = x-1 g(x) = x+5 P(x)= x2-2x+1 h(x)=x2 +10x + 25 G(x)= 2x-2

f
a.
g
Equation:
( fg ) ( x )= gf ((x)x)
Substitute the given functions to the equation
( fg ) ( x )= x−1
x +5
x−1
Since x-1 is not divisible by x+5, the quotient of f and g is
x+5

REMEMBER:
In finding the quotient of two functions, the following steps will be applied:
1. Write the equation based on the given functions.
2. Substitute the given values of the functions to the equation.
3. Divide the numerator by the denominator or apply the different kinds of factoring.

ES 111-Calculus 1-Differential Calculus Page 10

 4. Simplify the values to get the final answer.

LEARNING TASK # 11 Solve the given problem and write it in your notebook.
Find the quotient of the following functions:
Given: f(x) = x-1 g(x) = x+5 P(x)= x2-2x+1 h(x)=x2 +10x + 25 G(x)= 2x-2
a. G/f

1.7.5 THE PRODUCT OF A CONSTANT AND A FUNCTION

Definition. Given the constant c and the function f, the product of a constant and a function, (c.f)(x), is
defined by the equation
(c . f)(x) = c. f(x)

Examples: Find the sum of the given functions given the following.
Given: f(x) = 6x -1 P(x) = x2 + 3x + 2 h(x) = x2 – 5x + 4 g(x) = x +5
Solution: a. 4g
Equation (4.g)(x) = 4 . g(x)
Substitute the given functions to the equation (4.g)(x) = 4 (x + 5)
Distribute the constant to the quantities inside the parenthesis and simplify (4.g)(x) = 4x + 20
Therefore, the product of the constant 4 and the function g is 4x + 20.

REMEMBER:
In finding the product of a constant and a function, the following steps will be applied:
1. Write the equation based on the given functions.
2. Substitute the given values of the functions to the equation.
3. Distribute the constant to the quantities in the parenthesis and simplify.

LEARNING TASK # 12 Solve the given problem and write it in your notebook.
Find the sum of the given functions given the following.
Given: f(x) = 6x -1 P(x) = x2 + 3x + 2 h(x) = x2 – 5x + 4 g(x) = x +5
a. -2P

1.7.6 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS

Aside from the four fundamental operations, namely: the sum, the difference, the product, and the quotient
of two functions, functions can also be combined by getting the composition.
Definition: Given the two functions, f and g, the composition of f with g denoted by f o g (read as “f circle
g”) is defined by the equation,
(f o g)(x) = f[g(x)]
Wherein f is considered to be the dependent function and g is considered to be the independent
function.

Example 1: Find the composition of f with g, when f(x) = 5x – 3 and g(x) = 3-2x.
Solution:
(f o g)(x) = f [g(x)] First, we establish the equation based on the given function and base on the
definition.
(f o g)(x) = 5x -3 From the given functions, we are going to identify the independent and the dependent
functions. Hence, we can say that the dependent function is f and the independent function is
g.
After determining the independent and the dependent functions, we are going to substitute the
right side of the first equation by the given expression of the dependent variable.
(f o g)(x) = 5(3-2x) -3 Substitute all x’s of the dependent variable by the given expression of the independent
variable.
(f o g)(x) = 15 -10x -3 Simplify the equation
(f o g)(x) = -10x + 12 Answer

x +7
Example 2: Given the functions, f(x) = 5x – 7 and g ( x )= , find f o g and g o f.
5
(f o g)(x) = f [g(x)] (g o f)(x) = g [f(x)]

ES 111-Calculus 1-Differential Calculus Page 11

 x+7
= 5x – 7 =
5
x+7 5 x−7+7
=5( ¿–7 =
5 5
5x
= x + 7 -7 =
5
=x =x
Notice, that after taking their compositions, we arrived at the same answer which is x. This is only proves that changing
the order of functions in performing their composition can turn at equal or unequal values. The pair of functions which arrives at
the same value of composition after interchanging the order is called Inverse Functions.

REMEMBER:
In taking the composition of functions, the following steps will be followed:
1. Establish the first equation based on the definition and based on the given functions.
2. Determine the dependent and the independent functions.
3. Substitute the right of the equation by the given expression of the dependent
function.
4. Substitute all x’s of the dependent function by the expression of the independent
function.
5. Simplify the resulting expression.
6. Changing the order of the functions can result to equal or unequal values of
composition.

LEARNING TASK # 13 Solve the given problem and write it in your notebook.
Given the following functions, h(x) = 3x2 + 6x – 4 and g(x) = -3x +4, find
a. h o g

1.8 ONE-VALUED AND MANY-VALUED FUNCTIONS

A function f(x) is said to be a single-valued function or one-valued function if for each value of x corresponds to just one
value of f(x)
Example: y = x2 + 7x – 4
Solution: For x = 1, y = (1)2 + 7(1) – 4 = 4 - Single valued
x = 2, y = (2)2 + 7(2) – 4 = 14

A function is said to be a multi-valued or many-valued function if for each value of x corresponds to two or more value of
f(x)
Example: y=x ± √ 2 x 2−1
Solution: For x = 1 , y=2± √ 2(2)2−1
y=2± √7
y=2+ √7 or y=2−√ 7 - Many-valued

A multivalued function, also known as a multiple-valued function (Knopp 1996, part 1 p. 103), is a "function" that assumes two
or more distinct values in its range for at least one point in its domain. While these "functions" are not functions in the normal sense
of being one-to-one or many-to-one, the usage is so common that there is no way to dislodge it. When considering multivalued
functions, it is therefore necessary to refer to usual "functions" as single-valued functions.

While the trigonometric, hyperbolic, exponential, and integer power functions are all single-valued functions, their
inverses are multivalued. For example, the function z^2 maps each complex number z to a well-defined number z^2, while its
inverse function sqrt(z) maps, for example, the value z=1 to sqrt(1)=+/-1. While a unique principal value can be chosen for such
functions (in this case, the principal square root is the positive one), the choices cannot be made continuous over the whole
complex plane. Instead, lines of discontinuity must occur.

The discontinuities of multivalued functions in the complex plane are commonly handled through the adoption of branch cuts,
but use of Riemann surfaces is another possibility.(https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ MultivaluedFunction.html)

1.9 ODD AND EVEN FUNCTIONS

ES 111-Calculus 1-Differential Calculus Page 12

 1.9.1 EVEN FUNCTIONS
A function is "even" when:
f(x) = f(−x) for all x
In other words, there is symmetry about the y-axis (like a reflection):

Fig. 12. This is the curve f(x) = x2+1

They got called "even" functions because the functions x2, x4, x6, x8, etc behave like that, but there are other functions that
behave like that too, such as cos(x):

Fig. 13. Cosine function: f(x) = cos(x)

It is an even function
But an even exponent does not always make an even function, for example (x+1)2 is not an even function.
1.9.1 ODD FUNCTIONS
A function is "odd" when:
−f(x) = f(−x) for all x
Note the minus in front of f(x): −f(x).
And we get origin symmetry:

Fig. 14. This is the curve f(x) = x3−x

They got called "odd" because the functions x, x3, x5, x7, etc behave like that, but there are other functions that behave like
that, too, such as sin(x):

Fig. 15. Sine function: f(x) = sin(x)

It is an odd function
But an odd exponent does not always make an odd function, for example x3+1 is not an odd function

Neither Odd nor Even

Don't be misled by the names "odd" and "even" ... they are just names ... and a function does not have to be even or
odd.
In fact most functions are neither odd nor even. For example, just adding 1 to the curve above gets this:

ES 111-Calculus 1-Differential Calculus Page 13

 Fig. 16. This is the curve f(x) = x3−x+1

It is not an odd function, and it is not an even function either. It is neither odd nor even

Example: is f (x)= x/( x2 −1) Even or Odd or neither?

Let's see what happens when we substitute −x:
−x
f (−x )= 2
(−x) −1
−x
f (−x )= 2
x −1
f (−x )=−f (x )
So f(−x) = −f(x) , which makes it an Odd Function

REMEMBER:
Even and Odd
 The only function that is even and odd is f(x) = 0
Special Properties
Adding:
 The sum of two even functions is even
 The sum of two odd functions is odd
 The sum of an even and odd function is neither even nor odd (unless one function is
zero).

Multiplying:
 The
product of two even functions is an even function.
 The product of two odd functions is an even function.
 The product of an even function and an odd function is an odd function.

LEARNING TASK # 14 Solve the given problems and write it in your notebook.
Direction: Answer the following questions:
1. Which one of the following functions is even?
a. f(x) = x4 + x3 b. g(x) = x4 + x2 c. h(x) = x5 + x3 d. k(x) = x3 + x

2. f(x) = x2 + 1 g(x) = x3 - 3x h(x) = 3x5 + 2x3

Which of the following products is odd?
a. f(x)g(x) b. g(x)h(x) c. [f(x)]2 d. f(x)g(x)h(x)

SUMMARY:
 A variable y is said to be a function of another variable x, if to every value of x there is a corresponding
value of y. In symbols, y = f(x). The variable x to which any value may be assigned is the independent
variable or argument, while y is the dependent variable or function.
 The function may be classified as Polynomial or Integral Rational Function, Rational Function or Rational
Fraction, Algebraic Functions, and Transcendental Function.
 In a set of ordered pairs, the domain is the set of all x-coordinates (first coordinates), while the range is
the set of all the y-coordinates (second coordinates).
 In mathematics, the graph of a function f is the set of ordered pairs (x,y), where f(x) = y.
o The vertical line test is a method that is used to determine whether a given relation is a function
or not. The approach is rather simple. Draw a vertical line cutting through the graph of the
relation, and then observe the points of intersection.
o In a graph of linear functions, the graphs are always a straight line. They can either be a
diagonal line slanting downward going to the right or going to the left.
o The graph of a quadratic functions is called a parabola.

ES 111-Calculus 1-Differential Calculus Page 14

  Function notation is the way a function is written. It is meant to be a precise way of giving information
about the function without a rather lengthy expression.
 In evaluating functions, the following steps will be followed: substitute all x’s of the given function by the
given numerical value and simplify. In simplifying, apply the PEMDAS Rule.
 A combination of function means simply combining two functions using the arithmetic operators.
o Sum: (f + g) (x) = f(x) + g(x)
o Difference: (f - g) (x) = f(x) - g(x)
o Product: (f · g) (x) = f(x) · g(x)
o Quotient: (f / g)(x) = f(x) / g(x), as long as g(x) isn’t zero.
o Product of a constant and a function: (c . f)(x) = c. f(x)
 Aside from the fundamental operations of functions, namely: the sum, the difference, the product, and the
quotient of two function, functions can also be combined by getting its composition. Given the two
functions, f and g, the composition of f with g denoted by f o g (read as “f circle g”) is defined by the
equation, (f o g)(x) = f[g(x)]
 A function f(x) is said to be a single-valued function or one-valued function if for each value of x
corresponds to just one value of f(x)
 A function is said to be a multi-valued or many-valued function if for each value of x corresponds to
two or more value of f(x)
 A function is "even" when: f(x) = f(−x) for all x.
 A function is "odd" when: −f(x) = f(−x) for all x. Note the minus in front of f(x): −f(x).

ANSWERS KEY:

Activity 1. The given set of ordered pair is a function. Activity 8 x2 + x + 3

Domain {-1, 1, -2, 2, -3, 3}
Activity 9 5x – 6
Range { 1, 1, 4, 4, 9, 9} or { 1, 4, 9}
Activity 2. a. function Activity 10 x3 – 21x + 20
b. not a function just relation
Activity 11 2
Activity 6. a. f : x → ( x −5 ) 3
3
Activity 12 -2x2 – 6x – 4
b. x → ( x−5 ) Activity 13 27x2 – 90x + 68
c. f ={ ( x , y ) : y = ( x−5 )3
Activity 14 B
3
d. f ( x ) =( x−5 )
Activity 15 A
e. y= ( x −5 ) 3
Activity 7. 7−3 √ 2
23/2

FEEDBACK:
Are you ready to move on for your next
module?
o I’m totally lost
o one more example would help
o yes, we can move on
o this is too easy, go faster/skip
ahead

What do you think about the activities for

this module?
o I did not do the readings or
activities
o I solve, but I did not understand
it.
o I understand the main concepts
REFERENCES:
but some have questions.
o I have thought deeply about the
activities and I’m ready to
Morris Carla C & Stark Robert M. (2016) Fundamentals
solve the givenof Calculus, John
exercise. Wiley & Sons, Inc, Hoboken, New Jersey, USA

Wrede Robert & Spiegel Murray R (2010) Schaum’s Outlines Advanced Calculus, , McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc, USA

Safier Fred (2013) Schaum’s Outlines Precalculus, Third Edition, Fred Safier, McGraw Hill Companies, Inc, USA

Marcelo, Gladys Glo H. (2012), Basic Calculus, Rex Book Store, Inc., Manila, Philippines

ES 111-Calculus 1-Differential Calculus Page 15

What is function? Retrived from http://www.mathisfun.com

Functions. Retrieved from http://www.khanacademy.org/math/differential-calculus

PROBLEM SET # 1:
FUNCTIONS

Name: ______________________________________________ Score: _______________

Course and Year: _____________________________________ Date: ________________

Instruction: Solve the following problems. Write your solutions in your notebook. 5 points each.

A. For set of ordered pair, determine the domain and the range.
1. N = {(-2,2), (-1,1), (0,0), (1,1), (2,2)
2. I = {(-2,2), (0,0), (2,-2), (4,-4), (6,-6)

B. Write the following statements in function notation. Identify the dependent and independent variable:
3. The capacity to love by a person (c) is dependent on the amount of love he received when he/she is growing up(L).
4. Write a function notation in which every element in the range is the cube of 5 less than its corresponding element in the
domain.

C. Evaluate the following functions. Express your answer in simplest form.

3
5. Find f(-4), if f ( x )=
x−7
6. Find f(√ 5), if f ( x )=3 x 2−6 x +4

D. Perform the indicated operations on functions. Use the given functions below.
f(x) = 5x +1 h(x) = x2 + 22x + 121
2
g(x) = x – 9 P(x) = x2 – 6x + 9
R(x) = x – 3 m(x) = x + 11
7. f + g
8. m – g
9. h .P
10. g/R
11. 4P

E. Solve for the composition of the given pair of function using the given functions. Express your answer in simplest form.
f(x) = x2 - 6x + 9 R(x) = x2 g(x) = x2 – 4
C(x) = 1/x T(x) = √ x−2 h(x) = 3x + 5
12. R o C

F. Graph the given following functions:

13. f(x) = 3x -4
14. y = x2 + 3
15. y = 2x + 1

ES 111-Calculus 1-Differential Calculus Page 16

ACTIVITY 1.9:
Direction: Answer the following questions:
16. Which one of the following functions is even?
b. f(x) = x4 + x3 b. g(x) = x4 + x2 c. h(x) = x5 + x3 d. k(x) = x3 + x

17. f(x) = x2 + 1 g(x) = x3 - 3x h(x) = 3x5 + 2x3

Which of the following products is odd?
b. f(x)g(x) b. g(x)h(x) c. [f(x)]2 d. f(x)g(x)h(x)

ACTIVITY 1.9
1. Ans. B
Note: Remember the rules:
• The sum of two even functions is even
• The sum of two odd functions is odd
• The sum of an even and odd function is neither even nor odd (unless one function is zero).

Answer A is the sum of an even and an odd function, so is neither even nor odd.
Answers C and D are the sum of two odd functions, so are odd.
Only answer B is the sum of two even functions, so is even.
2. A
Note: Remember the rules:
• The product of two even functions is an even function.
• The product of two odd functions is an even function.
• The product of an even function and an odd function is an odd function.

f(x)g(x) is the product of an even function and an odd function, so is odd.

g(x)h(x) is the product of an odd function and an odd function, so is even.
[f(x)]2 is the product of an even function and an even function, so is even.
f(x)g(x)h(x) is the product of f(x)g(x) and h(x), so is the product of an odd function and an odd function, so is even.

1.1 SPECIAL FUNCTION TYPES

0

1.10.1 PIECEWISE FUNCTIONS

A Function Can be in Pieces
We can create functions that behave differently based on the input (x) value.

A function made up of 3 pieces

Example:

ES 111-Calculus 1-Differential Calculus Page 17

 • when x is less than 2, it gives x2,
• when x is exactly 2 it gives 6
• when x is more than 2 and less than or equal to 6 it gives the line 10-x

It looks like this:

(a solid dot means "including", an open dot means "not including")

And this is how we write it:

x2 if x <2
f ( x )= 6
{ if x=2
10−x if x> 2∧x ≤ 6
}
The Domain (all the values that can go into the function) is all Real Numbers up to and including 6, which we can write like
this:
Dom (f) = (-∞ , 6] (using Interval Notation)
Dom (f) = {x ϵ R | x ≤ 6} (using Set Builder Notation)
And here are some example values:
X Y
−4 16
−2 4
0 0
1 1
2 6
3 7

Example: Here is another piecewise function:

h ( x )= 2 , if x ≤ 1
{ }
x if x>1
which looks like:

What is h(−1)? x is ≤ 1, so we use h(x) = 2, so h(−1) = 2

What is h(1)? x is ≤ 1, so we use h(x) = 2, so h(1) = 2
What is h(4)? x is > 1, so we use h(x) = x, so h(4) = 4

Example: A Doctor's fee is based on the length of time.

• Up to 6 minutes costs S50
• Over 6 and up to S15 minutes costs S80
• Over 15 minutes costs S80 plus S5 per minute above 15 minutes
Which we can write like this:

ES 111-Calculus 1-Differential Calculus Page 18

 S 50 if t ≤6
f ( t )=
{ S 80
S 80+ S 5(t−15)
if t >6∧t ≤ 15
if t >15 }
You visit for 12 minutes, what is the fee? S 80
You visit for 20 minutes, what is the fee? $80+$5(20-15) = $105

1.10.2 The Absolute Value Function

The Absolute Value Function is a famous Piecewise Function.
It has two pieces:
• below zero: -x
• from 0 onwards: x
The Absolute Value Function: f(x) = |x|
It is also sometimes written: abs(x)

This is its graph:

f(x) = |x|

It makes a right angle at (0,0)

It is an even function.

Its Domain is the Real Numbers: R

Its Range is the Non-Negative Real Numbers: [0, +∞)
Are you absolutely positive? Yes! Except when I am zero.

1.10.3 Floor and Ceiling Functions

The floor and ceiling functions give us the nearest integer up or down.

Example: What is the floor and ceiling of 2.31?

The Floor of 2.31 is 2

The Ceiling of 2.31 is 3
Floor and Ceiling of Integers
What if we want the floor or ceiling of a number that is already an integer?
That's easy: no change!

Example: What is the floor and ceiling of 5?

The Floor of 5 is 5
The Ceiling of 5 is 5

Here are some example values for you:

x Floor Ceiling
−1.1 −2 −1
0 0 0
1.01 1 2
2.9 2 3

ES 111-Calculus 1-Differential Calculus Page 19

 3 3 3
Symbols
The symbols for floor and ceiling are like the square brackets [ ] with the top or bottom part missing:

But I prefer to use the word form: floor(x) and ceil(x)

Definitions.
How do we give this a formal definition?
Example: How do we define the floor of 2.31?
Well, it has to be an integer ...
... and it has to be less than (or maybe equal to) 2.31, right?
• is less than 2.31 ...
• but 1 is also less than 2.31,
• and so is 0, and -1, -2, -3, etc.
Oh no! There are lots of integers less than 2.31.
So which one do we choose?
Choose the greatest one (which is 2 in this case)
So we get:
The greatest integer that is less than (or equal to) 2.31 is 2

Which leads to our definition:

Floor Function: the greatest integer that is less than or equal to x
Likewise for Ceiling:
Ceiling Function: the least integer that is greater than or equal to x

As A Graph
The Floor Function is this curious "step" function (like an infinite staircase):

The Floor Function

A solid dot means "including" and an open dot means "not including".

Example: at x=2 we meet:

an open dot at y=1 (so it does not include x=2),
and a solid dot at y=2 (which does include x=2)
so the answer is y=2

And this is the Ceiling Function:

The Ceiling Function

The "Int" Function

ES 111-Calculus 1-Differential Calculus Page 20

 The "Int" function (short for "integer") is like the "Floor" function, BUT some calculators and computer programs show
different results when given negative numbers:
Some say int(−3.65) = −4 (the same as the Floor function)
Others say int(−3.65) = −3 (the neighboring integer closest to zero, or "just throw away the .65")
So be careful with this function!

The "Frac" Function

With the Floor Function, we "throw away" the fractional part. That part is called the "frac" or "fractional part" function:
frac(x) = x − floor(x)

It looks like a sawtooth:

The Frac Function

Example: what is frac(3.65)?
frac(x) = x − floor(x)
So: frac(3.65) = 3.65 − floor(3.65) = 3.65 − 3 = 0.65

Example: what is frac(−3.65)?

frac(x) = x − floor(x)
So: frac(−3.65) = (−3.65) − floor(−3.65) = (−3.65) − (−4) = −3.65 + 4 = 0.35

BUT many calculators and computer programs use frac(x) = x − int(x), and so their result depends on how they calculate int(x):
Some say frac(−3.65) = 0.35 i.e −3.65 − (−4)
Others say frac(−3.65) = −0.65 i.e. −3.65 − (−3)
So be careful using this function with negative values.

ACTIVITY 1.10
1. What is the value of floor(-3.2)?
a. -4 b. -3 c. 3 d. 4
2. What is the value of frac(-11.78)?
a. -0.78 b. -0.22 c. 0.22 d. 0.78
3. What is the value of ceil(-3.2)?
a. -4 b. -3 c. 3 d. 4

Solution 1.10:
1. a
floor(-3.2) is the greatest integer that is less than or equal to -3.2 = -4
2. c
frac(x) = x - floor(x)
And floor(-11.78) is the greatest integer that is less than or equal to -11.28 = -12
So frac(-11.78) = -11.78 - (-12) = -11.78 + 12 = 0.22
3. b
"ceil" is the "ceiling" function
ceil(-3.2) is the least integer that is greater than or equal to -3.2 = -3

https://www.mathsisfun.com/sets/functions-piecewise.html

ES 111-Calculus 1-Differential Calculus Page 21