AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND

COMMUNICATION A. Stirrings in the 19th century England

HISTORY OF EXTENSION 1840's

-

The term University Extension was first used in Britain

The term EXTENSION itself was first used to describe adult
education programs organized by Oxford and Cambridge universities 1850's
in England starting in 1867. Discussions began in Oxford and Cambridge) about how they
could serve the needs of the rapidly growing population in the
These educational programs helped extend the work of industrial, urban areas
universities beyond the campus and into the neighboring
communities.
-First practical attempt was made in what was designated
This term was later formally adopted in the United States in "University Extension
conjunction with the land grant universities that were originally not for students enrolled in the universities
established as teaching institutions during the 1860s. bringing the university outside of its campus to people
who could not qualify for entry into university
During the early twentieth century, the United Kingdom 1871
transferred responsibility for agricultural extension activities to the James Stuart
Ministry of Agriculture; these activities were then officially, called The "Father of University Extension"
-

ADVISORY SERVICES. A Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge

-

He appealed to the authorities of University of Cambridge

This same term (in English) was used by most European too organize Centers of Extension Lectures under university's
countries as they developed and/or expanded similar advisory supervision
services within their respective ministries of agriculture.
1872-UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE adopted the system
1876 UNIVERSITY OF LONDON adopted the system
1878 UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD adopted the system

1880's
The extension system became well-established and
developed into what was to be called Extension Movem ent
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 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

B. Birth of Modern Agricultural Extension Service 1850's

a. Morill Act of 1862 by Pres. Lincoln
EUROPE Creation of Land Grant Colleges and Universities
-

Establishment of demonstration centers/experimental

1841 stations
-The Royal Agricuitural Improvement Society (RAIS) in Britain b. Farmers' Institute Movem ents
was founded. Organized meetings (1 to 2 days) for farmers
-

Speakers were professors from state colleges and

1845 universities
The outbreak of potato blight in Europe (Ireland) caused by
Phytophthora infestans.
The effect was most severe in Ireland where the 1890

predominantly peasant community relied on potatoes as staple food Second Morill Act which extended Land-Grant concept in
other areas of the USA
1847
The newly appointed British viceroy to Ireland, the Earl of 1914
Clarendon, urged the RAIS to appoint lecturers to trayel around the Smith-Lever Act
distressed districts to inform and teach small farmers how to improve -Establishment of the Cooperative Extension Service
the farming and grow other nutrient rich rops
Cooperative Extension Services
1890's -a tripartite cooperation between the federal government, the
-

Universities incorporated agriaultural subjects in their state government and the local county government in association with
lectures the SUCs as extension agency

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 1923
EXTENSION IN THE PHILIPPINE SETTING:
-Demonstration and Extension Division was changed to
Agricultural Extension Servicess
Beginnings of Agricultural Extension in the Philippines
Home Extension Work was started in the Division of
Agricultural extension may be started from the Spanish
Organic Chemistry of the Bureau of Soils mainly on Food
regime with the of the Granja modelos or modelfarm.
Preservation.

Granja modelos Maria Y. Orosa - f o u n d e d the home extension service.

Experimental or demonstration centers for farmers during the
19th century.
initiated by the first Spanish missionaries
1929
to educate rice, corn, and tobacco farmers in large<
Bureau of Agriculture split into Bureau of Plant
encomiendas.
Industry (BPI) and the Bureau of Animal In dustry (BAI).
American Regime
The agricultural extension division was placed under the
Bureau of Plant Industry and later on renamed Agricultural
April 30, 1902
Division in 1932. This division carried out extension services up to
-BUREAU OF AGRICULTURE wasestablished under the
Department of Interior the assumption of Mr. Manuel L. Quezon, as President of the
Commonwealth in 1938.

July 1910
1936
Demonstration and Extension Division was created
Commonwealth Act No. 85-In the provinces, extension
under the Bureau of Agriculture. It is the first formally organized
service was done by the provindal agriulturist and home
government department implementing research and extension
demonstrators in the provinces. This Act widened the extension
programs. service coverage as it authorized local government units to support
Bureau of Agriculture created to expand extension
extension service logistically up to years immediately preceding World
services, with the Administrative Division, doing the extension
War II.
service program.

Undated
July 1919
-Commonwealth Act 649 was passed increasing the
-DED expanded its work to indude farmer's cooperative, rural
amount appropriated for extension work. Set-up of agricultural
credit, marketing and animal insurance
extension service continued until the outbreak of world war III
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1942-1945 (Japanese Occupation) Republic Act No. 188 BAEx functions were decentralized
-

Home economics and agricultural extension work suffered and granted autonomous powers to the local government unit to
drawbacks appoint their respective provindial agriculturist and municipal
extension workers.
After Japanese Occupation 1969
1947 National Food and Agricultural Council (NFAC)
-

The Home Extension Unit under BPI was fused with the emerged by Virtue of EO. 183. NFAC was given full control of the
Agricultural Extension Unit of the Bureau of Agriculture. food production program and controlled a large portion of the funds
for agriculture and funds from the USAID.
1950 1972
-The Philippine Government requested the USA to send an Presidential Decree No. 1 (P.D. No. 1) and
economic survey mission to the Philippines to: Presldential Letter of Implementation No. 9, reverted APC to its
original name, BAEX (Nov. 1, 1972) and its control was returned to
CONSIDER THE FINANCIAL PROBLEMS OF THE COUNTRY Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources with P.D. 970
AND TO RECOMMEND MEASURES THAT WILL ENABLE THE abolishing.the Farm Management Office of DAR transferring its
PHILIPPINES TO BECOME AND TO REMAIN SELF-SUPPORTING" function to BAEX.
July 1, 1973
The Bell Survey Mission Recommendatioon The BAEx was transferred back to DA. The Abaca and others
The consolidation of the scattered extension service Fibers Board was Fused with BAEx.
organizations in the different bureaus (BPI, BAI, BS, BFor, BFis) into 1977
one bureau that would adequately extend information to farm families World Bank Mission appraised the Philippines' Agricultural
for improved farming, homemaking, and rural organization Extension Service upon request of the Philippine government.
July 16, 1952
The Bureau of Agricultural Extension (BAEx) was Result:
created on by virtue of R.A. 680. The BAEx consolidated all existing
extension services being carried out by different offices. The Philippines adopted the Training and Visit System (T & V)
which evolved into a development strategy designed to improve the
1963 quality of life of farm families through a pool of resources.
-The BAEX was changed into Agriculture Productivity March 27, 1979
Commission (APC) when R.A. 3844 or the Land Reform Code National Extension Project (NEP) became operational
was enacted. It was placed directly under the office of the President. with a world bank loan of US$ 35M.
1967

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1978 the Agricultural Training Institute (ATI). The "BIRTH" of the ATI
-
PD No. 1579 and LOI No. 595 created ministry-wide meant the "DEATH" of the BAEx
regional offices in the Ministry of Agriculture Appointment of 12
ministry-wide regional directors and 24 asst. regional directors, and
Recent Development in the Agricultural Extension System
75 PAOs in 1980.
-EO No. 967- renamed the Ministry of Agriculture into the
1991
Ministry of Agriculture And Food (MAF) and transferred the BFAR from
To insure the delivery of basic services in the agricultural
the Ministry of Natural Resources to the MAF.
extension system, the Congress of the Philippines enacted into law
1982 the Local Government Code (RA No. 7160). Among other
- EO No. 8 0 3 designating the province as the political unit of provisions, the Code decentralized authority to local government units
management for inducing agricultural development (LGUs) the management and supervision of agricultural extension
system of the country.
RA 5185 (Decentralization Act) The -

governments were empowered to have their own exten sion services

provincial
1997
Organizational Structure RA 8435Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act
Minister of Agriculture (AFMA)
Major Concerns of AFMA
01Food security
Regional Director 2. Poverty alleviation and social equity
3. Income enhancement and profitability especially for
farmers and fisher folks
Provincial 1. Senior Home Management Technician (SHMT) 4. Global Competitiveness
Agriculture 2. Rural Youth Development Officer (RYDO) 5. Sustainability
OTicer 3. Provincial Subject Matter Specialist (SMS)

Municipal
Agricuture-Agricutural Food Technologists (AFTs)
oTicer
1987
- EO No. 116 BAEx, Agricultural Training Council, and the

Philippine Training Center for Rural Development were merged into

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 PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURE
President Manuel A. Roxas
Parity Rights to the Americans- The disposition,
Spanish Era
exploitation, development, and utilization of all agricultural,
Introduced and acdimatized the myrrh birds (Martinez) from
timber and mineral lands of the public domain
China to fight against migratory locust infestation in the Philippines
Rehabilitation Finance Corporation (RFC now known as
Plan General Economico included the income generating monopolies
Developmment Bank of the Philippines[DBP]) for the
of tobaco0, jareta nut, spirituous liquors and explosives
rehabilitation and development of agriculture among others
American Occupation
June 23, 1898- Creation of the Department of Agriculture
and Manufacturing President Elpidio Quirino
Bureau of Agricultural Extension
Made the rice industry the first commodity sector to have an
Homestead Law- every Filipino citizen has the opportunity to
integrated national planning.
acquire at least 24 hectares of land.
Rural Bank Act- organization of a system of rural banks with
Torrens Act- Safeguard of all titles to cultivated lands owned substantial capital participation of the government
by private persons. Agricultural Credit Cooperative Finan cing
1902-Creation of Bureau of Agriculture, now the Bureau of
Administration (AcCFA)- authorized to organize the
Plant Industry to promote agriculture
Farmers Cooperative Marketing Associations

Philippine exports especially hemp, sugar, tobacco, vopra and (FACOMAS)

embroideries

President Ramon Magsaysay

Philippines became a member of UN-FAO
National Rice and Corn Program- lanched along with Rice
President Manuel L. Quezon
and Corn Coordinating Council
Division of Soil Survey was created to undertake soil and
Rice and Corn Coordinating Council- forerunner of the
agronomical survey National Food and Agriculture Council (NFAC) now known as
National Agriculture and Fishery Council (NAFC)
President Jose P. Laurel
The period of "Rude Awakening" realization that the
Philippines did not raise enough food for the people and was
not self-sufficient

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President Carlos P. Garcia MTLDP Medium Term Livestock Development Program
Austery Program- urged the people to lead simple lives and MTFMDP- Medium Term Fisheries Management
do away with luxurious lifestyles Development Program
Filipino First Policy- encouraged the people to patronize GATT Safety Measure was adopted
Pilipino-made products and to promote Filipino labor

President Joseph E. Estrada

President Diosdado Macapagal CONCORD Constitutional Correction for Development
International Rice Research Institute- establish ed in Agrikulturang Makamasa
UPLB Biotechnology was approved in the Philippines
Focus to solve the problem of the sugar industry

Presldent Gloria M. Arroyo

President Ferdinand Marcos GMAGinintuang Masaganang Ani
RA 6389- automatic conversion of share ten ancy to leasehold Country wide assistance for rural employment and
and retention rate of 75-24 hectares must be lowered and the, services
creation of DAR Hybrid Rice Commercialization Program
Masagana 99- program with massive dispersal of modern
package of technology incduding High Yielding Varieties,
fertilizers and pesticides
Replanting program for coconut

President Corazon Aquino

CARP

President Fidel V. Ramos

MDATP (Medium Term Agricultural Development
Program)
GPEP Grains Production Enhancement Program
KCCDP Key Commerial Crops Development Program
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 MEANING OF EXTENSION IN OTHER Extension Terminologies:
COUNTRIES Extension teaching
Term COuntry Meaning .Art of stimulating, directing and guiding the learning process
Voorlichting Netherlands Lighting the path ahead to help Process of guided interaction
people find their way Process designed to help people develop and become capable
Penyuluhan Indonesia Lighting the way ahead with a of guiding successfu their own destinies
torch Providing effective learning situations that reate new learning
Perkembangan Malaysia Education, the way USA experien ces for people
interprets it_
Beratung Germany "Advisory work"- an expert can Learning experience
give advice on the best way to a series of activities and appraisals from which one gains
reach one's goal but leaves the
person the final responsibility for
meanings in facing new problems and planning new experien ces
selecting the way Extension model
erepresentation of a system that specifies the parts and its
Aufklärung Germany "Enlightenment" so that one components as well as relationship among them
knows clearly where he/she is
going Extension strategy
Erziehun9 Germany "Education," that is, to teach, -

series of steps, set of procedures, activities that operationalize

people to solve their problems the approaches which will facilitate accomplishment of goals
themselves
Förderung Austria Furthering" or stimulating one Extension method

to go in a desirable direction educational techniques employed by extension system

Vulgarisation France Simplification of the message for
Animation the common man Pedagogy the science of teaching children
Capacitacion Spain Improving people's abilities, Andragogy- the science of teaching adults
Consultacon normally through training
Extension USA Education, or infiuencing people
to change their behavior

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AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION EDUCATION OBJECTIVES OF AGRICULTURAL
-A system of educating and training the rural people to EXTENSION
develop skills and abilities in farming9, homemaking and youth
building. Hierarchy of extension objectives
Neils Roling, 1988
-A well planned program of bringing results of agriculitural
research and technology to rural families to help them solve problems Ultimate Objectives
of agricultural production, home and community living. (From analysis of soietal problems)

-A two-way process that brings agriculture and homemaking Intervention Objectives

technologies from research agencies and/or universities to ruralS (Based on analysis of causes)
families in forms applicable to their own situations and in turn
presents their problems in farming and homemaking for study of A
Conditionfs for effect
these institutions. Based on
determinants of voluntary behavior)
-A process of getting useful information from people Activities
(communication dimension); teaching farmer's management and (Programming, Implementation)
decision-making skills as new technology inevitably places more
demand on those ability; and helping rural people develop leadership Méans
and organizational ability so that they can better organizé operate (Resources, Management, Organization)
and/or participate in cooperatives, credit union and other Support
services, and to participate actively in making their local community Core Objectives
conducively livable. Emphasizes the dient centered approach.
All the efforts of extension are geared towards changing
elements related to the dient system, the farmers

Direct objectives
What the extension system is trying to achieve in terms of
specific activities that will hopefuly bring the Core objectives

Result objectives
End goal
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 Public extension organizations should have validated
Four Major Paradigms of Agricultural information available from research about the
effectiveness of different inputs or methods in solving
Extensioon specific problems so that inquiring farmers receive
objective and validated information.
The terms EXTENSION and ADVISORY SERVICES can be used
somewhat interchangeably, but the following framework givesa
3. Non-formal Education (NFE)
useful perspective on the different approaches being pursued by
different countries and donors in organizing and implementing In earlier days of extension in Europe and North America,
effective extension systems. this paradigm dominated when universities gave training
to rural people who could not afford or did not have access
to formal training in different types of vocational and
1. Technology Transfer
technical agriculture training.
This extension model was prevalent during colonial times
This approach continues to be used in most extension
and re-emerged with intensity during the 1970s and 1980s systems, but the focus is shifting more toward training
when the Training and Visit (T&v) system was established
farmers how to utilize specific management skills and/or
in many Asian and Sub-Saharan African countries
technical knowledge to increase their produdtion efficiency
This "top-down" model primarily delivers specific or to utilize specific management practices, such as
recommendations from research, especially foF the staple integrated pest management (IPM), as taught through
food crops, to all types of farmers (large, medium and Farmer Field Schools (FFS).
small).
The primary goal of this extension model is to increase 4. Facilitation Extension
food production, which helps reduce food costs
-This approach has evolved over time from participatory
extension methods used 20-30 years ago and now focuses
2. Advisory Services on getting farmers with common interests to work more
Both public extension workers and private-sector firms, in losely together to achieve both individual and common
responding to specific farmer inquiries about particular objectives.
production problems, still commonly use the term advisory An important difference is that front-line extension agents
services. primarily work as "knowledge brokers" in facilitating the
In most cases, farmers are "advised" to use a specific teaching-earning process among all types of farmers
practice or technology to solve an identified problem or including women) and rural young people.
production constraint.

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NATURE OR DIMENSIONS F EXTENsION Research Dimension
Extension aims at linking research with farmers
Ways to foster closer links between the farmers and the
Altruistic Dimension
researchers need further understan ding
Extension is aimed at helping farmers
A basic premise of extension that must be observed by
Input Dimension
practitioners
Provision of technical inputs plays an important linking
function in the transfer of technology
Educational Dimen sion
Requires that extension professional be knowledgeable of
Extension is a non-formal method of adult education
these technical inputs
Thus, extension professionals must be imbued with knowledge
on how adults learn
Tncome Dimension
Communication Dimension
Extension. is aimed at increased income for the farmer through
Extension is a communication intervention increased production and productivity
Knowledge of basic communication porcess and its dynamics
Management Dimension
must be adequately understood by the exten sion professional Extension aims to function according to sound management
Behavioral Dimension
principles
Hence, requiring that the extension professional be a good
Extension is aimed at inducing behavioral changes among
farmers manager
This makes behavioral change the end goal of extension
If farmer has not changed his behavior (for his betterment) no
extension has been done

Technology Dimension
Extension helps in the Transfer of Technology
Extension should be able to identify technologies appropriate
to clientele
T h e need for alternative approaches and methods for
diagnosing technical problems should be recognized

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 o Each has the goods/services desired by the other
METHODs FOR INFLUENCING HUMAN
o Each can only deliver his/her part when the
BEHAVIOR exchange goods/services have been delivered by
1. Advice the other.
Used if:
o Farmers agree with extension agent about the 4. Openly Influen cing Farmer's Knowledge Level and
nature of their problems and the criteria for Attitude
choosing the "correct" solution Applicable if we believe that farmer cant solve his/her own
o Extension agent knows enough about the farmers' problems because he/she has insufficient or incorrect
situation and has adequate information to solve knowledge and/or because his/her attitude does not match
their problems in a way which have been tested his/her goals.
scientifically or in practice W e believe that farmer can solve his/her own problems
o Farmers are confident the extension worker can he/she has more knowledge or has changed his/her
help them with a solution to their problemns attitudes
Extension agent does not think it necessary or
o
Weare prepared to help farmer collect more and better
possible for farmers to solve their problems knowledge or influence his/her attitudes
themselves
Farmer trusts our expertise and motives and is prepared to
o Farmers have sufficient means at their disposal ta cooperate with us in changing his/her knowledge and/or
carry out the advice attitudes.

2. Compulsion or Coercion 5. Manipulation

Party forcing somebody to do something Influence farmer's knowledge level and attitudes without
Has power and authority farmer being aware of it.
Ex: Government regulations make people Possible if we believe:
conform to traffic rules, public health o It is necessary and desirable for farmer to change
policies, environmental upkeep, etc. his/her behavior in certain direction
oUnnecessary/undesirable for farmer to make
3. Exchange independent decisions
Exchange of goods and services between two individuals o We can control techniques for influencing farmers
or groupss without them being aware of it.
Applicable if: o Farmers dont actively object to being influenced in
o Each party considers the transaction to be in their this way.
favor

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 6. Providing means
Apply under the following conditions:
o Farmer is trying to achieve goals which the PHILOSPHY OF EXTENSION EDUCATION
extension agent considered to be appropriate
o Farmer does not have the means available to
achieve these goals or does not wish to risk using What is Philosophy7
these means A body of prindiples underlying a given branch of learning or
major discipline, a religious system, a human activity
7. Providing Service A philosophy is a background of theory, knowledge and beliefs
May involve taking over certain tasks from farmers which explains and justifies a way of life.
Possible when: "View of Life" what ought to be and its components of
-

what is
o w e have knowledge and/or means available and how to bridgethe gap between "what is" and "what ought to
to
perform the tasks better or more economically than be
farmers Aguide toa person's actions
oWe agree with farmers that it is useful to perforrm
these tasks
What Ought To Be (The ldeal Vigw or Lite)
oWe are prepared to perform them for nim/her
8. Changing Farmer's Social and/or Econ omic Structure
W e agree with farmer that he/she could perform optimally
B u t farmer is not in a position to behave this way because
of barriers in the economic and/or socdal structure The Gap
(the problem area or
Possible when:
needs of the people)
o
desirable
We consider changes in these structure
o We have the freedom to work toward these
changes
o We are in a position to do this, either through
power or by conviction
What Is (ActualCurrent State of the People)
In terms of Knowledge, Skils, Attitudes, etc. a farmer
possess, their resources, present level of living, etc

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 A philosophy of extension includes the set of beliefs and best identified and appropriate solutions are introduced by the
principles that serves as basis for making decisions and judgments in extension workers.
the field of extension.

Structure of Philosophy 3. Extension programs are based on people's needs and

decided by them.
BELIEFS one's mental convictions, view of the world, or This philosophy directs extension workers in conducting
acceptance of something true or actual. community surveys, meeting and informal talks with various groups of
ETHICS- the basic principles of right actions/conduct as defined people. This affords the extension workers leeways to determine their
by profession, sodety, and nation; also referred to as the ideal needs, interests, problems and aspirations. It is the duty of the
of conduct. extension workers to make people understand themselves and to
VALUES- something regarded as desirable, worthy, or right.. explore possible solutions to their problems. Thus in the process, a
The intensity or degree of valuing something may change in well-planned extension program will surely arouse the people's
time.
enthusiasm and pour in their effort and inputs in its implementation.

Philosophy of Extension Education:

1. An exten sion program starts where the people are, with 4 People learn to do by doing.
what they have and improvement can begin from there. Thisparticular philosophy urges extension workers to provide
This philosophy requires an extension worker to see to
the Athe dlient-group opportunities to apply what have been learned.
suitability of the extension program to the social, cultural,, financial Farmers and homemakers should be made to participate as much as
and intellectual levels of the target dient group. This is done through possible by demonstrating to them the activities and later on making
identification of the target dient group's habits, beliefs attitudes the dientele do the activities themselves.
traditions, interests and aspirations; present agricultural and
homemaking practices; and their problems and available resources.
5. Education is carried on with groups or with individuals.
There are two ways in which extension education is carried as
2. The classroom is where the people are, in their farm, in
directed in this philosophy. The first one, is via group methods that
their homes and/or even in their barangays.
can reach more people and promote leadersh ip and joint actions; and
In extension education, the formal dassroom setting is done the other one is more on individual approach, although expensive,
away with. Technology can be communicated with the dlient group more effective in clarifying specific problems of individual client and in
anywhere they are found available. In so doing, actual conditions are establishing understanding between extension worker and lientele.

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6. Extension works with and through people.
PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
This philosophy when used as guide requires extension
workers to use cooperators to teach and eventually adopt 1. Communication and Education
recommended practices. They also need local leaders to help them Extension agent's role is as
communicator and
reach more people via recruiting voluntary leaders in every barangay educator.
and training them in organizational procedure and project As communicator he/she passes on useful information
implementation. These leaders, helping in various aspects of or technology to the dientele.
extension activities, can enhance cooperation of people in the A s educator he/she helps rural people acquire the
community and promote unity among dub members. skills, knowledge and attitudes that will help them
effectively utilize the information or technology.

7. The spirit of self-help is essential in a dem ocratic living.

2. Works with Rural People
Technical assistance from extension personnel plus learning by
doing contribute to the development of the lient's potentials and For impact and sustainability, "work with not work for
the people.
capabilities. The dientele has to plan and work on his project. In turn,
extension workers technical assistance in all in the
People must participate and make decisions that will
provide aspects benefit them; extension agent must assist them by
project implementation. In this way, individual clientele develops'self
providing all the information needed and possible
reliance necessary for self-fulfillment toward becoming a
productive alternative solutions to dientele problems
contributor of society's development.

3. Accountability to Clientele
Extension agent must justify to the organization
whatever action he/she takes and be accountable and
responsible to the cientele on whatever advice or
information given to him.
The clientele is the one to pass judgment on the
success or failure of the extension programs.

4. Two-way Process Linkage

aDisseminate information and technology to and receive
feedback from dlientele so that their needs can be
better fulfilled.

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 Learn from the clientele the wealth of their
PURPOSE OF EXTENSION
experiences.

5. Cooperate with Other Agen cies 1. Informative Extension

oExtension is only one aspect of the many economic, Helps people make well-considered choices among
social, cultural, and political activities that hope to alternatives provided by extension for the individual to
produce the change for the betterment of the rural achieve his/her goals
masses.
Extension should therefore cooperate and collaborate 2. Eman cipatory Extension
with both GOs and NGOs to accomplish the above. An instrument to uplift the poor, to achieve societal
Extension can't be effective on its own as its activities goals, to correct structural problems
must be interdependent on other related activities. Paolo Freire calls it Pedagogy of the Oppressed'

Formative Extension or HRD

6. Work with Different Target Groups An instrument for developing, forming' an individual or
Extension clientele is made up of various target groups enhancing his/her capabilities to make decisions to
with different needs, social learn, to manage, to communicate, too organize, etc.
status,ultural and
economic background.
Extension therefore cannot offer a package of Persuasive Extension
technology for all its lientele due to this Apolicy instrument to induce preventive behavior with
heterogen eity. respect to societal concerns such as environmental
Therefore there must be targeting of extension pollution, health hazards, vandalism, drug addiction,
meaning different programs and rape, etc. ssuch preventive behavior is in the interest
technology packages
for different target groups. of the society as a whole or of the future generation.

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 Concept of Communication
COMMUNICATION IN EXTENSION
What is Communication?
Communication can be conceptualized in terms of the S-M-C
R model.
Etymology:
Communis"- to make common or establish commonness between
It is a process by which a SsoURCE sends a MESSAGE to a
two or more people;
RECETVER by means of a CHANNEL to produce to produce a
Communico- to share.
RESPONSE in accordance with the intention of the source.
Communication
A process by which two people exchange ideas, facts,
-

Basic Communication Process

feelings or impressions so that each gains a common.
understanding of the meaning and intent of the message.
When an extension worker communicates/talks to his
A process by which an idea is transferred from a source to a
-

receiver with a purpose of changing his behavior dlientele, he is the sender, what he says, is the message, the
spoken word is the channel, and the dientele being talked to is the
The purpose of communication is to produce somekind of
receiver.
effect.

he reaction of the dientele to what the extension worker

Communication as Interaction
says is the feedback/response. In the transfer of information, it is
necessary that there should be some level of past experience and
Interaction the process of reciprocal role-taking, the mutual Some level of similarity and some level of shared meanings between
performance of emphatic behaviors.
the sender and receiver.
If two individuals make inferences about their own roles and
Participatory communication
take the role of the other at the same time, and if their
A social process which starts with farmers and brings
communication behavior depends on the reciprocal taking of roles,
together both extension workers and farmers in a two-way
then they are communicating by interacting with each other.
sharing of information.
This highlights the inmportance of cultural identity, local
Empathy- the ability to project ourselves into other people's
knowledge and community participation.
personalities.

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Attributes of communication as a process Basic Elements of Communication
1. Dynamic 1. SoURCE
Communication has an ever-changing character. An extension worker should have credibility, as this
I t fluctuates constantly, is never fixed, and has no dear determines the acceptance or rejection of idea by the person or group
beginnings and endings. with whom he communicates; adequate knowledge of his guidance,
2. Systemic his message and the effective channels to use; genuine interest in the
Communication should be recognized as a system that welfare of his audience; careful preparation of his message via use of
consists of a group of elements which interacts each other language that intended receivers understand, to ensure successful
and the system as a whole. reception; dear way of speaking; establishment of mental
3. Interaction through symbols understanding between teacher and learner; and awareness of time
Symbols should arouse in one's self what it arouses in mit.
another.
The language or symbol we select and the way in which
we organize them affect how others will interpret our Characteristics of the source:
messages a Homophily
4. Meaning is personally constru cted. I t refers to the degree to which a receiver perceives the source
N o two people construct the same meaning even if they, as similar to him or her in certain attributes such as age, sex,
hear or see the same thing. Interpretation is bounded by language, regional background, beliefs, values, etc
our experien ces, thoughts, feelings, needs, expectations Homophily of source and receiver in certain attributes
self-concept, knowledge, etc. contributes to effective communication.
Each of us is unique so we interpret in unique ways.
b. Credibility
-Credibility refers to a receiver's perception of the believability of
Field of Experience the source in a particular situation.
The sum total of an individual's experiences which infiuences -

Credibility is high or low according to the degree to which a

his/her ability to communicate. source is considered by the receiver as believable in a given
Communication can take place between people only to the situation based on four dimensions.
extent that they share a common field of experience or similar
experiences.

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 Dimensions of credibility
i. Character Message factors:
when a source is perceived as honest, trustworthy,
-

Code
friendly, reliable, peasant, warm, etc. his or her credibility is symbols used in communicating; both sender and
based on the character dimension. receiver should understand in order to communicate.

il. Competence Content

when a source is perceived as well-trained, the idea or substance seledted to express the
competent, intelligent, experienced, witty, bright, etc. his or purpose of the source for communicating.
her credibility is based on the competency dimension.
Treatment
ii. Composure t h e manner by which the materials are arranged in
-

when a source is perceived in terms of self order to be meaningful to the receiver.

confidence poise, dignity, level-headedness, etc. his or her
credibility is based on the composure dimension.
categorles of non-verbal communication
iv. Dynamism 1Physical
-when a receiver rates a source
in'terms of being Thé personal type of communication
bold, aggressive, extrovert, etc. his or her credibility is based on
the Încludes facial expressions, tone of voice, sense of touch,
dynamism dimension. sense of smell, and body motions.
Aesthetic
T h e type of communication that takes place through creative
2. MESSAGE expressions: playing instrumental music, dancing, painting and
The message should contain the purpose or the spedific sculpturing.
outcome desired from the message whether it be dhange in behavior, 3. Signss
change in knowledge, skills and attitude on the part of the learne. The mechanical type of communication, which includes the
The treatment of the message refers to the manner the use of signal flags, the 21-gun salute, horns, and sirens.
message is presented in understandable, logically organized, 4. Symbolic
interesting and in conformity with acceptable standards. T h e type of communication that makes use of religious,
status, or ego-building symbols.
A set of symbols arranged deliberately in certain ways in order
to communicate information or
meaning
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Message meaning and understandin9 Evaluates the content to determine its relevance and
Meanings are in people. value to the potential receivers
Meanings are never fixed. As experience changes, meaning Has the power to delete, alter the flow, add, subtract,
or distort the message
change
N o two people can have exactly the same meanings to the "Opinion-leader"- a person who is
extent that they have the same experiences. approached by others for advice on certain matters
Denotative or referential meaning - the relationship between a
perceived as redible, influential, authoritative in the
word-sign and an object or the sign-object relationship. community
Connotative meaning meaning associated with the personal
experiences of the person using the word. ARECEIVER
The audience in extension education is composed of farmers,
3. CHANNELS homemakers and youth. As receivers of the message whose
Refer to the various methods available to any communicator behaviors the extension worker expects to change, differ in
to reach his audience with the message. They may be dassified as intelligence, beliefs, experience and social standing in many other
visual, spoken or written or a combination of two or three channels. ways. These individual differences in people may result in different
The techniques in using these methods determine the success or interpretations of message in kind and in extent.
failure of the communication process.
Receiver characteristics
Psychological orientation psychological factors that are
Dimensions of channels salient to a receiver's persuasibility
Mode of encoding or decoding so thata message can be Selective exposure
Seen, heard, touched or felt, smelled, tasted Selective perception
Message vehides in theform of: Selective remembering
Interpersonal channels Selective acceptance
Mediated dhannels
Mass media channels
Folk media channelss

Interpersonal channels
"Gatekeeper"- someone who
Controls the flow of information
Decides what information to transmit and to whom he
will transmit it
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 Selective processes:
Selective exposure receivers tend to expose Type of Response
her/himself only to information that agrees with or Cognitive Effect knowledge, awareness, thought and
supports his/her existing behavior. skills
Selective perception receivers tend to "notice" or Weutralization- shifting of an existing attitude to the
assign meaning only to messages that neutral zone
Serve some immediate purpose Boomerang Effect- a shift opposite to that direction that
Reinforce his or her mood is intended
Fits his/her cognitive structure Conservation- maintenance of existing attitude
Are meaningful for him/her Attitude reinforcement or strengthening of existing attitude
Selective retention receivers tend to learn or Shift to the opposite sign, from (+) to (-) and vice versa
remember only information that suppots or agrees
with his/her attitude, beliefs, behaviors.
Selective discussion receivers tend to discuss only Barrlers to effective communication
those information which might be of interest to them Perception- "people interpret or see things differently"
and to their listeners. Language-"jargon"
Semantics-"watch that word meanings!
5. FEEDBACK Inffections-"the emphasis is where?"
Information that is sent or fed back by the receiver Personal interests-"I, me, and myself"
intentionally or unintentionally to the source. Emotions- "watch out for the red flag"
Pre-conceived notions " I thought you meant..."
This is an important element of effective communication which Attention "physically present, mentally absent"
makes ita two-way process. If a farmer is viewed as the receiver, Wordiness "what is it that you want to say?"
then he must be given the opPortunity to function as the sënder with Inferences "I thought you said..."
the extension worker as receiver. In the absence of any reaction from
the farmer, it is virtually impossible to gauge the appropriateness of
the message content or channel in the implementation of an
information campaign.

Feedback serves as corrective function by preventing

communication breakdown. Feedback helps determine whether or
not a message was perceived as intended. If not, adaptations,
modifications can be made.
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 A macroscopic theory that are concerned with media's impact
COMMUNICATION MODELS
on culture and society for example, cultural studies theory.
Berlo's model
Theories of mass communication have always focused on the
Source Message Channel Receiver "cause and effects" notion, i.e. the effects of the media and
the process leading to those effects, on the audience's mind.
Communication Communication Harold Lasswell have succinctly expressed this idea.
Skills
Contents Hearing Lasswell's essential question is timeless (1949): " Who says
Skills
Attitudes
Elements Seeing Attitudes what in what channel to whom with what effects?"
Knowledge
Treatment Touching
Social System Structure Smelling Knowledge
SOclal System
Code Shannon and Weaver's model
Culture Tasting Culture

-focuses on the individual characteristics of communication

and stresses the role of the relationship between the source
and Source Encoder
Channe
the receiver as an important variable in the communication Message
Decoder Receiver
process. The more highly developed the communication skills of
the source and the receiver, the more effectively the message will
be encoded and decoded. Shannon and Weaver produced a general model of
communication known after them as the Shannon-Weaver
Berlo's model represents a communication process that Model. It involved breaking down an information system into
occurs as a SouRCE drafts messages basedon one's sub-systems so as to evaluate the efficiency of various
communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and sodal and cultural communication channels and codes. They propose that all
system. These MESSAGES are transmitted along CHANNELS, communication must indude six elements: Source, Encoder,
which can incdude sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. A Channel, Message, Decoder, and Receiver
RECEIVER interprets messages based on the individual's This model is often referred to as an " information model"

communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and soial and cultural of communication. A drawback is that the model looks at
system. The limitations of the model are its lack of feedback communication as a one-way process. That is remedied by the
addition of the feedback loop. Noise indicates those factors
Laswell's model that disturb or otherwise influence messages as they are being
transmitted
Source Message Channel Receiver Effect
L

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 EXTENSION APPROACH
Osgood and Schramm's model
Approach Method Technique
Message

Encoder Decoder APproach

Method
Interpreter Interpreter
Technique

Decoder Encoder

Message
emphasizes the circular nature of communication. Definitions
The participants swap between the roles of sourcelencoder 1 . Approach
and receiver/decoder. An approach embraces the entire spectrum of the
process. t states a point of view, a philosophy, an
Wilbur Schramm stated: "In fact, it ismisleading tothink or artide of faith (Garia 1989). Within an approach
the communication process as starting somewhere andending
somewhere. It is really endless. We are little switchboard there can be several methods.
centers handling and rerouting the great endless aurrent of 2. Method
information. " It is procedural consisting of a series of actions arrange
logically for the smooth flow of operation.
It is the procedure or step by step guiding prospective
clients.
3. Technique
It is a particular trick, strategy, individual artistry of the
teachers/EW.
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An Extension Approach is an organized and coherent combination 1. General Agricultural Extension Approach (GAE)
of strategies and methods, designed to make rural extension effective a. General Nature
in a certain area designed to make rural extension effective in a Transfer of Technology (TOT)
certain area. b. Basic Assumption:
Technology and information are available but are not
embodies the philosophy ofa system being used by the farmers. If these could be
spells the doctrine of the system communicated to farmers, farm practices would be
style of action which by and large, determines the improved
direction and nature/style of the various aspects of the C. Purpose:
system (e.g. structure, leadership, program, methods, T o help farmers increase their production
resources and linkages) d. Program Planning:
Controlled by the government
Changes in priority, from time to time, are made on
Strategies are approaches and method chosen or develop to reach a national basis with some freedom for local adaptation
particular set of goal; used to define the operational design by means Implementation:
of which the national government, or other sponsoring organizations, Carried by a large field staff assigned throughout the
implements its policies. country
Demonstration plots are major techniques
DIFFERENT EXTENSION APPROACHES Advantages:
Interpret national government policies and procedures to
the local people; covers the whole nation: relatively rapid
1. General Agricultural Extension Approach
communication from the ministry level to rural people
Commodity Specialized Approach
3. Project Approach g. Disadvantages:
Lacks two-way flow of communication
4. Farming Systems Development Approach
Fails to adjust extension messages to different localities
Training and Visit System Approach
Field staff not accountable to rural people
6. The Cost-Sharing Approach
Expensive and inefficient
7 Agricultural Extension Participatory Approach
h. Measure of Success:
8. Educational Institution Approach
Increase in national production of the commodities being
emphasized in the national program
2. Commodity Specialized Approach (CSA)
a. General Nature
Highly specialized
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 Focuses on one export crop or one aspect of farming Commodity organization maybe promoting its commodity
b. Basic Assumption: even in situations where it is no longer in the national
T h e way to increase productivity and production of a interest to be increasing production of that particular
particular commodity is to concentrate on that one commodity
grouping extension with such other functions as research, h. Measure of Success:
input supply, output marketing, credit, and sometimes Increase in yield, and total production of the crops being
price control, will make the whole system productive. emphasized
C. Purpose:
Increase production of a particular commodity
Sometimes to increase utilization of a particular The Project Approach (PA)
agricultural input a. General Nature:
d. Program Planning: Fixed period of time, large fundin9
Controlled by the commodity organization DBasic Assumption:
e. Implementation Better results can be achieved in a particular location,
Carried by a large field staff assigned throughout the during a specified time period, with large infusion of
country outside resources, high impact activities, carried out under
Demonstration plots are major techniques artificial circumstances, will have some continuity
f. Advantages after outside finandal support is no longer available
Technology tends to "fit" the production problems and so Purpose:
extension messages tend to be appropriate because of T o demonstrate, within project area, what can be
coordination with research and marketing people, accomplished on a relatively short period of time
messages tend to be delivered in a timely manner. To test the validity of alternative extension methods
Focus on a narrow range of technical concerns d. Program Planning:
Higher salary incentives Controlled by outsiders, with central government, the
Closer management and supervision donor agency or some combination
Fewer farmers per exrension worker e. Implementation
Easier to monitor and evaluate Flow of good ideas from the project to areas outside the
Relatively more cost effective project
g. Disadvantages Includes a project management staff, project allowances
Interests of farmers may have less priority than those of for field staff, better transportation, facilities, equipment
commodity organization and housing than regular government programs
Does not provide advisory service to other aspects of
farming
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