Module Week 1 8

AGRIC 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology
LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION
I. Lesson objectives
At the end of the lesson the student must be able to:
1. Define the important terms use in Postharvest Handling technology
2. Know the Postharvest handling historical development
3. Explain the importance of postharvest and storage of crops and of seeds and
seed technology
II. Readings
A. Definition of terms
Aging – any increment of time which may (or may not) accompanied by physiological
change.
Bulk- Unpackaged produce which may be in direct contact with the transportation unit
and/or the atmosphere.
Classification- Grouping of produce in classes based on quality levels in relation to
relevant parameters.
Clean: Free from visible foreign matter.
Climacteric period- the period in the development of some plant parts that involves a
series of biochemical changes associated with the natural respiratory rise and
autocatalytic production of ethylene.
Commercial type: Produce with similar technical characteristics and/or appearance,
but which may belong to different varieties
Country of origin- Country in which the fruit or vegetable was grown and harvested
Decay- Defect (progressive or not) seriously affecting the edibility and/or keeping
quality of the produce.
Development- Physiological and morphological processes resulting in growth, and/or
changes of the general characteristics of the produce.
Dispatcher- Person or company responsible for sending the produce.
Flesh: The consumed part of a fruit or vegetable underneath the skin.
Fresh appearance- Appearance of fruit and vegetables displaying the characteristics
of recently harvested produce (i.e. color, texture, firmness, turgescence), including
absence of shriveling, wilting or signs of senescence.
Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

MARCEL B. TOMAS& NORBERT L. RALUSTIAN
Compiler
Firm - Level of firmness enabling trading, storing and keeping acceptable eating
quality of produce, depending on the nature of produce (e.g. carrots, cherries or garlic)
Firmness- Attribute of flesh texture expressing resistance to deformation which
depends on variety, stage of ripeness and length of storage. Firmness is one of the
indicators useful in assessment of stage of ripeness and can be measured by a
penetrometer, or other assessment.
Growth- the irreversible increase in physical attributes (characteristics) of a developing
plant or plant part.
Harvesting- the operation of gathering the useful parts of the plant and is carried out
at the time when all the nutrients have developed, and the edible parts have reached
the appropriate degree of maturity.
Horticultural maturity- the stage of development when a plant or a plant part
possesses the prerequisites for utilization by consumers for a particular.
Industrial processing- is done in a food processing facility. Fruit and vegetable
processing comprises extracting juice, canning, preserving, freezing, or dehydrating.
These operations may change the texture and flavour of the produce
Intact- The whole fruit or vegetable as it was harvested. The produce is not damaged
and does not have any injury. Depending on the characteristics of the product, trimmed
products may still be regarded as intact.
Maturity- Physiological and biochemical changes of fruit. Maturity influences texture,
juiciness, sugar-content, sugar-acid-ratio of the fruit. Maturity is dependent on the
characteristics of each produce.
Miniature products- Miniature product means a variety or cultivar of fruit or vegetable,
obtained by plant breeding (Example: Miniature varieties, such as cherry tomatoes)
and/or special cultivation techniques (Example: High density sowing, such as miniature
cabbage) aimed at producing smaller sized specimens.
Minimum size- The smallest acceptable size in the standard. A minimum size is
established to guarantee sufficient development of the produce for its intended
purpose.
Packing- the act of wrapping or enclosing agricultural products in a suitable material
that will protect them when they are being transported farm farms to markets.
Pests- Species of animal, especially mites or insects, that is injurious or potentially
injurious, whether directly or indirectly to the fruit and vegetable or its presentation.
Physiological maturity- the stage of development when a plant or plant part will
continue ontogeny even if detached.
Grading- done to group products into quality class/ grade according to criteria of
quality class/grade of each commodity.

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Official control mark- Stamp, adhesive sticker or signature on the package reflecting
the inspection of the lot.
Officially issued or accepted code mark- A code given by the competent authority of
the country concerned uniquely identifying packer / dispatcher of the lot. This consists
of a variety of numbers and/or letters and may be present on a package within a lot in
place of the name and address of the packer / dispatcher.
Packer- Person or company responsible for the management of post-harvest
operations and/or for preparing the product for marketing, such as grading, sorting,
sizing, and packing.
Postharvest handling- Stage of crop production immediately following harvest
including cooling, cleaning, sorting and packing.
Processing- is the transformation of raw fruit and vegetables into a new product
different from its initial fresh stage, terminating the natural living processes of a plant.
Product Branding- a symbol or design that identifies and differentiates a product from
other products.
Ripening-the composite of the processes that occur from the latter stages of growth
and development through the early stages of senescence and that results in
characteristics aesthetics and or food quality, as evidenced by changes in composition,
color texture, or other sensory attributes.
Sales package- Individual packages conceived to constitute a sales unit to the final
user or consumer at the point of purchase.
Satisfactory condition- Absence of defects. These defects can be a lack of firmness,
bruises, heavy trim, cuts, cracking, picking damages, chilling, scald, or other defects
likely to deteriorate. The produce should be edible with a normal preparation.
Senescence – those process that follow physiological maturity of horticultural maturity
and lead to death of tissue.
Size- The physical dimensions or mass of fruit and vegetables expressed individually
as diameter, length, weight or number of units per package.
Sizing- The classification of fruit and vegetables is based on their physical dimensions
or mass.
Sorting- is done to separate the good harvest and the ugly.
Sound- Produce free from fungal, bacterial or virus disease or other deterioration
(such as decay, breakdown or damage caused by any reason, or physiological
disorders, seen in the field or during storage) that appreciably affects the appearance,
edibility, the keeping quality of the produce or market value.

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Storage- the marketing function that involves holding goods between the time of their
production and their final sale. It bridges the gap between the time when goods are
produced and the time when these ultimately consumed.
Synonym- Officially accepted name that can replace the variety name and that refers
to the same variety
Trademark- A name developed by a trader for which legal protection has been sought
or obtained in one or more countries as a Trademark TM or a registered Trademark®.
Such produce may be produced or traded only by those authorized by trademark
holders to do so under an appropriate license.
Trade name- Name or denomination developed or selected by a trader for which no
legal protection has been sought or obtained in any country.
Uniformity in size- A size range is defined to guarantee a uniform appearance of the
produce in the package with respect to the physical dimensions. It may be expressed
by minimum and maximum size or a minimum or maximum number of units in the
package
B. Traditional post -harvest systems and their evolutions
Evolution of the environment
 From time immemorial, Rural agricultural
producers have always sought to improve their
techniques and methods of production, of
handling and of conservation of the crops on
which they depend for the survival of their
families. Traditional Post-harvest techniques for
food crops are thus the result of a long process
of experimentation and adaptation which have been largely empirical.
After many centuries and generations they have perhaps approached a
certain degree of perfection.
Modifications of ecological conditions
a. Deforestation
- Natural materials used for constructions of
grainstores have become rare or have even
disappeared through the effects of deforestation
(increase in land clearing and urban expansion) of
desertification (climate and of the use of improved,
short -strawed varieties of grain.
- This relatively new situations has brought about
different constructions methods for storage
structures with the use of alternative materials and the quality of storage has
sometimes diminished. Also the problems of desertification and prolonged
drought have resulted in reduction of long terms stocks which assured food
security for the rural population. This almost total disappearance of
traditional reserve stocks has stimulated villages initiatives to develop
communal storage structures, notably cereal banks.
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b. New Predators
- In certain regions new predators have appeared
notably, a storage of pest, Prostephanustruncatus
(the larger grain borer) discovered in Tanzania. This
insect is now widely spread in east and west Africa.
It remains difficult to control by traditional methods
and causes heavy losses.
Technological Change
a. New Equipment
- The introduction of new post-harvest equipment
generally permits an increase in working
capacity and productivity among farmers.
Technological innovations innovation, may
always be found to be ill-adapted if they are set
in motions without taking into account the whole
post-harvest system.
b. Improved varieties
- The introduction of new high yielding varieties
tends to increase production and begins to
solve the problem deficits. Nevertheless, new
problem arise, the farmer must address
problems in handling and storage of larger
volumes of grain and, in addition, the new
more productive varieties are more
susceptible to insect attack.
c. Chemical Pesticides
- Traditionally, farmers use various types of
natural insecticides of either vegetable or mineral
origin to preserve their grain from insect attack.
For some decades the employment of visibly
effective chemical products has been very
successful among farmers.
Socio-Economic change
- In the majority of African country, the production of food crops has change
during the past thirty years from a subsistence economy to a market
economy. On one hand the monetarization of the economy obliges the
farmer to sell part of the crop to satisfy new needs. On the other hand, rural
areas affected by the phenomenon of exodus must produce more to respond
to the growing demand of urban areas. The increase of production per
farmer implies the needs at different level of post-harvest system. For
example, at the level of storage, the initiation grain storage in bulk store is a
consequence of several socio-economic changes such as: overlapping
several post-harvest operations and the lack of time for construction of new
granaries, increase in demand for storage capacity, fear of theft and fire, and
the evaluation of the social status as a function of the storage utilized.
Improvements of post-harvest techniques

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a. History of improvements to post-Harvest operations

- The first steps to improvement of post-harvest
techniques during the 1970’s was focused on the
storage of millet and sorghum in the Sahel zone
following periods of drought and famine. In this
ancient post-harvest system based on self
sufficiency the losses during the storage were
somewhat neglected by the farmers as long as
people did not perceive losses to affect household
food security severely. The quality of storage assured food security and their
ancient traditions in the productions handling and conservation of millet and
sorghum.
- Since the end of the 1970’s numerous research and development programs
prioritized action on maize and rice which constituted the basic food for
people in many countries.
 Maize
- The main focus has been on drying and storage. since the end of the 1980’s
priority was given to the improvements of traditional system.
- Operations of selling and milling were little studied. Equipment for
improvement of these operations was introduced
 Rice
- The policies of liberalization of the economies of Senegal, Mali, Cameroun
and Burkina Faso in the 1980’s established a process of disengagement of
parastatal bodies from the post-harvest processes in rice. The need for
intermediate technologies adapted to the threshing and processing of rice at
village level greatly increased in the last few years. Interesting trials
(adaptive research and distribution of appropriate equipment) were
conducted on the operations of husking, threshing and drying.
On top of this, our world is:

 home to nearly a billion hungry people (Brown, 2011)
 needing to produce about 60% more food by 2050 to adequately support
the projected increase in human population by that time (Lipinski et al.,
2013);
 swept up in global system changes that threaten the sustainability of, let
alone dramatic enhancements to, food production (Vermeulen et al.,
2012)
 Brown (2009) has suggested that unless the world actively cuts
greenhouse gas emissions by 80% by 2020 ! surely all but impossible at
this juncture ! increasing instability of climate will threaten food
production systems in many parts of the world.
Perspectives in a postharvest system

 growers: high yields of highly valuable product
 packhouse: consistently high external quality, well-storing product that is cheap
to sort, grade, pack and store

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 distribution center manager: consistently high external quality product that

has low levels of losses through the distribution phase and nil recalls;
 consumer: safe and nutritious product that eats as well as it looks;
 marketer: consistently superior quality product that is valued by consumers, is
produced without glut by growers to achieve “managed scarcity” and achieves
consistently high prices.
Concepts in postharvest systems

The term “postharvest” relates to the phase of a food supply system that connects the
moment of harvest with the moment of consumption. A system is usually thought of as
a set of things that work together as part of a mechanism that forms an integrated
whole and is itself part of a network of other systems (Anon, 2013;).
C. POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

The Philippines is considered an agrarian
economy, with 47% of the total land area or
approximately 30 million hectares are agricultural
lands. However, the country is still not self -
sufficient particularly with its staple food
requirements. It has five to ten percent annual
shortage in rice and corn needs; has low per
capita consumption of fruits and vegetables; and
has high post-harvest losses of agricultural
crops (about 15% in grains, 28% in fruits, and
40% in vegetables) (Andales et al, 2000).
To address the problem on food shortage, as well
as alleviate the conditions of the marginal farmers especially in the rural areas, the
Philippine government approved the Agricultural and Fisheries Modernization Act or
AFMA (Republic Act 8435) in 1999. This law allocates approximately 20% of Php 120
billion (US$ 2.2 billion) budget to any post-harvest related activities for seven years
starting 1999 up to 2006. The present administration of President Gloria Macapagal-
Arroyo, on the other hand, fully recognizes the importance of proper post-harvest
handling and effective post-harvest technology
Based on the agricultural performance of the Philippine Department of Agriculture (DA)
in 2001, high-value crops have significant contribution (around 57%) to the total
agriculture performance of the country. Post-harvest losses are approximately 15% for
grains (rice and corn), 28% in fruits and 40% in vegetables.
It is believed that preventing post-harvest losses is cheaper than to increase yield. And
with proper post-harvest handling and post-harvest technologies, people can be
sufficiently fed without bringing additional hectares under production or without
changing present agricultural practices. Moreover, Bautista (1990) mentioned that if we

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could cut down PH losses by a mere 10%, we would have more food than by
increasing yield by 10% without reducing post-harvest losses.
a. Post-Harvest Situations
1. Support to Post-harvest Industry
As evidence of strong support to the post-harvest industry, numerous government and
non-government institutions, state colleges and universities and big corporations are
now undertaking research and development activities on post-harvest handling
(Sebastian, 2002). The major research, development and extension (RDE) arm of the
government is the Bureau of Post-harvest Research and Extension (BPRE) of the
Philippine Department of Agriculture (DA) and PhilRice. On the other hand, the main
RDE arm of the University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) (the leading state
university of the country) are: 1) the Agricultural Mechanization Development Program
(AMDP) and 2) the Division of Bio-Process Engineering of the College of Engineering
and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT) for grain post-harvest; and 3) the Post-harvest
Horticulture Training and Research Center (PHTRC) of the College of Agriculture (CA)
for horticultural crop post-harvest.
1. Constraints in the Post-harvest Industry
a. Wide economic gap between farmers and businessman
b. Low adoption of improved post-harvest facilities
c. Technical inefficiencies leading to postharvest losses
d. Insufficient post-harvest training and extension activities on other crops
e. Weak Information System
f. Failures of majority of Farmers cooperatives
g. Small landholding of Farmers
D. IMPORTANCE OF POST HARVEST

Post-harvest Technologies- constitute an interdisciplinary science and techniques
applied to agricultural commodities after harvest for the purpose of preservation,
conservation, quality control/ enhancement processing, packaging, storage
distribution, marketing, and utilization t meet the food and nutritional requirements of
consumers in relation to their needs.
1. Postharvest handling specifically involved the movement and the operations
that commodities undergo from harvest to the time immediately before meal
preparations
2. Its main concern is to keep commodities in an acceptable state from harvest
until it reaches the consumer since most commodities are transported in their
perishable state.
3. Post-harvest handling aims to minimize losses at the least possible cost. Poor
handling of Agricultural commodities can result in quality deterioration and
losses.

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3 main objectives of Applying Post-harvest technology

1. To maintain Quality (Appearance,
Texture, flavor and nutritive value)
2. To protect food safety
3. To reduce losses (both physical;
and in market value) between
harvest and consumption.
Common Causes of Post-harvest Losses in the Philippines

1. Rough handling
2. Inadequate cooling and temperature
maintenance
3. Lack of sorting to eliminate defects before
storage
4. Inadequate packaging materials further add to
the problem.
Reference:
History of post-harvest accessed @ http://www.fao.org/3/w1544e/W1544E01.htm on
September 02, 2021
Postharvest technology in the Philippines accessed @
http://un-csam.org/sites/default/files/2021-01/post-harvest%20technology%20in%20the
%20phillipines.pdf on August 30, 2021
https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trade/agr/standard/fresh/StandardLayout/
Glossary_FFV_2016_E.pdf
http://ucce.ucdavis.edu/files/datastore/234-426.PDF
ttp://www.fao.org/3/w1544e/W1544E01.html
https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780124081376/postharvest-handling

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III. Learning Activities

I. Multiple Choice- Choose the correct answer for each of the following
questions. and write your answer to the space provided.
_____1. A process that creates growth, positive changes or the addition of physical,
economic, environmental, social and demographic components.
a. Physiology c. appearance
b. Development d. growth
_____2. Done to group a product according to its quality over quantity of each
commodity
a. Grading c. sorting
b. Cleaning d. packing
______3. Done to group the products or commodity according to size.
a. Grading c. sorting
b. Sizing d. packing
_______4. The process of detaching fruits from its base usually during its maturity
stage for the purpose of consumption or by-product.
a. Harvesting c. picking
b. Training d. none of the above
_______5. The marketing function that involves the holding goods between the time of
their production and their final sale is called ___________.
a. Storage c. Sound
b. Processing d. harvesting
II. Enumeration: Enumerate the answer to the following questions. Write your
answer to the space provided.
Give at least five (5) constraints in the Post-Harvest Industry.
1. Wide economic gap between farmers and businessman
2. Low adoption of improved post-harvest facilities
3. Technical inefficiencies leading to postharvest losses
4. Insufficient post-harvest training and extension activities on other crops
5. Weak Information System
6. Failures of majority of Farmers cooperatives
7. Small landholding of Farmers

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2. Enumerate the Common causes of Post-Harvest Losses in the Philippines
3. Enumerate the 3 main objectives of Applying Post-harvest Technology

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
________________________
Reflective Essay. Explain precisely the following. Give examples if necessary.
1. Choose at least one (1) constraints of Post- Harvest Industry and Explain the
impact to Agriculture sector. (5 points)
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. In this time of pandemic, relate the Importance of Post-Harvest Handling to the
following? 10 points
a. Agronomic crops
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
b. Horticultural crops
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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LESSON 2
POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGY OF HANDLING AND STORAGE OF
AGRICULTURAL CROPS
I. Lesson Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students must be able to:
1. Discuss the biological aspects of postharvest handling and its product deterioration
2.Distinguish general characteristics of fruits, vegetables and cut flower.
Reading
A. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS INVOLVED IN DETERIORATION

 Losses in quantity and quality affect horticultural crops between harvest and
consumption. The magnitude of postharvest losses in fresh fruits and
vegetables is an estimated 5 to 25% in developed countries and 20 to 50% in
developing countries, depending upon the commodity, cultivar, and handling
conditions. To reduce these losses, producers and handlers must first
understand the biological and environmental factors involved in deterioration,
and second, use postharvest techniques that delay senescence and maintain
the best possible quality.
 Fresh fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals are living tissues that are subject to
continuous change after harvest. While some changes are desirable, most-from
the consumer's standpoint-are not. Postharvest changes in fresh produce
cannot be stopped, but they can be slowed within certain limits.
RESPIRATION
- Respiration is the process by which stored organic materials
(carbohydrates, proteins, fats) are broken down into simple end products
with a release of energy. Oxygen (02) is used in this process, and carbon
dioxide (C02) is produced.
- The rate of deterioration (perishability) of harvested commodities is
generally proportional to the respiration rate.
Cause of Respiration to Fruits and Vegetables

1. Hastening of senescence
2. Reduced food value (energy value) for the consumer
3. Loss of flavor quality
4. Loss of salable dry weight

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Table 1: Horticultural commodities classified according to respiration
Class Range at SoC Commodities

(41°F)
(mg C02ikg-hr)*
Very low <5 Dates, dried fruits and vegetables and nuts
Low 5-10 Apple, beet, celery, citrus fruits, cranberry, garlic,
grape, honeydew melon, kiwifruit, onion, papaya,
persimmon, pineapple, pomegranate, potato
(mature), pumpkin, sweet potato, watermelon,
winter squash
Moderate 10-20 Apricot, banana, blueberry, cabbage, cantaloupe,
carrot (topped), celeriac, cherry, cucumber, fig,
gooseberry, lettuce (head), mango, nectarine, olive,
peach, pear, plum, potato (immature), radish
(topped), summer squash, tomato
High 20-40 Avocado, blackberry, carrot (with tops), cauliflower.
leek, lettuce (leaf), lima bean, radish (with tops),
raspberry, strawberry
Very high 40-60 Artichoke. bean sprouts, broccoli, Brussels sprouts,
cherimoya, cut flowers, endive, green onions, kale,
okra, passion fruit, snap bean, watercress
Extremely >60 Asparagus, mushroom, parsley, peas, spinach,
high sweet corn
Table 2. Fruits Classified according to respiratory behavior during ripening
Climacteric fruits Non-climacteric fruits

Apple Muskmelon Blackberry Lychee
Apricot Nectarine Cacao Okra
Avocado Papaya Carambola Olive
Banana Passion Fruit Cashew Apple Orange
Biriba Peach Cherry Pea
Blueberry Pear Cranberry Pepper
Breadfruit Persimmon Cucumber Pineapple
Cherimoya Plantain Dates Pomegranate
Durian Plum Eggplant Prickly Pear
Feijoa Quince Grape Raspberry
Fig Rambutan Grapefruit Strawberry
Guava Sapodilla Jujube Summer Squash
Jackfruit Sapote Lemon Tamarillo
Kiwifruit Soursop Lime Tangerine
Mango Sweetsop Longan Mandarin
Mangosteen Tomato Loquat Watermelon

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ETHYLENE PRODUCTION
Ethylene (C2H4), the simplest of the organic compounds affecting the physiological
processes of plants, is a natural product of plant metabolism and is produced by all
tissues of higher plants and by some microorganisms.
Functions:
1. regulates many aspects of growth, development, and senescence and is
physiologically active in trace amounts (less than 0.1 ppm)
2. plays a major role in the abscission of plant organs.
Table 3- classification of Horticultural Commodities according to Ethylene
(C2H4) production rates
Class Range at 20°C (6S0F) Commodities

(Ill C2H 4/kg-hr)
Very low Less than 0.1 Artichoke, asparagus, cauliflower, cherry,
citrus fruits, grape, jujube, strawberry,
pomegranate, leafy vegetables, root
vegetables, potato, most cut flowers
Low 0.1-1.0 Blackberry, blueberry, casaba melon,
cranberry, cucumber, eggplant, okra, olive,
pepper (sweet and chili), persimmon,
pineapple, pumpkin, raspberry, tamarillo,
watermelon
Moderate 1.0-10.0 Banana, fig, guava, honeydew melon, Iychee,
mango, plantain, tomato
High 10.0-100.0 Apple, apricot, avocado, cantaloupe, feiioa,
kiwifruit (ripe), nectarine, papaya, peach, pear,
plum
Very high More than 100.0 Cherimoya, mammee apple, passion fruit,
sapote
COMPOSITIONAL CHANGE
Many changes in pigments take place during development and maturation of the
commodity on the plant; some may continue after harvest and can be desirable or
undesirable
Pigments Desirable Undesirable

Chlorophyll (green color) Fruits Vegetables
Carotenoids (yellow and Fruits such as Apricots,
orange color) peaches, and citrus
Anthocyanin (Red and Fruits such as apples,
blue colors) cherries strawberries, cane
berries and red-flesh

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orange
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

 Sprouting of potatoes, onions, garlic, and gladiolus and snapdragon flowers
stored root crops greatly reduces their food value horizontally. Seed germination
inside fruits and accelerates deterioration. Rooting of onions ana root crops is
undesirable. Asparagus spears continue to grow after harvest: elongation and
curvature (if the spears are held horizontallyare accompanied by increased
toughness and decreasedpalatability.
TRANSPIRATION OR WATER LOSS
 Water loss is a main cause of deterioration because it results not only in direct
quantitative losses (loss of salable weight), but also in losses in appearance
(wilting and shriveling), textural quality (softening, flaccidity, limpness, loss of
crispness and juiciness), and nutritional quality.
 The commodity dermal system (outer protective coverings) governs the
regulation of the water loss. It includes the cuticle, epidermal cells, stomata,
lenticels and trichomes (hairs).
 The transpiration rate (evaporation of water from the plant tissues) is influenced
by internal or commodity, factors (morphological and anatomical characteristics,
surface to volume ratio, surface injuries, and maturity stage) and by external, or
environmental factors (temperature, relative humidity, air movements and
atmospheric pressure.
 Transpiration is a physical process that can be controlled by applying
treatments to the commodity (e.g., waxes, and other surface coatings or
wrappings with plastic films0 or by manipulating the environment (e.g.,
maintaining high RH and controlling air circulation).
PHYSIOLOGICAL BREAKDOWN
 Exposure of the commodity to undesirable temperatures can result in
physiological disorders
 Freezing Injury- results when commodities are held below their freezing
temperatures. The disruption caused by freezing usually results in immediate
collapse of the tissues and total loss of the commodity.
 Chilling injury symptoms become more noticeable upon transfer to higher
(nonchilling) temperatures. The most common symptoms are surface and
internal discoloration (browning), pitting, watersoaked areas, uneven ripening or
failure to ripen, off-flavor development, and accelerated incidence of surface
molds and decay (especially the incidence of organisms not usually found
growing on healthy tissue).

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 Heat injury -is induced by exposure to direct sunlight or excessively high

temperatures. Its symptoms include bleaching, surface burning or scalding,
uneven ripening, excessive softening, and desiccation
PHYSICAL DAMAGE
 Various types of physical damage (surface injuries, impact bruising, vibration
bruising, and so on) are major contributors to deterioration.
 Browning of damaged tissues results from membrane disruption, which
exposes phenolic compounds to the polyphenol oxidase enzyme.
PATHOLOGICAL BREAKDOWN
 One of the most common and obvious symptoms of deterioration results from
the activity of bacteria and fungi. Attack by most organisms follows physical
injury or physiological breakdown of the commodity.
 In general, fruits and vegetables exhibit considerable resistance to potential
pathogens during most of their postharvest life.
 The onset of ripening in fruits, and senescence in all commodities, renders them
susceptible to infection by pathogens. Stresses such as mechanical injuries,
chilling, and sunscald lower the resistance to pathogens.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING DETERIORATION
Temperature
 Temperature is the environmental factor that most influences the deterioration
rate of harvested commodities. For each increase of l0 oC (18 oF) above
optimum, the rate of deterioration increases by two- to threefold.
 Temperature also influences the effect of C2H4, reduced O2, and elevated
CO2.
 The spore germination and growth rate of pathogens are greatly influenced by
temperature; for instance, cooling commodities below 5°C (41°F) immediately
after harvest can greatly reduce the incidence of Rhizopus rot.
 Temperature effects on postharvest responses of chilling-sensitive and non-
chilling sensitive horticulture
Table 1. Effect of temperature on deterioration of a non-chilling sensitive
commodity
Temperature Assumed Relative Velocity Relative Loss per

(oF) (oC) Q10 of Deterioration shelf life day (%)
32 0 ----- 1.0 100 1

50 0 3.0 3.0 33 3
68 20 2.5 7.5 13 8
86 30 2.0 15.0 7 14
104 40 1.5 22.5 4 25
o
Note *Q10 = Rate of deterioration at temperature (T) + 10 C
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Rate of deterioration at T
Table 2.
B. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

a. Content
- Structure and Composition of Cell tissue
- Chemical Composition of Plant materials
- Fruits
- Vegetables
b. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PLANT MATERIAL
1. Carbohydrates
 Starch (α-1,4)
 Cellulose (β-1,4)
 Hemicellulose
 Pectic substances
2. Protein (<1%)
3. Fat (about 5 %)
4. Vitamins

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5. Minerals
6. Water (80-90%)
7. Phyto chemicals
8. Pigments
 Chlorophyll (green pigments)
 Carotenoids (yellow, red or orange)
 Anthocyanin (red, Blue or purple)
 Anthoxanthin (white)
9. Flavor compounds
 Allium, Brassica (Sulphur containing)
 Organic acids (citric acid, malic acid or tartaric acid)
c. FRUITS
- A fruit is a part of a flowering plant that derives from specific tissues of
the flower, one or more ovaries, and in some cases accessory tissues.
- Fruits are the means by which these plants disseminate seeds.
 Classification
- Berries, Citrus, Drupes, Grapes, Melons, Pomes
- Tropical and subtropical fruits
 Composition & Nutritive Value
- Fruits are very poor source of protein & fat (exception:
Avocado)
- Contain high amount of moisture
- Good source of fiber
- Not very good source of calories (exception: banana)
- Higher percentage of sugar
- Generally poor source of iron (exception: watermelon,
Seethaphul)
- Mangoes are excellent source of carotenes. Orange are fairly
good source of carotenes
d. VEGETABLES
- Vegetables growth occurs in terrestrial environments, but there are also some
that can grow in water and the way they do it is through a seed or cutting.
Characteristics
1. They are low in calories
2. They are high in vitamins and minerals
3. They are autotrophs, which means that they generate their own food without
affecting other living beings
4. The cells that compose them are organized into tissues
5. They are high in fiber and complex carbohydrates
6. They taste delicious.
 Botanical classification
- Roots, tubers, Bulb, leaves, Flowers, Fruits, Legumes (pods &
seeds), stems, Fungi (mushrooms), Algae (Spirulina).
 Based on Nutrition
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- Green leafy vegetables, roots & tubers, other vegetables

 Pigments
- Most of the pigments occur in plastids
- Some of the water -soluble pigments are dissolved in the
vacuoles
- The chief pigments (water soluble, fat soluble)
- Water insoluble pigments (chlorophyll, carotenoids)
- Water soluble pigments (Anthocyanin, Anthoxanthins, organic
acids, Enzymes, Flavor compounds).
e. CUT-FLOWERS
Fresh flowers and flower buds that have been cut from the plant suitable for
bouquets, wreaths, corsage and special flower arrangements
Characteristics:
- Strong stems and a long blooming period
- Flowers that hold their form well after cutting and can be dried
for floral crafts.
- Can be annuals, perennials, shrubs, and even trees.
Reference:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780124081376/postharvest-handling

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ACTIVITY SHEET
Respiration and Transpiration [INFOGRAPHIC]
Background
Fresh produce is at peak quality when picked; its quality can only be maintained
(or deteriorated) as it is handled and stored. Maintaining crop quality after harvest is an
important consideration for any fresh market produce grower or handler.
Transpiration is the process by which fresh fruits and vegetables lose moisture.
This process includes the transport of moisture through the skin of the commodity, the
evaporation of this moisture from the commodity surface and the convective mass
transport of the moisture to the surroundings.
This activity addresses two important factors related to post-harvest produce
quality: respiration and transpiration.
Learning Objective
At the end of this activity learner will be to:
1. Familiarize the difference between respiration and transpiration process of
fruits/vegetables after harvest.
2. Explain the processes involve during this process
INFOGRAPHIC- Infographic (a clipped compound of "information" and "graphics") are

graphic visual representations of information, data, or knowledge intended to present
information quickly and clearly.

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Respiration Process
Despite having been detached from the plant, fruits and vegetables remain as
living organs after harvest. Like all living tissues, harvested produce continues to
respire throughout its postharvest life. During the process of respiration, carbohydrates
are broken down to their constituent parts to produce energy to run cellular processes,
thus keeping the cells and organism alive. Throughout this process, oxygen is
consumed and water, carbon dioxide, and energy are released.
Make your own INFOGRAPHIC illustration to represent your deep
understanding about this process. [35pts]
FRUIT/VEGETABLE RESPIRATION PROCESS

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Transpiration Process
During postharvest handling and storage, fresh fruits and vegetables lose
moisture through their skins via the transpiration process.
Make/design your own INFOGRAPHIC illustration to represent your deep
understanding about this process. [35pts]
FRUIT/VEGETABLE TANSPIRATION PROCESS

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INFOGRAPHIC RUBRIC
Your
Category 4 3 2 1
score
Message The topic and Topic and main Topic is given but Topic and/or main
Clarity messages of the ideas are clear. main ideas are ideas are absent
infographic are unclear or or very unclear.
clear and easily lacking.
understood;
Intended to
inform or
convince the
viewer.
Details Details (including Detail is added More is needed Very little detail is
labels) support to support each for understanding. provided for the
the main idea main idea with Some are main ideas and
without distracting minimal clutter. distracting. understanding is
with clutter. limited.
Content - At least 4 3 accurate facts 2 accurate facts Fewer than 2

Accuracy accurate are displayed. are displayed. accurate facts are
facts/concepts displayed.
are displayed in
the infographic
Graphics The graphics Most graphics All graphics relate Graphics do not
- used represent represent the to the topic but do relate to the topic.
Relevanc information information not represent
e appropriately. appropriately. appropriately.
Graphics Color, shape, Color, shape, Color, shape, Color, shape, size,
- Visual size, and size, and size, and and arrangement
arrangement of arrangement arrangement are are distracting or
graphics
are eye catching present but do not misleading.
contribute
and contribute add to the
meaning to the
some meaning. information.
overall message.
Design/ The design/layout Is attractive in Is acceptably Is distractingly

layout is neat, clear, and terms of design, attractive though messy,
visually layout and it may be a bit unattractive, or very

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appealing. neatness. messy. poorly designed.
Mechanic Capitalization and There is 1 error There are 2 errors More than 2 errors
s punctuation are in capitalization in capitalization or in capitalization or
correct or punctuation. punctuation. punctuation.
throughout.
Grammar There are no There is 1 There are 2 There are more

grammatical grammatical grammatical than 2
mistakes. mistake. mistakes. grammatical
mistakes.
Connecti Synthesizes
on to connections to
Discipline deepen
and understanding;
Extends Draws conclusions
Academic by combining
Knowledg examples, facts,
e or theories from
one or more fields
(0 to 2 pt) of study or
perspective.
Image Credit/citations
and info provided for all
Credits images and
research
(0 or 1 pt) information.
Total /35
**Adapted from a templated offered by TeachersFirst.com © 2012 by The Source for Learning,
Inc. http://www.teachersfirst.com/iste/infographics). **

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LESSON 3
(Week 4-8)
PRE-HARVEST FACTORS AND POST HARVEST BEHAVIOR OF
HORTICULTURAL CROPS
I. Lesson Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students must be able to:
1. List down the maturity indices and harvesting method
2. Enumerate and explain the packaging operations
3.. Explain transport types, their engineering aspects and corresponding handling
practices.
II. Readings
1. Introduction
The horticultural produce includes fruits, vegetables, flowers and other
ornamental plants, plantation crops, aromatic and medicinal plants and spices.
However, in this chapter, information on fruits and vegetables is only included.
According to Oxford English Dictionary, fruit can be defined as 'the edible product of a
plant or tree, consisting of seed and its envelope, especially the latter when it is juicy or
pulpy'. The classification of fruits and vegetables is arbitrary and according to usage.
Morphologically and physiologically the fruits and vegetables are highly variable, may
come from a root, stem, leaf, immature or fully mature and ripe fruits. All fresh
horticultural crops are high in water content and are subjected to desiccation (wilting,
shriveling) and to mechanical injury. Various authorities have estimated that 20-30
percent of fresh horticultural produce is lost after harvest and these losses can assume
considerable economic and social importance. That is why, these perishable
commodities need very careful handling at every stage so that deterioration of produce
is restricted as much as possible during the period between harvest and consumption.
2. Harvesting
Fruits harvested too early may lack flavor and may not ripen properly, while
produce harvested too late may be fibrous or have very limited market life. Similarly,
vegetables are harvested over a wide range of physiological stages, depending upon
which part of the plant is used as food. For example, small or immature vegetables
possess better texture and quality than mature or over-mature vegetables. Therefore,
harvesting of fruits and vegetables at proper stage of maturity is of paramount
importance for attaining desirable quality. The maturity has been divided into two
categories i.e. physiological maturity and horticultural maturity.

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Maturity- refers to the stage at which a commodity has reached a sufficient stage of
development where after harvest and postharvest handling, its quality will be at least at
its minimum acceptable level when it reached the ultimate consumer while when the
crop to be harvested is said to be mature, it means that it is full grown, ripe, and
projected to reach full development.
Two types of maturity
Physiological maturity: It is the stage when a fruit is capable of further
development or ripening when it is harvested i.e. ready for eating or
processing.
Commercial Maturity or Horticultural maturity: It refers to the stage of

development when plant and plant part possesses the pre-requisites for use by
consumers for a particular purpose i.e. ready for harvest.
Maturity indices, also called “harvest indices”, are important for deciding when a
given fruit should be harvested to provide some marketing flexibility and to ensure the
attainment of acceptable eating quality to the consumer
Importance of maturity indices:
• Ensure sensory quality (flavor, color, aroma, texture) and nutritional
quality.
• Ensure an adequate postharvest shelf life.
• Facilitate scheduling of harvest and packing operations.
• Facilitate marketing over the phone or through internet.
Definitions related to maturity and ripening:

Mature: It is derived from Latin word ‘Maturus’ which means ripen. It is that
stage of fruit development, which ensures attainment of maximum edible
quality at the completion of ripening process.
Maturation: It is the developmental process by which the fruit attains

maturity. It is the transient phase of development from near completion of
physical growth to attainment of physiological maturity. There are different
stages of maturation e.g. immature, mature, optimally mature, over mature.
Ripe: It is derived from Saxon word ‘Ripi’, which means gather or reap. This
is the condition of maximum edible quality attained by the fruit following
harvest. Only fruit which becomes mature before harvest can become ripe.
Ripening: Ripening involves a series of changes occurring during early

stages of senescence of fruits in which structure and composition of unripe
fruit is so altered that it becomes acceptable to eat. Ripening is a complex
physiological process resulting in softening, coloring, sweetening and increase in
aroma compounds so that ripening fruits is ready to eat or process. The

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associated physiological or biochemical changes are increased rate of respiration

and ethylene production, loss of chlorophyll and continued expansion of cells and
conversion of complex metabolites into simple molecules.
Senescence: Senescence can be defined as the final phase in the ontogeny of

the plant organ during which a series of essentially irreversible events occur
which ultimately leads to cellular breakdown and death.
A. Types of indices and their components

MATURITY DETERMINATION
1. Subjective type- this uses the senses; it could be visual or physical means.
Visual
a) Size and shape: Maturity of fruits can be assessed by their final shape and
size at the time of harvest. Fruit shape may be used in some instances to decide
maturity. For example, the fullness of cheeks adjacent to pedicel may be used as a
guide to maturity of mango and some stone fruits (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Judging mango harvest maturity by shape of shoulder

(Source : Wardlaw and Leonard, 1936)
Some cultivars of banana become less angular in cross section as

development and maturation progress (Figure 2). Size is generally of
limited value as a maturity index in fruit, though it is widely used for many
vegetables, especially those marketed early in their development. With these
produce, size is often specified as a quality standard, with large size generally
indicating commercial over-maturity and under-sized produce indicating an
immature state. The assumption, however, is not always a reliable guide for all-
purpose.

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Figure 2: Cross section of the middle banana fingers showing the changes in
angularity as they mature on the plant (Source : Von Loesecke,
1949)
The visual appearance of fruit and vegetable is the most important quality
factor, which decides its price in the market. The consumer (wholesaler or
retailer) observes the quality of fresh fruits and vegetables with their visual
or external appearance. The produce should attain proper shape and size.
Medium size produce is always preferred by the consumers, because they tend to
view large fruits as more mature. The appearance of the product is the most
critical factor in the initial purchase, while subsequent purchase may be more related
to texture and flavor.
**Therefore, subjective evaluation of size and shape of the produce

should be conducted to meet the desired quality characteristics.
b) Color: The loss of green color of many fruits is a valuable guide to

maturity as shown in Plate
1. There is initially a gradual loss in intensity of color from deep green to

lighter green and with many commodities, a complete loss of green color with
the development of yellow, red or purple pigments. Ground color as measured
by color charts, is useful index of maturity for apple, pear and stone fruits, but is
not entirely reliable as it is influenced by factors other than maturity. For some fruits,
as they mature on the tree, development of blush color, that is additional color
superimposed on the ground color, can be a good indicator of maturity. Examples
are red or red streaked apple cultivars and red blush on some cultivars of peach.
Objective measurement of color is possible using a variety of reflectance or

light transmittance spectrophotometer. Color perception depends on the type
and intensity of light, chemical and physical characteristics of the commodity,
and person’s ability to characterize color. Although human eye is used to evaluate
color but results can vary considerably due to human differences in color perception.

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Therefore, an instrument (objective method) is used to provide a specific color value

based on the amount of light reflected off the commodity surface or light
transmitted through the commodity. This instrument can measure small differences in
color accurately and can be automated in the packing line. This instrument
is popularly known as Color Difference Meter. This instrument use colorimetric
method for color measurement.
Plate 1: Judging maturity of mango and tomato by colors
A. Physical indices/Physical means- uses feel, force, sound and smell to

determine maturity. Examples are firmness, ease of separation, ease of being
snapped or broken, compactness, exudation of milk when pierced, sound when
tapped
a) Firmness: As fruit mature and ripen they soften by dissolution of the middle
lamella of the cell walls. The degree of firmness can be estimated subjectively by
finger or thumb pressure, but more precise objective measurement is possible with
pressure tester or penetrometer (Plate 2). In many fruits such as apple, pear, peach,
plum, guava etc. firmness can be used to determine harvest maturity.
Penetrometer measures the pressure necessary to force a plunger of specified
size into the pulp of the fruit. Such pressure is measured in pounds and
kilograms force.

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Plate 2: Penetrometer
b. Tenderness- use of Tenderometer
c.) Specific gravity: As fruit mature, their specific gravity increases. This
parameter is rarely used in practice to determine when to harvest a crop but it could be
where it is possible to develop a suitable sampling technique. It is used, however, to
grade crops into different maturities. To do this the fruit or vegetable is placed in a
tank of water; those that float will be less mature that those that sink. To give
greater flexibility to the test and make it more precise, a salt or sugar solution can
be used in place of water. This changes the density of the liquid, resulting in fruits or
vegetables that would have sunk in water floating in the salt or sugar solution.
2. Objective type- this is the measurable indices but more difficult to determine such
indices and more time consuming since measurements must be made
Chemical Measurement
Measurement of chemical characteristics of produce is an obvious approach to the

problem of maturity determination. The conversion of starch to sugars during
maturation is a simple test for the maturity of some apple cultivars. It is based on the
reaction between starch and iodine to produce a blue or purple color. The intensity of
the cooler indicates the amount of starch remaining in the fruit. The total soluble solids
of the fruit can be measured with refractometer, which indicate the harvest maturity of
fruits. Acidity is readily determined on a sample of extracted juice by titration with 0.1 N
NaOH. The sugar acid or TSS acid ratio is often better related to palatability of fruit
than either sugar or acid level alone.
a) Soluble Solids Content (SSC): Soluble solid content (SSC) also called
total soluble solids (TSS), can be determined in a small sample of fruit
juice using hand refractometer (Plate 3).
- Total Soluble solids TSS or Degrees Brix- refers to the total amount
of soluble constituents of the juice. These are mainly sugars, with
smaller amounts of organis acids, vitamins, proteins, free amino acids,
and essential oils. Approximately 85 % of the total soluble solids of citrus
fruits are sugars-so TSS is an excellent guide to the sugar content of
fruits. Fruits generally increase as the fruit matures, however levels can
decrease when fruits are over mature.
- The spectrometer measures the refractive index, which indicates
how much a light beam will be slowed down when it passes through
the fruit juice. The refractometer has different scales (0-32OB), (28-
62OB) and (56-92OB) which can be read directly. For large size
fruits, these should be cut from stem to blossom end and to the centre
of the fruit to account for variability in SSC from top to bottom and

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inside to outside of the fruit. The fruit tissues should be mescerated

thoroughly in pastle motor and then from the mescerated pulp the
juice is extracted by passing through muslin cloth. A drop of juice is
then put on the prism of the refractometer and TSS content can be read
directly on the scale. However, in case of small fruits like grapes,
the juice content can be extracted by simply pressing the whole fruit.
Plate 3: Refractometer
The temperature of the juice is a critical factor for accuracy, because all
materials expand when heated and becomes less dense. Good quality
refractometers have a inbuilt temperature compensation capability. Always
clean the refractometer before each reading and to standardize it with distilled
water.
b) Titratable acidity: Titratable acidity (TA) can be determined by titrating

a know volume of juice with 0.1N NaOH to end point of pink colour as
indicated by phenolphethalin indicator. The milliliters of NaOH needed are
used to calculate the TA. The TA expressed as per cent malic, citric or tartaric acid
can be calculated as follows:
TA = ml NaOH x N (NaOH) x acid meq. Factor* x 100

Juice titrated
* the following acid meq. factor may be used for different fruits
Acid Acid meq. Factor Commodities

Citric 0.0064 Berries, citrus fruits, pineapple
Malic 0.0067 Apple, pear, peach, tomato

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Tartaric 0.0075 Grape
c) Determining juice content (% juice) - The juice content of fruit increases as

they mature. However, when fruits are over-mature their juice content often decreases.
1. Take a sample of 10 - 20 pieces of fruit representative of the fruit (the more fruits
tested the more accurate the test results).
2. Place the container that fruit will be weighed in onto the scales and tare to zero. 3.
Place fruit into the container and weigh the fruit sample. Record weight in grams. 4.
Extract and strain the juice through a fine sieve from the fruit.
5. Place the container that will hold the juice on the scales and tare to zero.
6. Pour the juice into the container.
7. Weigh the juice and record weight in grams. 8. % juice = juice weight ÷ fruit weight x
100.
Calculated indices:
a) Calendar Date: For perennial fruit crops grown in seasonal climate which are more
or less uniform from year to year, calendar date for harvest is a reliable guide to
commercial maturity. Time of flowering is largely dependent as temperature and the
variation in number of days from flowering to harvest can be calculated for some
commodities by use of degree-day concept. Such harvesting criteria can be developed
by the growers based on their experiences.
b) Heat Units: An objective measure of the time required for the development of the
fruit to maturity after flowering can be made by measuring the degree days or heat
units in a particular environment. It has been found that a characteristics number of
heat unit or degree-days is required to mature a crop under usually warm conditions,
maturity will be advanced and under cooler conditions, maturity is delayed. The
number of degree days to maturity is determined over a period of several years by
obtaining the algebraic sum from the differences, plus or minus, between the daily
mean temperatures and a fixed base temperature (commonly the minimum
temperature at which growth occurs). The average or characteristic number of degree-
days is then used to forecast the probable date of maturity for the current year and
as maturity approaches, it can be checked by other means.
Consideration in Identifying Maturity Indices

a. Maturity of fruits and vegetables depends upon the purpose for which it is
harvested.
b. It is a stage between development and growth of any plant part.
c. It can be predicted by using terminology like premature, mature and over
mature
d. There is no necessity of senescence
e. In fruits, there is climacteric fruits and non-climacteric fruits
Maturity Indices for selected fruits and vegetables

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Fruits/ Vegetables Maturity indices or characteristics

-Splitting of hull, separation of hull from shell, development of
abscission zone
Almonds
-12% SSC, 18 lb firmness
Apple -11% SSC, 18 lb firmness
‘Golden Delicious’ - disappearance of angularity in a cross section of the finger
‘Red Delicious’ - TSS = 14-15%, light red color
Banana -minimum SSC % of 14 to 17.5, depending on cultivars, SSC/TA of
Cherry 20 or higher.
Grapes (table) -color break stage (when skin color changes from dark green to
light green)
Guava -30% or more juice by volume
-TSS: total acid ratio of 30-40, bright red in color
Lemon -TSS – 6.5%, Firmness = 14 lbs
Lychee/litchi -changes in shape (increase fullness of cheeks or bulge of
Kiwi fruit shoulder), flesh color yellow to yellowish-orange
Mango
-skin shows yellowing
- ground color change from green to yellow (varied for different
cultivars)
Papaya - skin color changes
Peaches - minimum 1.85% TA and red juice color
-Pods are filled, seeds immature.
Plums -Adequate diameter, compact, all florets should be closed
Pomegranate -Firm head
Beans -Immature, roots reached adequate size.
Broccoli - Mature and atleast 6” in diameter, compact
Cabbage - Immature and glossy skin
Carrot - Well filled bulbs, tops dry down
Cauliflower - 8-9 months after planting
Cucumber - Ground color change to white with greenish tint, slightly waxy
Garlic peel.
Ginger - Caps well rounded, partial veil completely intact.
Melon - Pod 2-4” long, not fibrous, tips of pods pliable.
- When 10-20% of tops fall over
Mushroom - Pods well filled but not faded in color.
Okra - Fruit size and color (depends on color and intended market)
Onion (Dry bulbs) - Harvest before vines die completely, cure to heal surface
Peas wounds.
Pepper - 20 to 30 days after planting.
- Seeds fully developed, gel formation advanced in at least one
locule.
- Flesh color 75% red, TSS = 10%

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Source : Lisa Kitinoja and James Gorny, 1998
Maturity Indices for Selected Crops
Crops Maturity indices

Subjective Objective
Asparagus Increase in size, apex closed
Cabbage Mature head is compact (immature 55-60 days
is puffy)
Carrot Roots reached adequate size
Cauliflower/Broccoli Curd compact, creamy white in 55-60 days
color (cauliflower) florets closed
Cucumber Immature. Glossy skin
Garlic Top begins to dry and topple, bulbs 110-120 days
full and does not increases
Ginger Top begins to dry and rhizomes full 10-11 months
Lettuce. Head Size, firmness. Solidity, flavor-
sweetness
Lettuce romaine Size number of leaves
Okra Pods 2-4” long, not fibrous, tips of
pods pliable
Onion Tops begin to dry and topple, bulbs 75-90 days
full, neck is small
White Potato Leaves turn dry, peel does not slip 90-120 days
easily rubbed with the thumb
Beans Size, seed development
Ampalaya From deep green to light green 80-90 days to 1st harvest
(fruits) 10-14 days from flowering
Eggplant Change in color to deep purple 70-90 days to 1st harvest
(fruits) 7-10 days from flowering
Sweet pepper Change in color from green to light 90-120 days to 1st harvest
green color (fruits) 15 days from flowering
Tomato Change in color from green to light 60-70 days to 1st harvest
green color(fruits) usually at 30 days from flowering
blossom end
Okra Full sized fruits, tips can be 45-50 days to 1st harvest
snapped easily 30 days from flowering
Muskmelon Fruits easily separates from the 80-85 days to 1st harvest
vines with slight twist 30-45 days from flowering
Watermelon Color of lower part of the fruits turn 80-85 days to 1st harvest
creamy yellow, dull hollow sound 30-45 days from flowering
when tapped
Mango (“carabao) Green peel becomes darker, full 120 days from flower
cheeks induction
Shoulder growth
Banana (“lakatan”) Minimum angles in the fuit 13 weeks from shooting
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Coconut Color break 11-12 months from

flowering
Cacao Color break and sound 170 days from fruit set
5-6 months from flowering
Jackfruit Watery latex at harvest maturity 90-110 days after the
dul sounds indicates maturity appearance of the spike
(concentrated white milky latex at
immature stage
Pineapple Lowermost eyelets show orange
yellow color
Eye gets flattened in the center
and bulges on the sides
75-80 % maturity (distant market)
Full ripe (local market)
Papaya Mature green fruits should be 12-14 months after
harvested transplanting first fruits
Peel color changes from green to would be harvested
yellowish green
Latex of the fruit becomes watery
Lemon 30% or more juice by volume
Rice Grains turn yellow/golden yellow 120-130 days after
planting/transplanting
70-30 days from flowering
Sweet/glutinous Kernels soft and tender 18 days from silking date
corn (silking occurs in 56-52
days after emergence)
Mungbean Pods turn black or tan leaves may 5565 days after
remain green planting/transplanting
Staggered harvesting 40-45 days from flowering

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B. Harvesting tools, Containers and Methods
Majority of fruits and vegetables are harvested by hands using secateurs’,

clippers or diggers (Figure 3). Mechanical harvest in currently used for fresh market
crops that is roots, tubers, rhizomes and nut crops. A number of commodities destined
for processing such as wine grapes, prunes, peaches etc. are harvested with
machines because harvest damage does not significantly affect the quality of
processed product as the commodities are processed quickly. Harvesting practices
should cause as little mechanical damage to produce as possible. The following points
should be kept in mind while
harvesting the crop.
1. Gentle picking and harvesting will help reduce crop losses.

2. Wearing cotton gloves, trimming finger nails, and removing jewellary such as
rings and bracelets can help reduce mechanical damage during harvest.
3. Produce should be harvested during coolest part of the day not wet from dew
or rain.
4. Empty picking containers with care.
5. Keep produce cool after harvest (provide shade).

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Fig 3 : Different tools used during harvesting (Source : Lisa Kitinoja and James
Gorny, 1998)
Clean harvesting tools and containers should be used to protect the produce
quality. Disinfect tools with one part chlorine bleach: one part clean water solution
before use. The use of containers that can be easily filled and carried by workers
minimizes damage to produce. The containers that are smooth on the inside, or
provide clean, disposable liners made from paper or cardboard should be used.
a) Picking bag: Cloth bag with openings on both ends can be easily worn
over the shoulders with adjustable harnesses (Figure 4). In case
metallic buckets are to be used for harvesting, fitting cloth over the
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opened bottom can reduce damage to crop. Fitting canvas bags

with adjustable harnesses or by simply adding some carrying straps
to baskets also helps to reduce handling losses.
Fig.4: Picking Bags (Source : Friend manufacturing Co. , 1993)
b) Picking poles and catching sacks: These tools can be easily made by
hand. A long pole attached to a collection bag, allow the harvester
to cut catch produce growing on a tree without climbing on tree. The
collection bags can be hand woven from strong cord or sewn from
canvas. The hoop used as the collection bag rim and sharp cutting
edges can be made from sheet metal, steel tubing or recycled
scrap metal.
c) Clippers and Knives: Some fruits such as citrus, grapes and mangoes,
need to be clipped or cut from the plant (Figure 3). Clippers or
knives should be kept well sharpened and clean. Peduncles,
woody stems or spurs should be trimmed as close as possible to
prevent fruit from damaging neighboring fruits during transport. Care
should be taken to harvest pears so that the spurs are not damaged.
Pruning shears can be used for harvesting fruits and some
vegetables.
d) Tripod ladders: A ladder with three legs is very convenient and more
stable than a common ladder (Figure 3). A ladder help harvesting
crops such as mango, pears, peaches, plums without damaging tree
branches.
e) Harvesting containers: Plastic crates are relatively expensive to

purchase, but are reusable and easy to clean. These have required
features like stacking strength, ventilation holes and long life. These can
be used for harvest, storage, cooling, and transport and even for
display in retail markets. Various brands and styles are

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manufactured, but all can be stacked securely if they are not

overfilled. Picking baskets, bags and buckets can easily be carried
and filled by workers. Harvesting containers can be made by fitting
fabric over opened bottom of ready-made baskets, fitting
readymade canvas bags. All of these will reduce mechanical
damage to produce.
Harvesting: Once the quality crop is produced, it should be harvested with great care
for marketing as shown in Plate 4. The goals of harvesting systems are:
a) To gather the commodity from the field at proper stage of maturity.
b) With a minimum amount of damage and losses.
c) In a cost-effective way.
Method of Harvesting: Harvesting of crops can be done manually or

mechanically.
1. Hand Harvesting: Usually done for fruits destined for fresh markets.
Primary Advantages
• Harvesting of fruit or vegetable can be done at appropriate
maturity.
• The produce will suffer minimum damage.
Disadvantages
• It is a time-consuming process.
• More labor is required during harvesting season.

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Plate 4: Harvesting Techniques
2. Mechanical Harvesting- done in commercial scale with the use of mechanical

devices/equipment
Primary Advantages
• The produce can be harvested at a faster rate.
• Less manpower is required as compared to hand harvesting.
Disadvantages
• Damage can occur to crops.
• Not suitable for marketing of fresh commodities.
** The fruits required for processing may be harvested mechanically, but it is important
to process them soon, otherwise deterioration can take place.
Factors affecting Quality of Harvest

To guarantee quality produce at harvesting period, the following factors should be
considered: maturity, method, ad time.
1. Importance of harvesting at the proper stage of maturity
a. Full development of chemical constituents responsible for aroma and flavor,
hence the fruits have better taste and appearance.
b. Maximum respiratory substrate and metabolic reserves are fully developed;
thus, longer shelf or storage life will be attained.
c. Less stomates (natural openings in fruits which is responsible for gas
exchange and water loss) and emergences (trichomes or hairy outgrowth on
the fruit surface) are found in commodity, therefore there will be minimal
water loss.
d. Full development of suberized skin (potato) or protective tissues (onion)
therefore, it has greater resistance to mechanical stress, to decay and less
transpiration
2. Time of harvest
Time of harvesting fruits and vegetables include not only the proper maturity stage but
also the actual time of the day or condition of the environment at the time of harvest.

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Crops must be harvested when it can tolerate the rigors of the harvesting, handling,
packing, storage and transportation.
a. Sweet corn- the best time is early morning or late in the afternoon to
preserve the sweetness. Sugar are easily transformed to starch during high
temperatures or when harvested at noontime.
b. Cucumber- to avoid too much bruising and mechanical injuries, harvest them
at 9:00 to 3:00 in the afternoon, during this time cucumber are less brittle
and not very susceptible to handling.
c. Tomatoes- tomatoes harvested during cooler part of the day have slower
rate of ripening that is why after this must be placed in a shade.
d. Leafy vegetables- should be harvested during mid-morning, since at the
earliest part of the day the tissues are brittle and susceptible to mechanical
damages
e. Citrus- fresh are harvested late in the morning to avoid oleocellosis. Early in
the morning, the oil glands are full and susceptible to hand pressure while
harvesting, the oil exudes out produces this damage.
f. Mangoes- late morning harvest, latex exudes during the earl period of
morning while cells are turgid.
3. Harvesting Procedure for a range of Agricultural Crops
a. Harvesting vegetables- it should be harvested during the cool part of the
morning and should be stored as soon as possible. If the produce is destined for
the market, ensure that the storage conditions are correct for the produce. If
they are destined for processing, they should be cooled and stored under
refrigeration or controlled condition to preserve flavor and quality. Ensure that
the worker know the basic harvest for each crop they are dealing with.
b. Harvesting fruits- fruit trees are either climacteric or non-climacteric which
means some fruits can be harvested ripe but others need to be harvested
during its green stage ten after ripening ill follow, this is done to ensure its
quality.
c. Harvesting field crops- Field crops are harvested when the grains have
reached its physiological maturity
PACKAGING OPERATIONS, TRANSPORT AND STORAGE

Post-harvest management practices that reduce product loss to spoilage or shrinkage
will reduce microbial risks.
• These include:
– Cleaning the product
– Sorting
– Packaging
– Quick cooling
– Good, refrigerated storage
– Good transportation & distribution

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Post-Harvest Handling- Also includes Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs): –

Packing facility sanitation, Building, Equipment, Storage, Water quality, Worker
hygiene.
Field packing: Selection, sorting, trimming and picking the produce in the field at the
time of harvest is referred to as field packing and has great potential to reduce
mechanical damage by reducing the number of handling steps between field and
consumer.
1. ) Packing house operations: The packing house operations include the

following steps:
a. Dumping / collection g. Curing
b. Pre-sorting h. Irradiation
c. Washing / Cleaning i. De- sapping
d. Sizing / Grading j. Packing
e. Bunching / Wrapping k. Cooling
f. Postharvest Treatments
It is important to minimize mechanical damage by avoiding drops, rough handling and

bruising during the different steps of pack house operations.
Secondly the pack house operations should be carried out in shaded area. Shade can
be created using locally available materials like, shade cloth, woven mats, plastic tarps
or a canvas sheet hung from temporary poles. Shade alone can reduce air
temperatures surrounding the produce by 8-17°C
a. Dumping: The first step of handling is known as dumping. It should be done gently
either using water or dry dumping. Wet dumping can be done by immersing the
produce in water. It reduces mechanical injury, bruising, abrasions on the fruits, since
water is gentler on produce. The dry dumping is done by soft brushes
fitted on the sloped ramp or moving conveyor belts. It will help in removing dust
and dirt on the fruits.
b. Pre-sorting: It is done to remove injured, decayed, mis-shapen fruits. It will save
energy and money because culls will not be handled, cooled, packed or
transported. Removing decaying fruits are especially important, because these will
limit the spread of infection to other healthy fruits during handling.
c. Washing and Cleaning: Washing with chlorine solution (100-150 ppm) can also
be used to control inoculums build up during pack house operations. For best
results, the pH of wash solution should be between 6.5-7.5.
 Mangoes, bananas should be washed to remove latex.

 Kiwifruit should be dry cleaned or brushed after curing or storage.
d. De-sapping- used in mango where it is done by holding the mango fruits upside
down while cutting the stalks of the fruits

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e. Sizing / Grading: Grading can be done manually or by automatic grading lines.

Size grading can be done subjectively (visually) with the use of standard size
gauges. Round produce units can be easily graded by using sizing rings.
Several types of mechanical sizes are available for small scale operations. One type is
composed of a long slanted tray with a series of opening which coverage (largest at
the top, smallest at the bottom). This type of sizes works best with round commodities.
The grading of fruits plays an important role in domestic and export marketing of
fruits. Different fruits have different grades on the basis of their size and weight.
Grade designation and quality of fruits: Minimum requirements are:

a) Clean, round, free from any visible foreign matter
b) Fresh in appearance, free of pests c) free from damage caused by pests
or diseases
d) Free of any foreign smell and/or taste
f. Packaging of Horticulture Produce
 What is packing?
A coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, distribution, storage,
retailing and end use.
A means of ensuring safe delivery to the ultimate consumer in sound conditions
at minimum cost.
 Objective of Packaging:
1. It helps in safe transportation, storages, marketing and distribution of

produce.
2. It protects the produce from pilferage, microorganisms and adverse
weather condition.
3. It is also used to advertise the product.
 Requirements of a Good Package:

 Should be environment friendly.
 Should have sufficient strength in compression and against impact and
vibrations

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 Should have sufficient strength in compression and against impact and

vibrations
 Should be compatible with the automatic packing/filling, handling
machines (mechanical filling systems).
 Should facilitate special treatments like pre-cooling.
 Should have consumer appeal.
 Should be cost effective.
 Should be easily printable.
 Packing House Sanitation

 Proper sorting and culling of product.
 Maintaining detectable free chlorine in wash waters.
 Enforcing good worker hygiene.
 Cleaning and sanitizing equipment.
 Excluding all animals from Packing House, especially insects, birds and
rodents.
 Packing Facility
 Should be arranged so that product moves to a cleaner area during each step of
processing.
 Good sanitation & housekeeping should be practiced in the area – SOPs
(Standard Operating Procedures).
 Cleaning supplies should be stored in a separate area.
 Rest rooms should not open directly into processing and packaging areas.
 Should have adequate lighting and shielded to protect product if breakage
occurs.
 Processing equipment food contact surfaces should be cleaned & sanitized and
done as frequently as necessary.
 Use only food grade machinery lubricants.
 Exposed overhead piping & ducts should be minimized and kept clean
 Worktables/product preparation surfaces – food contact surfaces:
- Smooth surfaces allow easy cleaning.
- Rough surfaces harbor dirt and microorganisms.
- Important to clean and sanitize AS NEEDED.
- Wash, Rinse, and Sanitize with approved food contact agents.
 Store packing containers away from contamination sources.
 Close doors at night.
 Materials for Packaging:
 Wood – boxes, bins, trays, barrels, pallets

 Jute/canvas – sacks
 Paper and card board – liners, boxes, trays
 Plastic
 Rigid - crates, pallets, trays
 Flexible – films (single & multi layered)

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 Polystyrene boxes / trays

 Combined materials – CFB and plastic
-CFB has almost replaced wood and jute and is considered as most
important package material to be used in combination with other
materials.
Some materials used for fresh horticultural produce include:

 Wooden box having CFB liners.
 CFB box with plastic film wraps.
 CFB trays with wooden corner supports.
 CFB laminated or waxed containers.
 CFB box with plastic retailer packs (strawberry boxes).
 CFB or polystyrene trays/boxes with plastic film wraps.
 Packaging Type: There are many types of packing containers available for
horticultural produce, and they come in a huge range of sizes.
Bags and Sacks: Paper, polyethylene film, woven polypropylene. These
give little protection to the crop from handling and transport damage,
potato, onion, canots etc.
Woven Baskets: These are traditional containers in which crops are
placed after harvest. The produce is damaged in these baskets when
they are stacked one above the other during transport
and distribution.
Wooden field box: These are made from thin pieces of wood, widely
spread so they are light in weight and cheep to make. These can be used
for all types of fruits and vegetables.
Plastic field boxes: They are strong and durable. They are made from
moulded polyvinyl chloride, poly propylene or polyethylene. They have
smooth surface, which does not damage the produce. Initially, they are
expensive to buy, but can be used repeatedly.
Pallet boxes: They are most commonly base on the standard size for a
European pallet of 1 x 1.2 m and about 0.5 m high. These have capacity
of about 500 kg. They are usually made from wood but plastic ones are
also available. They are used for whole range of crops, which are
commonly loaded into them in the field and transported directly to the
store.
Fiberboard boxes: They are made from either laminated or more
commonly corrugated fiberboard. They may be used for directly field
packing of produce and transported to pack house or destination market.
Polystyrene boxes : Popularly called thermocol boxes, provides enough
protection to produce, are light in weight, hygrimic and keeps the produce
for longer periods at pack temperature.
The three containers styles illustrated here are constructed from corrugated fiberboard.
The regular slotted containers is fully collapsible and the most economical. Collapsible

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containers can be flattened and stacked during marketing and transport easily and less
expensive, and take much less space to store while empty in the packinghouse.
Source: Fibre Box Association
Half of full-telescopic containers have the highest stacking strength and protect against
bulging but are more costly. The choice of package style will depend on what
commodity is to be pack and how to use the container throughout the post harvest
system (during cooling, for long-term storage, as a display).
The container known as a Bliss box has very strong corners, but is not collapsible.
Bliss boxes for fresh fruits and vegetables most commonly have either flaps that meet
in the middle of the top or that form an open topped tray, which is covered with a
separate lid.
Bliss Box
A simple wooden tray with raised corners is stackable and allows plenty of ventilation
for fragile crops such as ripe tomatoes.

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Stackable cartons reinforced with wooden corners supports.
Smaller consumer sized containers can be packed into large container.
Cartons designed to hold six small containers per layer.
Adding a fiberboard divider to a carton will increase stacking strength. Wooden inserts,
or fiberboard folded into tight triangles and placed in all four corners can be especially
useful when a carton needs strengthening.
Using a polyethylene liner in a fiberboard carton can help protect produce and
reduce water loss in commodities such as peach, plums, pears, citrus, cherries, kiwi
fruits etc. Water vapor given off by the product is contained within the liner, increasing
the RH around the product and decreasing the rate of water loss. The liner can also
reduce abrasion damage that results from fruit rubbing against the inside of the box. It
is important to keep produce cool to prevent causing damage in cartons lined with
polyethylene due to gas composition changes related to increased respiration rates.
**When a locally made containers have sharp edges or rough inner surfaces, a simple,
inexpensive liner can be used to protect produce from damage during handling.**
 General Dos’ and Don'ts for Packaging High Quality Produce:

 The packages should be sturdy and capable of standing up to handling, cooling
and storage conditions.
 Rough packages such as baskets and wooden crates should be lined with
cardboard inserts.

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 Packages used for heavy produce should be reinforced with corner supports or
folded dividers.
 Avoid using very large packages since the produce suffers more damage during
handling of large packages.
 For delicate produce such as berries, grapes, summer squash and ripe stone
fruits use shallow packages having single layer or double layers.
 Avoid overfilling or under filling packages.
 For adequate ventilation of packages about 5% of the surface area per side
should be vented.
 For immobilizing the produce in a package, use packaging materials such as
trays, cups, wraps, liners and pads.
 To decrease the rate of water loss from produce like cherries perforated plastic
film liners should be used.
 Take care while using fillers and liners in packages so that the ventilation holes
are not blocked.
 Labeling containers with your logo or farm name help in creating a brand name
for quality produce.
 Consumer packages that can be used to display produce during marketing
should be considered.
 Use large packages to pack 'consumer packages' such as gift packs or display
trays for providing better protection to the containers during stacking, transport
and marketing.
 For reducing produce damage, packages with handles to carry should be
considered.
g. Pre-cooling of horticulture produce

Pre-cooling of the produce soon after their harvest is one of the important
components of the cool chain, which ultimately affect the shelf life of the produce. The
main purpose of pre-cooling is to immediately remove the field heat from the produce.
Method of pre-cooling:
1) Room cooling
2) Forced air cooling
3) Hydro-cooling
4) Vacuum cooling
5) Package icing
Room cooling: It is low cost and slow method of cooling. In this method, produce is
simply loaded into a cool room and cool air is allowed to circulate among the cartons,
sacks, bins or bulk load.
Advantages:
 Produce can be cooled and stored at the same room thus saves on
handling costs.
 No extra cost for pre-cooling equipment.

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 Suits for crops, which are marketed soon after harvest.

Disadvantages:
 It is too slow method of cooling
 Space requirements for room cooling are more as compared to storage,
thus loss of storage capacity.
 Unsuitable for packed produce.
 Excessive water is lost from the produce due to slow cooling.
**Horticulture crops suitable for rooms cooling are: Potato, onion, apple and citrus.
Forced-air cooling: Forced air-cooling is mostly used for wide range of horticultural
produce. This is the fastest method of pre-cooling. Forced air-cooling pulls or pushes
air through the vents/holes in storage containers. In this method uniform cooling of the
produce can be achieved if the stacks of pallet bins are properly aligned.
Cooling time depends on: (i) The airflow, (ii) The temperature difference between the
produce and the cold air and (iii) Produce diameter.
Advantages:
 Fast method of pre cooling
 Suitable for wide range of highly perishable commodities.
 Uniform cooling, if palletized containers or bins are properly aligned.
 Cooling times can be controlled for different types of produce by
controlling the air flow rate.
**Horticultural produce suitable for forced air cooling are: Grapes, Berries, Pears,
Peach, Oranges, Strawberries tomato, and other tropical and subtropical fruits.
Hydro-cooling: The use of cold water is an old and effective cooling method used for
quickly cooling a wide range of fruits and vegetables before packaging. For the packed
commodities it is less used because of difficulty in the movement of water through the
containers and because of high cost involved in water tolerant containers. This method
of cooling not only avoids water loss but may even add water to the commodity.
The hydro-cooler normally used are of two types:

a) Shower type: In this type of hydro-cooler, cold water is pumped to an
overhead perforated pan which produces a shower over the produce
which may be in bins or boxes or loose on a conveyer belt passing beneath.
The water leaving the produce may be filtered to remove debris, and then passed
over refrigeration coil where it is re-cooled.
b) Immersion type: In this type of hydro-cooler, the produce is brought in

contact with cold water by using a conveyor (flume type) or by lowering bins /
boxes in tank of water which is continuously cooled by mechanical refrigeration
system. Poor cooling would result if the product simple moved with the water.

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Flume hydro-coolers convey the product either against (counter flow) or across (cross
flow) the flow.
Efficient cooling depends upon adequate water flow over the product surface.
Immersion type hydro-coolers usually take longer time to cool produce than shower
type cooler. Generally the small quantity chlorine or other chemicals are added in the
water to sanitize it.
Advantages:
 Less energy is used as compared to forced air cooling.
 Hydro-cooler can be easily integrated into packing operations and
become a step within a simple packing line.
 Moisture loss does not take place.
Disadvantages:
 Most of the packages don’t tolerate wetting.
 Wax layer of some fruits like pear, plum, apple are removed by using
spray type of hydro-cooler:
**Horticultural produce suitable for hydro-cooling are: Mango, peach, cherry,

asparagus etc.
Vacuum cooling: Vacuum cooling take place by water evaporation from the product
at very low air pressure. In this method, air is pumped out from a larger steel chamber
in which the produce is loaded for pre-cooling. Removal of air results in the reduction
of pressure of the atmosphere around the produce, which further lowers, the boiling
temperature of its water. As the pressure falls, the water boils quickly removing the
heat from the produce. Vacuum cooling cause about 1 per cent produce weight loss
(mostly water) for each 6 0 C of cooling.
Advantages:
 Packed produce can be cooled if the pack allows moisture transfer.
 Fast and uniform cooling takes place.
 Most energy efficient method.
Disadvantages:
 High capital cost
 Produce losses more moisture
**To overcome the more loss of water from the produce, another method of water
spray vacuum is used, (modification of vacuum cooling), called hydro-vac cooling.
Package-icing: In some commodities, crushed or flaked ice is packed along with

produce for fast cooling. However, as the ice comes in contact with the produce, it
melts, and the cooling rate slows considerably. The ice keeps a high relative humidity
around the product. Package ice may be finely crushed ice, flake ice or slurry of ice.
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Liquid icing distributes the ice throughout the container, achieving better contact with
the product. Packaged icing can be used only with water tolerant, non-chilling sensitive
products and with water tolerant packages (waxed fiberboard, plastic or wood).
POSTHARVEST CONTROL OF SENESCENCE AND RELATED PROCESSES

h. POST HARVEST TREATMENTS
Fresh fruits are living tissues subject to continuous change after harvest. Some
changes are desirable from consumer point of view but most are not. Post-harvest
changes in fresh fruit cannot be stopped, but these can be slowed down within certain
limits to enhance the shelf life of fruits. The post-harvest treatments play an important
role in extending the storage and marketable life of horticultural perishables.
i. Washing with chlorine solution: Chlorine treatment (100-150 ppm

available chlorine) can be used in wash water to help control inoculums
build up during packing operations. Maintain pH of wash
water between 6.5 and 7.5 for best results.
ii. Ethylene inhibitors/Growth regulator/ fungicide treatments: 1-MCP
(1-methyl cyclopropene), AVG (Amenoethoxyvinyl gycine), silver nitrate,
silver thiosulfate, cycloheximide, benzothiadiazole etc. are some of the
chemicals which inhibit ethylene production and / or action during
ripening and storage of fruits.The growth regulators or fungicidal
application such as GA3 or cytokinius, bavistin, procloraj, imazalil etc.
can be effectively used to extend/ enhance the shelf life of fruits.
iii. Calcium application: The post-harvest application of CaCl2 or Ca
(NO3)2 play an important role in enhancing the storage and marketable
life of fruits by maintaining their firmness and quality. Calcium application
delays aging or ripening, reduces postharvest decay, controls the
development of many physiological disorders and increases the calcium
content, thus improving their nutritional value. The post-harvest
application of CaCl2 (2-4%) or Ca (NO3)2 for 5-10 minutes dip extend
the storage life of pear up to 2 months, plum up to 4 weeks and apple up
to 6 months at 0-2OC with excellent color and quality. Calcium infiltration
reduces chilling injury and increase disease resistance in stored fruit.
iv. Thermal treatments :
a) Hot water treatment: Fruits may be dipped in hot water before
marketing or storage to control various post-harvest diseases and
improving peel color of the fruit. In mangoes, the hot water
treatment is recommended at 50-52OC for 5 minutes to reduce
the fungal infection during ripening or storage. This treatment
helps in attaining uniform ripening within 5-7 days. Fruit should not
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be handled immediately after heat treatment. Cooling of fruit with

water showers or forced air should be provided to help return the
fruit to their optimum temperature as soon as possible after
completion of the treatment.
Hot water treatments for different fruits:
Commodity Pathogens Temp. (°C) Time (min)

Gloeosporium sp.
Apple 45 10
Penicillium expansum
Grapefruit Phytophthora citrophthora 48 3
Penicillium digitatum
Lemon 52 5-10
Phytophthora sp.
Collectotrichum
Mango 52 5
gloeosporioides
Diplodia sp.
Orange Phomopsis sp. 53 5
Phytophthora sp.
Papaya Fungi 48 20
Monolinia fructicola
Peach 52 2.5
Rhizopus stolonifer
b) Vapor heat treatment (VHT): This treatment proved very effective in

controlling infection of fruit flies in fruits after harvest. The boxes are stacked
in a room, which are heated and humidified by injection of steam. The
temperature and exposure time are adjusted to kill all stages of insects
(egg, larva, pupa and adult), but fruit should not be damaged. A
recommended treatment for citrus, mangoes, papaya and pineapple is
43OC in saturated air for 8 hours and then holding the temperature for
further 6 hours. VHT is mandatory for export of mangoes.
v. Fumigation: The fumigation of SO2 is successfully used for controlling post-

harvest diseases of grapes. This is achieved by placing the boxes of fruit in a
gas tight room and introducing the gas from a cylinder to the appropriate
concentration.
However, special sodium metabisulphite pads are also available which can
be packed into individual boxes of a fruit to give a slow release of SO2. The
primary function of treatment is to control the Botrytis Cinerea. The SO2
fumigation is also used to prevent discoloration of skin of litchis.
Readings: Fumigation with 1.2% sulphur dioxide for 10 minutes was shown
to be effective in reducing skin discoloration in fresh litchis, especially if it is
combined with a 2 minute dip in IN HCl acid directly afterwards. Immediately
after sulphur dioxide treatment litchi fruit may appear a uniform yellow color
and then turn red again after 1 or 2 days. Some people are allergic to

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sulphur, particularly those who have chronic respiratory complaints, and it

may be necessary to label fruit or boxes of fruit to indicate that these have
been fumigated with sulphur. Paper pads or wraps impregnated with biphenyl
fungicides are commonly applied to citrus fruits. The chemical vaporizes
slowly, protecting the fruit from fungal infection.
vi. Irradiation: Ionizing radiation can be applied to fresh fruits and vegetables to
control microorganisms and inhibit or prevent cell reproduction and some
chemical changes. It can be applied by
exposing the crop to radiations from radioisotopes (normally in the form of
gamma-rays measured in Grays (Gy), where 1 Gray = 100 rads.
Readings: A combination of hot water treatment (55°C for 5 minutes)

followed by 30 Gy irradiation was found to be the best treatment for shelf life
extension and quality maintenance of mangoes. After this treatment mangoes
had a storage life of 38 days (at 15°C), 28% rotting and no irradiation injury.
Irradiation can also be used to control postharvest diseases of other fresh fruit
and vegetables.
vii. Waxing: Waxing of fruits or vegetables is a common post-harvest practice.

Food grade waxes are used to replace some of the natural waxes removed
during harvesting and sorting operations and can help reduce water loss
during handling and marketing. It also helps in sealing tiny injuries and
scratches on surface of fruits and vegetables. It improves cosmetic
appearance and prolongs the storage life of fruits and vegetables. The wax
coating must be allowed to dry thoroughly before packing.
i. Storage
The management of temperature and relative humidity are the most

important factors determining storage life of horticultural produce. The
natural means like ice, cold water, night temperature have been used for long
time for protecting food materials from spoilage and these are still common.
However, with the development of innovative technologies, it is possible to
achieve optimal environments in the insulated stores.
Objective of storage:
1) Regulate the market in an orderly manner.
2) Avoid glut and distress sale in the market, thus prolonging the market
period.
3) In long-term storage, making the food available in off-season.
Lowering the temperature to the lowest safe handling temperature is of paramount

importance for enhancing the shelf life, reducing the losses and maintaining higher
quality during marketing. Always, handle produce gently and never store produce
unless, it is of the best quality. Damaged produce will lose water faster and have

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higher decay rates in storage when compared to undamaged produce for

storage of high-quality horticultural produce.
 Store only high-quality produce, free of damage, decay and of proper

maturity (not over-ripe or under-mature).
 Know the requirements for the commodities you want to put into storage,
and follow recommendations for proper temperature, relative humidity
and ventilation.;
 Avoid lower than recommended temperatures in storage, because many
commodities are susceptible to damage from freezing or chilling.
 Do not over load storage rooms or stack containers closely,
 Provide adequate ventilation in the storage room.
 Keep storage rooms clean.
 Storage facilities should be protected from rodents by keeping the
immediate outdoor area clean, and free from trash and weeds.
 Containers must be well ventilated and strong enough to with stand
stacking. Do not stack containers beyond their stacking strength.
 Monitor temperature in the storage room by placing thermometers at
different locations.
 Don’t store onion or garlic in high humidity environments.
 Avoid storing ethylene sensitive commodities with those that produce
ethylene.
 Avoid storing produce known for emitting strong odors (apples, garlic,
onions, turnips, cabbages, and potatoes) with odor-absorbing
commodities.
 Inspect stored produce regularly for signs of injury, water loss, damage
and disease.
 Remove damaged or diseased produce to prevent the spread of
problems.
Storage of compatible groups of fruits and vegetables: Some fruits or vegetables can
be stored together due to their common temperature and relative humidity conditions
and some cannot be stored together. The table3 gives an over view of storage of
compatible groups of fruits and vegetables.
Compatibility groups of fruits and vegetables:

Group Temperature Crops Status of commodities
Apple, Apricot, Asian
Pear, Grapes, Litchis,
Group 1 0-20C and 90-95% RH Plum, Prunes, Produce ethylene.
Pomegranate, Mushroom
Turnip Peach.

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Asparagus, Leafygreens,
Broccoli, Peas, Spinach,
Group 2 0-20C and 90-95%RH Sensitive to ethylene.
Cabbage, Carrot,
Cauliflower, Cherries.
Moisture will damage

Group 3 0-20C and 65-70% RH Garlic, Onions dry.
these crops
Cantaloupes, Guava,
Group 4 4-60C and 90-95% RH
Mandarin, Tangerines.
Beans, Potatoes (with
CIPC treatment),
Group 5 8-100C, 85-90% RH
Cucumber, Brinjal, Okra
Pepper.
Mangoes, Banana, Tomato
Group 6 13-150C, 85-90% RH
ripe, Grapefruit
Undesirable effect of ethylene:

 Accelerated senescence
 Accelerated ripening
 Loss of green color
 Abscission of florets
 Toughening
 Poor flavor
The symptoms of chilling injury are as follows: If fruits and vegetables are stored at a
temperature below their optimum temperature will subject to chilling injury
Chilling injury symptoms of different fruits:
Commodity Lowest safe temperature 0C Chilling injury symptoms
Apple 2-3 Soft scald, brown core
Bananas 12-13 Dull color when ripened
Guavas 4-5 Pulp injury, decay
Lemon 11-13 Pitting, membrane staining
Mango 10-13 Uneven ripening, grayish skin
Therefore for maintaining proper quality the produce should be stored at the
recommended temperature and relative humidity conditions.
Recommended Temperature and RH conditions:
Name of
Temp (0C) RH (%) Approximate Shelf-Life
commodity
Apple -1-4 90-95 1-12 months
Apricot 0-1 90-95 1-3 weeks
Asian pear 0-1 90-95 2 months

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Banana 13-15 90-95 1-4 weeks

Ber 7.5 90-95 2 weeks
Grape -0.5-0 90-95 2-8 weeks
Guava 6-8 90-95 2-3 weeks
Kiwi ; Chinese
0 90-95 3-5 months
gooseberry
Lemon 10-13 85-90 1-6 months
Loquat 0 90 3 weeks
Lychee, Litchi 1-2 90-95 3-5 weeks
Mandarin
4-5 90-95 2 months
(Kinnow)
Mango 13 85-90 2-4 weeks
Mushrooms 0 90 7-14 days
Nectarine -0.5-0 90-95 2-4 weeks
Papaya 7-13 90-95 1-3 weeks
Peach 0-1 90-95 2-4 weeks
Pear -1.5-0.5 90-95 2-7 months
Pineapple 7-13 85-90 2-4 weeks
Plum and prunes 0-1 90-95 2-5 weeks
Pomegrante 5 90-95 2-3 months
Strawberry 0 90-95 7-10 weeks
Sweet cherries -1-0.5 90-95 2-3 weeks
Asparagus,
1-2 95-100 2-3 weeks
green
Beans 4-7 90-95 7-10 days
Bitter gourd 10-12 85-90 2-3 weeks
Broccoli 0 95-100 10-14 days
Cabbage 0 90-95 3-6 weeks
Carrots 0 90-95 6-8 months
Cauliflower 0 90-95 3-4 weeks
Eggplant 10-12 90-95 1-2 weeks
Garlic 0 65-70 6-7 months
Ginger 13 65-70 6 months
Lettuces 0 90-95 2-3 weeks
Okra 7-10 90-95 7-10 days
Onion 0 65-70 1-8 months
Peas 0 90-95 1-2 weeks
Bell Pepper 7-10 90-95 2-3 weeks
Radish 0 90-95 1-2 months
Tomato 10-13 90-95 1-3 weeks
Turnip 0 90-95 4-5 months

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Watermelon 10-15 90-95 2-3 weeks

Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage

The term implies the addition or removal of gases resulting in an atmospheric
composition different from that of normal air. Thus the levels of carbon dioxide,
oxygen, nitrogen, ethylene, and metabolic volatiles in the atmosphere may be
manipulated.
Controlled atmosphere storage generally refers to keeping produce at decreased

oxygen and increased carbon dioxide concentrations and at suitable range of
temperature and RH (Relative Humidity).
Benefits of CA storage:
 Slow down respiration and ethylene production rates, softening and
retard senescence of horticultural produce.
 Alleviate certain physiological disorders such as chilling injury of various
commodities, russet spotting in lettuce, and some storage disorders
including, scald of apples.
 Reduce fruit sensitivity to ethylene action.
Harmful effects of CA storage:
 Initiation or aggravation of certain physiological disorders can occur, such
as blackheart in potatoes, brown stain on lettuce, and brown heart in
apples and pears.
 Irregular ripening of fruits, such as banana, mango, pear and tomato, can
result from exposure to O2 levels below 2% or CO2 levels above 5% for
more than 2 to 4 weeks.
 Off- flavors and off-odors at very low O2 or very high CO2 concentration
may develop as a result of anaerobic respiration and fermentative
metabolism.
Recommended CA or MA conditions for selected fruits and vegetables;
Temperature
Commodity % O2 % CO2
(°C)
Apple 0-5 1-2 0-3
Banana* 12-16 2-5 2-5
Cherry, sweet 0-5 3-10 10-15
Mango* 10-15 3-7 5-8
Asparagus 1-5 Air 10-14
Beans, green 5-10 2-3 4-7
Broccoli 0-5 1-2 5-10
Brussels sprouts 0-5 1-2 5-7
Cabbage 0-5 2-3 3-6
Cauliflower 0-5 2-3 3-4
Okra 7-12 Air 4-10
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Onions (bulb) 0-5 1-2 0-10

Pepper (bell) 5-12 2-5 2-5
Radish (topped) 0-5 1-2 2-3
Tomatoes (green) 12-20 3-5 3-5
Ripe 10-15 3-5 3-5
**CA is especially beneficial during transit; (Source : Adel A. Kader, 2002 )
Hypobaric storage or Low-pressure system

Hypobaric storage is a form of controlled atmosphere storage in
which the produce is stored in a partial vacuum. The vacuum chamber is
vented continuously with water saturated air to maintain oxygen levels and
to minimize water loss. Ripening of fruit is retarded by hypobaric storage, due to the
reduction in the partial pressure of oxygen and for some fruits also to the reduction
in the ethylene levels.
A reduction in pressure of air to 10 kilopascals (0.1 atmosphere) is

equivalent to reducing the oxygen concentration to about 2 per cent at
normal atmospheric pressure.
Hypobaric stores are expensive to construct because of the low

internal pressures required, and this high cost of application appears to limit
hypobaric storage to high value produce such as cut flowers. Secondly control
of gases during the storage cannot be manipulated.
j. Ripening of Fruits
Ripening is a dramatic event in the life of a fruit during which structure and
composition of unripe fruit is so altered that it becomes acceptable to eat. Ripening
marks the completion of development of a fruit and the commencement of senescence
and it is normally an irreversible event.
Categories of fruits: On the basis of ability to ripen after harvest, sharp rise in
respiration rate during onset of ripening and production and/or response to ethylene ,
the fruits are divided into 2 categories.
i. First group produce very small quantity of ethylene and do not respond
to ethylene treatment (except in terms of de-greening), and these fruits
should be picked when fully ripe to ensure good flavor and quality. For
example Citrus, cherry, litchi, pineapple, pomegranate, berries etc.
ii. Second group produce much larger quantities of ethylene during
ripening and exposure to ethylene treatment will result in faster and
uniform ripening. For example apple, pear, stone fruits, mango, papaya
guava etc.
A) Ripening facilities:

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i. Ripening room: Fruit are ripened in specially built rooms that must be
gas tight, have systems for controlling humidity and concentrations of
carbon dioxide and ethylene, and have equipment to control product
temperature. Ripening rooms are usually insulated but they typically
operate at temperature 15-210 C. The ripening process is always done at
relative humidity above 85%.
ii. Temperature: Ripening is controlled on the basis of fruit pulp
temperature. It should be measured during each cycle with a calibrated
pulp thermometer. Simultaneously, room air temperature must also be
regularly monitored with calibrated thermometer.
iii. Relative humidity: The refrigeration system must be designed to contain
85-95% RH. Humidity below this range causes excessive product weight
loss. Humidifiers are needed to add moisture to the air in rooms. Air
humidity should be periodically monitored with a wet and dry bulb
psychrometer.
iv. Air flow: Air flow is needed to distribute ethylene gas to the product and
to add or remove heat from the product during ripening cycle. Boxes
must be stacked with space between them to allow good air flow around
each box. Boxes or pallet bins should be vented to allow air flow. If
packaging materials are placed in the boxes they should not block vents.
Poor venting will cause high fruit temperatures and non-uniform ripening.
After product has reached ripening temperature ethylene gas is added. The gas
can be added with three systems.
1. A patented ethylene generator produces ethylene from ethyl alcohol. It
produces a relatively constant flow of gas for at least 24 hours.
2. Pure ethylene can be purchased in small pressurized cylinders holding
three cubic feet of gas. The cylinder is opened in the room providing a
rapid release of gas, which will provide an adequate level during the
process, if the room is fairly gas tight.
3. For larger operations use ethylene gas available in larger cylinders and
use flow meters to measure a prescribed amount into the room.
B) Ripening Techniques
i. Ripening with ethephon/Ethrel: Ethephon (2-choloroethyl-phosphonic

acid) is commercially available and is registered for pre-harvest use on a
variety of crops for controlling developmental processes or inducing
ripening. This chemical is approved for post-harvest use on fruits crops
for enhancing ripening. For post-harvest treatments, the known
quantity of ethephon is diluted in water and fruits are dipped in the
solution for a specified period. This substance ensures that there is
uniform ripening of fruits. This technique provides a safe and effective
method of ripening of fruits compared to the conventional technique of
using calcium carbide.

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ii. Ripening with Ethylene gas: In this technique, the fruits are exposed to
low level of ethylene gas (10-100ppm) in an air-tight ripening chamber for
24 to 72 hours so as to induce ripening. The most important thing in this
technique is temperature and relative humidity control inside the ripening
chamber, which should range between 15-250C and 90-95% relative
humidity, depending upon the fruit type.
a) Gas Cylinders: Ethylene is available in large steel cylinders
where it is stored under pressure. As it is highly flammable, the
use of pure gas is discouraged. Therefore, it is usually used
diluted with nitrogen or other inert gases. Typical mixtures are 95
per cent nitrogen and 5 per cent ethylene or 95.5 per cent nitrogen
and 4.5 per cent ethylene. The measured quantities of ethylene
are introduced in ripening room at regular intervals or continuously
and the flow is regulated through metering devise or flow meter.
Any piping leading into the ripening room should be grounded to
prevent possible electrostatic ignition of ethylene gas.
b) Shot system: On small scale, commodities can be treated using
shot method with ethylene liberated from ethephon. A calculated
amount of ethephon in stainless steel bowl is placed around the
room. The fruits are stacked in the room and sodium hydroxide is
added to ethephon and all ventilation to the room is then blocked.
When sodium hydroxide reacts with ethephon, ethylene gas
is released that ripens the fruits, Precaution should be taken
while handling sodium hydroxide and ethephon as these are
corrosive. Safety glasses and rubber gloves should be used while
their handling.
c) Ethylene generator: This is a device that is portable and placed
inside the ripening room. A liquid (ethyl alcohol) is filled into the
tank fitted with ethylene generator and it is connected to an
electric power source. The ethyle alcohol gets heated in a
controlled manner in the presence of a catalyst that produces
ethylene gas. Gas is maintained inside the ripening room until
color break occurs in the fruits.
Ripening conditions for some fruits
Ethylene
Ethylene Ripening Predicted storage after
Commodity concentration
exposure time temperature treatment
(ppm)
Apple(Grany
10 ppm 6 days 25°C Less than 4 months at 0°C
Smith)
Banana 100-150 ppm 24-48 hours 14-18°C Less than 7 days at 14°C
Less than 7 days at 10-
Mango 100 ppm 12-24 hours 15.5-25°C
13°C
Tomato 3-3.5 days to 18°-20°C 7 days after reaching the
100 ppm
(mature reach breaker (65°- red stage

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stage and 5-
16
days,
depending 68°F) with
green
on 90-
stage)
temperature, 95% RH
to
reach full red
stage
(Source : Adel A. Kader, 2002 )
iii. Calcium carbide: Banana and mango are ripened with the use of
calcium carbide, which releases acetylene and ethylene on interaction
with moisture coming from fruits. This chemical is harmful to human
health and its use for ripening of fruits is band in other countries.
k. Transport- Produce are delivered in best possible conditions to maintain quality and
that hauling of produce should be quick and efficient. Loading and unloading of
produce by the workers should have the skills to do the task.
References;
1. Wills, R; McGlasson, B; Graham, D and Joyce, D (1998) Post harvest:

An Introduction to the Physiology and Handling of Fruit, Vegetables and
Ornamentals. 4th Edition, CAB International, UK.
2. Thompson A.K. (1996) Post harvest Technology of Fruits and
Vegetables. 1st Edition, Blackwell Science, Inc. USA.
3. Dhatt, A.S., Mahajan, B.V.C., Sandhu, K.S., Garg, A and Sharma, S.R.
(2007) Handbook on Post harvest Handling of Fruits and Vegetables.
I. Multiple choices

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Direction: Read the questions carefully and choose the correct answer.
1. Room cooling is low cost and slow method of cooling.
a. Produce can be cooled and stored at the same room thus saves on handling
costs.
b. Excessive water is lost from the produce due to slow cooling.
c. No extra cost for pre-cooling equipment.
d. Suits for crops, which are marketed soon after harvest.
2. Cooling time depends on:

a. The airflow
b. The temperature difference between the produce and the cold air
c. Produce diameter
d. All of the above
3. Vacuum cooling takes place by water evaporation from the product at very low air
pressure. In this method, air is pumped out from a larger steel chamber in which the
produce is loaded for pre-cooling. This method are used for its advantages such as:
a. Packed produce can be cooled if the pack allows moisture transfer.
b. Fast and uniform cooling takes place.
c. Produce losses more moisture
d. Both a and b
4. Packaging objective is to:
a. Helps in safe transportation, storages, marketing and distribution of produce.
b. Protects the produce from pilferage, microorganisms and adverse weather
condition.
c. Used to advertise the product.
d. All of the statement are some of the objectives of packaging horticultural
produce.
5. Materials for packaging:
a. Wood and Plastic
b. Jute/canvass
c. Polyethylene bag
d. All of the above
e. Either a and b could be use

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II. Modified True or False.
Direction: Write TRUE if the statement is correct but if FALSE, change the word or
group of word to make the statement true.
___1. The degree of firmness can be estimated subjectively by finger or thumb

pressure, but more precise objective measurement is possible with pressure
tester or refractometer. Answer: FALSE, Penetrometer
___2. Soluble State Content (SSC) is also called Total Soluble Solids (TSS). Answer:
FALSE, Solids
___3. Maturity of fruits can be assessed by their final shape and size at the time of
harvest. Answer: TRUE
___4. Mature is derived from Latin word ‘Maturus’ which means ripen. Answer: TRUE
___5. Ripening is the developmental process by which the fruit attains maturity.
Answer: FALSE, Maturation
___6. Gentle picking and harvesting will help reduce crop losses. Answer: TRUE
___7. Produce should be harvested during warmest part of the day not wet from dew
or rain. Answer: FALSE, coolest
___8. Harvesting of fruit or vegetable can be done at 60% total maturity. Answer:
FALSE, appropriate
___9. Selection, sorting, trimming and picking the produce in the field at the time of
harvest is referred to as field packing. Answer: TRUE
___10. Pre-sorting is done to remove injured, decayed, mis-shapen fruits. Answer:

TRUE
III. Laboratory Exercise

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Instructions: Select one fruits as shown below available in your local area and do the
activity. Written report can be handwritten or encoded. Photo documentation is
necessary as proof of your activity.
1. Papaya maturity determination
Common maturity indices for papaya include: days from flowering to maturity, fruit size,
flesh color, skin color , flesh firmness, and soluble solids content.
Papaya harvesting
Harvesting is easy when fruits can be reached by hand; as trees become taller some
form of harvesting aid, such as poles and ladders, must be used. The harvested fruits
are accumulated in a bucket, tray or cloth picking bag. These methods are possible
only with the small ‘Solo’ fruit. When the container is full, it is emptied into padded or
lined bins left on field roads
Source: Brecht, 2015
2. Guava harvesting
Guava fruits are harvested at their full yellow but firm for local market, whereas half
yellow fruits should be picked for distant markets. The fruits are harvested selectively
by hand along with the stalk and leaves. Hand-pulling is employed. Higher branches
can be reached with a ladder. The fruits are collected in basket (or any other
appropriate container). Picking is done 2 to 3 times a week during harvest season of 8
to 10 weeks (for most varieties).

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Pink guava (Psidium guajava L.). Appearance of whole fruits and cross sections at the
different maturity stages (1= Immature to 4= fully mature/ripe stage).
Source: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Carotenoid-Profile%2C-Antioxidant-
Capacity%2C-and-of-
L.-Rojas-Garbanzo-Gleichenhagen/d6271ed01d4cd675cdb742c892d7ff6a5baa96ee/
figure/1
3. Harvesting
Mango fruits harvested at the correct stage of maturity develop good peel and pulp
color and have full flavor and aroma at the ripe stage. Mangoes harvested at an
immature stage of development can be induced to ripen but the quality of the ripe fruit
and particularly the flavor is inferior.
Different stages of maturity at harvest of mango fruit
Source:
https://www.mango.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Mango_Maturity_And_Ripeness_
Guide.pdf
I. Observation and Expression of Results

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Take a random sample of five fruits, and record (1) the degree of change of skin color
of fruit from green to pale green or yellowish, (2) whether the latex of fruits becomes
watery, (3) soluble solids content. At the end of your observation, compare your results
with standard maturity indices of such fruit.
II. Conclusion/ Recommendations
- Summarize what have been observed from the change occurs in the fruit in terms of
color, firmness and fruit juice
- Make a conclusion and recommendations based on your observations and results
Additional Key points to discuss
1. Enlist and describe maturity indices of the selected fruits and common
harvesting tools
2. When and how are fruits harvested?
3. What sorts of containers are used for harvesting the fruits?
III. Determining juice content (% juice) – The juice content of fruit increases as they
mature. However when fruits are over-mature their juice content often decreases.
1. Take a sample of 10 - 20 pieces of fruit representative of the fruit (the more fruits
tested the more accurate the test results).
2. Place the container that fruit will be weighed in onto the scales and tare to zero.
3. Place fruit into the container and weigh the fruit sample. Record weight in grams.
4. Extract and strain the juice through a fine sieve from the fruit.
5. Place the container that will hold the juice on the scales and tare to zero.
6. Pour the juice into the container.
7. Weigh the juice and record weight in grams.
8. % juice = juice weight ÷ fruit weight x 100.
IV. Create your own packaging and branding style based on your selected fruits.
Explain the packaging material used in terms of: product deterioration protection,
product appearance and impact to consumers’ preference.

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LESSON 4
(7-8)
LOSS ASSESSMENT AND QUALITY EVALUATION
I. Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson the students must be able to:
a. Enumerate the types of losses and methods of assessment

b. Discuss the quality evaluation and methods of assessment
c. List the amelioration methods of various postharvest methods
II. Readings
POST HARVEST LOSSES
Pest and diseases in Harvested Produce
Problems in harvested produce are commonly caused by these two factors: abiotic and
Biotic
1. Abiotic Factors
a. Biological Factors of deterioration
b. Environmental factors of deterioration
2. Biotic Factors
This refers to the insect pest, pathogens and rodents affecting postharvest losses.
a. Insect pest- insect are the most diverse species of animals living on earth. Apart
from the open ocean, insect can be found in all habitats; Swamps, jungles,
deserts, even in highly harsh environments. Insects are undoubtedly the most
adaptable form of life as their total numbers far exceed that of any other animal
category. Less than 0.5 percent of the total number of the known species are
considered pest, ad only a few of these can be serious menace to people.
Insect pest inflicts damage to humans, farm animals and crops ( FAO)
b. Postharvest Diseases- a wide variety of fungal and bacterial pathogens cause
post-harvest disease in fruits, vegetables and field crops. Some of these infect
produce before harvest and then remain quiescent until conditions are more

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favorable for disease development after harvest. Other pathogens infect

produce during and after harvest through surface injuries. Losses due to
postharvest disease are affected by a great number of factors including:
 Commodity type
 Cultivar susceptibility to post harvest disease
 The post-harvest environment (temperature, relative humidity,
atmospheric composition, etc)
 Produce maturity and ripeness stage
 Treatments used for diseased control
 Produce handling methods
 Postharvest hygiene
c. Rodents – a vertebrate which commonly attack stored grains. One of the major
pest even during the production cycle. This contribute much in the post harvest
loss if the area is not maintained properly.
Common Postharvest Pest and diseases
1. Insect pest
Most of the common insect pests of fruits, vegetables and field crops are also the pest
until postharvest.
 Fruit fly- these lay eggs when the fruits are young or immature, with he
development of fruit ripening the eggs of fruit fly hatch and the larvae emerged
to feed on the inside of fruit to feed on the inside of fruit. The damage of the fruit
due to the larvae of fruit flies may continue until postharvest stages and in the
storage.
 Root/ Tuber borer- adult insects may lay eggs in the soil or in the stem, then
during larvae stage, it may get into the roots/ tubers and the damaged is
continued until postharvest.
 Cabbage caterpillar- serious problem of crucifers like cabbage, cauliflower and
even broccoli.
 Fruit borer, leaf miners, white flies and aphids- are also major insect pest
attacking fruits and vegetables and affect quality even during the postharvest if
not controlled. This hastens spoilage of the harvested produce.
 Mango pulp weevil- serious problem in mango industry which causes great loss
especially this attack mango fruit, the marketable part of the crop
 Banana leaf and fruit beetle and weevil- also to be found to be serious pest of
banana
 Red mite- predominant insect pest attacking papaya
 Rice weevil, grain moth, and grain beetle- common storage pests.

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2. Postharvest Disease
a. Fungal diseases- a variety of fungal disease cause the greatest market and
storage loss.
Disease Organism Scientific name Affects these crops

Alternaria black rot Alternaria citri Citrus
Alternaria rot Alternaria alternata Tomatoes, peppers
Alternaria sp. Stone fruits
Black rot Physalospora obtuse Apples, pears, quinces
Endocondiophora fimbriata Sweet potatoes
Blue mold Penicillum expansum Apples, pears, quinces
Penicillum italicum Citrus
Penicillum sp. Grapes, berries. Stone
fruits
Bitter rot Glomerella cingulate Apples, pears, quinces
Brown rot Monolinia fructicola Stone fruits
Buckeye rot Phytophthera sp. Tomatoes, peppers
Bull’s eye rot Pezicula malicorticus Apples, pears, quinces
Cladosporium rot Cladosporium hebarum Grape, small fruits
Crate rot Rhizoctonia carotae Carrots
Fusarium tuber rot Fusarium spp. Potatoes
Fusarium wilts Fusarium spp Potatoes
Fusarium rot Fusarium spp Leafy vegetables, root
crops. Onions, melon,
beans
Gray mold Botrytis cinerea Grapes, berries, stone
fruits, tomatoes,
peppers, leafy
vegetables, root crops,
onions, melons,beans
Green mold Penicillum digitatum Citrus
Late blight Phytophthora infestans Potatoes, tomatoes,
peppers
Rhizopus rot Rhizopus sp. Leafy vegetables, root
crops, onions, melons,
beans, sweet potatoes
Rizopus stolinifer Tomatoes, peppers,
grapes, berries, stone
fruits
Sour rot Geotrichum candidum Citrus, stone fruits,
tomatoes, peppers
Stem end rot Phomopsis citri Citrus

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Diplodia natalinsis Citrus

Watery soft rot Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Leafy vegetables, root
crops, onion, melons
beans
White rot Botryospheria ribis Apples, pears, quince
b. Bacterial disease- in general, bacteria cause few losses in tree fruits or small
fruits. Potatoes are highly susceptible to bacteria disease when injured during
the harvest or handling. The following bacteria diseases are common and cause
the greatest market and storage losses.
Disease organism Scientific name Affects these crops

Bacterial soft-rot Erwinia sp. Leafy vegetables, root
Erwinia carotovora crops, beans, onions,
peppers, melons,
cucumbers, tomatoes
Brown rot Pseudomonas potatoes
solanacearum
Ring rot Cornybacterium Potatoes
sepedonicum
Slimy soft rot Clostridium spp. Potatoes
c. Viral and nematode disease- tend to be uncommon and minor importance to

most harvested produce, except of the following
Disease organism Scientific/common name Affects the crops

Not necrosis Potato leaf soil virus Potatoes
Root knot nematode Meloidogyne spp. Potatoes, carrots, root
crops
Source: Moline 1984
Identification of Casual Organisms
Correct identification of the causal organisms is essential to the selection of

appropriate control measures strategy. Generally, looking on the symptoms is the
basis to determine which causes such damage to harvested produce.
In insect pest, the causal organism is visible and the damage can be identified easily
like holes or bored tunnels inside the fruits and/or stem, cut leaves, trails in the leaves,
and curled leaves where eggs are laid or larvae developed. Vertebrate pests like
rodent infest produce by gnawing, it is very easy to determine especially when
determines especially when footprints and feces are evident in the area. But,
identifying disease infection requires skills in determining the causal pathogen for
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many of the disease belong to the phylum of Ascomycota, Zygomycota (Rhizopus,

Basidiomycota and the imperfect fungi (anamorphici); and some phyla of bacteria like
Erwinia, Bacillus, Xanthomonas, Pseudomonas, etc.
Factors influencing Pest and Disease Occurrence
There are two factors influencing pest and disease occurrence:
1. Pre-Harvest Factors
 Weather
 Physiological condition
 Chemical spray
2. Postharvest Factors
 Packing sanitation
 Postharvest treatment
 Chemical treatment
 Irradiation
 Temperature and relative humidity
Postharvest IPM
The first line of defense against insect pest and disease is good management during
production. Monitoring to determine actual pest levels and a combination of
appropriate genetic, biological, cultural, physical and chemical controls is usually
enough to prevent serious damage. The second defense is careful harvesting and
preparation for market in the field, since most diseases can’t gain a good start without
easy entry through cuts, bruises or injuries. Nest, sorting out damaged, over-ripe or
decaying produce will limit contamination of the remaining, healthy produce. Finally,
even when the greatest care is taken, sometimes produced must be treated to control
insects or decay-causing organisms.
General DO’s and DON’Ts for Postharvest IPM
Consider the entire system (production, harvest, postharvest and marketing) when
developing pest management strategies
a. Pre-harvest

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 Begins cultivars offering some natural resistance to the pests you

expected to have to deal with in your region
 Plant only good quality, clean seed or stocks
 Use appropriate cultural practices during production to assist the produce
to avoid and/or resist pest attack (proper planting density, fertilization,
irrigation, pH
 modification, weeding, pruning, thinning, ventilation/air movement
through the canopy)
 Monitor fields/orchards to determine actual pest levels before
implementing pest controls.
 Use of combination of appropriate pest control methods (biological
control, chemical pesticides, protectants, sanitation practices)
 Keep fields and orchards free of debris and discarded produce. Eradicate
diseased produced.
b. Harvest
 Avoid damage during harvest by handling produce gently
 Harvest at the proper maturity for produce to have the maximum
resistance against pests.
 Use sharp clean tools for harvest and trimming process.
c. Postharvest
 Curing
- Cure root, tuber and bulb crops to heal harvest wounds and increase
resistance to pest.
 Packing House
- Sort to remove any damaged, decayed, over-mature or under ripe
produce
- Wash or clean produce to remove soi debris and to reduce the amount
of inoculum on surfaces.
- Trim senescent leaves from vegetables and remove dried flower parts
from fruits
- Use appropriate postharvest treatments to manage pest problems
(chemicals, heat, hot water and pesticides)
 Packing
- Avoid over-use of liners that constrict air flow in the package and
contribute to condensation (free moisture) and poor colling
efficiency
- Use ventilated plastic bags as liners for produce highly susceptible
to water loss.
 Storage

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- Avoid ethylene damage to sensitive commodities by using

ethylene scrubbers and avoiding mixed lots of produce in storage.
- Keep produce at its lowest safe temperature for maximum pest
management
- Avoid chilling injury by keeping sensitive commodities at
appropriate moderate temperatures
- Keep leafy vegetables, carrots, and cool season vegetables at
very high relative humidity (98-100%) to reduce incidence of
decay
- Store certain fruits at slightly lower RH than commonly
recommended in order to reduce decay
- Store onions and garlic at low humidity to reduce decay (60-70%
RH)
-
IPM tools in controlling Pest and Diseases
 Genetic Factors and planting – start by planting cultivars offering some

natural resistance to the pests common in the locality. Plant only good
quality, clean seed, stock and planting materials which will be able to
reduce cost for pest management and lower losses due to disease.
 Biological factor- use of yeasts and antagonistic bacteria
 Cultural control- sanitation, minimize mechanical damage
 Physical control-sorting, heat and cold treatment, temperature and
relative humidity management, irradiation.
 Chemical- use of pesticide, chlorinated wash water
Pest Control Measure in Stored Produce
Effective and consistent control of storage pest and diseases is dependent upon
integration of the following practices:
1. Select disease resistant cultivars where possible

2. Maintain correct crop nutrition by use of leaf and soil analysis
3. Irrigate based on crop requirements and avoid overhead irrigation
4. Apply Pre-harvest treatments to control insect and diseases
5. Harvest the crop at the correct maturity for storage
6. Apply Postharvest treatments to disinfest and control diseases and disorders on
produce
7. Maintain good sanitation in packing areas and keep ump water free of
contamination

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8. Store produce under conditions at least conducive to growth of pathogens and

insect pest attractions.
In grains specifically, storage should be
 Under dry conditions with the grains dried to about 14% MC

 Under cool conditions in cold rooms has helped to maintain seed viability or
storability
 In air tight conditions at moisture content of about 14% in drums or even Jerry
cans have been used over time.
Record keeping – Pest Incidence Report
It is considered one of the factor causing great loss in the yield and postharvest quality
of the produce is due to pest infestation and pathogen infection. Several
researches/studies have been conducted also to control the incidence and at present,
different practices are being implemented to ensure or enhance the quality. Record
keeping is essential to make it successful through the following reasons:
 Types of Pest and disease occurring

 Density of damage in the harvested produce until postharvest handing activities
 Recommended control practices appropriate for the type of pest and/or disease
and the type of produce affected.
 Frequency of control measures and the effect thereafter
 List of estimated loss before and after the control.
This will be more successful if Pest management plan will be formulated and
implemented.

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I. PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN
a. What are your problem pest?

____ Insect (list)
____ Rodents
____ gophers
____ birds
____ other animals (specify)
____ no pest problem
b. Do you work with a pest control advisor? _____ Yes or

______ No
If yes, give name and contact information
c. What strategies do you use to control pest damage to crops?

_____ Crop rotation ______ Selection for plant ______ development of
species/varieties habitat for natural enemies
_____ Timing of ______ companion planting ______ frog ponds

planting ____bat/bird houses
______ hand picking
_____ Monitoring ______trap crops______ _____ physical removal

physical barrier _____traps _____lures
____ IPM
_____Insect repellants ______ animal repellants ______ release predators/

parasite of pest release
_____ Used of ______ Use of restricted ______ limited use of

approved products products prohibited products
______others (specify) ______
d. Do you keep a record of how often you utilize these pest control methods,
i.e., dates when you scout or apply inputs to a specific field or crop?
______ Yes _______ No

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e. List all pest control products used or intended for use in the current
season on organic or transitional fields. All inputs used or intended for use
during the current year and in the previous three years must be listed on your
Field History Sheet
Pest Problem Control Status: If restricted, Check if GMO

Product Approved (A) describe (/)
Restricted (R) compliance with
Prohibited (P) NOP Rule
annotation
f. Evaluation:
Rate the effectiveness of your Pest management Program?
______ Excellent _______ Satisfactory _______ needs
improvement
g. What change do you anticipate?
h. How do you monitor the effectiveness of your pest management

program?
_____ insect monitoring with traps ______ observation with crop health
______ Comparison of crop yields ______ Crop quality testing
______ monitoring records kept ______ others (specify)
Attach copies of your test results, if applicable.
i. How often do you conduct pest monitoring?

______ weekly ______ Monthly _______ annually ________ as
needed

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______ other (specify)
Reference
Pre-harvest and Post harvest handling operations accessed @

https://online.anyflip.com/skebf/yvpg/mobile/index.html

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II. Learning Activity
Task sheet no.

Title: Prepare Pest Incidence Report
Performance Prepare report for pest incidence in harvested produce.
Objectives
Supplies and Harvested produce (vegetables, fruits, grains), paper and pen
materials/consumables
Facilities/Area Home/ School
Step and Procedure By referring to the previous activities related to postharvest
problems in pest, disease and disorder
1. Formulate your own report by considering the
following:
a. Determine what causes its damage, either by pest,
disease and /or disorder
b. Provide specific information related to causal factor
c. Determine appropriate control measure
d. Provide general recommendation by considering the
pre-harvest, harvest and postharvest activities which
might favor pest/disease/disorder incidence
e. Include waste management activity
f. Always be guided by the principles of IPM, GAP and
OSHS
2. Write down your report in a short size bond paper.
3. Also include the causal organism if evident
Assessment Method Feedback from Instructor
Internet links for Videos:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l7sak6vlq8

Compiler

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AGRIC 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

a. History of improvements to post-Harvest operations

On top of this, our world is:

Perspectives in a postharvest system

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

 distribution center manager: consistently high external quality product that

Concepts in postharvest systems

C. POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

D. IMPORTANCE OF POST HARVEST

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

3 main objectives of Applying Post-harvest technology

Common Causes of Post-harvest Losses in the Philippines

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

III. Learning Activities

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

2. Enumerate the Common causes of Post-Harvest Losses in the Philippines

3. Enumerate the 3 main objectives of Applying Post-harvest Technology

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

2.Distinguish general characteristics of fruits, vegetables and cut flower.

A. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS INVOLVED IN DETERIORATION

Cause of Respiration to Fruits and Vegetables

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

Table 1: Horticultural commodities classified according to respiration

Class Range at SoC Commodities

Table 2. Fruits Classified according to respiratory behavior during ripening

Climacteric fruits Non-climacteric fruits

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

Class Range at 20°C (6S0F) Commodities

Pigments Desirable Undesirable

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

 Heat injury -is induced by exposure to direct sunlight or excessively high

Temperature Assumed Relative Velocity Relative Loss per

32 0 ----- 1.0 100 1

B. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

- Green leafy vegetables, roots & tubers, other vegetables

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

INFOGRAPHIC- Infographic (a clipped compound of "information" and "graphics") are

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

FRUIT/VEGETABLE RESPIRATION PROCESS

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

FRUIT/VEGETABLE TANSPIRATION PROCESS

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

Content - At least 4 3 accurate facts 2 accurate facts Fewer than 2

Design/ The design/layout Is attractive in Is acceptably Is distractingly

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

appealing. neatness. messy. poorly designed.

Grammar There are no There is 1 There are 2 There are more

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

Commercial Maturity or Horticultural maturity: It refers to the stage of