Course: Textbook Development-I (6552) Semester: Autumn, 2020

Level: MA/M. Ed. Assignment

No.1

Q.1 Make a comparison of the advantages and limitations of textbooks in modern era. What
essential changes are requiring din the current style and contents of AIOU textbooks at M.A/M.Ed. level.

Advantages And Limitations Of Textbooks

Textbooks provide you with several advantages in the classroom:

 Textbooks are especially helpful for beginning teachers. The material to be covered and
the design of each lesson are carefully spelled out in detail.
 Textbooks provide organized units of work. A textbook gives you all the plans and
lessons you need to cover a topic in some detail.
 A textbook series provides you with a balanced, chronological presentation of
information.
 Textbooks are a detailed sequence of teaching procedures that tell you what to do and
when to do it. There are no surprises—everything is carefully spelled out.
 Textbooks provide administrators and teachers with a complete program. The series is
typically based on the latest research and teaching strategies.
 Good textbooks are excellent teaching aids. They're a resource for both teachers and
students.

Use Textbooks Wisely

A textbook is only as good as the teacher who uses it. And it's important to remember that a
textbook is just one tool, perhaps a very important tool, in your teaching arsenal. Sometimes,
teachers over-rely on textbooks and don't consider other aids or other materials for the
classroom. Some teachers reject a textbook approach to learning because the textbook is outdated
or insufficiently covers a topic or subject area.
As a teacher, you'll need to make many decisions, and one of those is how you want to use the
textbook. As good as they may appear on the surface, textbooks do have some limitations. The
following table lists some of the most common weaknesses of textbooks, along with ways of
overcoming those difficulties.
 Weakness Student Difficulty Ways of Overcoming Problem

The textbook is designed as Students only see one Provide students with lots of information
a the sole source of perspective on a concept or sources such as trade books, CD-ROMS,
information. issue. websites, encyclopedias, etc.

Textbook is old or outdated. Information shared with Use textbook sparingly or supplement
students is not current or with other materials.
relevant.

Textbook questions tend to Students assume that learning is Ask higher-level questions and provide
be low level or fact-based. simply a collection of facts and creative thinking and problem-solving
figures. activities.

Textbook doesn't take Teacher does not tailor lessons Discover what students know about a
students' background to the specific attributes and topic prior to teaching. Design the lesson
knowledge into account. interests of students. based on that knowledge.

Reading level of the Students cannot read or Use lots of supplemental materials such as
textbook is too difficult. understand important concepts. library books, Internet, CD-ROMs, etc.

The textbook has all the Students tend to see learning as Involve students in problem-solving
answer to all the questions. an accumulation of correct activities, higher-level thinking questions,
answers. and extending activities.

Think of a Textbook as a Tool

I like to think of textbooks as tools—they are only as good as the person using them. A hammer
in the hands of a competent carpenter can be used to create a great cathedral or an exquisite piece
of furniture. In the hands of someone else, the result may be a rundown shack or a rickety bench.
How you decide to use textbooks will depend on many factors.

A textbook is an organized body of material useful for the formal study of a subject area. A good
textbook is distinguished by the following pedagogical features:
• A discrete, well-bounded scope: all the material should relate to a solid understanding of the subject,
 usually mixing theory and practice for each topic as it covers the subject domain. Use of examples and
problems: the student should be able to better grasp each presented concept by following examples, and
then applying the concept in structured exercises or problems. An internally consistent style: after the
first few sections, there should be little or no surprises for the student in terms of layout and presentation
of material. The texts user can get comfortable with the layout, the tempo of presentation, and the pattern
of figures, illustrations, examples and exercises. Utility for future reference: once reviewed, the textbook
should isolate material that is useful to the
future application of subject knowledge in well organized appendices and tables.
• A structure that makes sense: the textbook is not just a collection of useful material, it is a guide to
the student for an order of review which will aid in mastering the subject area. Textbook Structure
Topics are presented in major parts, chapters, sections and subsections that are organized in a way that facilitates
understanding. This means that the text's organization is based on the intersection of two requirements. The first
of these are the requirements of the subject domain. Since most textbooks are developed by, or based on the
contributions of subject matter experts, this requirement is usually well attended to. The second requirement is
defined by the limits of the student's mind. Cognition is a common human ability, but its needs and limits are
frequently ignored by those who have already mastered a subject area. To make the best use of the student's
abilities, some rules can be spelled out for the structuring and presentation material. These rules should
include:
1. Rule of Frameworks: Maintain a consistent structure. The structure acts as a mental roadmap t
allows learners to navigate within and through the subject domain. To best aid in understanding, the
structure should be visible early on.
2. Rule of Meaningful Names: Create and use consistent titles and terminologies. Use terminology that
is common in your discipline. These names are critical to the ability to recall or retrieve the
things we know and remember.
3. Rule of Manageable Numbers. Limit the amount of information introduced at one time. For
new
material, four to six new elements are a reasonable limit. Most of us are limited in our ability to absorb
new material. As we become familiar with part of a subject domain, this number expands.
4.Rule of Hierarchy. New knowledge builds on learned knowledge. When introducing new material,
only refer to foundational material if it is relevant to the new material. The student needs to understand
the foundational knowledge before being introduced to a new concept. When new
concepts are introduced they should be explicitly connected to the foundational material.
5. Rule of Repetition. Repeat important concepts. For example, frameworks and important
hierarchies
are repeated as many as five or six times; frequently used elements are repeated three or four times, and
elements of lesser utility may not be repeated at all. There is a pattern of repetition that aids in
promoting the elements of a subject from short-term to long-term memory. As you visit
classrooms, you probably notice that most, if not all, of those classrooms use a standard textbook series. The
reasons for this are many, depending on the design and focus of the curriculum, the mandates of the
administration, and/or the level of expertise on the part of classroom teachers.and

Textbook doesn't take Teacher does not tailor Discover what students know about a students'
background lessons to the specific topic prior to teaching. Design the knowledge into account. attributes and
interests of lesson based on that knowledge.
 The textbook has all the Students tend to see learning Involve students in problem-solving answer
to all the as an accumulation of correct activities, higher-level thinking questions.
answers.
questions, and extending activities.

When thinking about how you want to use textbooks, consider the following:
Use the textbook as a resource for students, but not the only resource.
• Use a textbook as a guide, not a mandate, for instruction.
• Be free to modify, change, eliminate, or add to the material in the textbook.
Supplement the textbook with lots of outside readings. Supplement teacher information in the textbook
with teacher resource books; attendance at local, regional, or national conferences, articles in
professional periodicals; and conversations with
experienced teachers. The front matter is the introductory section of your textbook and the first
thing readers see. If you're using an authoring platform such as Pressbooks, the system will set up some of these
sections for you, including a copyright page and a table of contents. The following table lists the items typically
included in the front matter and the order in which they appear. While most open textbooks will have many of
these elements,
very few will have all of them. Only include the sections relevant to your textbook.

Q.2 Explain methods of textbook evaluation And give some suggestions to students for using
textbooks.

Evaluating an open textbook is similar to evaluating any textbook. To begin, let's look at the qualities
that make a good textbook, whether it's open or not. What are the qualities of a good textbook?
You have probably reviewed many textbooks in your career and have your own set of evaluation
guidelines. Before we begin looking at the criteria that various open textbook projects are using to evaluate the
textbooks in their collections, let's review some of the qualities and structures that make up a textbook.
Pedagogical aids for textbooks When it comes to textbooks, there is no doubt that the content of the book is
important. You want to be sure that the content in the textbook aligns with the learning outcomes of your course
and that the content is written at the right level for your learners. However, a good textbook is more than a
collection of facts. Textbooks also contain a number pedagogical aids, which are features or attributes of the
book that help a learner understand the content being presented. There are a number of common pedagogical
aids in textbooks, including: Chapter objectives Chapter learning outcomes Chapter outlines Chapter summaries
or reviews
Checklists Headings and subheadings Bold and italicized text Tables of contents Tables of figures
Indexes Focus questions and practice questions Case studies, vignettes, and examples of best practices Glossary
and key terms Demonstrations and simulations Maps and timelines Illustrations, including photos, charts,
diagrams, and figures Multimedia Pronunciation guides Usefulness of pedagogical aids in textbooks Of these
pedagogical aids, which are the ones that students actually use and find useful? Weiten, Guadagno & Beck
(1996) surveyed 134 students asking them how familiar they were with the different pedagogical aids in their
textbooks. They also asked the students the probability they would use each pedagogical aid and their perceived
value of each aid.
 With their research, Weiten, Guadagno, and Beck showed that the top three pedagogical aids that
students used in textbooks were boldfaced technical terms, chapter and secti summaries, and glossaries. In his
2003 research Pedagogical Aids and Student Performance, Gurung surveyed more than 200 undergraduate
students and asked them to rate the usefulness of 10 pedagogical aids and instructional techniques.Gurung's
research wasn't specific to textbook aids, but did include a number of textbook specific aids, like outlines,
chapter summaries and reviews, boldfaced and italicized terms, and key terms and practice questions found in
textbooks. When you eliminate the non-textbook-related aids from Gurung's research, we find that the top
textbook aids used by students were boldfaced terms, italicized terms, and practice questions. Chapter summaries
and reviews was a very close fourth. In terms of helpfulness, students rated boldfaced (92%) and italicized (81%)
terms as the most useful pedagogical aids, followed by practice test questions (77%) and chapter summaries and
reviews (73%) as being moderately to extremely helpful. So, as we can see, it is often the simplest aids, like bold
and italicized terms and chapter summaries and outlines, that are most often used by students. Textbook structure
Another consideration when reviewing a textbook is to take a close look at the way the content is structured. A
good textbook should follow some basic rules of structure
Open textbook-specific considerations So far, we have been looking at textbooks in general and not
specifically open textbooks. For the most part, the criteria you would use to judge the effectiveness of an open
textbook would be the same as any textbook. However, there are some unique criteria that you might want to
consider for open textbooks that may not apply to a closed textbook. Some of the additional items you may want
to consider when evaluating an open textbook are: Can I modify or edit the book to meet my needs, and if so,
does the licence allow me edit or modify the book?
Is the open textbook available in a technical format that I can edit, if I want to modify it? Is there
supplementary material available for the textbook? For some faculty, supplementary resources are important
components of a textbook adoption. While some open textbooks do have supplementary materials associated
with them, many do not. This may or may not be an issue for you. Is there a community to support the open
textbook? Often, these communities can help provide support for you in your adoption. If you have a problem or
concern, or are just looking to connect with others who are using the same resource, a well-developed
community can help provide support for your adoption. For example, Stitz-Zeager's open pre-calculus textbook
website has a community with discussion forums and blogs that can help provide some support for your
adoption. The Writing Commons is another example of an open textbook with a community associated with it.

Q.3 Compare AIOU model of textbook publishing to any other model of textbooks publishing.

The Allama Iqbal Open University was established in May, 1974, with the main objectives of providing
educational opportunities to masses and to those who cannot leave their homes and jobs. During all these past
years, the University has more than fulfilled this promise.
It has opened up educational opportunities for the working people and has provided access to the
females on their door steps. It has also done pioneering work in the field of Mass Education. It is now breaking
new grounds in the fields of professional, scientific, and technical education. It is attempting to reach out to the
remotest areas of Pakistan. It is also attempting to harness modern information Technology for spreading
education in Pakistan.
The idea of Distance Education was first mooted in UK in late 60s by the British Prime Minister, Mr.
Harold Wilson. He was of the view, that educational opportunities must be provided to those who might have
missed better education due to early employment and wish to upgrade, their knowledge and skills, in their spare
times in the evenings at home. The UK Open University was, thus established in 1969. Since then it
has become a major institution of learning in UK and has opened up opportunities for millions of working
people. The gospel of distance and Open Learning has, since then spread throughout the world. More than sixty
Open Universities are operating around the world on the basis of Distance Education. Modern information
Technology has made the task of Distance Education much more easier and effective. The AIOU, when
established in 1974, was the second Open University Africa. It, thus, speaks of the foresight of the policy-makers
of that time. As these past years of AIOU have proved, Distance Education has opened up new opportunities for
millions, particularly women, and supplemented the efforts of the federal and provincial governments in a big
way and that too without becoming a burden on their resources.
The idea of Distance Education assumed greater relevance and acceptance in Pakistan due to the factors
of poverty and relative deprivation of women. The rate of literacy, incidence of dropouts, and excess to higher
education is much lower in the poorer classes of Pakistan. The incidence of poverty is much higher in the rural
areas, where formal education is much less established. The rate of literacy and education is much lower for
females in Pakistan, particularly in the rural areas, due to poverty and conservative traditions. Many
conservative parents under the pressure of old age traditions do not allow their daughters to go out to the
schools.

The AIOU, through its system of Distance Education has, thus, provided educational opportunities to
these housebound girls and women. This explains the reasons why the majority of the students enrolled with the
University are females. Latterly, the University is trying to fulfill another current need.
Professional and technical education in Pakistan is becoming very costly, especially in recent years,
because of government policy to encourage private sector in these fields. The lower middle class and poorer
classes are being marginalized and their children have very little chance to get high education in fields like
Business Administration, Computer Science, Medicine and Engineering The AIOU is attempting to meet this
challenge and to keep a window open for these classes by keeping the costs at the minimum and by creating a
Student Assistance Fund. Establishment
The Allama Iqbal Open University was established in May 1974 under Act No. XXXIX passed by
the Parliament of Pakistan. It was initially named as the People's Open University, renamed as Allama
Iqbal Open University in 1977 at the eve of the first centenary of the national poet and philosopher,
Allama Muhammad Iqbal. The idea of an "open university" was presented with the enunciation of broad
principles in the Education Policy of 1972-80, in these words: "Open Universities are being used in several
countries to provide education and training to people who cannot leave their homes and jobs for full time
studies. An open university will, therefore, be established to provide part-time educational facilities
through correspondence courses, tutorials, seminars, workshops, laboratories, television and radio
broadcasts and other mass communication media...."
Salient Features Allama Iqbal Open University, since its establishment has been providing and
expanding its educational and training facilities to help working people and females to enhance their
qualification and occupational skills. Main features of AIOU may be described as under: Institutional Profile
• Operating semester system offered twice a year i.e. Spring and Autumn.
• The biggest university in the country with average student enrolment of more than 1.2 million per
 year. More than 2000 courses being
offered.
9 regional campuses, 33 regional centres, 41 approved study centres (for face-to-face programs) and
138 part-time regional coordinating offices.
• 1172 Study Centres are established throughout Pakistan.
• The largest publishing house in Pakistan printing over 1.8 million books annually.
More emphasis on science and technology by introducing programmes in disciplines like Physics,
Agriculture Extension, Livestock Management and Nutrition, Forestry Extension, Computer Science.
Collaborating with private sector in establishing study centres to provide coaching and practical training
in the fields of Computer Science and Management Sciences. The largest Teacher Education institution
in Pakistan with average enrolment of above 400,000 Students
The first university in Pakistan to establish the student Database. Computerization at main campus and
the regions by provision of around 700 PCs. Provision of networking facilities between the main campus
and the region to exchange data/information and redressal of students' complaints. Provision of Internet
service at the main campus. Collaboration with Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) for
providing lab facilities to AIOU students. Establishment of Resource Centre for Basic Functional
Education (mainly for illiterates),

Literacy and Post Literacy materials. Pioneer institution in Pakistan to offer post-graduate level
programmes in Special Education. The only institution in the country offering post-graduate programmes
in Educational Planning and Management.
Introduction of Master's, M.Phil and Ph.D. programmes to develop professionals and enhance research
capabilities in teaching and research institutions. Well established Institute of Educational Technology
(IET) having in-house facilities for production of TV, Radio and non-broadcast programmes. "AIOU
Magazine" is a regular television programme produced in IET studios and telecast fortnightly from PTV-
National on the first and the third Mondays of each month. This feature programme includes reports of
latest academic and co-curricular activities happening during the month. The university is having its own
FM radio and live FM radio transmission are being made available for AIOU students. (Vice
Chancellor's Annual Report 2012 Pg.# 157) Establishment of Endowment Fund with initial amount Rs.
15 million, in 1997, now reached over Rs.4 Billion (Vice Chancellor's Annual Report 2012 Pg.# 194)
used for the development activities like:
o Computerization o Staff development. o Purchase of land for regional centres, construction of hostels for
students o Construction of buildings of regional centres, academic blocks, multipurpose centre with 43
buidlings (owned/ rented/leased) O Networking of regions with the main campus. O Establishing
data base at the main campus. o Purchase of furniture, transport for students. o Establishment of
students assistance fund to help deserving students in payment of fees. o Provision of free
education in the University for its employees and their sons and daughters

Q.4 What collaboration mechanism is adopted by curriculum and textbook developers for
mapping the curriculum, while designing textbook?
 It is thus unequivocal to affirm that any country's curriculum change rationale should be clearly
grounded to offer planners the much-needed impetus to remain focused to the change, while roping in the
significantly-needed support from all stakeholders. It should consider the fact that all citizens in a country, by
way of being parents, learners, employers, teachers and siblings or relatives of learners (Ho, 2010;Kabita & Ji,
2017;Voogt, Pieters, & Handelzalts, 2016), are pertinent stakeholders of the education sector. The rationale thus
affirms curriculum change being a high-stake, technical, political and sensitive quest (Ho, 2010;Kabita & Ji,
2017). ...
... The processes of curriculum development may take a considerably long period of time, particularly
because the desired outcomes (Thijs & van den Akker, 2009) are incorporated within a cyclical process of
curriculum analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation (see Figure 1), which all take place
interactively (Voogt et al., 2016). This model, also called the ADDIE model, adopts a linear yet reciprocated
design where curriculum development starts with an analysis of the existing setting and the formulation of
intentions for the proposed change or innovation. ...
... The adoption of appropriate pedagogy, subjects, learning areas, curriculum designs and schemes of
work, textbooks, lesson plans and other teaching-learning materials will be the vehicles through which core
competencies are developed and experienced by learners(Charles, Triscott, Dobbs, Tian, & Babenko,
2016;Kabita & Ji, 2017;Waks, 2003). Adaptability, validity and applicability of these core learning resources,
through which mastery at the foundation level of the curriculum pyramid is imparted, is critical without doubt,
hence the need for meticulous attention in preschool teachers' capacity building and involvement(Voogt et al.,
2016;Yoshikawa et al., 2013) under the advanced CBC in Kenya(Nganga, 2009). With hindsight of the 8-4-4
curriculum bias on preschool education, and in light of the new CBC dispensation, the perspective thus seeks to
bring to light insights of preschool teacher engagement and interlinkage in affecting the much-desired

Five factors to consider when prescribing a textbook Here's a list of five key factors lecturers should
consider so they choose the right textbook:
1. Context Context can be everything with a textbook. A book may be well written and stimulating but
references to foreign laws, unfamiliar currencies and examples students do not relate to, can alienate students.
Always consider how necessary a local context is to the subject in question. Practical knowledge and examples
that are familiar to students can make a substantial difference to their understanding of the subject they are
learning
2. Accessibility South African lecturers often struggle with large classes, varying standards of school
education, and students who are learning in a second or even third language. Simple language that is easily
accessible to students can have a huge impact on their learning. A complex concept does not have to be
explained in a complex way. Ideally in South Africa a textbook should be able to accommodate a range of
students from different backgrounds without compromising the quality of its content.

3. Relevant case studies and practical examples

Case studies and practical information can be the bridge between understanding an abstract concept and
locating it in reality. The use of practical examples can push students into applying what they have learnt and
also help them consolidate and visualize the concept in question. Having case studies based on familiar elements
can make the subject come alive for the student. Be sure to check how well a textbook you're considering makes
its content 'come alive'.
4. Learning outcomes A textbook needs to correspond closely to the learning outcomes of the course in
question. Students occasionally resort to using other books as a supplementary resource because their prescribed
textbooks do not entirely correlate with the focus of their course. Try finding the most specific textbook
available to the subject, and be sure to keep an eye open for any new editions every year. Just because a textbook
on a subject wasn't available two years ago doesn't mean there isn't one out now.
5. Additional resources Teaching is always demanding because there is no limit to how far one can go
to be an excellent lecturer. Textbooks with built-in resources can allow lecturers to spend less time devising
work and more time on
rities, like research. Certain textbooks come with questions suitable for class and tutorial
use, as well as lecture slides and question banks. Be sure to explore what online and support features are
available whenever considering a prescription.

Q.5 How brain function in is associated with learning? Discuss its implication for textbook design.

curriculum design teams: effects, mechanisms, and conditions

As a teacher, all children need to be challenged and nurtured in order to profit from your instruction.
Instruction that is above or below the maturity level of a child's brain is not only inappropriate; it can also lead
to behavior problems in your classroom. Inappropriate behaviors — such as avoidance, challenging authority
and aggression towards other students can be explained by a failure to match instruction to the brain maturity of
your students. You should also know that all brain functions do not mature at the same rate. A young child
with highly advanced verbal skills may develop gross and fine motor control more slowly and have trouble
learning to write clearly. Another child may be advanced physically but not know how to manage his/her social
skills. Others may be cognitively advanced but show emotional immaturity.
For all of these reasons, it is important to understand how our brains mature as well as the differences
that may be present at each stage of "normal" development.
Children learn in different ways. And although the maturity of the brain is an important factor when it
comes to learning differences, the real story is more complicated than that. The way children learn depends on
age, level of development and brain maturity. Learning differences are also related to genetics, temperament
and
environment, but in this module we will focus on how and when the brain matures. Several excellent
books on the latest brain research have been published recently and they are highly readable for a lay person
something the original research studies with their scientific terminology are not). These authors offer some
insight into why humans have such idiosyncratic views, unique perceptions, and frail memories.
It has been especially instructive to read these with an eye to examining the results and their possible
impact on the use of technology in distance education. What is fascinating in this large body of research is an
emerging view of the brain as a complex system for creating coherence and consistency, even as it allows for the
detection of novelty and the revision of knowledge to form new views of the world. And while much of what
follows may apply to education as a whole, some insights into brain operations have special implications for the
use of technology
. Ultimately, attention to these insights may improve student learning and answer the question
concerning the appropriate role of technology in distance education or in campus-based courses. Perhaps the
latest brain research can help us better understand the advantages and disadvantages of these technologies for
adult
students' brains are wired and how that wiring interferes or supports the use of interactive
video or the web, and how best to mitigate any obvious disadvantages. Many of these insights are woven
throughout the review of brain research, beginning with the limbic brain, model development, learning and
memory, language and media, and concluding with some thoughts on how to apply these research results to
inform distance education design, practice, and management.

Making Connections with the Limbic Brain

The brain is actually three brains: the ancient reptilian brain, the limbic brain, and the cortical brain. This
article will focus on the limbic brain, because it may be most important to successfully using interactive video or
web-based video. The limbic brain monitors the external world and the internal body, taking in information
through the senses as well as body temperature and blood pressure, among others. It is the limbic brain that
generates and interprets facial expressions and handles emotions, while the cortical brain handles symbolic
activities such as language as well as action and strategizing. The two interact when an emotion is sent from the
limbic to the cortical brain and generates a conscious thought; in response to a feeling of fear (limbic), you ask,
"what should I do?" (cortical). But it is the reliance on the face as the means of communication between mother
and child that creates the "limbic response," the "symphony of mutual exchange and internal adaptation whereby
two mammals become attuned to each other's inner states" (Lewis et al., 2000, p. 63).
A baby, viewing a videotape of the mother's face, becomes distraught, the baby needs the mother's
synchrony - to see her face in real time - to restore its mood. For example, eye contact is not just important for
conveying messages, it is the means by which two limbic systems come into contact and affect each other.

This would seem to imply that any technology that did not allow eye contact would also impact the level
of limbic connection - the exchange of emotions and understandings - between humans. However, adults have
other tools to share emotions such as language and body movement (e.g., conversations and gestures), but
perhaps this limbic connection is a requirement that technology cannot fully overcome. This argues for not
relying solely on technology in the more formative years or augmenting video sessions with face-to-face
sessions where eyes can make contact
in real time. The importance of direct eye contact and deciphering body language is also important for sending
and picking up clues about social context. "Conference calls can be so awkward [because) they remove many of
the cues used for effective negotiation" (Brown & Duguid, 2000, p. 49) such as making eye contact or nodding
to indicate who will speak next or signaling interest to speak by raising a hand. These cues can be lost in some
interactive video settings due to poor camera location or a camera that has missed the speaker's facial
expressions or is directed to another site. Interactive video may require students to guess when an appropriate
lull has arrived, to interject themselves (sometimes forcefully), announce their intention to speak, and wait for
recognition by the faculty person Students wishing to respond face the same challenge, creating a stilted
interaction that has none of the speed, spontaneity, and communal give-and-take of discussions without
technology. The loss of social cues is important because it may affect the quality of the content of the
presentation (by not allowing timely feedback or questions, but also because students may feel less engaged and
become frustrated with the interaction, and subsequently lower their assessment of the class and the instructor
(Reeves & Nass, 1996). Fortunately, faculty can provide such social cues verbally, once they are aware of the
importance of helping students use these new media. Attachment theory also supports the importance of physical
and emotional connections. A lack of human interaction - the handling, cooing, stroking, baby talk, and play - is
fatal to infants. Human contact ranks with food and water as a physiologic need (Lewis et al., 2000, p. 70). And
while adults in higher education can be presumed to have their physiologic and attachinent needs met earlier in
life and through other current relationships, the lack of an opportunity to interact by touch or conversation may
mean that the human connections that make a class cohere (and individuals become involved in class) are lost

. This lack of direct connection may also affect the sharing of mental states, and "sharing states may be a crucial
part of the bonding or attachment process" (Putnam & Shanor, 1999, p. 69), which may be as important for the
bonding of mother and child as it is for modern classrooms filled with mature adults or a class attempting to
create a community of learners. The importance of human connections is especially pertinent when a group
member suffers a significant loss (such as the death of a parent, a child's serious illness, a sudden car accident),
and as with any group of adults, loss is a reality of life. The loss of a parent, job, or relationship tends to intrude
in a person's daily life as they grapple with making sense of the changes happening to them, coping with change,
and discovering new behaviors to be successful in a changed world. Such loss has an impact on the individual's
cardiovascular function and immune processes and is heightened by isolation. Certainly, the social support of
being in a class surrounded by fellow students ought to be of some assistance, if the technology supports
the limbic connection (one that depends on touch, eye contact, and an emotional exchange) or the faculty can
verbally provide an opportunity to recognize these emotional events.

Connecting Through Emotions

Understanding the process whereby limbic connections are made may also explain such
highly charged thought processes or emotions such as racism, labeling, or any nonrational response to new
individuals or situations. "A single unpleasant episode with one member of a visual category sets up a limbic
connection that is inappropriately generalized to include all members of that class and is notoriously impervious
to 'intellectual correction'" (Ramachandran & Blakeslee, 1998, p. 171). This occurs because the amygdala
assigns emotional significance to incoming information. it can, and does, operate outside consciousness. ...
emotional tagging, which occurs in consultation with our memories, allows us to instantly judge and then react
to the world ... strong emotions can ... cause us to prejudge the environment (Ratey, 2001, p. 121).

The limbic brain also explains the importance of emotions on judgment as well as the predominance of
emotions. There are "many more connections from the small emotional limbic center into the large logical and
rational cortical centers than the reverse, which may be the reason that emotions are more dominant in
determining behavior and why we sometimes react or speak before we think" (Ratey, 2001, p. 228). This may
explain why emotions sometimes dominate more rational processes, especially in class discussions on
sensitive subjects, on-line flaming, or in relationships among students and faculty. Because the limbic
system is based on physiologic and emotional messages that take time to relay and return, relationships among
people "live on time." Relatedness "is a physiologic process that ... admits no plausible acceleration" (Lewis et
al., 2000, p. 205). This argues for a recognition that relationships built over distances and made possible by
technology take time to develop and attention to maintain, be they the relationships built among students or
between faculty and students. As Lewis et al. (2000) put it, "Advances in communications technology foster a
false fantasy of togetherness by transmitting the impression of contact - phone calls, faxes, email - without its
substance" (p. 205). Or in other words, real contact is limbic
the physical, emotional, and eye-to-eye connection between individuals. This would seem to
argue for some face-to-face communications, not mediated by video screens, and the recognition that class
relationships take time to form, perhaps indicating a need for class sessions that extend beyond the standard 10-
or 15-week term, or a set number of hours in a week, or 50 minutes spent together every Monday morning
 Building - and Revising – Models

One of the more amazing feats of the brain is its ability to take numerous inputs (from thoughts
and emotions arising within the body and sensory inputs from the outside world) and construct a sensible view
of what is going on in the world. At any given moment in our waking lives, our brains are flooded with a
bewildering array of sensory inputs, all of which must be incorporated into a coherent perspective that's based on
what stored memories already tell us is true about ourselves and the world the brain [sifts] through this
superabundance of detail and [orders) it into a stable and internally consistent 'belief system' - a story that makes
sense of the available evidence. Each time a new item of information comes in we fold it seamlessly into our
preexisting worldview (Ramachandran & Blakeslee, 1998, p. 134) The brain fits new information into existing
categories or understandings based on prior memories and learning, keeping the person's worldview relatively
coherent over time. This means that the brain helps "create your own 'reality' from mere fragments of
information, that what you see is a reliable but not always accurate-representation of what exists in the world,
that you are completely unaware of the vast majority of events going on in your brain" (Ramachandran &
Blakeslee, 1998, p. 228).
This may explain the individual's ability to deceive him or herself and to create and live in
another reality, a reality that others have difficulty accessing or understanding. Although it is not clear how the
web could be used to offset this tendency (nor whether it is a problem in all cases), it is likely that web-based
exercises could be created that would help an individual become more aware of these processes and the role self-
deception may serve in one's life. The extent to which our current knowledge is the result of prior beliefs or
understandings cannot be underestimated.
The brain's neural networks respond in a pattern that is established by past experience: the more often a
specific pattern is fired in response to a stimulus, the more firm the nerve assembly becomes . . Input shapes the
way we experience the next input ... Experience colors perception (Ratey, 2001, p. 55).
This means that a consistency in view may be hardwired and difficult (but not impossible) to overcome.
It is essential, however, to understand how much our brains automatically maintain our worlds in a fashion that
is comfortable and familiar to us. As many a struggling teacher knows, students are often impervious to learning
new concepts. They may replay the new information for a test, but after time passes, they revert to the earlier
(and likely wrong) information. This is referred to as the "power of mental models." As explained in Marchese
(2000), when we view a tree, it is not as if we see the tree in our head, as in photography. What actually happens
is that the brain's image of tree is 80% derived from information, ideas, and feelings that are already in the brain,
and 20% from outside, or from new information.
This would argue for using technology to create opportunities whereby the 20% of new information
could be repeated in novel ways, helping to modify the existing mental model to more nearly reflect or
incorporate new information. Or technology might be used to offer multiple, active learning projects, where new
information may have power to revise earlier models. Finding multiple ways to change earlier learning may be a
task well-suited to web-based education. Changing our models is possible. At first, our brains "ignore the
anomaly completely or distort it to squeeze it into your preexisting framework, to preserve stability"
(Ramachandran & Blakeslee, 1998, p. 134), much like Freudian defenses would act to preserve one's sanity.
However, the flood of new inputs that cannot fit into the old categories must be dealt with, and dealt in ways that
are different for the two hemispheres of the brain.
The coping strategies of the two hemispheres are fundamentally different. The left hemisphere's job is to
create a belief system or model and to fold new experiences into that belief system. If confronted with some new
information that doesn't fit the model, it relies on Freudian defense mechanisms to deny, repress or confabulate -
anything to preserve the status quo. The right hemisphere's strategy is to play "Devil's Advocate," to question the
status quo and look for global inconsistencies. When the anomalous information reaches a certain threshold, the
right hemisphere decides that it is time to force a complete revision of the entire model and start from scratch
(Ramachandran & Blakeslee, 1998, p. 136). While much hemispheric-based research has been repudiated as an
oversimplification (Gackenbach, 1999), the above description of how new information eventually overwhelms
an old world view may be the result of multiple brain functions - some of which work to preserve our models
and others to alter - that help us both maintain and change as needed.
The key to changing an old or dysfunctional worldview may well be to overwhelm the brain with
inconsistencies, in the hopes the right hemisphere takes on the task of forcing a revision of earlier learning. This
is another argument for web-based exercises that introduce multiple inconsistencies to the student's existing
concepts in ways that encourage self-doubt to arise and forces a self-examination that sends the learner on a
search for a better interpretation of the information.
Learning - and Changing Learning
-- in the Brain Learning is a function of how the brain forms connections between
synapses, which is largely a chemical process, where routes through synapses are laid down and then repeated to
form stronger and stronger connections. Every new experience causes the neuronal firing across some synapses
to strengthen and others to weaken.
the pattern soon disappears unless it is made more permanent by LTP, which is the cellular mechanism
that causes synapses to strengthen their connection to one another, coding an event, stimulus, or idea as a series
of connections... LTP blazes a new trail along a series of neurons, making it easier for subsequent messages to
fire along the same path (Ratey, 2001, p. 191). Learning, then, occurs through a process of either strengthening
or weakening synaptic connections. This process eventually results in connections that respond automatically or
that finish the sequence once the initial legs of a series of connections are begun (which explains why some
learning is so difficult to change). However, these connections also affect future learning: "Each perception
influences all subsequent perceptions and therefore what the brain is ready to perceive"
science also addresses the environment by which improved learning occurs. As rats are raised in different
conditions, varied in terms of having toys (or not), regularly having new toys (or not), and having more rats (or
fewer) to interact with, they learn more. A richer environment with more interaction with others improves rat
intelligence by 25%. While drawing analogies between rats and humans makes both researchers and
practitioners uncomfortable, perhaps it can be comfortably concluded that environments filled with novelty and
others to interact with are conducive to more active brains. And while it is a stretch to move from rats to humans
to distance education, this does argue for the continued importance of changing environments for students -
from listening, to discussing, to doing, to reporting, to critiquing, etc. - whether in the classroom or other
educational environments.
It also argues for the importance of interacting with others, perhaps for the limbic connections or the
stimulation it provides. In any case, these findings argue for a varied and rich experience in an interactive video
classroom, one that does not devolve to faculty lecturing and modest question-and-answer periods over the
entire term of the class. They also argue for using a variety of group activities where the members of a group
may change from activity to activity, as the groups engage in mini-discussions to threaded or focused
conversations to projects to reports, all of which can be accomplished over the web using standard courseware
packages (e.g. WebCT, Blackboard).

All of these activities should be initiated by instructors, class members, outsiders, or current events in order to
increase the potential for stimulation and multiple interactions. Learning, however, is not permanent and can be
changed, through an application of will and practice. "A person who forcibly changes his behavior can break the
deadlock by requiring neurons to change connections to enact the new behavior. Changing the brain's firing
patterns through repeated thought and action is also what is responsible for the initiation of self-choice, freedom,
will, and discipline" (Ratey, 2001, p. 36). This is good news for the willing learner, and appropriately designed
web-based situations may be able to help learners force new connections by practicing new behaviors or new
knowledge. For example, this could encompass learning new approaches to mediation by practicing new
responses in a simulation exercise tailored to offer a student ways to practice new behaviors in a safe
environment.

Thinking Before Acting Through Language

Language has a variety of functions, from providing for self-reflection between stimulus and action to
enabling thought to be spoken and persons to achieve a modest level of mutual understanding and simple
communication. As a delay mechanism [language] improves and refines our thoughts, allowing us to remove
ourselves from the present, to symbolically hold objects in our minds and manipulate them into different
potential sequences before taking action" (Ratey, 2001, p. 253). Self-talk is the "the root of empathy,
understanding, cooperation, and rules that allow us to be successful social beings. Any sense of moral behavior
requires thought before action" (Ratey, 2001, p. 255).
The web may be an appropriate vehicle for thinking and rehearsing thought through the use of language
to communicate via e-mail, threaded discussions, or chat rooms. Early evidence does indicate that use of simple
e-mail to communicate forces students to improve written communication, writing longer and more
grammatically complicated sentences, and to respond in a more thoughtful fashion by taking the time to reread
postings, edit drafted messages, and ponder responses. The role of language in the creation and maintenance of
social skills and interpersonal relations is also vitally important. Language has long had a purported role on the
development of social skills in infants. However, what about adults whose social skills may be less than ideal? "
Individuals with faulty social brains can improve their behavior by seeing something done properly,
hearing it, walking through it, and acting it out in various situations" (Ratey, 2001, p. 299). Social skills can be
practiced over interactive video, which - because of the need to be deliberate and careful with interactions --
creates a slow, stilted communication style, but one that may be appropriate for the purpose of identifying a
better response in a social situation, discussing why it may be a better response, and practicing the new
interaction. Creating a "New Brain" Through Media? Healy (1999) argues that based on what we know about
brain development in children, new computer media may be responsible for developing brains that are largely
different from the brains of adults.
This is because "many brain connections have become specialized for ... media" (p. 133); in this view, a
brain formed by language and reading is different from a brain formed by hypermedia. Different media lead to
different synaptic connections being laid down and reinforced, creating different brains in youngsters raised on
fast paced, visually-stimulating computer applications and video games. "Newer technologies emphasize rapid
processing of visual symbols ... and deemphasize traditional verbal learning... and the linear, analytic thought
process ..
. [making it] more difficult to deal with abstract verbal reasoning" (Healy, 1999, p. 142). The
implications for higher education of this view are two-fold. First, it is likely that students arriving in higher
education will have different brains (formed by years at video games, computer simulations, and web researches)
than their teachers (whose brains were formed by early experiences with text). This disjunction is likely to cause
communication problems and different perceptions of what is a well-designed (or useful, relevant, or cool)
learning experience. Furthermore, as new media come on the scene and are adopted by schools and families,
they will continue to "affect the underlying neural circuitry that is being established
during childhood and adolescence" (Healy, 1999, p. 131). That means further changes in the brain
structures and capabilities of each group of students are likely, thereby creating ever more differences to the
 brain capabilities and understandings of older or more traditionally educated faculty. If Healy is correct, then
higher education may need to use media and web-based materials to capitalize upon the next generation's brain
connections.
However, more traditional instructional methods should also be used to ensure that students are able to
reason in traditional linear and logical fashion. Given the web's ability to present long sections of text and retain
some of the characteristics of linear discourse, it may be a tool that is sufficiently flexible as to support both
aims. Keeping Older Brains Healthy
There is good news for adult learners, too, from the brain research available today. Just as the new
media may be forming a different brain with different capacities - in youth, older brains may change as well.
Even after injury, "new, highly precise and functionally effective pathways can emerge in the adult brain"
(Ramachandran & Blakeslee, 1998, p. 31) in as early as four weeks. This is due to the brain's amazing plasticity,
the ability of "undamaged neurons [to] take over, changing the number, variety, and strength of the messages
they send, rerouting traffic around the accident site. Rewriting is possible throughout life" (Ratey, 2001, p. 38).
And to keep brains healthy, research shows the importance of "physical and mental exercise, proper nutrition,
and adequate sleep will help anyone gain cognitive clarity and emotional stability But one of the best avenues to
encourage healthy brains is to pursue learning, as learning "exercises' the brain, giving it the stimulants it craves.
A well-toned brain often has more blood capillaries and glial cells ... if neurons ... weaken, the memory
weakens" (Ratey, 2001, p. 193). If continued learning is key to keeping a healthy brain, then adult distance
education students should be reassured. For they have already enrolled in college courses, haven't they? Distance
educators must provide the important conditions of healthy brains and good learning challenge, new content, and
new persons to interact with. These are easy elements to design into courses be they via interactive video or web-
based and they also support the brain research that indicates that the number and variety of interactions - with
people, toys, language, books, information -- are important to brain health and stimulation

. Equating Media with Real Life In The Media Equation, Reeves and Nass (1996) provide insight into
one of the more counterintuitive and befuddling aspects of the interaction of people with different media. In
other words, people treat computers as if they were people, and thus, they conclude "media equal real life" (p.5).
Their experiments find this is true despite the type of media used or the age and expertise of the user. And it is
true even when the user "knows" media is a tool to serve individual needs, has no personality and no qualities
that have not been programmed into it. The difference between "knowing" and acting reveals the unconscious
aspect of our mistaking media for real life. That is why asking subjects to reflect on their relationship with media
has lead to spurious insights. The 35 research studies described by Reeves and Nass (1996) often relied on
tapping into brain functions to determine that people treat media as if they were real. Why is this so?
The human brain evolved in a world in which only humans exhibited rich social behaviors, and a world
in which all perceived objects were real physical objects. Anything that seemed to be a real person or place was
real (Reeves & Nass, 1996, p. 12). Our brains continue to mistake persons, situations, and emotions depicted by
media as real persons and situations, and the emotions users experience are felt physiologically as well as
mentally. When presented with mediated situations, neural activity and emotional responses were the same as if
the situation were real.
A face presented full frame in the computer is experienced as "closer" than a face surrounded by
backgrounds, the physiological impact is the same for the full face as if the person had walked up and closed an
equivalent physical distance. As long as media capitalize on the social rules of human relationships - rules
humans already know and use daily - the media will be accepted and treated as real. There is both good news and
bad news in such research results. The good news is that media will not markedly affect or change the
personality or relationship of those who use it for educational purposes. The instructor and student will be able to
communicate over media without any diminution of emotion or personality, as if the media were a window
through which the two may talk without worrying that the window might change the impact of our words or alter
the emotional connection. A face can have many of
the same benefits as a face in real life, without requiring physical travel to bridge the actual distance
between speakers. The bad news is that media can no longer be blamed for a bad class or poor communication
and that instructors will need to continue to improve their instructional skills rather than blame poor results on
the technology. Given that this review began with the research on the importance of limbic connections, how are
these results of Reeves and Nass (1996) to be interpreted? Can interactive video or web-based video be used to
establish limbic connections, or not? The "media equation" seems to imply that users will treat the mediated
situation as if it were real, respond as if it is real, even as they consciously know the difference between mediated
and real experience.

Even so, would an education that was entirely mediated be a good idea?

Healy (1999) would certainly argue that for children, an early and/or stead And even for adults, good
sense might support the old rule of moderation in all things, including media. But when it is used in distance
education, greater emphasis should be placed on designing quality learning experiences than on worrying about
the spurious effects of technology. Using Technologies in Light of Brain Research This review of brain
research gives those who use interactive video or the web for distance education plenty to contemplate as they
plan courses and programs of study. Clearly, just because there are some disadvantages to these technologies,
one should not preclude their use; these technologies remain a viable means of reaching students who may have
no other means of enrolling in courses. However, their use may need to be modified to offset difficulties with the
technology in light of brain functions.

This review would seem to argue for a mixed model for distance courses, including bringing students together
physically to meet each other and make initial limbic connections or to discuss difficult topics. One could
imagine a time when such a physical meeting might not be needed (say, when a group of students has been
together for some time), yet students may prefer an occasional meeting to forge or rekindle friendships, share
problems, or gripe, despite the difficulties of travel and time away from family and work. We may need to
actively support emotional responses, including emotions felt about the material as well as personal experiences,
and these can be elicited in on-line discussions or classes delivered over interactive video.

We may need to recognize how emotions reinforce or revise learning in ways that cannot be ignored nor
foreseen. We may need to go beyond the shorthand of emoticons in online messages, and use language to
express emotions beyond the simple, "I'm sad" to a richer description of what we feel and why. We may adopt
language cues to replace the body or facial cues we would normally depend upon in face-to face conversation.
Faculty may need to establish rules for conversing via interactive video that are more "directive," indicating
which site speaks next or which person. The faculty person acts as a traffic or crossing guard, a role needed
especially when normal social cues are missing. We may need to emphasize the use of clear and expressive
language whenever the recipient cannot see the speaker's body language and facial expressions.

We may need to find a way to express touch and emotion when needed, say when a student's loss must be
assuaged. All of these require that faculty and students develop a more self-conscious style of communicating,
eschewing assumption about others, and responding to others on the basis of stated cues rather than appearances.
We may need to recognize the human need for time to establish relationships, to bond with classmates or the
material. This may mean that courses are offered in multi-term formats (e.g., Fall and Spring), or in larger blocks
of time in the day or week. This may be easily augmented by use of threaded discussions or other online formats
such as chat sessions to help students and faculty form these important bonds. We may need to design web-based
courses that offer opportunities for useful repetition of learning, although the brain will ignore too much
repetition. The line between the two may be both fine and moving, and in any case, it may be a "line" for one
individual only. Perhaps one solution will be to design web-based situations where students can rehearse
learning in a variety of contexts, avoiding too much rote repetition and yet strengthening the synaptic
connections that support the new learning.

Doing this would also likely enhance the transfer of learning from one situation to a different one, a problem
that has plagued educators for many years. We may need to design a variety of learning experiences that help
students change a prior worldview or inaccurate learning and provide several opportunities to receive new and
different views in an effort to encourage the brain to revise its model and change its current synaptic
connections. The web may be a good
choice for presenting a variety of these types of world-altering experiences, although whether it is ultimately
effective in this role should be investigated. Given the force of prior learning on current beliefs and
understandings, we may need to modify learning experiences so that students can map out different paths
through the curriculum that help modify or reinforce learning and, in the latter case, build upon it.
We will want to design a variety of experiences to capitalize on the brain's need for variety and a rich
environment, including different types of tasks, different groupings of students, and different settings for
learning. We may need to use novelty more frequently and to better purpose, capitalizing on the brain's
preference to attend to novelty and the rapid devolution of novelty into the everyday and the boringly
repetitious.
We may need to recognize that the traditional problem of a student not learning material
presumed taught in an earlier class (or grade) may be caused by poor learning or poor memory, inadequate
retrieval of the memory, or later interference with earlier learning. Rather than punishing the student, we may
need to develop web-based modules to help students "refresh" or relearn the material, and rehearse it to better
lay down the appropriate connections in the brain. We will need to watch for the "new brains" of our younger
students.

This will require that we design for their new abilities and provide ample opportunities to
augment lesser-used skills. We will need to be aware of our own different brains as faculty and not presume that
student brains work the same as ours, and that these changes will likely continue to happen as new technologies
mold different brain capacities in another generation. We may need to provide the stimulation and new
experiences to help older brains continue to learn, using our technologies to enable interactions with other
students and faculty as well as with interesting and challenging new material. Lifelong learning is not just a
slogan, but a necessity for our brains. We may need to encourage students to exercise their bodies along with
their brains and understand the connection between them. This may require less time at the computer and more
time taking breaks to rest or refocus eyes, stretch limbs,
and
move
a
bout. We may need to shape web-based environments that capitalize on the human need for following the same
social rules as in real life, including politeness and use of praise. The mediated environment can be experienced
much like face-to-face interaction, so many of the same rules will need to be applied. Designing web
environments can capitalize on these rules. Interactive video and the web may not be perfect tools, but we can
design and manage programs that use them to support the educational process and improve the quality of student
learning. While these tools could inadvertently expand or solidify the distances between us, avoid limbic
connections, and be used in ways that are repetitious, it need not be this way. What we know about brain
processes supports the use of technology to modify the brain's tendency to maintain coherence at the cost of new
concepts, to keep a consistent worldview despite clues to the contrary, and to have new learning and memories
be heavily influenced by earlier learning, keeping us tied to the past. Technology, and especially the web, has a
flexible format that creative designers can use to make learning memorable and new ideas acceptable. While it
may not solve every problem, technology is certainly a most useful tool is used wisely by those committed to
quality distance education.