Pressurepipe Co Ass Techs Rep Final 2020 05 11-6

Review of Condition Assessment
Techniques for Pressure Pipes

for Water
Purvi Pancholy1, Greg Preston2, Theunis Henning3,
John Mackie4 and Larry Bellamy1
1. Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering,
University of Canterbury, New Zealand
2. Quake Centre, Department of Civil and Natural Resources
Engineering, University of Canterbury, New Zealand
3. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, the
University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
4. Golder Associates (NZ) Limited, Christchurch, New Zealand
This report is an output from the Quake Centre’s Building

Innovation Partnership program (BIP), which is jointly
funded by industry and the Ministry of Business Innovation
and Employment (MBIE). This report provides an overview of
the technologies that are available for in-situ pressure
water pipe condition assessment, and look to the future to
provide insight into the technologies that are yet to be
commercially available or are in an early stage of
development.
International Reviewer
 Prof. Ian Moore – Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada
Acknowledgements:
The Quake Centre would like to acknowledge the following for their
valuable contribution to this project:
 John Mackie - Golder Associates (NZ) Limited

 Prof. Pedro Jose Lee – University of Canterbury
 Michael Galambos – Christchurch City Council
 Irmana Garcia Sampedro – Christchurch City Council
 Prof. Ian Moore – Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada
 Dr Young-il Kim – Detection Services (Adelaide Office)
 Noel Roberts – Water New Zealand
 Lesley Smith – Water New Zealand
 Prof. Kobus van Zyl – The University of Auckland
Disclaimer
Information contained in this report has been obtained from sources

believed to be reliable. However, neither the Quake Centre, its
supporting partner organisations or the authors guarantee the
accuracy or completeness of information published herein and neither
the organisations or the authors shall be held responsible for any
errors, omissions or damages arising out of use of this
information. This report is published on the understanding that the
authors are suppling information but are not attempting to render
engineering or other professional services. If such services are
required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be
sought.
BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

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Executive Summary
This report generated by Quake Centre’s Building Innovation Partnership (BIP) is
intended to provide an overview of the technologies that are available for in-situ
pipe assessment as well as look to the future to provide insight into the
technologies that are yet to be commercially available or are in early stage
development. This document will provide guidance to industry to select appropriate
technology when investigating the condition of the pipe network.
This project involved researching and categorising condition assessment

technologies for water and sewer mains. The summary table “Detailed summary
of condition assessment techniques” provided in the Evaluation of Techniques
section includes a definition of different available technologies, their advantages
and disadvantages, suitable pipe material and diameter range, and applicability to
water and wastewater utilities.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .......................................................................................................... I
1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 PURPOSE .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................... 1
2 OVERVIEW OF PRESSURE PIPE SYSTEMS .............................................................. 3
2.1 PRESSURISED PIPE SYSTEM ............................................................................................ 3
2.2 PIPE TYPES ....................................................................................................................... 4
2.3 VALVES AND APPURTENANCES ........................................................................................ 4
2.3.1 Types of Valves ............................................................................................................ 4
2.3.2 Appurtenances .............................................................................................................. 5
2.4 PIPE MATERIALS ............................................................................................................... 5
2.5 FLOW METERS .................................................................................................................. 6
2.6 PIPE LEAK DETECTION ..................................................................................................... 7
2.7 FACTORS INFLUENCING PIPE FAILURES .......................................................................... 9
2.8 TYPES OF PIPE FAILURES............................................................................................... 10
3 PIPE CONDITION ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES ..................................................... 11
3.1 NON-HYDRAULIC LEAK DETECTION TECHNIQUES (COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE)........... 11
3.1.1 Visual Inspection .................................................................................................. 11
3.1.1.1 CCTV Pipe Inspection ................................................................................................... 11
3.1.2 Acoustic Methods ................................................................................................. 12
3.1.2.1 Free-Swimming Leak Detection Device ...................................................................... 12
3.1.2.2 Tethered Leak Detection Tool ...................................................................................... 14
3.1.2.3 Leak Noise Correlation (Technique 1) ......................................................................... 16
3.1.2.6 Pipeline Condition Assessment Technique ................................................................ 20
3.1.3 Electromagnetic Methods.................................................................................... 21
3.1.3.1 Free-Swimming Tool ...................................................................................................... 22
3.1.3.2 Remote Field Testing ..................................................................................................... 23
3.1.3.3 Pipe Penetrating Radar (PPR) ..................................................................................... 24
3.1.4 Fibre Optics Sensing Techniques ...................................................................... 25
3.1.4.1 Integrated Smart Monitoring Technique (Identified Commercial Technique) ........ 25
3.1.5 Sensor Techniques .............................................................................................. 26
3.1.5.1 inSCAN ............................................................................................................................ 26
3.1.5.2 P-CAT .............................................................................................................................. 27
3.1.5.3 Multisensor Inspection (MSI) System .......................................................................... 28
3.1.5.4 SurgeView ....................................................................................................................... 29
3.1.5.5 LeakView ......................................................................................................................... 30
3.2 HYDRAULIC TECHNIQUES (COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE) ................................................ 31
3.2.1 Unsteady State Hydraulic Methods ................................................................... 31
3.2.1.1 Pipe SONAR System ..................................................................................................... 31
3.3 NON-HYDRAULIC LEAK DETECTION TECHNIQUES (EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES) ....... 32
3.3.1 Sensor Techniques .............................................................................................. 32
3.3.1.1 Pipe Condition Assessment Device ............................................................................. 32
3.3.1.2 Guided Wave Sensors ................................................................................................... 33
3.3.1.3 SmartPipes ...................................................................................................................... 34
3.3.1.4 TriopusNet ....................................................................................................................... 34
3.4 HYDRAULIC TECHNIQUES (EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES) ............................................ 35
3.4.1 Steady State Methods ......................................................................................... 35
3.4.1.1 Mass Balance Method ................................................................................................... 35
3.4.1.2 Line Pressure Measurement Method .......................................................................... 35
3.4.2 Unsteady State Hydraulic Methods ................................................................... 36
3.4.2.1 Transient Reflection Method (TRM) ............................................................................. 36
3.4.2.2 Transient Damping Method (TDM) .............................................................................. 36

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3.4.2.3 System Response Method (SRM) ............................................................................... 37
3.4.2.4 Inverse Transient Method (ITM) ................................................................................... 38
4 EVALUATION OF TECHNIQUES................................................................................. 39
5 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................. 45
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................ 46

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1 Introduction
1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this report is to investigate technologies for assessing the condition of New Zealand’s
pressurised water network – primarily fresh water conveyance systems, including transmission mains and
water mains. The list included in this report is not intended to be exhaustive, but rather cover main areas of
different available techniques.
1.2 Objectives
 Identify the effectiveness of the latest available technologies for pressure water pipe condition
assessment, and look to the future to provide insight into the technologies that are yet to be
commercially available or in an early stage of development;
 Evaluating commercially available techniques for pressure pipes for water based on their advantages,
disadvantages, accuracy, cost effectiveness, and applicability to NZ’s water and wastewater utilities;
 First step towards developing a standard manual for NZ’s pressure pipes. Such a pipe inspection
manual is available for gravity-flow pipes, however, for pressure pipes a standard manual is yet to be
prepared; and
 To provide information to the water industry to select appropriate technology for assessing the
condition of the pipe network. This may save unnecessary and expensive invasive pipe sampling
investigations or reduce the risk of catastrophic failure with the associated costs.
1.3 Background
The Building Innovation Partnership (BIP) is an industry-led research program that supports transformations
in the building and construction industry. BIP is initiating a number of projects in what is designated as Theme
1, Better investment Decision-making focusing initially on 3 water pipe networks. Several of these projects
are directly related to the performance of pipes and the data that underpins the management of these asset
and related decision-making.

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Water infrastructure worldwide is facing a crisis of aging pipe infrastructure. Pipes and valves lose their
physical integrity through deterioration over time or because of catastrophic events such as earthquakes.
This results not only in community and business disruption but also in water losses, risk of contamination and
the inability to isolate a section of pipe for repair. The complexity and extent of water supply systems,
combined with the fact that they are buried underground, make their condition assessment a challenging
infrastructure management problem. An appropriate approach of pipe asset management should involve
tracking the decay of each pipe so that the assets are replaced at an optimum time in their life cycle, allowing
managers to accurately forecast, budget and allocate expenditures over long planning cycles. Current
barriers to this management approach lie in (1) the lack of understanding of the rate/processes of pipeline
decay for pipes buried in various ground conditions and (2) the lack of a reliable, in-situ and repeatable
method for condition assessment that will allow the pipe decay to be tracked over time.
New Zealand (NZ) is facing a crisis of aging pipe infrastructure and its water network is losing close to 20%
of the water [1] it carries. Over the next decade, councils across the country may need to increase water
infrastructure budgets by up to 30% to replace the network, with a total of $41 billion [2] to be spent. Despite
the level of investment, councils have struggled to formulate strategic pipe renewal programs due to the lack
of reliable data on their pipe networks. Half of the NZ councils have indicated that they have low confidence
in their pipe condition information [1] and extensive testing of current pipe condition rarely occurs due to slow
speed and high cost of intrusive nature of assessment technologies. The current approach of assessing the
condition of water pipes in NZ involves excavating the pipeline, and removing a section of the pipe to conduct
material testing on the sample. This method (known as coupon sampling) is expensive, highly disruptive and
rarely repeated for the same pipe. To overcome the problem, non-destructive field inspection techniques of
condition assessment are required.

2 Overview of Pressure Pipe Systems
Pipes are widely used for water distribution and wastewater collection systems, generally found in urban
residential, commercial and industrial areas. Pipeline networks can extend thousands of kilometres and
consists of multiple pipe segments that are connected by joints. These pipelines are subjected to many
incidents such as seismic effects, traffic and surface loads, poor workmanship, impact, pitting, corrosion and
water hammer that may lead to a leak or burst in the pipeline. A leak incident in the pipeline may cause a
sudden decrease in the pressure [3], that would cause inefficiency in terms of delivery time and the volume
flow rate of water being transported. They also increase the risk of contaminants entering the de-pressurised
system, thus creating a public health risk.
Sometimes, impurities and chemical processes can cause a reduction in hydraulic performance and disturb
the usual flow in the pipe network. Blockages (either discreet or extended) may begin in the form of a small
increase in the wall roughness that exacerbates with time due to physical, biological or chemical processes
and can finally impinge a significant part in the internal cross-sectional area of pipe [4]. Insufficient flow of
water causes reduction of service potential or eventual failure of the pipe network. Therefore, pipeline fault
detection becomes the topmost priority within the water distribution management system.
This section describes details of the pressurised pipe system, including pipe network elements, types of
valves, pumps, pipe materials, types of pipe failure, factors influencing pipe failures and an overview of the
available pipe leak detection technologies.
2.1 Pressurised Pipe System

Liquid in motion produces forces and pressure whenever its velocity or flow direction changes. Knowing pipe
pressure and flow at certain points along the pipe’s path can help determine the necessary pipe size and
capacity, as well as what pipe material would work best in given situations [5]. Understanding hydraulics can
help decide what pipe flow rates related to size and material are necessary to transport water in an efficient
manner.
When water flows in a pipe, friction occurs between the flowing water and the pipe wall, and between the
layers of water moving at different velocities in the pipe due to the viscosity of water. For a Newtonian fluid
(such as water) the flow velocity is assumed to be zero at the pipe wall (referred to as the boundary layer)
and increases to its peak velocity at the centreline of the pipe. The frictional resistance to flow causes energy
loss in the system.
Based on the Law of Conservation of Energy, fluid flowing in a pipe contains three energy components,
namely: energy due to motion (kinetic energy), energy due to elevation (gravitational potential energy) and
energy due to pressure (pressure energy). The total energy associated with the unit weight of the water is
called head. Energy losses (i.e. head losses) are generally the result of two mechanisms: friction along the
pipe walls and turbulence due to changes in streamlines through fittings and appurtenances. Head losses
along the pipe wall are called frictional losses, while losses due to turbulence within the bulk water are called
minor losses.

2.2 Pipe Types
Water is distributed to domestic, commercial, industrial, public, and sometimes irrigation users in different
service zones. Pipelines are generally classified into three main types, namely transmission mains, water
(distribution) mains and reticulation mains.
Transmission mains (Trunk Mains) are larger pipes which are designed to move larger quantities of water
from the source of supply, such as a treatment plant or groundwater well, and provide water to the smaller
distribution mains.
Water (distribution) mains generally regarded as mains within a network that are the primary source of
delivery to storage facilities such as reservoirs, which generally are not used to provide individual
connections.
Reticulation mains generally fed from distribution mains and deliver water to individual customers and for
fire fighting.
Homes, businesses, and industries have their own internal plumbing systems to transport water to sinks,
washing machines, hose bibbs, and so forth [6].
2.3 Valves and Appurtenances
2.3.1 Types of Valves

The primary purpose of valves in a water network is to isolate sections of pipe so that repairs and
maintenance can be carried out with minimal interruption to customers. Commonly used types of valves in
water distribution systems are:
Isolation valves: These types of valves can be manually closed to block the flow of water. The purpose of
these valves is to provide a field crew with a means of shutting down a portion of the system to, for example,
replace a broken pipe or repair a leaky joint [6].
There are several types of isolation valves that may be used, including gate valves, butterfly valves, and plug
valves.
Directional valves: Also called check valves or non-return valves, are used to ensure that water can flow in
one direction through the pipeline, but cannot flow in the opposite direction (they prevent back-flow). Any
water flowing backward through the valve causes it to close, and it remains closed until the flow once again
begins to go through the valve in the forward direction [6].

Altitude valves: Many water utilities employ these types of valves at the point where a pipeline enters a tank
or reservoir. When the tank level rises to a specified upper limit, the valve closes to prevent any further flow
from entering, thus eliminating overflow. The valve reopens when the water level in the tank lowers so that it
can recommence filling.
Air Release and Vacuum breaking valves: Air release valves are used in most systems to release trapped
air during system operation, and vacuum breaking valves are used to discharge air upon system start-up and
admit air into the system in response to negative gauge pressure. These types of valves are often found at
system high points, where trapped air accumulates, and at changes in grade, where pressures are most likely
to drop below ambient or atmospheric conditions [6].
Control valves: Control valves are also called the regulating valves. For these types of valves, the setting is
of primary importance. For a flow control valve, this setting refers to the flow setting, and for a throttle control
valve, it refers to a minor loss coefficient. For pressure-based controls, however, the setting may be either
hydraulic grade (pressure reducing valves (PRVs) and pressure sustaining valves (PSVs)) or the pressure
that the valve tries to maintain [6]. Pump control valve, which is a type of flow control valve, is located on the
pump outlet and opens gradually on pump start, and closes slowly on pump shut down as a mean of
eliminating the risk of pressure transiets (water hammer) occurring on start or stop sequences. Other types
of valves are: pressure relief valves to protect the network against excessive pressures; scour valves, used
to flush networks of sediment or debris.
2.3.2 Appurtenances
Fire hydrants: Fire hydrants are typically a globe valve in an epoxy-coated cast-iron body. A fire hydrant is
designed to stay in their normally closed position for long periods of time, but when required they must reliably
open and provide a high flow at a minimum pressure drop.
Pumps: A pump is an element that adds energy to the system in the form of an increased hydraulic head.
Since water flows “downhill” (i.e. from higher energy to lower energy), pumps are used to boost the head at
desired locations to overcome piping head losses and physical elevation differences. Unless a system is
entirely operated by gravity, pumps are an integral part of the distribution system [6].
In water distribution systems, the most frequently used type of pump is the centrifugal pump. A centrifugal
pump has a motor that spins a piece within the pump called an impeller. The mechanical energy of the rotating
impeller is imparted to the water, resulting in an increase in head [6].
Other appurtencance may include surge tanks (for arresting pressure transients) and water zone metres.
2.4 Pipe Materials

Common materials used in transmission, distribution and reticulation systems and their characteristics are
given in the following list [7].
Asbestos cement: Used in distribution networks, asbestos cement pipes are easy to handle, but may
damage easily or deteriorate when surrounded by aggressive soils [8].
Cast iron (ductile, cement-lined): These are the most commonly used pipes in distribution mains. They are
used in smaller sizes, are strong and easily tapped, but subject to corrosion [8].
Prestressed concrete: These may be used up to very large sizes and are durable, but may deteriorate in
some soils [8].
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC, Modified PVC (MPVC), Un-plasticised PVC (UPVC)): These pipes are
commonly used in distribution mains, they are lightweight, easy to install, and resist corrosion. However,
care is required when handling [8].
Polyethylene ( PE, High density PE (HDPE), Medium density PE (MDPE includes PE80 and PE100)):
Suitable for both water and wastewater services, they are durable, corrosion resistant, lightweight and
flexible, easy to install, and inexpensive. However, these can only be used for cold water supply [9].
Steel (STL): Used more for transmission lines than distribution lines, steel pipes are found in a wide range
of sizes, up to very large. They can be adapted to many conditions but are subject to corrosion [8].
Copper: Used more for domestic water services and distribution networks, copper pipe is durable (i.e.
corrosion resistant) and can be recycled [9].
Fibreglass (reinforced fibreglass (RFFG), Glass reinforced plastic (GRP), and glass reinforced epoxy
(GRE)): Cheaper than carbon fibre, stronger than many metals by weight, these pipe materials are
non-magnetic, non-conductive, transparent to electromagnetic radiation, chemically inert under many
circumstances and available in diameters from 100 mm to 4000 mm.
The majority of force mains are metallic pipe, which includes cast iron, ductile iron, and steel pipes. Almost
half of metallic force main failures are due to external and internal corrosion, and failures may initiate as a
result of surge pressure or joint leakage.
Non-ferrous pipes include prestressed concrete cylinder pipes (PCCP), reinforced concrete cylinder pipes
(RCCP) and bar wire wrapped pipes (BWP), and dominate in diameters of pipes above 900 𝑚𝑚. Failures of
these non-ferrous pipes tend to be more catastrophic, and may occur due to corrosion, structural defects,
surge pressure or joint leakage.
2.5 Flow Meters

Flow meters are used on bulk water supply pipes to measure how much water is being used or produced.
Regular meter readings give the water supplier a picture of daily, weekly and yearly demand. Monitoring
water usage can also help to detect leakage in a network. Also, there is an increasing tendency to install
zone meters to improve demand management and to identify and reduce leakage. Meters at the point of take
are mandatory in NZ in most cases for takes in excess of 5 l/s under Ministry for the Environment (MFE)
Regulation 2010 [10]. Water meters may also be installed at service connections to provide a basis for
charging. The meters installed at the property owner’s boundary are called domestic meters, downstream of
the stopcock [11].

A number of different flow meters are available for various metering applications. Three types of flow meter
are normally used in public water supplies:
 Mechanical flow meters
 Electromagnetic flow meters
 Ultrasonic flow meters
2.6 Pipe Leak Detection

Leakage is the amount of water which escapes from the pipe network by means other than through a
controlled action [12].
Classification of Leaks: Leaks can be classified into background and burst related leaks, where bursts
represent structural pipe failures and background leaks represent the water escaping through cracks,
inadequate joints. [12].
Some water loss through leakage is inevitable in all systems. The leakage is typically from the underground
pipework and fittings. Leak detection techniques can be categorised into non-hydraulic and hydraulic
techniques.
Further classification of leak detection techniques is based on their nature. An Intrusive Technique is one
that involves adding or introducing an external tool into a pipe network for the condition assessment, while
Non-Intrusive Techniques are those that do not involve adding or introducing an external tool into the pipe
network for condition assessment. Destructive Techniques are those that involve removal of a sample from
the pipe network for testing of the sample (based on the assumption that the sample is representative of the
remainder of the original pipeline).
Non-hydraulic techniques detect leaks based on external clues such as noise-emission, a point of high
electric conductivity (signifying a collection of fluid), non-uniformity in the pipe material, or simply a point in
the ground where water appears to be originating. Non-hydraulic methods for pipe leak detection include
visual inspection methods, electromagnetic methods, acoustic methods (including leak noise correlation),
ultrasound methods, radiographic methods, and robotic PIGs (pipe inspection gauges). These techniques
are short-ranged and can detect a leak at close proximity (<250 m) [13].
Hydraulic techniques of leak detection utilise the fact that a leak causes a noticeable change in hydraulic
behaviour such as an imbalance between inflow and outflow, change in frictional losses between different
sections, or change in the unsteady behaviour of the system. These changes can be detected at large
distances from the leak and can be used as a means of wider system monitoring [13].

Hydraulic techniques can be further divided into steady state methods and unsteady state methods. Steady
flow occurs when the flow and head conditions at any point do not change with time, whereas in unsteady
flow, flow conditions change. Flow in water distribution systems is often unsteady due to fluctuations in
demands and boundary conditions. For this reason, unsteady state methods are better suited for water
distribution systems. Examples of steady state methods include mass balance and hydraulic grade line
measurements, whereas unsteady state leak detection requires the measurement or application and analysis
of fluid transients (pressure changes with time). A leak in a pipeline changes the measured pressure response
of an injected signal. The nature of such changes provides clues as to the state of a system and can be used
as a tool for detecting and locating the leak [13].
Transient flow
Pressures that change with time are known as fluid transients, which are associated with unsteady fluid flow
in a pipeline system. If the fluid is water, the phenomenon may be known as the water hammer effect [14]. It
can also be defined as the intermediate-state flow describing the transition between two steady state flows.
Any change or disturbance (whether planned or accidental) can initiate transient conditions. Common
boundary conditions that may introduce transients in pipeline systems include sudden changes in pump or
valve settings, starting or stopping of pumps and changes in the level of a reservoir [14].
Detection Principle
All transient base methods for the purpose of the pipe fault detection employ the same principle, which is to
extract information about the potential pipe or system fault by analysing the measured traces of fluid transient
behaviour (the pressure history over time).
Transient generation
The transient signal that is analysed in the test can rely upon natural sources of fluid excitation, generated
by an induced event (pipe failure or pipe leak/burst) or artificial events, such as injecting a prescribed transient
signal into the pipe flow through valve operation. The subsequent behaviour of the transient event is analysed
to acquire the system properties.
Domain type
After the time history of the pressure transient signal is measured by pressure transducers, the analysis of
the data can be completed in the time domain or/and frequency domain. The time-domain methods analyse
data straightforwardly in the time domain, while the frequency-domain methods require mathematical
conversion using fast fourier transforms or another relevant subdivision into time varying components.

Analysis Approach
There are two approaches considered in the transient techniques, namely the signal processing approach
and hydraulic transient model simulation. Signal processing is a method to extract information from measured
data and compare it with the data set from a fault-free benchmark on the basis of properties of leak-induced
perterbations of a flow or pressure signal [14]. Hydraulic transient models simulate data and reproduce
pressure traces in the time or frequency domains. Based on the degree of coincidence between the data
from accurately modelled systems with faults and measured data, information related to the fault is
determined.
Two detection procedures with different configurations can be developed based on the propagation analysis
of the pressure signal. A signal processing approach locates the generator and the transducer of the transient
at the end of the pipeline, and the inverse method using a hydraulic model generates the transients and
measures the pressure response at multiple locations along the pipe [14].
In summary, according to the manner in which transient signals are applied, the methods can be divided into
four types: the transient reflection method (TRM), the transient damping method (TDM), the system response
method (SRM), and the inverse transient method (ITM).
2.7 Factors Influencing Pipe Failures

The failure of a pipe results from the cumulative effect of various pipe-intrinsic (such as pipe material,
diameter, joint system, pipe coating and lining, manufacturing defects, and age), operational (such as
corrosion, pressure, external stresses) and environmental factors (such as temperature, rainfall, soil
conditions). Environmental and pipe-intrinsic factors can be divided into those that are static and those that
are dynamic (time-dependent); operational factors are inherently dynamic [15].
Figure 1: Factors affecting pipe failures. Adapted from Mora-Rodriguez, et al. [16].

2.8 Types of Pipe Failures
Pipe failures occur when environmental and operating tensions put in danger the structural integrity through
corrosion, degradation, inadequate installation or manufacturing defects and overstressing due to ground
movement [17]. Failure types are associated with the different forces acting on the pipe. Water pipe failure
types include:
 Circumferential break: A circumferential break (Figure 2 (a)) is generally caused by tensile stresses
in the axial direction caused by longitudinal bending or tensile axial forces associated with soil
movement or thermal expansion and contraction, and loading (heavy traffic) forces. It covers all
breaks that are normal to the pipeline axis, and may be associated with pitting or other defects.
 Longitudinal split: Longitudinal cracks (Figure 2 (b)) are often caused by transverse and radial
forces (internal water pressure) possibly in conjunction with pre-existing defects acting as a point of
weakness [18].
 Joint failure: Joint failures (Figure 2 (c)) are typically caused by tensile or compressive forces
disturbing the gasket components, but may also result from shear forces or rotations caused by
differential ground movements [19].
 Pinhole leaks: holes (Figure 2 (d)) are typically caused by radial pressures in conjunction with
graphitisation or some other form of corrosion [18]; contrary to the nomenclature, they are generally
significantly larger than the diameter of a pin.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 2: Modes of failure (a) circumferential crack (b) longitudinal crack (c) joint failure, and (d)
pinhole leak. Adapted from Barton, et al. [18].

3 Pipe Condition Assessment Techniques
3.1 Non-hydraulic Leak Detection Techniques (commercially available)
3.1.1 Visual Inspection

3.1.1.1 CCTV Pipe Inspection
CCTV pipe inspection technique is used for inspecting water pipelines, pressurised wastewater rising mains
and storm water mains.
The Inspector unit can be introduced into a pipe via an existing air valve or similar entry with typically no
excavation or pipe-cutting required. Due to the unit’s autonomous operation, it can traverse continuous
sections of up to 50 𝑘𝑚 of water mains or rising sewer mains per inspection. In addition to detecting leaks, it
can also detect air and gas pockets, record pressure along the full length of the pipe under inspection, and
measure turbidity, temperature and conductivity.
The Inspector unit can easily navigate around 90° bends, operates in upto 100 𝑏𝑎𝑟 pressure environments,
includes a high definition (HD) camera for internal inspection, and can be applied to any hard-to-reach pipes
such as under highways, at airports or in other access sensitive locations.
Name CCTV Pipe Inspection

Status Commercially available (for example: from Detection Services)
Purpose/Scope Locate leaks, air and gas pockets
Types of pipe it has been For water, wastewater and stormwater pipes
used for
Access to pipeline Via an existing air valve or similar entry
Source of information Detection ServicesNote 1
http://www.detectionservices.com.au/services/pipeline-condition-
assessment/pipe-inspector/
Advantages  A self-floating and self-levelling device
 Material: for any pipe material
 Works under traffic noise/fluid turbulence noise: yes
 Single pipe or pipe network: pipe network
 Features/faults/pipe wall deterioration: air and gas pockets and leak
detection
 Works on a live network: yes
 Range of pipelines on which this technique has been used: for any
water, wastewater and sewer water (diameter range from 150 𝑚𝑚 −
3000 𝑚𝑚)
 Frequency of reassessment: periodic reassessment/time based
maintenance
 Identified leaks: high sensitivity leak detection to the smallest leaks
 No pre-cleaning of pipelines is required
 Require specific skills/operator: yes
 Can survey long pipelines with a single deployment. The total length
of survey capacity depends on the flow rates in the pipeline and
battery life. The longest water line survey presently is 50 𝑘𝑚.
 Records visual details such as installation fittings, connectors, peaks,
low points and damage
 Provides continuous data from inside a pipeline
 An optical HD camera provides visual and audible signals of images
for recording and analysing
Limitations Intrusive technique
 Operates in up to 100 𝑏𝑎𝑟 pressure environments
Performance No information available
Breadth of use Available to be used in NZ
Note 1. The information provided in this report for this and the other technoloogies described in Section 3
has been obtained from the specialist contractor offering the service, and has not been independently verified.
3.1.2 Acoustic Methods

3.1.2.1 Free-Swimming Leak Detection Device
Free-swimming leak detection devices are used for the assessment of pressurised water and wastewater
pipelines of 200 𝑚𝑚 diameter and larger. The tool is equipped with a highly sensitive acoustic sensor,
accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetometer, ultrasonic transmitter, and temperature sensors. This acoustic
sensor can detect small (pinhole sized), medium and larger leaks and air pockets. This device travels with
the water flow down a pipe and detects, locates and estimates the magnitude of leaks as it rolls. Attached
accelerometer and gyroscope measure the movement of the device that can be used later for mapping. The
magnetometer measures the magnetic field coming up from the pipelines, which can be used to find joints
and other features related to the pipeline. All these are encased in an aluminium alloy core with a power
source and other electric components [20, 21]. The core is encapsulated inside a protective outer foam shell
or sphere. The outer foam shell provides additional surface area to propel the device and also eliminates the
noise that the device might otherwise generate while traversing the pipeline [22]. The diameter of the outer
sphere depends on the pipe diameter and flow conditions.
Figure 3: Free-swimming leak detection device for the assessment of leaks and air pockets in
pressurised water and wastewater pipes. Adapted from Ellison [23].

The device is deployed into the water flow of a pipeline and captured downstream. Special nets are used for
the standard extraction of the device and to remove it from all pressurised, in-service pipelines. The device
continuously records acoustic data and emits an acoustic pulse for tracking purposes, while the device
traverses the pipeline. The recorded acoustic data are analysed to identify air pockets and leaks. The severity
of leaks is estimated by calibrated baseline data. Frequency analysis needs to be carried out to confirm that
an acoustic anomaly is actually a leak [22].
Another strength of this free-swimming leak detection device is that there may be many alternative options
available to insert it into and extract it from pipelines. Having multiple options reduces costs to utilities for
support of the inspection [21].
This device has been used for condition assessment, and for reducing non-revenue water [21]. From a
condition assessment perspective, this device can be a part of a larger holistic approach to help identify
problems that can be repaired before they become bigger issues, and to prioritise capital spending. On the
non-revenue water side, because the acoustic sensor traverses directly past the leaks, it can inspect
transmission mains with a greater level of accuracy than traditional methods.
Figure 4: Deployment of a free-swimming leak detection device into the water flow of a pipeline.
Adapted from PureTechnologies [21].
Name Free-swimming leak detection device

Status Commercially available (for example: from Pure Technologies)
Purpose/Scope Locate leaks, air pockets, visible defects and support condition assessment
Types of pipe it has been Water and Wastewater pipes (for medium and large diameter pipes, i.e.
used for those ≥ 200 𝑚𝑚)
Access to pipeline Insertion and extraction points, valve, hot tap connection
Source of information Pure Technologies ([21], https://puretechltd.com/technology/smartball-leak-
detection/
Advantages  Material: can be used for any pipe material (Concrete, Steel, PVC,
Glass-fibre reinforced polyester, etc.)
 Works under traffic noise/fluid turbulence noise: yes
 Features/faults/pipe wall deterioration: air pockets and leak detection
and condition assessment
 Works on live network: yes

 Range of pipelines on which this technique has been used: pipe
diameter ≥ 200 𝑚𝑚
 Frequency of reassessment: periodic reassessment/time based
maintenance
 Identified leaks: All minor and major leaks
 Long pipelines can be assessed with a single deployment. The total
length of an individual survey depends on the flow rates in the pipeline
and battery life. The longest water line survey presently is
15 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠 (25 𝑘𝑚) under 0.6 𝑚/𝑠 flow.
 Can detect very small noise disturbances along the pipeline.
 In one previous inspection, 2,000 leaks were found in 1,000 miles
(1,600 km)
Limitations  Intrusive technique
 Cannot be used for pipelines with very high pressure (> 400 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠/
𝑠𝑞. 𝑖𝑛. )
 If the survey involves long pipe lengths, the surface sensor used for
monitoring the pulse being emitted from SmartBall has to be moved
along the pipe length [24].
Performance  Location accuracy depends on how well the configuration of a pipeline
is known. Typically, the location accuracy of the device is within
3 𝑓𝑡 (1 𝑚)[24].
Breadth of use  It has been used in many countries, including the U.S., Canada, and
Mexico, on a wide range of pipe materials [24]. This is not currently
available in NZ.
3.1.2.2 Tethered Leak Detection Tool

Tethered leak detection tool is an inline tool that can assess pipelines 100 𝑚𝑚 and larger because it is
tethered and an operator has complete control. This tool uses a hydrophone tethered to an umbilical cable,
which travels inside in-service water mains, to record leak noises [22]. The tool can be stopped and reversed
to investigate the events of interest such as leaks, air pockets, and visual anomalies. The tool can travel with
the product flow velocity from as little as 0.3 metre/second up to 3 metre/second with no disruption to the
service [21].
To insert the tool into an active pipeline, almost any existing 50 mm tap or greater can be used, usually
requiring only minor modifications. During the insertion setup, the equipment is disinfected and the product
flow velocity is measured and the tool insertion setup tube is mounted, into which the probe is loaded. The
probe is hand inserted into the pipe as progress is monitored on the video, and for the duration of the
inspection, the cable is continuously disinfected as it leaves the spooler [21]. As the tool enters the pipe, a
small parachute is inflated by the flow velocity of the water and the parachute pulls the tool through the pipe
with its on-board LED lighting system highlighting any visual defects in the pipeline.

Figure 5: Tethered leak detection tool. Adopted from Ellison [23].
If the leak detection tool encounters any acoustic events such as a leak, the operator can stop the tool and
pinpoint the probe on the leak. At the same time, the above-ground operator locates the probe above ground,
establishing the exact leak location within ±450 𝑚𝑚. This enables the user to locate leaks in real time and
decide where to excavate. The tool can detect multiple types of leaks and air pockets in the pipeline both
visually and acoustically [21]. The tool can navigate horizontal and vertical bends without difficulty, up to 270°
of cumulative bends or greater in a single inspection.
Wastewater force mains have also been successfully inspected by flushing the line with clean water during
the inspection [22].
Name Tethered leak detection tool

Status Commercially available
Purpose/Scope Locate leaks, air pockets, visible defects and wall thickness
Types of pipe it has been Water mains (can be used for small mains (100 𝑚𝑚) and equally
used for effective in large diameter mains because of the proximity of the
sensor to the leak [24]).
Access to pipeline Via any existing 50 mm inch tap or greater
Source of information https://puretechltd.com/technology/sahara-leak-gas-pocket-detection/
https://www.wateronline.com/doc/sahara-pipeline-inspection-system-
0001
Advantages  Material : All materials
 Features/faults/pipe wall deterioration: leaks and pipe wall
deterioration
 Works on live network: yes
 Range of pipelines on which this technique has been used: ≥
100 𝑚𝑚
 Frequency of reassessment: Periodic reassessment
 Identified leaks: Sensitive to small leaks
 Surface tracking can map the pipeline under inspection [24].
 Tether control allows withdrawal of the sensor when unexpected
flow conditions are encountered. It also allows extending the
listening period at a particular location, if needed [24].
 Use existing 50 𝑚𝑚 taps

 Handles pressures up to 200 psi (14 Bar)
Limitations  Intrusive technique
 Requires access points at a frequency that is determined by bends
and flow rates in the pipeline [24].
0.25𝑔𝑎𝑙 0.005𝑔𝑎𝑙
Performance  Buried unknown leaks as small as ℎ𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛 have been
successfully located
 The accuracy of leak location is generally less than 1000 𝑚𝑚
Breadth of use It has been used in the U.S. since 2007. This is not currently
available in NZ.
3.1.2.3 Leak Noise Correlation (Technique 1)

Leak Noise Correlation system is used for locating leaks in water distribution and transmission pipes using
the cross-correlation method [25]. The system is composed of leak sensors, a wireless signal transmission
system, and a personal computer. Acoustic sensors, such as accelerometers or hydrophones, are attached
to two contact points on the pipe, such as a fire hydrant [22]. Accelerometers are used to sense the leak-
induced vibration while hydrophones are used for sensing leak-induced sound in the water column.
Accelerometers are sensitive to background noise and hydrophones are often used together with
accelerometers to achieve a better signal to noise ratio[25]. The computer calculates the cross-correlation
function of the two leak signals to determine the time lag between the two sensors. Propagation velocity
needs to be determined experimentally or is estimated based on the type and size of the pipe.
Figure 6: The principle of leak noise correlation technique for leak detection. Adopted from Hunaidi,
et al. [25].
Name Leak Noise Correlation (Technique - 1)

Purpose/Scope Locate leaks.
Types of pipe it has been Water (Distribution main and transmission main)
used for
Access to pipeline Via fire hydrant
Source of information Hunaidi, et al. [25]
https://www.echologics.com/products/leakfinderst/
https://www.hydrograph.com.au/water-products/acoustic-leak-detection/leak-
noise-correlator/
Advantages  Material: All types of pipes including PVC and PCCP, Steel, Ductile
Iron, Cast Iron, Asbestos Cement, Concrete, Copper, Glass
Reinforced Plastic, HDPE, MDPE, and Lead
 Diameters from ½” to 16”.
 Works under traffic noise/fluid turbulence: Yes
 Works on live network/drainage require: Works on live network
 Identified leaks: All minor and major leaks (this system can find
leaks as low as 63 millilitres per second if longer recording times
are used)
 Non-Intrusive technique (sensors placed on hydrants, valves etc.)
 Uses a low-frequency vibration sensor to locate leaks in plastic
pipes.
Limitations  Information about the leak size is not available from the test [24]
 Sensor spacing is influenced by both the pipe diameter and the
pipe material due to attenuation of the acoustic signal.
 May be susceptible to interference from low frequency vibration
(e.g. pumps and road traffic) [24]
 For condition assessment, results from the inspection will be at a
segment level (the technology measures wall thickness for the
entire segment length, typically around 100 m).
 Current assessments do not provide information on tuberculation,
but developments are underway to add that capability [26].
Performance Performance of the LeakFinderST system has been tested for [24]:
 Narrow-band leak noise in PVC pipes
 The monitoring duration depends on the quality of the signal
 Longer monitoring times reveal less noisy leaks, or when there is
significant noise.
Breadth of use It has been used commercially in Australia (kits have been sold in
Australia), the U.K. and NZ.
The advanced signal processing approach provides improved resolution for narrow-band leak signals. This
is helpful for plastic pipes (low frequency sound emission), small leaks, multiple leaks and for settings where
leak sensors are closely spaced, and situations with high background noise. Enhanced function also does
not require the usual filtering of leak signals to remove interfering noise [25].
Signals from leak sensors can be transmitted wirelessly to a computer for processing. Leak sound is recorded
and correlated by the correlator in a few minutes under most circumstances, but noisy records can take
longer to process. The cross-correlation results are displayed on the screen and continuously updated in real
time while leak signals are being recorded [22].
Based on principles similar to leak noise correlation, a technique, Wall Thickness Finder was developed to
estimate the average pipe wall thickness between two listening points on the pipe [27]. The average thickness
of the pipe section between two acoustic sensors can be back-calculated from a theoretical model, which
incorporates the acoustic velocity, pipe diameter, Young’s modulus of the pipe wall, and the bulk moduli of
the pipe wall and the water [27]. Velocity measurement can be performed with the same hardware as
LeakfinderST by using the cross-correlation method [22].
This correlator technique finds leaks on a variety of pipe materials and large diameter mains (diameter range
of 100 𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑜 300 𝑚𝑚 ) [28]. The sensors are built into a standard fire hydrant cap and are capable of
identifying extremely faint acoustic noise emitted by leaks before they become detectable by conventional
methods. The correlator system utilises a series of smart fire hydrant caps (fitted to above ground hydrants
typical in the U.S.A.) equipped with built-in acoustic sensor, processor, and communication components. At
the heart of the platform is an intelligent node which is embedded into the standard fire hydrant cap. The
platform is designed to provide more accurate information on the location of a leak. The smart node listens
for and correlates any noise throughout the network on a daily basis and reports each point of interest to an
application user interface for viewing by a utility operator. The node is installed using common tools at a tablet
application which enables a technician to connect the node to the monitoring network [28].
Installation of nodes into fire hydrants offers several benefits that improve system performance and extend
equipment life. The above-ground location of the node antenna enables a stronger and more stable radio
signal. Placing the node in a hydrant cap also offers a better protected installation environment compared to
valve box installations that can suffer from salt, silt, and dirt accumulation [28].
Name Leak Noise correlator (Technique – 2)

Purpose/Scope For leak detection on water distribution main pipelines of diameter from
100 𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑜 300 𝑚𝑚
Types of pipe it has been Water distribution mains
used for
Source of information https://www.echologics.com/services/small-diameter-leak-
monitoring/echoshore-dx/
Advantages  Material: All material types including steel, cast iron, and ductile
iron
 Works under traffic noise and fluid turbulence
 Can work on pipe networks
 Can find any types of leaks
 It works on a live network
 Access to pipe via fire hydrants
 Range of pipelines on which this technique has been used :
diameters from 100 𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑜 300 𝑚𝑚
 Frequency of reassessment: continuous monitoring/condition
based maintenance
 Identifies total leaks
Limitations There are limitations related to installation, with a requirement to
customize the site to install the TX nodes. Traffic control, access to
chambers, drilling, antenna installation all need to be considered.
For condition assessment, results from the inspection will be at a
segment level (the technology measures wall thickness for the entire
segment length, typically around 100 m).
Performance Specifications indicate it can detect leaks of 315 millilitres per second
or higher, though smaller leaks have also been located.

Breadth of use It has been used commercially in the U.S.A. and Canada and is also
available in France. This is not available currently in NZ or other
countries.

This correlator technique is designed to monitor critical and high risk water transmission mains [28]. The
monitoring platform combines proven acoustic leak detection technology with leading-edge wireless
connectivity and visual end-user dashboards to create a cost-effective monitoring solution. The correlator
can be applied throughout the transmission system on any pipe material with a diameter of 400 𝑚𝑚 or larger.
At the heart of the platform is a node, which is typically installed underground, in an access chamber or any
other locations with secure access to the main. A node is self-contained and consists of a data processor,
communication hardware, battery power source, hydrophone and a durable antenna [28].
Node installations are quick and simple as key components are secured to the chamber wall and a
hydrophone is connected to a new or existing access port, such as an air release valve. Nodes are added in
the same manner over the desired distance of the transmission main to be monitored [28]. The platform is
able to monitor short or long distances on a permanent or temporary base. The correlator can be deployed
non-intrusively with no interruption to operations. Once activated, the system collects data above the
transmission main. At pre-determined times the platform uploads data to the secure server, where advanced
algorithms are applied to interpret the information. Data is transmitted to the server using a cellular network
or through satellite communications in remote locations [28].
In the event of a leak, the correlator node captures data and send it to the central server for signal processing
and leak location identification. This information allows operators to act quickly before a small problem
becomes a major issue [28]. Several parameters such as static pressure, flow rate, temperature, chlorine
levels, acoustic anomalies, and other operator requirements can be monitored at the same time [28].
Name Leak noise correlation (Technique – 3)

Purpose/Scope For leak detection in all transmission main pipelines of size > 400 𝑚𝑚
Types of pipe it has been Water transmission mains
used for
Source of information https://www.echologics.com/services/large-diameter-leak-
detection/echoshore-tx/
Advantages  Material: All material types including pre-stressed concrete, steel,
cast iron, ductile iron and plastic pipe
 Works on pipe network
 Detects pipe leaks
 Works on live network
 Range of pipelines on which this technique has been used : All
transmission main pipelines of size > 400 𝑚𝑚
based maintenance
 Identifies all major and minor leaks
 Access to pipe via existing chamber, purpose-built access, above-
ground utility box, and direct-to-pipe
Limitations No information available
Performance Specifications indicate it can detect leaks of 5 gallons per minute or
higher, though smaller leaks have also been located.
Breadth of use It has been used commercially in the U.S.A., Canada and Singapore.
This is not currently available in NZ.
3.1.2.6 Pipeline Condition Assessment Technique

Pipeline condition assessment technique can identify the condition of both distribution mains and
transmission mains, while simultaneously searching for leaks, all without the need for large excavations or
service disruptions [28]. This technology does not require access to the inside of a pipe or extensive support
from utility field crews for either inspection or data collection. It can work on distribution main pipe diameters
(range: 100 𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑜 300 𝑚𝑚) and transmission main pipe with diameters (range: 400 𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑜 2200 𝑚𝑚)
Supported pipe materials include asbestos cement (AC), cast iron, ductile iron, steel, and mortar lined, pre-
stressed concrete cylinder pipe (PCCP).
For field inspection, the equipment is portable and consists of a laptop computer to capture and analyse data,
a transmitter that is typically placed on the roof of a vehicle to capture signals from two receivers at either
end of the pipe section that is being inspected. The receivers are connected to the water main using magnetic
acoustic sensors [28].
In this technology, acoustic sensors are attached to existing contact points on distribution mains, such as fire
hydrants, operating nuts of valves or via direct access to the pipes. For a transmission main, the attachment
points can be a release valve or through direct access to the pipe obtained via excavation [28]. A sound wave
is induced that travels along the pipeline. The acoustic sensors capture the time it takes the sound wave to
travel between two sensor stations. The speed at which the sound wave travels is dictated by the condition
of the pipe wall [28]. As a sound wave travels, it pushes water molecules towards each other. Because water
is incompressible, the molecules push outward on the pipe wall. This places a microscopic flex on the pipe
wall, with greater responses indicating low stiffness pipe. Through this method, Epulse measures the stiffness
of the pipe wall which is an ideal measure of actual pipe condition [28].
Once the acoustic data is captured, engineers use patented algorithms to convert the data into a measure of
the average minimum remaining wall thickness of the inspected pipe segment. For metallic and AC pipe, the
calculated wall thickness measurement is compared to the original thickness of the pipe to determine the
average percentage of wall loss.
This inspections have virtually no impact on local traffic, businesses or the daily activities of residents [28].
Name Pipeline condition assessment technique

Purpose/Scope For condition assessment and finding leaks from transmission and
distribution mains
Types of pipe it has been Water transmission and distribution mains
used for
Source of information https://www.echologics.com/services/condition-assessment/epulse/
Advantages  Material: Metallic, asbestos cement, cast iron, ductile iron, steel
and mortar lined, and pre-stressed concrete
 Works on the pipe network
 Used for finding leaks, and condition assessment of pipes
 Works on the live network
 Range of pipelines on which this technique has been used:
Distribution mains (range from 100 𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑜 300 𝑚𝑚) and
transmission mains: (range from 400 𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑜 2200 𝑚𝑚 )
 Detects all minor and major leaks
 Access to the pipe via fire hydrants, valves or through a direct
contact
Limitations Assessments may not be able to pass sections that have been
repaired
Breadth of use It has been used commercially in the U.S.A and Canada. This is not
currently available in NZ.
Factors influencing effectiveness of acoustic methods
The effectiveness of acoustic leak detection methods depends on several factors including pipe size, type
and depth, leak type and size, system pressure, interfering noise, and the sensitivity and frequency range of
the equipment [29]. The pipe material and diameter have a significant effect on the attenuation of leak signals
along the pipe. For example, leak signals travel farthest in metal pipes and are attenuated greatly in plastic
ones. The larger the diameter of the pipe the greater the attenuation, and the harder it is to detect the leak.
The pipe diameter and material also affect the predominant frequencies of leak signals - the larger the
diameter and the less rigid the pipe material, the lower the predominant frequencies. This effect makes leak
signals susceptible to interference from low-frequency vibrations, e.g., from pumps and road traffic [29].
There is significant variation in the sensitivity, frequency range, and signal-conditioning and processing
features of different acoustic leak detection devices. The more sensitive the leak sensors and the higher the
signal-to-noise ratio of the equipment, the smaller the leaks that can be detected. Modern acoustic devices
incorporate signal-conditioning components such as filters and amplifiers to make leak signals stand out. The
filter removes interfering noise occurring outside the predominant frequency range of the leak signals.
Amplifiers improve the signal-to-noise ratio and make weak signals audible [29].
3.1.3 Electromagnetic Methods

Electromagnetic inspection has been considered as an effective condition assessment method for
prestressed concrete cylinder pipes (PCCP). The following electromagnetic techniques can perform the
inspection without service shutdown, or with minimal operational downtime.

3.1.3.1 Free-Swimming Tool
Free-swimming tools are specially designed to operate in live pipelines and can collect data regarding the
condition of the pipe wall. This tool can be used for water and wastewater pipelines and are available in three
diameter ranges. The Mini swimming tool is suitable for pipelines in a diameter range from 40 𝑡𝑜 1200 𝑚𝑚 .
The small size tools are suitable for pipelines with a diameter range of 600 𝑡𝑜 1800 𝑚𝑚, whereas, large size
tools are available for pipes with a diameter range of 1200 − 3000 𝑚𝑚 [30]. These tools are useful for
assessment of the structural condition. These tools are designed to inspect prestressed concrete cylinder
pipes (PCCP) and metallic pipes such as ductile iron and steel. A typical inspection using this technique lasts
for about a day. A single mobilisation of this tool can inspect pipeline distance ranging from 5 𝑡𝑜 8 𝑘𝑚.
Figure 7: Free-swimming tool for a small diameter pipe. Adopted from Wang, et al. [31]
The free-swimming tool consists of navigation aid, battery module, electromagnetic (EM) module, tracking
module, and sensor module, as shown in Figure 7. It can be inserted into the pipeline via a chamber, open
channel or small hot tap [30]. As the tool enters the pipeline, it uses buoyancy and its fins to quickly stabilise
itself in the centre of the pipe. The tool travels at virtually the same speed as the flow velocity in the pipeline
[31]. With its flexible design, the tool can travel through a variety of bends in the pipeline, including 45 and 90
degree turns. It can also navigate through, tees and butterfly valves which must remain open during
inspections [30]. The detectors that are positioned in around the tools pedals and on the body of the tool
enable it to collect data and identify where the problems in the pipe wall occur. The free-swimming tools are
also equipped with cameras to collect video data in the pipe, which provides an additional layer of condition
assessment data. The tool can be extracted through pressurised connections, via a guide web and robotic
grapple from the pipeline. It can also be extracted from a reservoir.
Name Free-swimming tool

Purpose/Scope Inspects PCCP and metallic pipes, can operate in a live pipeline, and
is available in a wide range of pipe diameters.
Access to pipeline Via Chamber, open channel or small hot tap
Types of pipe it has been Water (Main/transmission), Wastewater
used for
Source of information PureTechnologies [30], Wang, et al. [31],
https://puretechltd.com/technology/pipediver-condition-assessment/
Advantages  Pipe materials: PCCP and metallic (Ductile iron and steel)
 Features/faults/pipe wall deterioration: Can detect broken wire
wraps, sedimentation,corrosion, and other anomalies. Data assists
in judgments of remaining strength or service life
 Works on live network/drainage required: Works on live network
 Range of pipelines on which this technique has been used: 400 −
3000 𝑚𝑚
 Works for long inspection distances
Limitations Data interpretation needs experience and skill. Remaining service life
assessments require additional verification and improvement.
Breadth of use It has been used for condition assessment of many PCCP lines in
Canada (where the technology was invented) and the USA. This is
not currently available in NZ.
3.1.3.2 Remote Field Testing

Remote field testing technology involves the generation of electric and magnetic fields to investigate the
condition of cast iron material pipes. A remote field testing system consists of an exciting coil and one or
more detectors [22]. The exciting coil is driven by a low-frequency alternating current signal. The interaction
region is divided into three zones as shown in Figure 8.
 Direct couple zone: magnetic field from the exciting coil interacts with the pipe wall to produce a
concentrated filed of eddy current.
 Transition zone: there is an interaction between the magnet flux from the exciting coil and the flux
induced by the eddy current.
 Remote field zone: this is the region in which direct coupling between the exciting coil and the receiver
coil is negligible.
Figure 8: The principle of remote field testing. Adopted from Liu and Kleiner [22].
Two distinct coupling paths exist between the exciter and detectors. The direct electromagnetic field inside
the pipe is attenuated rapidly by circumferential eddy currents induced in the conducting pipe wall [32]. The
indirect field diffuses radially outward through the pipe wall. This field spreads rapidly along the pipe with little
attenuation. These two fields re-diffuse back through the pipe wall and are dominant at the remote field zone
[22]. Any discontinuities in the indirect path will cause changes in signal magnitude and phase. This
technology does not require the sensors to be in close contact with the pipe wall [22].

Name Remote Field Testing
Purpose/Scope Inspect cast iron and PCCP pipes as well as ferromagnetic components of
composite pipes [32]
Types of pipe it has Water and Wastewater pipelines
been used for
Access to pipeline Via chamber, open channel or small hot tap
Source of Mergelas and Kong [32], Liu and Kleiner [22]
information https://puretechltd.com/technology/pipediver-condition-assessment/
https://www.wrc-infrastructure.co.uk/technologies/pipediver%C2%AE/
https://www.russelltech.com/News/PID/719/ev/1/TagID/7/TagName/See-Snake
Advantages  Material: Metallic pipes PCCP, cast iron and the ferromagnetic component
of composite pipes
 Features/faults/pipe wall deterioration: Can detect broken wire wraps,
sedimentation, corrosion, and other anomalies. Data helps support
judgments of remaining strength or service life
 Works on live network/drainage required: Works on live network
 Range of pipelines on which this technique has been used: 50 𝑚𝑚 −
3000 𝑚𝑚
 Long inspection distances
Limitations Data interpretation needs experience and skill.
Performance There is a proven ability to identify prestressed wire breaks, but very limited
data exists connecting wire breaks to loss of pipe stability or remaining service
life.
Breadth of use It has been used widely in Canada (where the technology was developed), the
U.K. , the U.S.A., and the Netherlands. This is not currently available in NZ.
3.1.3.3 Pipe Penetrating Radar (PPR)

PPR is the in-pipe application of ground penetrating radar (GPR). GPR is used to investigate the subsurface
of the earth by emitting electromagnetic waves and measuring the reflected signals. PPR is the adaptation
of this technology from inside pipes. PPR can be used to detect pipe wall fractures, changes in material,
reinforcing location and placement, and pipe wall thickness. PPR may also detect the presence of voids
developing outside the pipe. PPR survey can be conducted via manned entry or with remotely operated
vehicles (ROVs).
Electromagnetic waves have two important properties: they travel at different speeds through different
materials, and the amplitude of their reflection is greater depending on the contrast between two materials.
By measuring the two-way travel time and the amplitude of the reflected EM waves, a detailed image of the
subsurface can be built. By repeating this process continuously along a survey line, a profile of the line can
be created. This can be done at multiple clock positions to provide a detailed report on the pipe’s current
condition, as well as the presence or absence of voids outside the pipe wall [33] .
Name Pipe Penetrating Radar (PPR)

Purpose/Scope Mainly used for wastewater pipes with diameter 200 𝑚𝑚 − 450 𝑚𝑚
Types of pipe it has been Water and Wastewater pipelines
used for
Access to pipeline Via manned entry or with remotely operated vehicles (ROVs).
Status Commercially available SewerVUETechnology [33]
Source of information https://sewervue.com/pipelines2017-presentation-ppr.html
Advantages  Material: All non-ferrous pipes (e.g. reinforced concrete, vitrified clay,
asbestos cement, PVC, High density polyethylene (HDPE))
 Features/faults/pipe wall deterioration: may detect pipe wall
fractures, wall thickness, delamination, voids etc.
 Works on live network/drainage required: Works in live network
200 𝑚𝑚 − 450 𝑚𝑚
 Require skills/operator: Yes
Performance There is a need for scientific studies examining performance in
circumstances where conditions are known from another soruce. Surface
GPR work has been found to be unreliable, though may be effective at
tracking changes in condition between scans.
Breadth of use It has been used in the U.S.A. and Canada. This is not currently
available in NZ.
3.1.4 Fibre Optics Sensing Techniques

3.1.4.1 Integrated Smart Monitoring Technique (Identified Commercial Technique)
The fibre optic sensing leakage detection method involves the installation of a fibre optic cable to measure
the temperature over the entire pipeline length. Conventionally, leakage from pipelines introduces local
temperature anomalies in the vicinity of the pipeline [31]. By scanning the entire length of the fibre in short
intervals, the temperature profile along the fibre is obtained and the leakage point can be detected. This
method provides accurate leakage detection and location [31]. However, the cost of implementing such a
system is quite high, especially for a long-range pipeline.
Atlantis Hydrotec* is a pipe-in-a-pipe solution in which a special purpose, small-bore or a messenger pipe
(which is designed to fully isolate the cable from the water) is inserted into existing water pipelines for the
purpose of installing ultra-fast fibre optic communication cables [34]. Installation of Atlantis Hydrotec is
trenchless so it is rapid, and can be achieved with a minimum of civil works and associated disruption.
Integrated smart monitoring (ISM) technique uses a sensing cable inserted within an Atlantis Hydrotec
installation. This sensor has the ability to identify leaks, along the pipe infrastructure and identify the location
of the event to within a few metres [34].
The data is captured and monitored via an ISM Analyser unit, which can monitor up to 40 𝑘𝑚 of pipeline.
Multiple analyser units can be networked to allow the monitoring of 1,000𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 of pipes from a
single location [34].
Name Integrated Smart Monitoring (ISM)

Purpose/Scope Mainly used for water transmission and distribution mains for leak
detection
Types of pipe it has been Water pipelines (distribution and transmission mains)
used for

Access to pipeline Via inserted messenger pipe (designed to fully isolate the cable from the
water)
Status Commercially available (from Craley Group)
Source of information https://www.craley.com/aiguees-vic-choose-ism-for-leak-det
Advantages  Material: All material types
 Access to the pipeline via a specially installed messenger pipe called
Atlantis Hydrotec
 Works under traffic noise/fluid turbulence: yes
 Single pipe/pipe network : pipe network
 Features/faults/pipe wall deterioration: leak detection
 Works in live network
 Range of pipelines on which this technique has been used: All types
of water distribution and transmission main
 Long inspection distances: up to 40 𝑘𝑚 of pipeline
 Frequency of reassessment: Continuous reassessment
Performance Not available
Breadth of use ISM has been commercially used in Spain. This is not currently
available in NZ.
* The name of the supplier provided here as an example.
3.1.5 Sensor Techniques

The use of a sensor for continuous monitoring is relevant to the concept of structural health monitoring (SHM),
which is defined as a process to implement a damage identification strategy for varied infrastructures [35].
The SHM process involves the observation of a network over time with periodical measurements, the
extraction of damage-sensitive features from these measurements, and the statistical analysis of these
features to determine the current state of the system health [35]. Sensor monitoring data are used for
condition assessment and estimated deterioration rate for pipes, and eventually contribute to the prediction
of residual useful life leading to actionable decision.
Currently, network maintenance is carried out in a time-based mode. The time-based maintenance
philosophy is now evolving to a more cost effective condition based maintenance (CBM) philosophy [35].
Sensor technologies play an important role in CBM. There are many sensor techniques available for
monitoring water pipe condition. However, many techniques are limited to specific pipe materials. Identified
commericially available sensor techniques are as follows:
3.1.5.1 inSCAN
Sensor technique inSCAN is used to detect leaks and pipe condition for large diameter pipes [36]. The
inSCAN unit operates on a tether that enters into the water and wastewater mains through a 50 𝑚𝑚 or larger
tapping or valve under normal system operation and pressure, and with no disruption to the service. The
inSCAN sensor is carried with the flow of water, testing the integrity (leaks) in the pipeline [36].
The resulting data gathered from inSCAN allows for the detection of the smallest leaks in all mains diameters
(≥ 300 𝑚𝑚) as well as in all pipe materials. It is a fully computerised and SCADA controlled system.

Name inSCAN
Purpose/Scope For leak detection and pipe condition assessment
Types of pipe it has been Water transmission (mainly trunk mains) and wastewater
used for
Access to pipeline via 50 𝑚𝑚 or larger tapping or valve
Status Commercially available (Detection Services)
Source of information http://www.detectionservices.com.au/services/pipeline-condition-
assessment/inscan/
Advantages  Material: all types
 Single pipe/pipe network: Pipe network
 Features/faults/pipe wall deterioration: all type of leaks, air pockets,
blockages, debris, and condition assessment
 Works in the live network
 Range of pipelines on which this technique has been used: Mainly
trunk mains and wastewater pipes (≥ 300 𝑚𝑚)
 Long inspection distances: up to 14 km of pipeline
Limitations  Data interpretation needs experience and skill
 Detect leaks in low pressure mains
Breadth of use This is available in NZ.
3.1.5.2 P-CAT
P-CAT is a non-invasive, non-destructive technology for performing pipe condition assessment, while the
system is in operation [37]. P-CAT can determine remaining thickness of pipe wall to 0.2 𝑚𝑚 accuracy over
long sections (many kilometres) of pipeline as well as detect and locate defects such as deterioration, pipe
material changes, cement material changes, cement matrix loss from AC pipes, blockages, air and gas
pockets. P-CAT can be applied on any pressurised fluid filed pipeline carrying potable or drinking, raw or
wastewater. P-CAT is most suitable for long distance trunk mains and can be applied to all metallic, concrete
and AC pipes [37].
P-CAT equipment includes a pressure transducer, a data acquisition box and a transient generator. A number
of sensors are installed on existing pipe fittings- primarily via air valves along a section of pipe. One of the
sensors is also used as a generating station. From this point a pressure wave is injected into the pipeline. As
the wave travels through the pipeline, it is partially reflected when it encounters any change in pipeline
structure, including both known features of the system as well as other issues related to the pipe deterioration
[37].
Name P-CAT
Purpose/Scope Pipe condition assessment
Types of pipe it has been Water transmission (mainly trunk mains) and wastewater
used for
Access to pipeline via air valves
Status Commercially available [37]

Source of information http://www.detectionservices.com.au/services/pipeline-condition-
assessment/p-cat/
Advantages  Material: all metallic, concrete and AC pipes
 Features/faults/pipe wall deterioration: can detect deterioration, pipe
material changes, cement material changes, cement matrix loss from
AC pipes, blockages, air and gas pockets
 Can determine remaining thickness of pipe wall to 0.2 𝑚𝑚 accuracy
over long sections (many kilometres) of pipeline
 Range of pipelines on which this technique has been used: Mainly
trunk mains and wastewater pipes (400 𝑚𝑚 or higher)
 Long inspection distances: up to 14 km of pipeline
Breadth of use It has been used in Australia and New Zealand
3.1.5.3 Multisensor Inspection (MSI) System

The MSI system can detect defects and cavities from non-ferrous pipes of all shapes and sizes. The MSI
system consists of Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR), sonar, CCTV, and pipe penetrating radar (PPR)
[38].
Sonar involves the use of sound waves to create an image of the pipe’s inner surface below the flow line.
Used in conjunction with LIDAR imaging, sonar can generate a 360° image of the pipe that includes
quantitative determination of ovality, wall loss, sediment volume, and depth, even through tight bends [39].
LIDAR involves projecting a ring of light onto the pipe’s interior wall. This ring of light is imaged using a
specially calibrated digital camera. LIDAR surveys are done by projecting a laser, and measuring the time it
takes to reach a target and reflect back to the sensor. A LIDAR survey collects continuous 2 −dimensional
cross sections of the pipe wall. By compiling these cross sections, a high resolution 3 −dimensional model
can be created. LIDAR is used to measure the pipe above the flow line. It collects highly detailed information
about ovality, deformations, offset joints, and lateral size. One drawback of LIDAR is that the projected ring
of light must be perpendicular to the pipe wall for accurate results [38].
CCTV is used in this MSI system to navigate remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) past unexpected obstacles
in pipes. It is also useful in identifying any visual anomalies inside pipes.
Pipe penetrating radar uses high-frequency electromagnetic (EM) waves similar to how sonar uses sound
waves. The reflected energy of the EM waves is recorded for analysis. PPR can be used to detect pipe wall
fractures, changes in material, reinforcing location and placement, and pipe wall thickness. PPR may also
detect the presence of voids developing outside the pipe. PPR can be deployed while the pipe is in service
[39].

Figure 9: MultiSensor inspection system equipped with pan, tilt, zoom CCTV, LIDAR, and PPR.
Adopted from SewerVUETechnology [39].
Name Multisensor Inspection System

Purpose/Scope Mainly used for wastewater pipes
Types of pipe it has been Mainly used for wastewater pipes
used for
Access to pipeline Via manned entry or with remotely operated vehicles (ROVs).
Source of information https://sewervue.com/multi-sensor-pipe-inspection-system.html
Advantages  Material: All non-ferrous pipes (e.g. reinforced concrete, vitrified clay,
asbestos cement, PVC, High density polyethylene (HDPE))
 Features/faults/pipe wall deterioration: can detect pipe wall fractures,
wall thickness, rebar cover, delamination, voids etc.
200 𝑚𝑚 − 450 𝑚𝑚
 Long inspection distances: 2845 m
Breadth of use It has been used in Canada, Hong Kong and France. This is available
in NZ (Dunedin) and Australia.
3.1.5.4 SurgeView
SurgeView is a non-invasive technique to monitor water networks for the presence of damping pressure
surges [40]. It integrates multi-frequency pressure monitoring sensors (up to 256 𝐻𝑧) to detect sources of
damping pressure transients throughout a pipe network. These sensors can be easily deployed at optimal
location across the network or in the vicinity of suspected sources of damping transients (i.e. for short-term
monitoring or permanent monitoring). These sensors can be installed via existing hydrants, pipe taps or
valves. Pressure data from sensors is transmitted wirelessly to the SurgeViewTM software [40].

Through SurgeView analysis, a water utility can get key insight into which hydraulic elements are causing
damping transients, where are the sources, and whether those transients are stressing any parts of network-
especially old pipe sections.
Name SurgeView
Purpose/Scope To monitor water networks for the presence of damping pressure surges
Types of pipe it has been Water, wastewater or stormwater
used for
Access to pipeline Via hydrants, pipe taps or valves
Source of information https://www.visenti.com/surgeview
Advantages  Material: Any
 Features/faults/pipe wall deterioration: For leaks and condition
assessment
 Range of pipelines on which this technique has been used: Any size
 Frequency of reassessment: Periodic/continuous reassessment
Breadth of use It has been used in Australia (SA Water and Yarra Valley water
(Mitcham, Victoria)), NZ (Watercare, Christchurch City Council),
U.K. (Thames Water), Singapore (TUAS Power, Public Utility Board
(PUB)) and UAE (Sharjah Electricity and Water Authority))
3.1.5.5 LeakView
The LeakView sensing technique is comprised of pipe leakage indicators such as high-rate pressure sensors,
hydrophones, and flow metres for measuring multiple leaks [41]. These leakage indicators are generally
installed at optimal locations coupled with data analytics for anomaly detection. These indicators can be
installed on existing tapping points such as fire hydrants for distribution networks and trunk mains to detect
and track losses. The sensing devices transmit continuous information about potential leaks in the pipe
network to a data management and analytics engine. The LeakView system identifies the pressure transients,
acoustic noise and flow enomalies related to breaks and localises them to the faulty pipe with high likelihood
[41].
Name LeakView
Purpose/Scope To detect background existing leaks, leaks growing over time and newly
occurring bursts
Types of pipe it has been Water distribution and transmission mains
used for
Access to pipeline Via hydrants or pipe taps
Source of information https://www.visenti.com/leakview
Advantages  Material: Asbestos Cement, all metal pipes (such as cast iron, ductile
iron, steel), and all plastic pipes (such as PE, HDPE, and PVC)
 Features/faults/pipe wall deterioration: For leaks and burst detection
 Works on a live network/drainage required: Works in live network
 Range of pipelines on which this technique has been used: ≥
100 𝑚𝑚
 Frequency of reassessment: continuous reassessment
Breadth of use It has been used in Australia (SA Water and Yarra Valley water
(Mitcham, Victoria)), NZ (Watercare, Christchurch City Council),
U.K. (Thames Water), Singapore (TUAS Power, Public Utility Board
(PUB)) and UAE (Sharjah Electricity and Water Authority))
3.2 Hydraulic Techniques (commercially available)
3.2.1 Unsteady State Hydraulic Methods

Transient events occur whenever flow or pressure conditions change in pressurised pipes. These events are
interesting due to the fact that they both convey and send signals. Thus, by listening to the signal waves, it
becomes easy to learn about system states and how they are coupled to physical attributes like the presence
of a leak, a blockage or the status of pipe repair [14].
3.2.1.1 Pipe SONAR System

A piezoelectric actuator (a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a
mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve) consisting of a vibrating ceramic element, referred
to as Pipe SONAR, is a new approach for transient signal generation and can create customised, small
amplitude (< 400 𝑚𝑚) pressure signals that vary in frequency and magnitude. The measured responses to
the generated signals are analysed with signal processing methods proposed in Lee [13]. Pipe SONAR is
suitable for use on live water distribution networks and has been used commercially for valve and pipe wall
condition assessment.
The piezoelectric actuator is driven by a linear power amplifier and an impedance matching unit. The
generator and the data recording are controlled by customised software. One pressure sensor is located at
the generator and another is attached to a hydrant. The Pipe SONAR system is attached to existing hydrants
through a flanged connections. Pipe SONAR has been tested on two types of fire hydrants: below ground
hydrants, typical in the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand; and above ground hydrants typical in
America, China and mainland Europe [42].
Name Pipe SONAR

Purpose/Scope For condition assessment and leak detection
Types of pipe it has been Water (Main/transmission)
used for

Source of information Lee, et al. [43], Tuck [42], _ENREF_39
Advantages  Material: asbestos cement (AC), cast iron (CI), ductile cast iron
(DCI), PVC, reinforced concrete (RCP), and steel
 Can work on pipe network
 Has been used for condition assessment of pipes and valves
 Works on live network
 Has been used for water pipes with diameter 100 – 600 mm
based maintenance
Limitations No information available
Breadth of use It has been used for condition assessment of pipes and valves in
New Zealand and China.
3.3 Non-hydraulic Leak Detection Techniques (Experimental Techniques)
3.3.1 Sensor Techniques

3.3.1.1 Pipe Condition Assessment Device
Pipe condition assessment device has been designed to assess the condition of individual pipes in a
distribution system, including size and types of leaks present on the pipe, the efficacy of isolating valves and
anomalies such as illegal connections and unrecorded network elements [44].
The pipe condition assessment device consists of various hydraulic and control components that are used to
conduct a series of tests on a water distribution system pipe. The main device consists of a water tank,
valves, pressure sensor and GPS unit linked to a central processing and communication unit. These
components are installed on a hand-drawn trolley allowing it to be easily moved from one location to the next
[44].
The second element of the device is an Android app that runs on a smartphone or tablet. The app guides the
operators to the next pipe to be tested. It then assists the operators by identifying the hydrant to connect to,
valves to close and house connections to isolate, through a GIS and GPS functionality [44].
The final element is a cloud-based management system that schedules the next pipe to be tested, links the
app to the GIS data, manages the tests conducted and collects and analyses the test data [44].
The device is connected to an isolated pipe in a distribution system via a fire hydrant, scour valve or dedicated
connection point, where it works through a sequence of actions to identify leaking valves, illegal connections,
and the size and type of leaks present in a pipeline [44]. The information is gathered automatically to a central
point via a GSM connection, where it is combined with GIS data of the system in order to facilitate water loss
control and improved operation and maintenance practices.

To test and characterise leaks in a pipe, a pump is used to pressurise the isolated pipe section. If the pipe
section has one or more leaks, water will move from the water source and through the device before leaving
the pipe through leaks. Leaking valves are identified by checking whether the flow reduces to zero when a
vent valve is opened. Pressurising the pipe at different levels allows leakage to be identified and
characterised. The device has a variable speed pump and is able to measure both pressure and flow rate at
different pump settings [44].
The test data is automatically sent to a cloud-based data management system for analysis. In this system
results may be combined with GIS data of the system in order to facilitate water loss control and improved
operation and maintenance practices [44].
The device can identify very small leaks and doesn’t required highly skilled labour. Periodic reassessment
allows the condition of pipes and valves to be monitored over time. The device has been tested in the
laboratory and initial field trials in Cape Town, South Africa. However, it has not been applied to a significant
area of a metropolitan scale .
3.3.1.2 Guided Wave Sensors

Guided wave ultrasonic testing (GWUT) has been applied for rapid screening of long lengths of pipework for
corrosion and other defects [35]. The GWUT employs a mechanical stress wave that propagates along with
an elongated structure while guided by the object’s boundaries. The GWUT is operated at a low frequency
(between10 − 100𝑘𝐻𝑧). The method is attractive because it gives 100% coverage of the volume of the pipe
within the diagnostic range of the test and tens of metres can be covered from a single transducer location
[45]. The conventional application of the method is to use a removable transducer ring and to gain temporary
access to the pipe at test locations spaced out along the pipeline [45]. To reduce the re-excavation costs,
transducer rings can be installed permanently for continuous monitoring so that only one time access is
needed [35]. This is known as a guided wave permanently installed monitoring system (gPIMS) [45]. The
transducer is produced as a low profile flexible array, which can be bonded and clamped in place on the pipe
surface. Then the transducer is sealed in a polyurethane jacket to provide complete protection [45]. gPIMS
enables tracking and trending signal changes and allows for baseline subtraction [46]. The stability and
sensitivity studies of gPIMS demonstrate the capabilities of the system to detect the circumferential
distribution of wall loss, high probability of detection over a wide frequency range, and low probability of false
indication [45].
The use of sensor technologies to the buried pipes has not been fully verified. Currently, acquisition of high-
cost data is justified only for major transmission water mains, where the consequences of failure are
significant [35]. Pipes with a low cost of failure do not justify expensive data acquisition campaigns. Another
issue that requires attention is the lack of a full understanding of sensor reliability. Low cost and reliability are
the most important factors in development of sensors for attachment to buried pipes [35].

Wireless Sensor Network
A wireless sensor network (WSN) consists of a large number of sensor nodes, which are deployed to collect
and transmit data via wireless connections. Each sensor node is made up of a processing unit
(microcontroller, memory, operating system, and so on), and an acquisition unit (sensor(s)), analogue-to-
digital converter (ADC), transceiver(s) and a battery [47].
3.3.1.3 SmartPipes
SmartPipes is a sensor system that uses a wireless sensor network (WSN) for underground pipeline
monitoring using force sensitive resistors. It is based on relative pressure sensor measurements combined
with temperature difference measurements between the pipe and surrounding medium, to detect a leak in a
pipe buried in the field. These sensors are so far used for leak detection and leak localisation in plastic pipes.
This pressure sensing method has been investigated for its performance and capabilities by both laboratory
and field trials [48].
This method allows easy installation of the sensor nodes on pipes without jeopardising the pipes’ structural
integrity [48].
Figure 10: General Schematic of SmartPipes sensor network for a pipeline monitoring system.
Adopted from Sadeghioon, et al. [48].
3.3.1.4 TriopusNet
TriopusNet is a mobile wireless system for autonomous sensor deployment in pipeline monitoring. It works
by automatically releasing sensor nodes from a centralised repository located at the source of the water
pipeline (Tsung-Te Lai, et al. [49]). During automated deployment, TriopusNet runs a sensor deployment
algorithm to determine node placement. Each mobile sensor node in TriopusNet is equipped with one motor
that drives three arms (as shown in Figure 11). These arms can be extended for the purpose of latching a
traveling sensor node onto the pipe’s inner surface, thereby fixing the node placement [49]. By continuously
releasing nodes into pipes, the TriopusNet system builds a wireless network of interconnected sensor nodes.

When a node runs at a low level or experiences a fault, the TriopusNet system releases a fresh node from
the repository and runs a node replacement algorithm to replace the failed node with the fresh one [49].
TriopusNet is able to use fewer sensor nodes to cover a sensing area in the pipes while maintaining network
connectivity among nodes with high data collection rate. TriopusNet scales down human effort in deploying
and maintaining WSN infrastructure inside pipes [49]. However, the benefits and feasibility of TriopusNet has
been tested using an experimental study.
Figure 11: An overview of TriopusNet. The sensor nodes are released from the water inlet points.
Adopted from Tsung-Te Lai, et al. [49].
3.4 Hydraulic Techniques (Experimental Techniques)
3.4.1 Steady State Methods

3.4.1.1 Mass Balance Method
Mass balance is the most commonly used steady state leak detection method due to its simplicity. The basic
principle behind this method is that the total volume entering a pipeline must be equal to the total volume
exiting [13]. If there is a difference, then a leak exists. While this method is useful for leak detection, it cannot
find leak locations. For the leak to be located, the network must be broken down into subsections, each
supplied by single supply main. A mass audit is performed for each subsection and a stepwise elimination
method is used to gradually remove the subsections that are free from the leaks. This method can be time
consuming as a volumetric system balance must be performed over a significant period of time to minimise
errors. A full water audit may take a number of months to successfully isolate a problem to a single pipe
section. Also, the accuracy of this method hinges on the accuracy of the measuring instrument and size of
the leak.
3.4.1.2 Line Pressure Measurement Method

Line pressure measurements are often used in conjunction with the mass balance method. A leak reduces
flow downstream and changes the slope of the hydraulic grade line. Predicted hydraulic grade lines from flow
measurements can be compared to pressure measurements taken at particular points along with the system.
Discrepancies between the two are indicative of leaks [13].

These steady state techniques are successful in controlled situations, however, such techniques have proven
difficulties in operating pipelines. The primary problem with these techniques is that each measurement
station under steady state flow results only in a single data point. A higher number of measurement stations
and several experiments under different conditions are required to produce sufficient data for analysis [13].
3.4.2 Unsteady State Hydraulic Methods

3.4.2.1 Transient Reflection Method (TRM)
The transient reflection method (TRM), which is also referred to as the time-domain reflectometry (TDM) is a
method whereby the system response is analysed in the time domain and a fault can be detected by the
signal reflected from it. TRM relies on the differentiation of a referred signal by identifying the discrepancies
between measured results with the fault-free benchmark results. The benchmark results can be obtained
from a fault-free laboratory system, or from an accurate numerical model of the pipe system [14].
Brunone [50] introduced the theory to use the generated transient to detect leaks by measuring the arrival time
of a reflected wave and verified it by an experiment in a single polyethylene pipe, while the background noise
disturbed the identification of signals. The experimental validation was improved by Brunone and Ferrante [51]
to identify the leak location more accurately. Beck, et al. [52] used the cross-correlation method to reduce the
problem of disturbance and detected more pipeline features in a T-junction network. Meniconi, et al. [53]
applied the TRM to detect the location of an illegal side branch in a complex laboratory pipe system. The
experiment performed well, but uncertainty about factors like friction and unaccounted for reflections in real
systems may complicate practical application. Recent studies have improved the application of TRM by
utilising methods and algorithms such as cepstrum analysis [54], wavelet analysis [55, 56], cumulative sum
method [57], and curve fitting based on artificial neural networks [58].
TRM methods are so far used only in single pipe case studies in laboratory conditions [14].
3.4.2.2 Transient Damping Method (TDM)

In TDM it is analytically derived that friction related transient damping in a pipeline without a leak is
exponential and the corresponding damping in a pipeline contacting a leak is approximately exponential [59].
Faults usually modifies the damping pattern, so they can be detected by comparing the induced damping
pattern with the fault-free benchmark in the same pipeline system. The rate of the leak-induced damping
depends on leak characteristics, the pressure in the pipe, the location of the transient generation point and
the shape of the generated transients [12]. The transient damping approach introduced by Wang, et al. [59]
performed a Fourier series analysis to solve the linearised differential equations.
Tests on a laboratory pipeline showed successful leak detection but in a real situation, friction is not the only
cause of transient damping. Transient damping can be caused by other physical elements like joints,
connections, fire hydrants, and pipe wall deterioration. The modelling of these elements can be complicated
and in some cases even impossible. Therefore it may be difficult to estimate the leak-free damping for a real
pipeline.

3.4.2.3 System Response Method (SRM)
The main principle of the system response method (SRM) is to utilise all the information (i.e. reflection and
damping effects) contained in the transient signal of the system response to identify and locate the faults by
comparing the results from a pipeline with and without faults [14]. The pipe system is considered as a
transformation that can produce an output of the measured pressure response by using each given input of
the transient injected to the system. A complicated input is divided into a series of weighted unit impulses,
and the overall system response is obtained by a process known as convolution, which adds the contributions
from the entire input signal. The function relating the input and output signals indicates all information about
the behaviour and features of the pipe systems [14].
The impulse response function (IRF) converts the output signal in the trace into sharp impulses with well-
defined spikes. The IRF is found by a process known as deconvolution, however this is complicated for
finding the IRF for the original system output. This can be done alternatively by first finding the Frequency
response function (FRF) and removing the high frequency components which correspond to the system noise
[42]. IRF has been used previously for real-time single pipeline leak detection by Liou [60]. Kim [61] integrated
genetic algorithm into the impulse response method (IRM) in which location and size of a leak were calibrated.
Lee, et al. [57] validated the IRM using an experimental study and demonstrated the impact of single bandwidth
and background noise on extracted IRF. Experimental study for a single pipeline using IRF to detect
distributed deterioration by determining the variation of pipe wall thickness was done by Gong, et al. [62].
The lack of information about tests in real pipeline systems where noisy data would be used makes it a less
viable method when compared with the Transient Reflection Method (TRM) and Inverse Transient Method
(ITM). The IRF has the advantage that it is independent of the input signal shape and is specific for each pipe
system [57].
The frequency response function (FRF) method for leak detection examines the transient response of a
system in the frequency domain. Lee, et al. [63] introduced two transient leak detection techniques for locating
single as well as multiple leaks by explaining the nature of resonance peaks in a frequency response diagram.
Duan, et al. [4] observed the blockage-induced changes to the resonant frequencies and developed another
method for blockage detection. The resonant frequency shifts caused by blockages in a pipe system is
studied by conducting a transient wave perturbation analysis. The accuracy of the method has been validated
using numerical application and experimental tests [4].
Unlike the IRM, the performance of FRM is closely related to the shape of the input transient. FRM analyses
transient response in the frequency domain, and it is equivalent to the IRM in the time domain describing the
system response from a transient excitation [14].

3.4.2.4 Inverse Transient Method (ITM)
In the inverse transient method (ITM), first, the transient state is initiated by opening or closing a controlled
valve over a short time period. Afterwards, transient pressure fluctuations are measured at multiple selected
points in the system [14]. The measurement points are usually located close to the transient generation point.
The transient condition of the pipe system is then numerically modelled as a function of pipeline features,
fault parametres, and friction factors. The location and size of the leaks are determined by the minimisation
of the deviation between the measured and calculated pressure data.
The ITM is a well-researched topic but since its beginning, the main effort has been focused on the
development of the mathematical part of the technique and not an experimental validation or field testing [64].
The tests are made on a single pipeline rather than on a network. Application difficulties lie in the fact that
ITM needs an accurate modelling of the transients and boundary conditions of the pipe systems.
Factors influencing effectiveness of unsteady state hydraulic methods
Condition monitoring using fluid transients requires the generation of highly controlled pressure signals in the
field, often against significant system back pressure and a confusing array of background traffic and fluid
turbulence noise [42]. Since most water pipelines run alongside traffic routes, the generation of the signal
should be carried out quickly, non-intrusively and with a minimal loss of water. This combination of
requirements poses significant challenges for researchers in the field and transient tests were often carried
out in the middle of the night where the background noise and traffic volume are low [42].

4 Evaluation of Techniques
Table 1: Detailed summary of Condition Assessment Technologies for Water Transmission, Distribution and Wastewater Conveyance Pipelines
Condition Description Advantages Disadvantages Pipe Material Pipe Diameter Access Accuracy * Water/ Breadth of use Source of
Assessment Suitable Suitable information
Technology Waste-Water/
Storm-Water
Visual inspection Assesses the
condition of
the internal or
external
surface of a
pipe by visual
inspection
a. CCTV Pipe Visual  Works under  Requires Any 150 to 3000 mm Via an existing All 3 types of Available in NZ. http://www.detec
Inspection inspection via traffic noise skills and air valve or pipes tionservices.com
internal  Air and gas operator similar entry .au/services/pip
condition pockets and  Intrusive eline-condition-
assessment of leak detection technique assessment/pip
a pipe  Works on live  Operates in e-inspector/
network up to 100 bar
 Highly pressure
sensitive leak environments
detection to the
smallest leak
 No pre-
cleaning of a
pipe is needed
Acoustic Uses sound
inspection waves to
determine the
location and
extent of flaws
in pipes
a. Free- Detects leaks  Can survey long  May not work in Any ≥200 mm Insertion and High Water and https://puretechlt
Swimming and air pipelines with a very high water extraction Wastewater d.com/technolog
Leak pockets in single pressure (> points, valve, y/smartball-leak-
Detection medium and deployment 400 𝑃𝑆𝐼) hot tap detection/
Device large diameter  Can detect very  For very long connection
pipes small noise pipe length,
disturbances may require a
 Can be used surface sensor
while in service  Estimation of
leak magnitude
is qualitative
 Intrusive
technology

bipnz.org.nz |39
[email protected] 39
Storm-Water
b. Tethered Leak Inspects in-  Sensitive to  Intrusive Any > 150 𝑚𝑚 One insertion High Water and https://puretechlt
Detection service water small leaks technology point Wastewater d.com/technolog
Tool mains for  Surface  Requires y/sahara-leak-
leaks, air tracking can access point gas-pocket-
pockets, map the (insertion detection/
visible defects, pipeline under point)
and wall inspection  Ground cover
thickness of  Can be used up to 10 𝑚
metallic pipe for any pipe
using tethered size >
equipment 150 𝑚𝑚
 Can be used
while in
service
c. Leak Noise A system for  Works under  Information Any Via fire hydrant Water mains Commercially Hunaidi, et al.
Correlators locating leaks in traffic noise about the leak used in [25]
(Technique – all types of  Works in live size is not Australia, the
1) pipes networks available from U.K. and other https://www.ech
 Identifies all the test countries. Not ologics.com/pro
minor and  Sensor available in NZ. ducts/leakfinder
major leaks spacing is st/
 Non-intrusive influenced by
technique both the pipe
 Uses a low- diameter and
frequency material
vibration  May be
sensor to susceptible to
locate leaks interference
in plastic from low
pipes frequency
vibration
d. Leak Noise Identifies  Works under Any 100 𝑡𝑜 300 𝑚𝑚 Via fire hydrant Water mains Commercially https://www.ech
Correlators leaks for a traffic noise used in the ologics.com/serv
(Technique – variety of pipe  Works on U.S.A and ices/small-
2) materials and live network Canada. Not diameter-leak-
large diameter  Can find any available in NZ. monitoring/echo
mains types of shore-dx/
leaks
e. Leak Noise For leak  Works under Any > 400 𝑚𝑚 Via existing Transmission Commercially https://www.ech
Correlators detection in all traffic noise chamber, main used in the ologics.com/serv
(Technique – transmission  Works on live purpose-built U.K., the U.A.E., ices/large-
3) main pipelines network access, above the U.S.A., the diameter-leak-
 Identifies all ground utility Netherlands, detection/echos
minor and box, and direct Singapore, and hore-tx/
major leaks to pipe Canada. Not
available in NZ.


bipnz.org.nz |40
Storm-Water
f. Pipeline For condition  Works under Metallic, AC, 400 𝑡𝑜 2200 𝑚𝑚 Water Commercially https://www.ech
Condition assessment traffic noise Cast Iron, transmission used in the ologics.com/serv
Assessment and finding  Works on live Ductile Iron, and distribution U.S.A. Not ices/condition-
Technique leaks of network Steel and mains available in NZ. assessment/epu
transmission  Identifies all mortar lined, lse/
and minor and and pre-
major leaks stressed
distribution
concrete
mains
Electromagnetic Inspects
Techniques ferromagnetic
pipes using
electromagneti
c technology
a. Free- For condition  Can detect  Data PCCP and 400 𝑡𝑜 3000 𝑚𝑚 Via chamber, Water and Commercially https://puretechlt
Swimming assessment of broken wire interpretation metallic pipes open channel or Wastewater used in the d.com/technolog
Tool PCCP and wraps, needs (ductile iron small hot tap U.S.A., the U.K., y/pipediver-
metallic pipes sedimentation, experience and and steel) Canada and the condition-
(Ductile Iron corrosion, skill. Netherlands. assessment/
and Steel) anomaly and Not available in
remaining pipe NZ. https://www.wrc-
life infrastructure.co.
 Works on live uk/technologies/
network pipediver%C2%
AE/
b. Remote Field Inspects  Can detect  Data PCP, cast iron 50 to 3000 mm Via chamber, Water and Commercially https://www.russ
Testing ferromagnetic broken wire interpretation open channel or Wastewater used in the elltech.com/New
pipes and wraps, needs small hot tap U.S.A., the U.K., s/PID/719/ev/1/T
ferromagnetic sedimentation, experience and Canada and the agID/7/TagNam
components of corrosion, skill. Netherlands. e/See-Snake
composite anomaly and Not available in
pipes remaining pipe NZ.
life
 Works on live
network
c. Pipe PPR can be  Works on live  Data All non-ferrous 200 𝑡𝑜 450 𝑚𝑚 Via manned Water and https://sewervue
Penetrating used to detect network interpretation pipes (e.g. entry or with Waste Water .com/pipelines2
Radar (PPR) pipe wall needs reinforced remotely opera- 017-
fractures, experience and concrete, ted vehicles presentation-
changes in skill. vitrified clay, (ROVs). ppr.html
material, asbestos
cement, PVC,
reinforcing
High density
location and
polyethylene
placement,
(HDPE))
and pipe wall
thickness

bipnz.org.nz |41
Storm-Water
Fibre Optics Involves the
Sensing installation of
Techniques a fibre optic
cable to
measure the
temperature
over the entire
pipeline length
a) Integrated Mainly used  Works on live Any All diameter via specially Water Commercially https://www.cral
Smart Monitoring for water network range installed transmission used in Spain. ey.com/aiguees-
Technique transmission  Works on messenger pipe and distribution Not available in vic-choose-ism-
and single pipes called Atlantis main NZ. for-leak-det
distribution and pipe Hydrotec
mains for leak networks
detection
Sensor Time-based
Techniques techniques for
the inspection,
monitoring
and condition
assessment of
buried pipes
a. inSCAN For leak  Works on live  Data Any ≥ 300 𝑚𝑚 Via 50 mm or Water Commercially http://www.detec
detection and network interpretation larger tapping or transmission available in tionservices.com
pipe condition  Can work on needs valve (mainly trunk Australia and .au/services/pip
assessment pipe networks experience and mains) and NZ eline-condition-
 Long skill. waste water assessment/insc
inspection an/
distance up to
14 km of a
pipeline
 Can detect all
types of leaks,
air pockets,
blockages,
debris, and
condition
assessment

bipnz.org.nz |42
Storm-Water
b. p-CAT For pipe  Can work on  Data Concrete and ≥ 400 𝑚𝑚 Via air valves Water Commercially http://www.detec
condition pipe networks interpretation AC pipes transmission available in tionservices.com
assessment  Long needs (mainly trunk Australia and .au/services/pip
inspection experience and mains) and NZ eline-condition-
distance up to skill. waste water assessment/p-
14 km of a cat/
pipeline
 Can determine
remaining
thickness of
pipe wall to 0.2
mm accuracy
over long
section of a
pipeline
 Can detect
deterioration,
pipe material
changes,
cement
material
changes,
cement matric
loss from AC
pipes,
blockages, air
and gas
pockets
c. Multisensor Mainly used  Can work on  Data reinforced 200 𝑡𝑜 450 𝑚𝑚 Via manned Waste water Commercially https://sewervue
Inspection for detecting live pipe interpretation concrete, entry or with available in .com/multi-
(MSI) System defects and networks needs vitrified clay, remotely Canada, Hong sensor-pipe-
cavities for  Can detect experience and AC, PVC, High operated Kong and inspection-
non-ferrous pipe wall skill. density vehicles (ROVs) France. Not system.html
pipes of all fractures, wall polyethylene available in NZ.
shapes and thickness,
sizes rebar cover,
delami-nation,
voids
 Long
inspection
distance up to
3 km of a
pipeline
d. SurgeView To monitor  Can work on  Data Any Any Via hydrants, Water, waste Commercially https://www.vise
water live pipe interpretation pipe taps or water, available in nti.com/surgevie
networks for networks needs valves storm Australia, NZ, w
the presence  For pipe leak experience and water the U.K.,
of damping detection and skill. Singapore, and
pressure condition UAE
surges assessment

bipnz.org.nz |43
Storm-Water
e. LeakView To detect  Can work on  Data AC pipes, All ≥ 100 𝑚𝑚 Via hydrants, Water Commercially https://www.vise
background live pipe interpretation metal pipes, pipe taps distribution, and available in nti.com/leakview
existing leaks, networks needs and all plastic transmission Australia, NZ,
leak growing  For pipe leak experience and pipes mains the U.K.,
over time and detection skill. Singapore, and
newly UAE
occurring
burst
Unsteady state For the

Hydraulic purpose of
techniques pipe fault
detection by
using the
sound
generated
through the
pipeline
operation or
through
continuous
discharge of
water to
specifically
generate a
pressure wave
a. Pipe SONAR piezoelectric  Can work AC, Cast iron, 100 to Via fire hydrant Water Commercially
system actuator for under traffic ductile iron, 600 mm distribution and available in NZ
transient noise and fluid PVC, reinforced transmission and China
signal turbulence concrete, steel mains
generation  Used for
condition
assessment of
pipes and
valves
 Works on live
network
* H= High degree of Accuracy (approximately >80%), M= Moderate degree of accuracy (approximately 50%), L= Low degree of accuracy (approximately 10%)

bipnz.org.nz |44
5 Conclusions
As water pressure pipe networks age, they are exposed to continuous stress from operational and
environmental conditions. As a consequence, these systems may deteriorate structurally and hydraulically,
adversely impacting water quality, leakage, and reliability. Effective management of these assets requires
condition assessment, which includes the collection of information on their condition, analysis of that
information, and transformation of this information into knowledge, leading to effective decisions regarding
renewal.
This report summarises available condition assessment technologies for New Zealand’s pressurized water
network, including transmission and water mains. The detailed description of the performance of each
technology is provided in Section 3 and a summary of each technology in Table 1. There are currently a
number of technologies that are commercially available internationally for leak detection and structural
integrity monitoring of water pressure pipe networks. However, the results of a survey conducted by the BIP
of NZ councils, asking them to identify the number of techniques currently used by them for assessing the
condition of pressure pipe, revealed that only a few techniques out of those listed in this report have been
used. Techniques for condition assessment of pressure pipes currently used by NZ councils, according to
the respondents of the survey, are as follows:
 Pipe cut-off samples for testing pipe condition (CT scan)

 Desktop assessment based on AC pipe manual guidelines [65]
 Opportunistic visual inspection information obtained when a pipe fails/bursts
 Monitoring water main failure through asset management systems, seeking to identify root causes of
failure and undertaking statistical sampling
 Hydrant flow testing of cast iron mains to monitor tuberculation, and through sampling to determine
asset condition of the pipe
 Using sensor techniques for leak detection provided by Visenti [41]
However, no specific recommendations are made or implied by this report. Utility owners are encouraged to
undertake their own due diligence on each approach, to determine their specific needs and to consider the
accuracy, cost effectiveness, track record and other specific requirements of the various technologies, when
planning their condition assessment program.

bipnz.org.nz | [email protected]
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Review of Condition Assessment

Techniques for Pressure Pipes

This report is an output from the Quake Centre’s Building

 John Mackie - Golder Associates (NZ) Limited

Information contained in this report has been obtained from sources

BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

This project involved researching and categorising condition assessment

BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

2.1 Pressurised Pipe System

BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

2.3 Valves and Appurtenances

2.3.1 Types of Valves

BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

2.4 Pipe Materials

2.5 Flow Meters

BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

 Mechanical flow meters

 Electromagnetic flow meters

 Ultrasonic flow meters

2.6 Pipe Leak Detection

BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

2.7 Factors Influencing Pipe Failures

BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

3.1 Non-hydraulic Leak Detection Techniques (commercially available)

3.1.1 Visual Inspection

Name CCTV Pipe Inspection

3.1.2 Acoustic Methods

BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

Name Free-swimming leak detection device

BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

3.1.2.2 Tethered Leak Detection Tool

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Name Tethered leak detection tool

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3.1.2.3 Leak Noise Correlation (Technique 1)

Name Leak Noise Correlation (Technique - 1)

Name Leak Noise correlator (Technique – 2)

Status Commercially available

BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

3.1.2.5 Leak Noise Correlation (Technique 3)

Name Leak noise correlation (Technique – 3)

3.1.2.6 Pipeline Condition Assessment Technique

Name Pipeline condition assessment technique

Factors influencing effectiveness of acoustic methods

3.1.3 Electromagnetic Methods

BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

Name Free-swimming tool

3.1.3.2 Remote Field Testing

BUILDING INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP

3.1.3.3 Pipe Penetrating Radar (PPR)

Name Pipe Penetrating Radar (PPR)

3.1.4 Fibre Optics Sensing Techniques

Name Integrated Smart Monitoring (ISM)