Curriculum Development in VTE - Finch
Curriculum Development in VTE - Finch
Curriculum Development in VTE - Finch
Curriculum Development
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in Vocational and
Technical Education
Planning," Content, and
Implementation
Curtis R. Finch
John R. C!'unkilton
Virginia Fulytechnic Institute and State University
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Copyright © 1999,1993, 1989, 1984, 1979 by Allyn & Bacon
A Viacom Company
Internet: www.abacon.com
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Curriculum Development
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Technical Education
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Contents
Acknowledgments xv
Introduction 3
Historical PeTf;':xtives 3
Technical Education 18
Related References 24
, ·'1:
Introduction 25
Selected Designs 30
Summary 39
Related References 41
vii
viii Contents
Introduction 45
Decision-Making Strategies 53
Summary 71
Related References 72
Introduction 75
Education Programs 76
Assessing Facilities 92
Summary 93
Related References 93
Introduction 95
The Community 95
Summary 124
Contents ix
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SECTION III Establishing the Curriculum Content 127
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Introduction 129
In trospection 140
Summaty 160
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Introduction 165
Summary 177
;;.
Introduction 179
Summary 203
x Contents
Introduction 207
Summary 221
Related References
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223
Introduction 225
Process 237
Summary 246
Transition 249
Introduction 249
Summary 268
Contents xi
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Introduction 271
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A Framework for Assessment 272
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Utilizing Assessment Results for Curriculum Improvement 299
Summary 301
Index 311
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Preface to the Fifth Edition
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This book is meant to fill an obvious void in the professional vocational and
technical education literature. For some time there has been a need for a book
that presents sound, usable principles for curriculum development in voca
~
tional and technical education. We have accepted the challenge to meet this
need and the result of our effort can be seen herein. Persons who will find
"< this content directly applicable to their professional areas include vocational
and technical instructors, curriculum coordinators, principals, directors, and
state education agency staff, as well as training specialists in the private sec
tor. Much of the material has relevance to anyone who is involved in cur
riculum development work.
The content focuses on vocational and technical education curriculum
development from a general perspective. Basic curriculum principles and
strategies are presented that apply to a number of vocational areas. These, in
tum, are supplemented by practical examples that deal with curriculum
development in specific areas. Concerns associated with secondary and post
secondary curriculum development are discussed as appropriate to ensure
• that both of these important areas are adequately covered.
We have had discussions with numerous people who are using this book
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and many of their comments and suggestions have been incorporated into .
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the fifth edition. EX!lmples of these changes include details about new cur
riculum design and implementation strategies, a discussion of curriculum
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development for school-to-work transition, and how the Internet nlay be
used to access useful curriculum information.
Section I of this edition focuses on curriculum development in a more
general context. Chapter 1 conceptualizes curriculum as related to vocational
and technical education. Contemporary designs for curriculum deveivpment
are provided in Chapter 2. These include systems and models that may be
applied to a range of vocational and technical education and trairting settings.
xiii
xiv Preface to the Fifth Edition
Curtis R. Finch
John R. Crunkilton
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Acknowledgments
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education; however, educators have tended to disregard systems and mod
14, shows how systems and models can be applied in vocational and technical
• school settings. Although both these two chapters are basic to curriculum
development, it is not necessary to read them before proceeding with the
remainder of the book; however, the basic concepts presented in these first
chapters may contribute to a better understanding of curriculum planning,
content, and implementation.
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Curriculum
Development:
An Overview
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IN-:-RODUCTION
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Ever since the term Clll'riClllum was added to educators' vocabularies, it has
seemed to com'ey many things to many people. To some, curriculum has
denoted a specific course, while to others it has meant the entire educational
environment. Whereas perceptions of the term may vary, it must be recognized
that curriculum encompasses more than a simple definition. Curriculum is a
key element in the educational process; its scope is extremely broad, and it
touches virtually everyone who is invoh ed with teaching and learning.
This volume focuses on curriculum within the context of vocational and
technical education. In no other area has greater emphasis been placed upon
the development of curricula that are relevant in terms of student and com
munitv needs and substantive outcomes. The vocational and technical cur
riculum focuses not only on the educational process but also on the tangible
.. results of that process. This is only one of many reasons why the vocational
fo and technical curriculum is distinctive in relation to other curricular areas and
.. why vocational education curriculum planners must have a sound under
standing of the curriculum development process.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
Several factors have appeared to cause the differences that currently exist
betvv'een the \'ocational and technical curriculum and curricula in other areas.
3
4 Section I: Curriculum Development in Perspective
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Perhaps ~e f~i~~i.til~ is historis:al influence. History has an impor
tant mess~g~~.~c~e¥\ ~fqat:a~t~~4e;nt~ of the c?ntemporary v?cational
and technicah:t1oi'iWwn'an'Cl prQ.vide~ a mbst mearungful perspective to the
curriculuni devel9pe(CurriCul~a~' vJe ¥"tow it today has evolved over the
years from a narrow set of disjointed 6ff~rings to a comprehensive array of
relevant student learning experiences. ..!
Thus, the earliest form of education for work was organized in such a way
that basic knowledge could be developed in a classroom setting and applied
skills could be developed "on the job."
Even as organized apprenticeship programs began to flourish, this same
basic arrangement persisted. Apprenticeship programs initiated in ancient
Palestine, Greece, and other countries followed a similar pattern with young
sters learning a craft or trade through close association with an artisan.
Although apprenticeship programs expanded rapidly as various skilled
areas became more specialized, reliance continued to be placed on training
in the actual work setting-which, in most cases, consisted of conscious imi
tation. The apprenticeship form of instruction thus remained virtually
unchanged until the nineteenth century.
Alternatives to Apprenticeship
By· the sixteenth century, alternatives to apprenticeship were being strongly
considered. The educational schemes of philosophers such as Comenius and
Locke proposed inclusion of manual arts. Samuel Hartlib set forth a proposal
to establish a college of agriculture in England. Thc::;e and other events in the
Realism Movement resulted in trade subjects and practical arts being intro
duced into formal education. The Age of Reason, likewise,became a cata
lyst for shifting away from the traditional apprenticeship system.
Chapter 1: Curriculum Development: A11 Overview 5
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,
Rousseau's concern about the value of manual arts in education served as
.; a model for other educators such as Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel. As
Bennett (1926) indicates, Rousseau's "recognition of the fact that manual
arts may be a means of mental training marked the beginning of a new era
of education."
With the advent of the Industrial Revolution in the early 1800s, appren
ticeship began a steady decline. The great demand for cheap, unskilled labor
obviously could not be met through apprenticeship programs, and many
newly established industrial firms did not desire persons with such extensive
training as wa~provided through the traditional leamer-artisan relationship.
H9wever, as the Industrial Revolution progressed, owners and managers
soon began to realize that skilled workers would be a definite asset to an orga
nization. This increased demand almost seemed to correspond with the rapid
decline of formal apprenticeship programs in many skilled areas.
(a) 4l the least possible time; (b) in such a way as to make possible
the giYing of adequate instruction to a large number of sh'dents at
one time; (c) by a method that wouid give to the study of practical
shopwork the character of a sound, systematical acquirement of
knowledge; and (d) so as to enable the teacher to determine the
..
progress of each student at any time. (Bennett, 1937)
Using these basic principles, Della Vos set up separate shops in the areas
.. :" of carpentry, joinery, blacksmithing, and metal turning where students com
pleted graded exercises that were organized logically and according to diffi
culty (Lannie, 1971). The Russian system, which was noted by many
Americans, had a most substantial impact on Calvin Woodwar-.t and John
Runkle. Woodward ini.tiated a manual training school at Washington
University in St. Louis that closely paralleled the system developed by Della
Vos. Runkle, who served as president of Massachusetts Institute of
6 Section I; Curriculum Development in Perspective
Technology, favored the Russian system to the extent that practical shop
instruction was initiated for engineering students, and a secondary school of
mechanical arts was established on the M.LT. campus. These pioneer efforts
served as important precursors of the contemporary vocational and techni
cal curriculum.
The successes of Runkle and Woodward generated great interest in this
form of instruction, and soon manual training began to spring up in a num
ber of schools around the United States. Shopw6rk was even introduced into
the elementary schools and, by the late 1800s, it was a formal pait of many
grammar schools across the nation. However, this progress did not serve as
the best substitute for apprenticeship. Manual training and other forms of
practical arts such as domestic science represented course work of a voca
1/
tional nature but these courses were incidental or supplementary to the pri
mary function of the school" (Roberts, 1971). In response to this deficiency,
sch<?ols began to organize so that students could be prepared to enter work
in a variety of occupational areas. During the late 1800s and early 1900s, tech
nical institutes, trade schools, commercial and business schools, and agricul
tural high schools began to flourish. Many of the offerings provided in these
schools were similar in scope to those found in today's comprehensive high
schools and community colleges. However, the standards associated with
these programs were quite lax or even nonexistent. Quality was at best a·
local matter and, more often than not, did not extend beyond the concern of
the individual instructor. The result was a considerable amowlt of inconsis
tency in quality among programs across the nation.
By 1900, a rather strong public sentiment for vocational education had
developed. As the Industrial Revolution continued to expand, a need for
skilled workers increased. This need was expressed by both business-people
and labor leaders. Rural America began seriously to question the relevance
of traditional education and sought to have agriculture playa more impor
tant role in the school program. These feelings were more formally present
ed to the federal government by way of national organizations. Groups such
as the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education and the
Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations led the way in
terms of securing federal aid for vocational education. '
However, the movement to secure federal support for vocational educa
tion was not without controversy. The pressure to institute vocational edu
cation legislation opened a debate between those who believed public
schools were places where only liberal studies should be taught and those
who believed vocational education should be incorporated into the school
curriculum. In essence, the choice of that time was "whether schools are to
become servants of .technocratic eftlciency needs, or whether they can act to
help [persons] humanize life under technology" (Wirth, 1972, p. 1). During
Chapter 1: Curriculum Development: An Overview 7
the School-to-Work Acts philosophically align much more closely with the
views of John Dewey than those espoused by Charles Prosser. With their
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emphasis on exposing students to broad, thematic curricula where students
can learn in contextual ways, these more recent laws reflect many of Dewey's
ideas about schools and schooling. It is indeed unfortunate that he could not
be present to see some of his views incorporated into national legislation
(Finch, 1997)..
'"
10 Section I: Curriculum Development in Perspective
Goals of Education
Superimposed on the formal and informal elements of education are two cat
egories that reflect the broad goals associated with it. These two types of edu
cation may be referred to as educationJor life and education Jor earning a living.
As may be noted in FIgure 1-1, the two are not mutually exclusive. Dealing
with these two broad goals as separate entities is sometimes quite difficult, if
not impossible. Each must be considered in light of the other. Basic prepara
tion for life as part of one's high school education may serve as a foundation
for postsecondary education or earning a living. Likewise, education for
earning a living, received early in one's life, might serve to let an individual
know that a certain occupation would or would not be satisfying to that per
son. However, a continued interest in t..l)e field, together with education b
that area, might nurture a strong avocational involvement.
One should remember that each of these types of education can be facil
itated in formal and informal ways. For example, a youngster who takes a
part-time job as a service station ath;;.tldant to earn some extra money might
find that some of this experience makes a direct contribution to a formal
school-based auto mechanics program. On the ot.. .ter hand, this same experi
ence could make the Student a bett,::r citizen by serving as a realistic example
of how our free enterprise system operates. Whether the experience is prepa
ration for life or for earning a living, education may be provided through for
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tional and technical education, but how those learning activities and experi
ences should relate to the student's more general studies.
The foregoing concepts also support the notion that a curriculum should
focus on developing the whole person. It is not enough to have the curricu
lum include courses and experiences that are exclusively related to voca
tional education. General studies are clearly a part of every curriculum as
they serve to provide the student with a broad knowledge base both for life
and for earning a living. Likewise, the curriculum builder must keep in minci
how general and vocational studies are intertwined. Life-related content
such as mathematics, communication skills, and science is a meaningful con
tributor to content for earning a living and vice versa. Thus, as the curricu
lum is being designed and implemented, consideration must be given to
how these two content areas may be closely integrated rather than segregat
ed from each other.
and specific strategies. are designed to aid the student in learning this con
tent. Figure 1-2 pro\'ides a visual description of possible shared unique areas
." associated with instructional development and curriculum development.
Although each area focuses on a number of rather unique concerns, many
aspects of development could be classed as either curriculum or instruction.
The shared aspects of curriculum and instructional development sometimes
become unique to one area or the other based on the person or persons
involved in the de\'elopment process as well as those who will eventually
benefit from this development. If one instructor were writing objectives for
his or her course, this activity might be classed as instructional development.
However, if a group of instructors were writing objectives for use in their
courses and, perhaps, other instructors' courses, the activity might be con
sidered as curriculum development. The distinguishing differences between
these two areas become the scope of the development process and the extent
of generalizability. If the development process involves a number of profes
sionals and the product of this effort will be usable by a number of instruc
tors, the process is more correctly termed curriculum developm.ent.
Instructional development is best viewed as usually involving one profes
sional (typically an instructor) in the process of preparing for his or her own
classes. Although the distinctions between curriculum development and
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instructional development are not as clear as many would like them to be,
they serve fairly well to identify each process.
It should be noted that most discussions presented in this book will center on
the vocational and technical education curriculum. One must, however, rec
ognize that from a conceptual point of view the ideal curriculum is neither
"academic" nor "vocational and technical." Vocational and technical curricu
lum terminology is used throughout this text merely as a means of empha
sizing this area of study within the total curriculum and highlighting the
unique aspects of vocational and technical education curriculum building.
Even though vocational and technical education is included within the
overall framework of education, the vocational and technical curriculum
has certain characteristics that distinguish it from the rest of the education
al milieu. These characteristics represent a curricular focus that may be best
associated with curriculum building, maintenance, and immediate and
long-term outcomes. Whereas each of characteristics is, to a greater or
lesser degree, associated with other curricula (e.g., general or academic),
their influence on the vocational and technical curriculum development
process is important to note. Collectively, they represent the potential para
meters of any curriculum that has as its controlling purpose the prepara
tion of persons for useful, gainful employment. These basic characteristics
of the vocationai and technical curriculum include orientation, justification,
focus, in-school success standards, out-of-school success standards, school
community relationships, federal involvemem, responsiveness, logistics,
and expense. .
Orientation
Traditionally, the vocational and technical curriculum has been product- or
graduate-oriented. Although a major concern of vocational education has
been to provide a means for each student to achieve curricular outcomes, the
ultimate outcome is more far-reaching than the educational process. The ulti
mate success of a vocational and technical curriculum is not measured mere
ly through student educational achievement but through the results of that
achievement-results that take the form of performance in the work world.
Thus, the vocational and technical curriculum is oriented toward process
(experiences and activities within the school setting) and product (effects of
these experiences and activities on former students).
Chapter 1: Curriculum Development: An Overview 15
Justification
Unlike its academic counterpart, the vocational and technical curriculum is
#
based on identified occupational needs of a particular locale. These needs are
not merely general feelings; they are clarified to the point that no question
exists about the demand for workers in the selected occupation or occupa
tional field. Thus, curriculum justification extends beyond the school setting
and into the community. Just as the curriculum is oriented toward the stu
dent, support for that curriculum is derived from employment opportunities
that exist for the graduate. ,- .
Focus
Curricular focus in vocational and technical education is not limited to the
development9f knowledge about a particular area. The vocational and tech
nical curriculum deals directly with helping the stiudent to develop a broad
range of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values, each of which ultimately
contributes in some manner to the graduate'S employability. The vocational
" and technical education learning environment makes provision for student
development of knowledge, manipulative skills, attitudes, and values, as
" well as the integration of these areas and their application to simulated and
realistic work settings. The vocational and educational c:.:rricular focus also
includes the integration of academic studies such as mathematics, commu
nication skills, and science with applied studies so that students are better
able to link these academic content areas to applied vocational and technical
education content. Integration arrangements of this sort are detailed in
Chapter 11.
School-Workplace-Community Relationships
Although it is certainly recognized that any 01.ucational endeavor should
relate in some way to the community, vocational and technical education is
charged with the responsibility of maintaining strong ties with a variety of
agriculture, business, and industry-related areas. In fact, strong
school--workplace-community partnerships exist in many locales. Since
there are a number of potential "customers" in the community who are
interested in products (graduates), the curriculum must be responsive to
community needs. Employers in the community are, likewise, obligated to
indicate what their needs are and to assist the school i:-. meeting these needs.
This assistance might consist of employers serving on curriculum advisory
committees, donating equipment and materials to the schools, or providing
internships and shadowing experiences for students. Whatever relationship
exists between the vocational curriculum and the community, it should be
recognized that strong school-workplace-community partnerships may
often be equated with curriculu.n;t quality and success.
Federal Involvement
Federal involvement with public vocational education has existed for many
years. Ever since the passage of '!le Smith-Hughes Actin 1917, schools that
desired support for the operation of vocational curricula p.ave had to meet
certain requirements. This, of course, means if federal support is desired for
an offering, state and federal requirements must be adhered to. The extent to
Clulpter 1: Curriculum Development: An Overoiew 17
Responsiveness
Another basic characteristic of the vocational and technical curriculum is its
responsiveness to technological changes in our society. Two hundred years
ago, programs and their content that prepared people for work were quite
stable. Typically, the skills and knowledge developed in an apprentice pro
gram would be useful for the rest of one's productive life. Today, however,
the situation is quite different. The Industrial Revolution and, more recently,
the integration of technological concepts into our everyday life have had a
profound impac. un vocational and technical education curricula. The con
temporary vocational curriculum must be responsive to a constantly chang
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ing world of work. New developments in various fields should b~ incorpo
rated into the clrriculum so that graduates can compete for jobs and, once
• they have jobs, achieve their greatest potentiaL
Logistics
Bringing together the proper facilities, equipment, supplies, and instruction
al resources is a major concern to all persons involved in the implementation
of vocational curricula. The logistics associated with maintaining any cur
riculun. are often complex and time-consuming, bt:~ the sheer magnitude of
most vocational curricula makes this factor quite critical to success or failure.
Some logistical concerns are associated with any curriculum. Physics and
chemistry equipment and materials must be available for experiments.
Recording devices must be in proper working order when language labora
tories are being used. Textbooks must be on hand when mathematics and
history classes begin. However, all of the above types of items, and many
" more, might be needed in vocational laboratories across the country. The
highly specialized equipment needed to operate quality prograJ.'nl:> usually
requires regular maintenance and must be replaced as it becomes obsolete.
Materials used in the curriculum must be purchased, stored, inventoried,
replaced, and sometimes sold. The need for coordination of cooperative
vocational programs with businesses and industries in a community work
ing closely to establish arid maintain relevant work stations for students pre
sents a unique set of logistical problems. The logistics associated with oper
18 Section I: Curriculum Development in Perspective
ating a vocational and technical curriculum are indeed complex, and these
complexities need to be taken into account when a curriculum is being estab
lished and after it becomes operational.
Expense
Although the cost of maintaining a vocational curri(:ulum is not inordinate
ly high, the dollars associated with operating certain vocational curricula-are
sometimes considerably more than for their academic counterparts. This
expense may depend on the particular area of instructional emphasis, but
there are some items in the vocational curriculum that show up quite regu
larly. These include basic operating costs such as heating, electricity, and
water; purchase, maintenance, and replacement of equipment; purchaSe of
consumable materials; and travel to work-based learning locations that (he
away from the school. Some of these costs are necessary to operate any
school; however, the vocational and technical curriculuin may often require
greater basic operating expenditures because of facilities that have a large
square footage or equipment such as welders, ovens, or computers that
require large amounts of energy for their operation. Equipment must be
updated periodically if the instructor expects to provide students with real
istic instruction, and this updating process can be very expensive. The ever
increasing costs associated with the purchase of high-qualUy equipment
make this area one of tremendous concern to vocational educators. Finally,
the purchase of consumable materials requires a sustained budgetary com
mitment to the curriculum. Dollars need to be available to buy consumables
as they are used by students throughout the school year. These items are not
limited to pencils and paper; they might include such diverse items as oil,
flour, shampoo, steel, wood, or fertilizer.
Dynamic
It might be said that a static curriculum is a dying curriculum. Just as voca
tional and technical education is in a dynamic state, its curricula must, like
wise, be dynamic. Administrators, curriculum developers, and instructors
inust constantly examine the curriculum in terms of "'That it is doing and how
well it meets student needs. Provision must be mack for curricular revisions,
particularly those modifications that are tangible improvements and not just
change for the sake of change. This does not mean that once each year or so
the curriculum is checked over by a panel of "experts." Provision must be
made to redirect, modify, or even eliminate an existing curriculum any time
20 Section I: Curriculum Development ill Perspective
Explicit Outcomes
Not only must the contemporary vocational and technical curriculum be
responsive to the world of work, it must also be able to communicate this
responsiveness to administrators, teachers, students, parents, and employ
ers. Broadly stated goals are an important part of any curriculum; however,
these goals are only valid to the extent that they can be communicated in a
more explicit manner. Although it is recognized that we cannot state all cur
ricular outcomes in specific measurable terms, many of these outcomes may
be written down in such a manner that the broad curricular goals are made
more quantifiable. To the extent that outcomes are explicit, we will be able to
tell whether students achieve them and how the outcomes relate to a partic
ular occupation or field. This is perhaps the most commanding reason for
ensuring that curriculum outcomes are clear and precise.
Fully Articulated
Although courses and other educational activities contribute to the qual
ity of a curriculum, the way that they are arranged in relation to each
other makes the difference between experiences that are merely satisfac
tory and experiences that are superior. Curriculum articulation may
involve the resolution of content conflicts across different areas or devel
opment of a logical instructional flow from one year to the next.
Articulation might extend to determining the ways cocurricular activities,
such as student vocational organizations, lend support to the rest of the
curriculum or deciding which mathematics concepts should be taught as
a prerequisite and/ or within a particular technical course. It may include
the articulation of curriculum content between vocational and technical
and general education courses.
Curriculum articulation also takes place throughout levels of school
ing. Reduction or elimination of instructional duplication at the secondary
and postsecondary levels might be a major concern of the curriculum
developer as well as those who are funding the offerings. Articulation
across levels also enables both the secondary and the postsecondary
instructor to teach what is best for his or her particular group of students
and to do this in a more efficient manner. In this'regard, articulation may
extend to formal Tpch Prep and 2 + 2 agreements that establish sound cur
riculum linkages.
Chapter 1: Curriculum Development: An Overview 21
"
Realistic
<II
The vocational and technical curriculum cannot operate in a vacuum. If stu
dents are to be prepared properly for employment, the curricular focus must
be one that is relevant. Content is not developed merely on the basis of what
a person should know but also includes what a person should be able to do.
Vocational curriculum content is typically based upon the actual worker's
role with relevant tasks, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values serving as a
foundation for what is to be taught. Great emphasis must be placed upon
practicality. Since the bulk of a worker's time is spent in applied areas, many
student experiences must, likewise, be of a contextual nature. Hands-on
experiences in laboratory and work-based educational settings provide the
student with a relevant means of transferring knowledge, skills, and atti
tudes to the world of work.
Student-Oriented
Most curricula are, to some extent, student-oriented, and curricula in voca
". tional and technical education are certainly no exception. Currently there is
a great deal of conc.:·, about how a curriculum can best meet students'
needs. Various approaches such as team teaching and individualized instruc
tion have been used by instructors to help meet these needs. But, regardless
of the approach an instructor uses, a basic question has to be answered: To
what extent will the approach actually assist students in preparing for
employment?
Another aspect of student orientation deals with the teaching-learning
process. 1'\ot only must the curriculum meet group needs, but there is an
obligation to meet the indivic:.ual student's needs. In 'order for these needs to
be met in an expeditious manner, arrangements could, for example, be made
to provide instruction that accommodates various students' learning styles,
to develop individual work-based learning plans, or to make availal:- 1e alter
nate paths for the achievement of course objectives. Whatever the means
used to assist students, a basic concern should be with the individual and
how he or she may be helped in the best possible ways.
-<
Evaluation-Conscious
Evaluation is perceived by many to be an activity that comes periodically in
conjunction 'with accreditation procedures. Realistically, administrators and
instructors cannot wait that long to find out how successful they have been.
'Curriculum evaluation has to be an on ongoing activity-one that is planned
and conducted in a systematic manner. Anyone who is involved with the
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PASCAS~RJANI
li\-\\VERSnJ\S "EG.tl\\~OG,(t..tM
.. ... ---~~
,
22 Section I: Curriculum Development in Perspective
Future-Oriented
Educators, particularly vocational and technical educators, are very much
concerned about the future. What technological changes might affect the
need for graduates? What types of school laboratories will be needed twen
ty years from now? What sorts of continuing education will be needed by
students who are in school right now? These and other questions are often
raised by educators who think in futuristic terms. Persons responsible for the
contemporary vocational and technical curriculum need to ensure that ongo
ing curricula are considered in relation to what will or may occur in the
future. As decisions are being made about curriculum content and structure,
thought should be given to the future results that might come from those
decisions. Any curriculum that hopes to be relevant tomorrow must be
responsive to tomorrow's as well as today's needs. The extent to which a cur
riculum is successful twenty, thirty, or even forty years from now will be
largely dependent on its future-oriented perspective.
World Class-Focused
In recent years, much discussioll has centered on the world class workplace.
This ic; a place where employees are world class performers and their collective
performance results in products and services that rank among the best and most
competitive in the world. Why does one international hotel chain continue to
expand while another continues to lose customers? Why is the service provid
ed worldwide by car dealerships for a certain brand of automobile consistently
better than the service given by other dealers? Benchmarking against world
class standards, focusing on total quality, and empowering self-directed wor1<;
teams are several of the ways that businesses and mdustries can become world
class. Likewise, curricula that prepare students to work in these businesses and
industries must be sure what is taught includes world class-focused learning
experiences. Before graduating, each student should know what makes the dif
ference between world class and less than world class perfom,tance and be pre
pared to perform in an occupation or field at a world class level. As more and
more companies are faced with worldwide competition, persons who work for
-::"!'._ _, these companies must be ready
' ..... ~~~........ .
RELATED REFERENCES
Bennett, Charles A. History ofManual and Industrial Education up to 1870. Peoria, IlL:
Charles A. Bennett, 1926.
___'. History ofManual and Industri1ll Edllcati(m, 1870 to 1917. Peoria, Ill.: Charles
A. Bennett, 1937.
Davis, O. L., Jr., ed. Perspectives on Curriculum Development, 1776-1976. Washington,
D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1976.
Finch, Curtis R "School-ta-Work Transition in the United States." lntemational
Joumal of Vocational Education and Training, 5, no. 1 (1997): 69-84.
Finch, Curtis R "FoWldations of Vocational Education in the United States." Paper
presented at the Hameenlinna Vocational Teacher Education College,
Hameenlinna, Finland, 1991.
Gray, Kenneth c., and Herr, Edwin. Workforce Education: The Basics. Needham
Heights, Mas".: Allyn & Bacon, 1998.
Lannie, Vmcent P. "The Development of Vocational Education in America: A
Historical Overview." In Vocational Education: Social and Behavioral Perspectives,
,edited by COlrl Schaefer and Jacob Kaufman. Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1971.
Roberts, Roy W. Vocational and Practical Arts Education. New York: Harper and Row,
1971.
Wirth, Arthur G. Education in the Technological Society: The Vocational-Liberal Studies
Controversy in the Early Twentieth Century. Scranton, Pa.: Intj>"'''.'xt, 1991.
*
~2
Contemporary
Designs for
Curriculum
"
Development
INTRODUCTION
25
26 Section I: Curriculum Development in Perspective
Systems Fundamentals
An everyday explanation of a system might be "an organized way of doing
something." This definition, although adequate for simple activities, does
not convey some basic precepts of a true system. To communicate this scope,
a system is defined as a collection of elements, interacting with each other to
achieve a common goal. Since there i<; great concern about dynamic as well as
a static systems, one should note that interactions within a system may cause
change over time. Such changes make a system mC'::! dynamic.
In orc'er to illustrate basic systems concepts, consider the previously
mentioned school climate control system. As noted in Figure 2-1, a thermo
stat detects a difference between the actual temperature and the desired tem
perature. It signals the controls to operate a heating and cooling unit. Once
actual and desired temperatures are equal, the thermostat once again signals
the controls, this time to turn off the heating and cooling unit. In reality, most
systems are not this simple. Changes may occur outside a system that affect
that system. If a door near the thermostat is inadvertently left open and cold
air enters the building at that spot, the heating! cooling unit will operate
even though other parts of the building may be at the proper temperature.
Changes occurring outside the system occur in what may be called the sys- ,
tern environment. Thus, it is important when designing systems to determ.ine
where the boundary exists between a system and its environment.
Chapter 2: Contemporary Designs for Curriculum Development 27
DESIRED HEATING I
TEMPERATURE • THERMOSTAT ~
CONTROLS f-lI- COOLING UNIT
"
ACTUAL TEMPERATURE
~____________________ _ __ J
Educational Systems
Applying these basic notions to education may lead to the system provided
in Figure 2-2. Students entering the program represent input to a .neans of
process (a program). Output from this process is in the form of program grad
uates. Assessment of program graduates (e.g., contributions to society, job
satisfaction, competence attained) serves as feedback for system adjustment.
For example, a lack of graduate competence in certain areas may necessitate
To
the adjustment of learning experiences or revisions to the competencies
themselves. It is important to keep in mind that input, output, and feedback
-:. can have a major impact on a particular educational system. Likewise, the
t'llvirOl1nll!llt within which an educational system operates must be taken into
account. School, community, business, industry, and government are among
many factors external to a program that can influence input, system operation,
and output. Note that if businesses and industries collaborate, they are part
ners in the process in addition to being included in the environment. Figure
2-3 contains a brief glossary of systems-related terms.
The systems approach to education deals with a variety of areas.
Examples would be planning systems, instructional systems, implementa
ENVIRONMENT
(School, Community, Business,
Industry, Government, Etc.)
,.
INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT
(Students) (Program) (Program
Graduates)
I 1
1 1
1 !
1
~ ___ !:~~~~s:.!::____ l
Environment. Context within which the system operates. May place constraints
on system operation.
Feedback. Serves as a means of providing results of system output back into the
system so it can be compared with desired output.
Input. That which enters the system from the environment.
Output. Product of the system that is returned to the environment.
Process. Subprocesses in the system that act on input and transfer it to output.
Models
Curriculum and instructional developers may choose to communicate via
models. A model may be defined as a simplified yet communicable representa
tion of a real-world setting 0;' sj~!lation. Of basic concern is how well the model
communicates what is happening in the real world; if a model can convey
realistically what is going on, it is said to be useful. Models communicate in
several ways: systematically, procedurally, and conceptually. Thus, some
models represent reality via systems whereas others communicate in a linear
fashion or via an arrangeP."":.t of concepts. It should 'be noted that some
models may also be systems, and some systems may be models. In order to
differentiate, one must keep in mind the previously mentioned definitions of
a model and a system. A model that does not meet the standards set forth in
this definition does not qualify as a system. Of course, the literature is replete
with models that are called systems and vice versa. This discl'<;sion merely
serves to heighten the curriculum developer's awareness of such conditions
and, hopefully, clarify what a model is and is not.
30 Section I: Curriculum Development in Perspective
SELECTED DESIGNS
Moving beyond the basics of systems and models, it may be useful to exam
ine some applications of systematic design to vocational and technical edu
cation. Unfortunately, fewer designs have been produced in this area than
would be hoped. Although sound concepts are being used to develop most
vocational curriculum and instructional programs, few developers have cho
sen to approach these tasks using systems concepts. There is, however, a
trend in this directioIl, and it is predicted that future developmental efforts
will utilize systems concepts to a much greater extent.
Designs chosen for inclusion in this chapter reflect the range of possibil
itips available to a developer. Each of the designs represents a somewhat dif
ferent perspective. One can involve a cadre of professionals, whereas anoth
E"r may be more applicable to the individual developer/instructor. One
design may be most effective in a business or industrial training setting,
whereas another utilizes computer interfaCing to tie systems concepts to
teaching and learning.
."
Environment
.. • Economic Forces. Political Forces. Cultural Forces
Organization
• Mission and Strategy. Organization Structure
• Technology. Human Resources
Organization Processes
Environment
'.
FIGURE 2-4 Systems Model for Performance Improvement
Source: Reprinted with permission of the publisher. From Analysis for Improving Performallce,
© 1994 by Richard A Swanson, Berrett-Koehler Publishers,Inc., San Francisco, CA All rights
reserved.
1. The knowledge, skills, and affect required to exit a course are commu
nicated in advance.
2. Course content drives the model. As a result, what is learned and what
is taught are systematically identified.
3. The faculty member who delivers and evaluates the instruction is cen
"'
trally involvd in planning the instruction, thus maximizing the opportuni
ties for successful curriculum implementatipn.
4. The student is the target for content planning, delivery, and evaluation
of instruction.
S. Each content goal is analyzed by the instructor for domain, level, fre
quency, difficulty, purpose, and preferred sequence. This analysis creates a
check-and-balance system to deter:rni",e what, why, where, and when con
tent is included or excluded from a course.
6. Content action verbs are carefully selected and manipulated to ensure
that planning, delivery, and evaluation of instruction is aligned. As a result,
what is planned is taught and what is taught is evaluated.
7. Each content goal requires approXimately three hours of learning time
invested by the student. This results in creation of (a) a direct match
between content goals and performance objectives; (b) a direct match
between the content goals and the lecture, la1:.., or clinical topics; and (c) a sit
uation that facilitates sharing of instructional materials and evaluation
items.
8. Micro-decisions made about course content create macro-based data
that can be used to describe and prescribe the instructional system. Because
these data can be aggregated by program, institution, and state, instructors
are able t~ share instructional planning data, instructional materials, and
test items (Vogler, 1995).
These eight concepts are incorporated into the CPA Model presented in·
Figure 2-5. Planning, delivery, and evaluation aspects of the model utilize
artificial intelligence (AI) application software programs that are employed
by the instructor to build high-quality courses. The expert system software
includes four packages that focus on planning, delivering, evaluating, aIL.:!
analyzing instruction ma systematic and comprehensive manner. Collective
ly, the software packages assist faculty members and trainers in building the
• I , " ~
..
,...", ....................
rmtl'OltMANCE INSTRUCTION
~ "
V()gl~r Curriculum Pedagogy Assessment (CI' A) ~odcl
~~ ........
header true-fal'ie
course description
co'urSl' focus
text & references
evaluation
schedule ~ ----------------------.J~ skill
affective ratings
coul'/iC syllabus, creating lesson plans and modules, developing test items
and ,'xams, conducting internal analyses, developing and delivering exams
via ('l.mputer, and tracking student performance (Instructional Performance
Sys\l'IIlS, Inc. [http://www.ipsiep.com]).
Additionally, a course information system is incorporated into the
mod,'! so information about each course may be aggregated by program,
inslilution, and state with a purpose being to maximize benefits of invest
menl/l in instructional development. The model and AI software have been
used by over 14,000 persons in 200+; organizations (K-12 school districts,
comn\unity colleges, universities, businesses, and industries) to plan, deliv
er, and assess instruction.
,'l
...
~ \ \
-<.,-0 C \ \
r.; ;;
-t~.;!
~<riJ
5
I~
"
'\ " ,
"
"
~
\ \ Specialized
\ \
~ 1::;"13 (Career Cluster) \ Skills, and \ Attitudes
s: ~ "Attitudes " (Occupation)
;0 " "
;~::"'. \. \
I
~·~
s:
..:;
12 '"
~"
\ \
,
.s Extension of Academic
c'"
"';j
.~ .\ \ \
:..:; ;>..11 '" [~Jll~'i.Nll.Itttegr.af.i=
., !
.~
:l:1O
""
" \
\
\
" " \
\
9
""
\
\
"
\
K-8
• Academic Foundations plus
Career Information/Exploration
The three curriculum areas (career cluster, career major, and occupation)
reflect a subtle content shift from core to broad to specialized content as the
student progresses from grade 9 to grade 14+. The dashed lines in Figure 2-6
. reflect the many opportunities that exist for integrating both content and
teaching and thus student learning through both horizontal and vertical
PIU)(lItAM !)fo:S<~UlI'T!ON
!~(lN'r~:NT ~~:I.~:CTli ~N
1, IdimuCy
1 Or.t.ermino behavior
rune-tiona.
importance.
2. ld<nUIY 2. Estimate the
behavior.
instructional time
ccognjti'lt'.
fnr each behavior.
paychomotor.
.fT'~tive', :1. Priorith:c behftvio""
J. ldtntify procc~1I
Knowl~dK@
And knowledgr
PrP<'t''''" 1m..
base.
I.
2.
et('
II. 2.
('Lt.
LESSON STRUI,.'TURING
I
from "conwnt Role playing
E. G.id«l nnnJyl!i~" • Mcdill (C.RJ
practice
F. Unpid«l Slid••
Tranapnrent'iet
practice Videotape
G. Evaluation
H. r...rb..k ~i--"--"""''' I
Understanding
the Thematic
Curriculum
I
Exploring
Curriculum !
. Options I
I
"I
:'-,. !
!
. Considering Considering Considering I
Contextual
Options
Organizational
Options '.'
.'.
Delivery
Options
--j
I
I
I
1
I
1
Considering Linking I
I
Content Curriculum -1
Options with Instruction I
I
I
"
I I
I
Assessing __ J
and Refining
the Curriculum
--~-~---
ways and the curriculum must be assessed and refined. The dashed lines in
Figure 2-8 reflect the need to feed assessment information back to each
design and implementation component in the framework so processes may
be refined as necessary.
SUMMARY
This chapter has presented a brief overview of contemporary def';.gns for cur
riculum development. The benefits of educational systems and models are
quite obvious. These designs can show the relationships among education's
various components and enable educators to provide high-quality vocation
al programs in an efficient manner.
40 Section I: Curriculum Development in Perspective
RElATED REFERENCES
Edling, Walter H., and Loring, Ruth M. Designing Integrated Curricula. Waco, Tex.:
Center for Occupational Research and Development, 1996.
Finch, Curtis R, and Mooney, Marianne, "Using All Aspects of Industry in
Curriculum Design." Centerwork 8, no. 4 (Fall 1997): pp. 2-3.
Finch, Curtis R, Frant;!:, Nevin R, Mooney, Marianne, and Aneke, Norbert.
Designing the Thematic Curriculum: An All Aspects Approach. (MD5-956) Berkeley,
Calif.: National Center for Research in Vocational Education, 1997.
Instructional Performance Systems, Inc. [http://www.ipsiep.com]
Pucel, David E. Performance-Based Instructional Design. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1989.
Swanson, Richard A. Analysis for Improving· Performance. San Francisco: Berrett
Koehler, 1994.
Vogler, Daniel E. Performance Instruction: Planning, Delivering, E'1.>aluating, and
Analyzing. Eden Prairie, Minn.: Instructional Performance Systems, Inc., 1995.
'.
~ Section II
Planning the
Curriculum
..
Schools must assume the responsibility to develop, plan, and implement cur
ricula that meet the needs of both students and society. Thus, the . veational
and technical education curriculum development process must reflect the
best thinking of educators and be carried out in a systematic and orderly
fashion.
Section II concerns itself with beginning stages in the development of a
curriculum or the revision of an existing curriculum. Topics LT1 this section
have application to vocational and technical education curriculum planning
at any educational leveL The three chapters in this section aid the curriculum
developer in making decisions regarding whether or not a particular cur
riculum should be offered or continued.
Before any curriculum may be offered, a decision must be made to imple
ment the curricUlum, and there are many factors to be considered before that
decision can be made. Chapter 3 treats the decision-making process in edu
cation and serves to introduce the curriculum developer to this process.
Emphasis has been placed on sound decision making and how curriculum
developers may work with others to achieve this end. The formulation of
sound decision-making strategies as well as the development of standards
for decision making and the identification of needed data provide curricu
lum developers with a basis for sound curriculum planning.
Chapters 4 and 5 focus on the kinds of data that are needed if one is to
make sound decisions in the curriculum development process. Chapter 4
deals entirely with data related to the schooL Data 2ssociated with the cur
rent status of vocational offerings, students' interests, parent input, follow-up
of former students, future enrollments, and facilities are examples of infor
43
44 Section II: Planning the Curriculum
.-'
.'
~3
Making Decis·ions
In Planning
the Curriculum
".
INTRODUCTION
45
46 Section II: Planning the Curriculum
management tool,
management philosophy,
process requiring one to think about the future,
Chapter 3: Making Decisions in Planlling the Curriculum 47
Site-Based Managem.ent
Another recent concept and practice in education that many times is dis
cussed at the same time as strategic planning is called site-based or Sc11001
based management. This management concept is grounded on the premise
that those who work in a local school system are the ones who can best pro
vide the input to sound decision making and thus should be involved in the
management role in that school system. Site-based management allows
",
those individuals (principals and teachers) the opportunity to use their skills,
abilities, and years nf experience to arrive at the best solutions to curricular
problems. For site-based management to be successful, the following key
stages or concepts must be part of the overall process:
Involvement of stakeholders
Conduction of environmental scans
Identification of factors related to a program's success and failure
Development of vision and mission statements
Identification of currer.' :md future resources/restraints
Development of realistic goals and objectives
Formulation of plans of action
Monitor and follow up of activities
Any discussion about decision miking cannot take place unless several basic
factors are presented. First, consideration must be given to the distinction
and relationship between decisions that must be made during the strategic
planning process, decisions to be made during the program planning
48 Section II: Planning the Curriculum
Questions to
Type of Planning Responsibility Outcome Answer
STRATEGIC Board and super- Strategic plan, Are we going in
PLA!\.TNING intendent (with mission statement, the right direc
(Where are we input from all goalst cI~,:ision tion? (relevance)
going?) groups) points
PROGRAM Central stafft Curriculum Are we doing
PLAi\.TNING principals (with plant personnel the right things
(How do we get input from development to achieve our
there?) teachers and plan, facilities mission?
staff) plan, budget (effectiveness)
PROGRAM Teacherst coun- Lesson planst Are we doing
DELIVERY PLANS selors, staff (with work plans things right?
(What do we do .input from parents, (efficiency)
to get there?) students, and the
community)
be solved must be stated in clear and concise terms. This is no easy task and
one that may determine the degree to which a viable solution is found. Once
the problem has been clearly stated dIld agreed upon by all parties involved,
a plan of action or procedure should be outlined to serve as a guide for arriv
ing at possible alternatives and ultimately the final decision. nus procedure
applies equally well to policy decisions or operational decisions.
In a later section of this chapter, possible models to follow in decision
making situations are presented and discussed in detail.·In addition, later
discussion will be devoted to the establishment of standards and collection
of data needed for making decisions.
Irreversible Decisions
The decision-making process in curriculum development must not o"\terlook
the magnitude of each decision made. In fact, many decisions made today
will affect the educational program tomorrow, next year, and even further
into the future. Thus, each decision made must be considered in relation to
its future impact on the curriculum. Few decisions are truly irreversible, but
nevertheless some decisions maybe easier to reverse or change than others.
The extent to which policy and operatior.al decisions can be reversed
depends upon the degree to which they have been implemented. For example,
decisions can be reversed before money has been spent on equipment or build
ings. However, after money or resources have been committed, or buildings con
structed, decisions become more difficult to reverse. Money spent on equip
ment, supplies, or other parts of the curriculum is almost impossible to recover
and certainly its recovery is beyond reason once goods or products have been
delivered. This same situation may exist with buildings that are constructed.
Reversible decisions regarding the use of buildings depend upon the flexibility
that was included in the design of the facility. Laboratories and classrooms con
structed with built-in features lower the probability of that space being easily
redesigned in the future for other vocational and technical education programs.
Decision ma.~ers and curriculum planners must realize that the decision
to construct and equip a twenty-million-dollar facility has a long-term effect.
nus type of decision will influence the curriculum for years to come and
may come back to haunt school personnel if it is not made properly. Until
technology advances to the point where buildings can be designed and built
that will permit total freedom and flexibility for change, the magnitude and
irreversibility of policy decisions will be a prime consideration. Furthermore,
even operational decisions have a degree of irreversibility-€specially deci
sions that tend to set precedents. For example, permission granted to one
vocational department to take their students to a statewide youth organiza
tion convention will undoubtedly lead to similar requests from the other
vocational departments.
Cllapter 3: Making Decisions in Planning the Curriculum 51
Futuristic Decisions .
Decisions made by curriculum planners are futuristic, with the true impact
not being felt until the next year or even ten or twenty years from the time
the decision is made. Making realistic and sound decisions today for the
future is one of the most difficult dilemmas facing educational decision mak
ers. Factors that are uncertain and unpredictable but which have a strong
bearing upon curriculum development are many. Some of the more critical
factors concern the economic situation of society, cha,nges in technology that
influence the nature of labor market needs, priorities of the local communi
ty, and other factors typically associated with curriculum development.
Regardless of this dilemma, decision makers must think in futuristic terms.
To do othenvise will only sen'e to stifle the growth and de\"elopment of
vocational and technical education,
gated to anyone else. Thus, although all philosophies are important, the phi
losophy held by each decision maker must never be overlooked. If a decision
maker gives no thought to the influence that his or her own philosophy is
having, then decisions may unknowingly be made solely upon the feelings
of the decision maker with little or no concern for others who will be affect
ed by those decisions.
Leader Follower
Prefers immediate action Prefers reflection
Creative Status quo
Emotional Rational
Subjective Objective
Idealist Pragmatist
state recognition, and other rewards can be offered to help speed up local .
adoption of ideas. On the other hand, creative programs that had their start in
local programs have also served to keep national and state educational agen
cies from becoming stagnant and have provided fresh ideas for other states.
The one point that must always be kept in mind is that as a long as financial
incentives are provided from either the national or state level, the philosophy
held by the national or state agencies wiH have a significant role to play in
decisions made at the local level concerning c!lrriculum development.
In summary, a decision maker may be influenced by many internal and
external forces. Several of these forces have been mentioned in the last few
pages. In order to be effective, the curriculum planner must be aware of these
. forces and must plan to avoid situations where these forces become major
blocks to effective decision making.
DECISION-MAKING STRATEGIES
Thus far, discussion has focused upon factors associated with the decision
-. making process. These factors may influence the identification of appropri
ate solutions :0 the problem. One aspect of the decision-making process not
previously discussed deals with the various strategies used to expedite that
process. Educators ha\'e several unique and well-accepted strategies from
which to choose as they approach the business of decision making. Although
each of the \'arious strategies is useful in its own right, the creative decision
maker should strive to develop and perfect a composite strategy that works
for his or her educational organization. This strategy might include several
of the various concepts to be described. Different decision-making strategies
that lilay be considered include scenario plannin5' decision matrix, nominal
group procedure, decision graph, and advocate team process.
Scenario Planning
Scenario planning is a relatively simple concept applied to a situation where
decision makers must consider various possibilities in the future. The value of
this approach to decision making is that it forces individuals to consider alter
natives that might not otherwise have been identified. Scenario planning is a
disciplined method for imagining possible futures (Schoemaker, 1995, p. 41).
Ways that scenario planning differs from other planning methods are high
lighted in the following paragraphs.
Scenario planning looks at more than one uncertainty. For example, deci
sion makers could unintentionally look at the future and consider that only
one variable may change. In reality, the future can impact on many variables
affecting a situation, and thus if only one variable is considered, decision
54 Section II: Planning the Curriculum
Define the Scope. One of the first steps in using scenario planning is to
establish a time frame for studying the variables or information related to the
decision(s) that must be made and the scope of the analysis to be considered.
A~ a guide, decision makers can use natural cycles or time periods related to
the local educational programs, for example, program or school accreditation
Chapter 3: Making Decisio/ls in Planning the Curriculum 55
review cycles, funding or budgeting periods, length of time required for stu
dents to complete a program, or state department planning cycles;
Identify Basic Trends." Decision makers also need to consider the political,
economic, societal, technological, and educational trends that without ques
tion would impact the issues, problems, or \'ariables related to the decisions
to be made. For example, the population growth or lack of growth in a com
munity can have a definite impact on the number of school-age chiidren
attending a school.
Identify Key Uncertainties. Unlike the previous step, this effort should aim
'0
at identifying events or elements that are uncertain to be a factor in impacting
the issues, or problen 5. In an educational situation, decision makers would
want to focus on the same variables as in the previous step. For example, a
state's recent decision to increase the academic requirements for high school
graduation within the next year could limit a student's choice to enroll in an
occupal' onal course of study as an elective. This unknown trend could have an
immediate impact on student enrollment in current occupation courses.
bound students indicates that a large percentage never complete college a, ....i
thus enter the workforce without a marketable skill. This finding could have
Check for Consistency and Plausibility. Once themes are identified, check
for internal consistency. A theme may combine two elements that when occur-
Develop Learning Scenarios. Trends can vary by themes that have devel
oped in earlier steps of scenario planning. The goal here is to vary the trends
as relevant and plausible for each theme, and try to understand and learn the
impact of .the trends on the situation or issue under study. It is during this
study that decision makers learn about the issues in different scenarios, not
make decisions.
ical impact on planned goals and outcomes. The value of this process is that
it can help decision makers understand many different possibilities and how
each of these could have an impact on different problems, issues, or chal
lenges facing an educational organization.
Decision Matrix
Ranking Option. The decision matrix approach to decision making allows
a group of individuals to reduce the alternatives available to a more manage
able number for consideration and, hopefully, assist them in arriving at one
single solution to a problem. This technique forces a group to discuss avail
able alternatives or options and, at the end, each member must individually
make a judgment on the value of each option. For example, assume a special
task force of five individuals was considering the possibility of adding new
programs to the curriculum. The group discussions thus far have highlighted
that lfive new program options were feasible and that all five had merits wor
thy of consideration. However, the alternatives must be reduced to one or
-,
two, and the group must now arrive at some decision. The chairperson of the
group asks each member of the task force individually to rank the alternatives
from one to five, with one representing that individual's perception ot the
most worthy program. Figure 3-3 illustrates how the decision matrix works,
and through this process, the group narrows the alternatives to D or E. At this
time the group could decide Alternative D is the best program to implement,
or discussion could continue to consider further the merits of both D and E,
then at a later time, the group could make its final decision.
John Smith 3 5 4 1 2
Victor Hernandez 5 4 3 2 1
Sally Jones 4 3 5 2 1
Willie Ellis 3 4 5 1 2
John Camp 4 1 5 2 3
Ranking 19 17 22 8 9
John Smith 3 4 1 2 2 3
Victor Hernandez 2 4 2 1 4 3
Sally Jones 4 3 1 1 2 4
Willie Ellis 2 2 4 2 3 1
John Camp 3 3 2 1 3 2
Mean Score 2.8 3.2 2.0 1.4 2.8 2.6
., '
In conclusion, the decision matrix technique is a process by which a
group can reach a consensus on a decision that must be made where various
alternatives, solutions, problems, or situations exist. When handled proper
ly, the technique forces group members to focus on the task at hand in a very
efficient and effective manner, while allowing each member's opinion to
ha\-e impact on the final decision.
• The process of setting priorities can take several approaches. The recom
mended approach follows:
- distribute five 3 x 5 cards to each person,
- haw each person select five items from the list they deem most important,
have each person assign value points to the statement in the follow-
j 11 g
sequence:
- Card 1, most important = 5 points
~ Card 2, least important of the remaining 4 = 1 point
- Card 3, most important of the remaining 3 4 points
- Card 4, least important of the remaining 2 = 2 points
~ Card 5, last card 3 points
• collect all cards and add the values assigned to each statement, and
• lI/4t the items in order of priority, high to low point totals.
It is important during this entire process that the facilitator does not per
mit one individual to dominate or try to influence others in the voting
proCl,,.tl, After the items are listed in priority, the group can.then discuss the
ranklllgs and point out the strengths and limitations of each item. This dis
cu""h 111 can help solidify the consensus of the group; or if in the discussions,
important or critical facts or information come to light that would impact each
sta\c'llIents worth, the group could repeat the point-assigning process.
'Ihe nominal group process assures each individual has an opportunity to
COlli dilUte to the idea-generating session andlhat each has the opportunity to pro
vitiI' input to the point assignment activity. This process also results in a priority
lisl illr. for the decision makers to consider as they enter the decision-making stage.
Dccb;ion Graph
TIll' dt'cision graph is another approach to help focus a group on problems
thill /leed attention. This process ~dudes two steps. First, decision makers
arl' .11.ked to rate the importance of the problem on a ten-point scale, with 0
repn·ticnting low importance and 10 as high imp,,1"tance. Second, they are
askl'( I to make a judgment as to the current level of activity the organization
is d j nding toward that activity, with 0 indicating no activity and 10 as a high
activlly. Figure 3-5 contains a form that can be used for this purpose.
HYI'lllhetical values have been assigned for each of five problems.
After each group member has individually made a judgment for each
of 1111' five problems, the numerical values for the importance and level of
activity directed at that problem can be transferred to the decision graph in
Figlll'(' 3-6. 'Ibis is done by finding the numbers that represent the values
for Ih(' importance and activity on the correct axis and plotting the problem
1elll'I' at the spot where the two lines intersect. After each person's view
point has been plotted and the intersecting points determ~ned, the group
call see which problems fall into which of the four quadrants: (1)
Opportunity, (II) Appropriate High Level, (III) Appropriate Low Level, or
(I V) I )ecision.
Chapter 3: Making Decisions in Planning the Curriculum 61
·'
Smith Hernandez Jones Ellis Camp
Problem 1* At I A I A I A I A
" A 0 1 1 1 2 1 0 1 1 1
B 1 7 3 9 2 6 3 8 1 7
C 8 2 9 1 7 3 6 1 8 2
D 9 9 9 8 7 8 6 8 8 8
E 7 3 8 4 6 4 6 3 7 2
FIGURE 3-5 Determining the Importance and Activity Level for Each
Problem Identified
• Importance of the problem using a scale of 0-10, where 0 equals no importance and 10
equals high importance.
t Current activity directed at the problerr, using a scale of 0-10, wpere 0 equals no activity
directed at the problem and 10 indicates a high level of activity.
Importance
Level
-, 10
ell 8 mJ
Opportunity Appropriate
Quadrant High Level
7
Activity
Level
o 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10
elm 3 (IV)
Appropriate Decision
Low Level Quadrant
2
In the example given in Figure ~7, where the input from the decision
makers is taken from Figure ~5, it can be seen that all group members
viewed problem D as being important, and they also felt that a high degree
of activity was currently being directed at that problem. Thus, this problem
fell in Quadrant II, Appropriate High Level. On the other hand, Problems C
and E both fell in Quadrant I, Opportunity.
The value of the decision graph is that the group can visualize how dif
ferent members view problem importance in relation to the level of activity
currently being expended by the organization toward that problem.
Furthermore, for any problem that falls in Quadrant I\l, as Problem B did, the
group could then ask if the resources cur~ntly being devoted to that prob
lem represert the best decision and/or whether the resources should be redi
rected to Problems C and/or E.
Importance
Level
10
CC E
[: D
D
D
E CE r- 7 D
C E E I- 6 D
Activity
0 1 2 3 4 Level
6 7 8 9 10
3 B B
A 2 B
AA 1 BB
AA
qualities, adequate leg and head room~ large enough capacity to transport
five children, and so forth. The customer would consider these standards
and collect the data that could assist him or her in determining which make
of automobile would best serve the established purposes. If a particular car
did not meet any of these standards, the customer would then eliminate that
make of automobile or reconsider the standard in light of the importance of
that standard to the overall satisfaction or degree of dissatisfaction if that
automobile was purchased. Establishing standards would then assist this
individual in making a sound personal investment in an automobile.
A similar case could be made with regard to standards for educational
programs. If standards are not established before program decisions are
made, programs might exist where unqualified teachers would be teach
ing, thirty students might be working in laboratories designed for twenty,
programs might be developed and implemented on the personal bias of
decision makers, or eventually quality programs in vocational education
would not exist.
1. Prospective enrollment
2. Availability of qualified instructors
3. Available facilities
4. Available equipment
5. Available funding
6. Employment opportunities
7. Availability of other similar vocational programs
8. Extent to which the vocational programs under consideration support
the goals and philosophy of the school
9. Extent to which delivery of the programs uphold established guidelines
10. Opportunities for cooperative vocational education programs
Once standards have been established, the various types of data needed to
assist decision makers may be identified. Using the word processing exam
Chapter 3: Making Decisions in Planning the Curriculum 61
68
Chilpter 3: Milki1lg Decisions in Planning tlte Curriculum 69
~
Community-Related
General Standard School-Related Data Data
Delh'ery of program Current class
that upholds estab schedules
lished guidelines
-----~~~----
",
Stage 1- Define Problem or Opportunity and
Clarify Altern?tives
In this stage, a critical step is defining the problem or opportu:r:ity at hand.
Once the problem or opportunity has been defined and agreed on, then pos·
sible alternative solutions can be identified and clarified. For example, a com
munity college may be considering offering four different vocational and
technical programs. Data concerning each of these four programs could be
collected and analyzed simultaneously to decide which, if not all four,
should b.e implemented.
OPPORTUNITY AND
CLARIFY ALTERNATIVES
l B C D Etc.
Stage2--l>
I 1
==I=:::'=:::'=:::
---1-_1--1-
.------....1-1-----,,1
GATHER SCHooL·RELATED DATA
r - - --1--1_ _
GATHER COMMUNITY-RELATED DATA
THAT ALIGN WITH STANDARDS THAT ALIGN WITH STANDARDS
Slag. 3-+
1 ! I , I I
==1=='==1== ==1==1:==1==
r- 1
--1--1 I --I 1-_1-
i, t
ANALYZE DATA IN TERMS
OF STANDARDS
I
1 I
Stag.4-+ -'--1--1 1--'
-
__- 1_
-_- 1__
- -1- -
--1--11
--1-
StageS-+
1
I
A B C I D Etc.
70
Chapter 3: Making Decisions in Planning the Curriculum 71
..
Stage 4 - Analyze Data
In Stage 4, the curriculum planner must objectively analyze all data in terms
of the establish~d standards. This stage involves assembling, summarizing,
analyzing, and preparing the data in a form that can be used when the deci
sion-making time arrives. The situation may occur during this stage that
additional data are needed that were not collected; thus, provision must be
made for collecting data before all the data can be fully and accurately ana
lyzed. This process is indicated by the dashed lines from Stage 4 to Stage 3.
SUMMARY
The importance of strategic planning and decision making in educational
curriculum planning cannot be overemphasized. Of all the activities and ele
ments associated with an educational organization, the instant that a deci
sion is made is one that will have lasting effect on the future of the curricu
lum. Hopefully, that effect will be desirable.
Decision making in the educational arena usually involves two major
areas; policy decisions and operational decisions. Operational decisions in
volve day-to-day activities of the curriculum and serve to move the cur
riculum smoothly ahead. Policy decisions deal with goals, objectives, and
some basic structure for achieving these goals and objectives. Curriculum
planners must be involved at both levels of decisions. Whereas policy deci
sions serve to establish the type of curriculum a school will or will not follow,
operational decisions deal with the management of the approved curriculum.
Both of these areas have a direct influence on whether the curriculum will be
successful.
The value of strategic planning must be recognized by all who deal with
the curriculum. Vocation,,"! education curricula must be planned and imple
mented in such a way' as to assure that students and societal needs are
served. Nothing less than this should be attempted or accepted.
72 Section II: Planning the Curriculum
RELATED REFERENCES
Chapman, Judith D., ed. School-Based Decision-Making and Management. New York:
The Falmer Press, 1990.
Delbecq, Andre L., Van de Van, Andrew H., and Gustafson, David H. Group
Techniques for Group Planning: A Guide to Nominal Group and Delphi Processes.
Middleton, Wisc.: Green Briar Press, 1986.
Hansen, J. Merrell. "Site-Based Manag~ .. ,ent and Quality Circles: 'A Natural
Combination." NASSP Bulletin 74, no. 528 (1990): 100-103.
Harris, Sandra. "Five Guidelines for a Successful Site-Based Administrator to
Follow," NASSP Bulletin 81, no. 588 (April 1997): 7~0.
Herman, Jerry J. "A Vision for the Future: Site-Based Strategic Planning." NASSP
Bulletin 73, no. 518 (September 1989): 23-27.
__. "External and Internal Scanning: Identifying Variables that Affect Your
School." NASSP Bulletin 73, no. 520 (November 1989): 48-52.
Chapter 3: Making Decisions in Planning the Curriculum 73
Related Data
-.
INTRODUCTION
75
76 Section II: Planning the Curriculum
The goal of this chapter is to provide the curriculum planner with the
capability to conduct an internal scan of what is really happening in the
school system or technical or community college as it now exists, and to
identify data for use in either establishing program standards or determin
ing if established standards can be met. One of the first steps in curriculum
development is to study the current progI·am.
Number
Enrollment Ol.ler· or
Vocatwnal and Room Number
or Percent of Under- Number of Students
Technical Programs
Name & Facility Capacity Current Capacity enrolled by Grade Level Remarks
and Courses (8)
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
(1J
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
--
I
FIGURE 4-1 Current Vocational and Technical Programs, Enrollments, and Capacity for School District, Community
~ College, etc. .
78 Section II: Planning the Curriculum
Marketing Education
A. Classes are opelatrng at about 80 percent of capacity.
B. Courses tend to have a high degree of holding power as students
advance.
ICT
G. Program could serve twice as many students.
H. Do scheduling problems exist since a high number of seniors are
enrolled in ICT I?
I. One teacher could be reassigned.
Technology Education
J. Could the large nm;nber of eleventh and twelfth graders in Engineering
Drawing be prohibiting tenth graders from taking the 'course?
K. Woods Technology, Metals Technology, and Construction are underen
rolled to a high degree.
, .
·- "
NIIIII/1Cf
Ellrol/ml'lIt
VOClllimmllllllf I~oolll NII/Illwr Oiler-or
Tee/lIIiml flrtlgm/1l.~ O/' 1','/'n'lIlo{ U"rI,')' NlI/lIlll'/' '!( SllIIll'IIls
IIW/ COllf:'CS Nfl/II,' t,. I'llrilily CIII,,/,-ily l'lIrr,'lIl C, 11't1 i'ily 1:lIrol/c'/ 1>,11 Gl'lldc L.,'u('/ N.I'II/arks
(/) (2) (.1) 0) (.'i ) (6) (7) UI}
-~
Ii 7 S 9 10 11 12 13 14
Marketing
Education
Fash. Mcrch. Room 126 20 16 -4 7 9
MEl Room 124 20 16 -4 16
MEl Room 116 20 20 - 20
MEII Room 126 20 D -7 8 5 2 tCilchcrs
ME II Room 128 20 22 +2 10 12
ME II Room 124 20 15 -5 13 2
MEIII Room 121 15 10 -5 10
MElli Room 121 15 8 -7 8
- 0 - - - 'ii'
Sub total 150 120 80 36 38 46 ~
--------- -------- ---- ---- ----- ---- - -- - - - - - -..., - -----
Family and
Consumer Sciences
Food Occup. I Room 164 2[) -6 10 4
©14 2 4
Food Occup. II Room 164 20 C 6 -14
Marriage/Family
Living Room 162 24 19 -5 14 5 1 teacher
20 26 +6 6 20
Introd. Foods
Cuisine Foods
Room
Room
162
162 20 25 +5 15 10 ®
Clothing Room 162 24 24 - 8 16
- - - - -44 -
29
Sub total 128 114 89 6 35
~
FIGURE 4-2 Current Vocational and Technical Programs, Enrollments, and Capacity for East Central High
~ School
! FIGURE 4·2 (Continued)
Number
Vocational and Room Number Enrollment
Over- or
Tech"tical Programs or Percent of Under- Number of Students
and Courses Name & Facility Capaclty Cu.rrent Capacity enrolled by Grade Leuel Remarks
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
6 i 8 9 10 11 12 1.'1 14
,
lCT Courses
ICT I Annex Room 247 20 9 -11 9
ICT I Annex Room 249 20 11 9 :3 8 1f'
\!Y
2 teachers
Annex 247 20 II - 9 11
ICT II
-
60
-
:ll ;)2@
-
12 19
- CD
Sub total
Technology Ed.
Eng. Drawing Annex 114 23 25 + 2
GD
6 14 5
Eng. Drawing Annex 116 23 26 + 3 II 9 6 4 teacher s
Comm. Tech. Annex 110 27 20 - 7 17 1 2 all doublj
Woods Tech. Annex 123 27 15 -12 12 2 1 periods
Woods Tech. Annex 12a 27 19 ®- H 15 :1 1 except
Metals Tech. Annex 123 27 t\ - HI 4 4 Comm.
Energy & Power Annex 125 20 21 +1 15 4 2 Tech.
Construction Annex 125
- 20
-
8 ® -12 - -
2 6
..
Sub total 194 142 neG 7E 39 27
Total for
@ Kg
Vocational Program 532 407 77@ 6 147 133 Jk 9 teacher~
I&'
1
Chapter 4: Collecting and Assessing School-Related DatIl 81
As with these observations for East Central High School, it is evident 'that
the use ('If the form and type of data in Figure 4--2 would be very valuable to the
instructor, administrator, and curriculum specialist in gaining a perspective of
the current status of the vocational program. The data collected by use of the
form would become even more -:aluable as data are collected over time and
trends are identified. For example, someone could raise the following questions:
Is the percentage of the student body at East Central High School who
The story is told of how a new vocational program was added to a school's
curriculum and the most up-to-date facility was constructed for it, but when
82 Section II: Planning the Curriculum
Standardized Tests
One approach to assessing the occupational interests of a large group of students
is through the use of standardized tests. This is especially helpful if several dif
ferent grade levels are to be surveyed. Such tests are available to educators and
can be an effective tool in curriculum planning. But it must be kept in mind that
no test is available that specifically identifies into which occupation a person
should go. Vocational interest tests are intended to point out general vocational
interests of students and should not be interpreted beyond this point.
Several interest inventories are currently available. Four of the more com
mon tests are the Kuder Occupational Interest Survey Form DD (KOIS), the Ohio
Vocational Interest Survey (OVIS), the Differential Aptitude Test (DAl) Career
Planning Program, the Self-Directed Search (50s" and World of Work Inventory.
The KOIS takes about thirty minutes to administer and can be given to
eleventh graders or above. A unique feature of the KOISis that scales are
included that focus upon occupational interests as well as college majors.
The inventory cannot be scored by hand.
Chapter 4: Collecting and Assessi1lg School-Related Data 83
The OVIS is designed for grades eight through twelve and requires sixty
to ninety minutes to administer. This survey measures an individual's pref
erences on the following twenty-five interest scales: manual work, machine
- ,
work, personal services, caring for people or animals, clinical work, inspect
ing and testing, crafts and precise operations, customer services, nursing and
related technical services, skilled personal service, training, literary, numeri
cal, appraisal, agriculture, applied technology, promotion and communica
tion, management and supervision, artistic, sales representative, music,
entertainment and performing arts, teachfug, counseling and social work,
and medicaL This survey must be machine-scored.
The SDS is a recently developed series of different interest tests that are
reasonably short, self-administered, self-scored, and self-interpreted. They
reflect a person's interests and relates them to appropriate occupational
groups. The SDS can be completed in forty to fifty minutes and is suitable for
students of various ages.
review of the different types of standardized tests may lead the planner
to eliminate some tests immediately, since the purpose for which a par
ticular test is to be administered may not be appropriate for curriculum
planning.
In addition to the purpose for which a test is to be used, several other
factors should be considered regardless of the type of test desired.
Information regarding the following factors is usually found in the booklet
describing each test: reliability refers to the ability of the test to give the.
same results if administered to the same student at a later time; validity
refers to the ability of the test to measure what it purports to. measure.
Several other items should be considered to determine if the test is practi
cal to administer. One factor to consider is the time required to adJUinister
the test. The time should be reasonable; it is helpful if the test can be admin
istered within a single class period. Another factor is the cost. Although
curriculum planners would not wi1nt to select a test solely because it is the
least expensive one available, tests that entail a higher cost per student
could run into a sizeable figure if administered to a large group of students.
The last factor to consider deals with the ease of administering, scoring,
and interpreting the results. A test should be selected only if it gives under
standable and usable results.
Instructor-Made Surveys
Many planners have relied on instructor-made surveys for use in specific.
program .areas. Although these surveys are not as sophisticated as stan
dardized tests, instructor-made surveys can prove valuable to curriculum
planners. Each survey must be developed with a purpose in minJ. If the
need arises for determining the occupational interests of students in the area
of marketing education, then occupations or situations that lend themselves
to occupations found in this area must be identified and incorporated into
-the survey.
Chapter 4: Collecting m:d Assessing School-Related Data 85
The format and length of such surveys can vary widely, depending on
the degree to which a curriculum planner desires to pinpoint occupational
interests. The survey should be relatively short and easy for the students to
complete. Short answers or questions that students can check or circle will
aid in maintaining student interest throughout the survey. A section of an
instructor-made survey is included in Figure 4-3.
Although instructor-made surveys are usually developed for specific
vocational program areas and are used with students alrea.dy enrolled in
those areas, administration of the survey to other students has some merit.
The standardized instruments discussed earlier inclicate student interest in
occupational groups. Instructor-made surveys, however, assist students in
identifying specific interests within a certain area. To administer any interest
surveyor test to a certain group of students and not to others assumes that
the students not provided the opportunity to express their interests do not
possess occupational interests in that area. This is often a false assumption
and one that curriculum {"Ilanners cannot afford to make.
1. Do you think you might be interested in any of the following occupations after
graduation from high school? Check (v) all that might interest you. Place an (x)
on the line if }~u would like more information about that occt!?ation.
_ _ Agricultural advisor to bank and _ _ Biotechnology technician
other lending agencies _ _ Servicing machinery and equip
_ _ Small engine mechanic ment
Florist _ _ Artificial breeding technician
_ _ Field representatiye for agricul- _ _ Crop-dusting or spraying (aerial
tural buying and selling activi- and otherwise)
ties in organizations _ _ Conservation service employee
_ _ Selling feed, seed, fertilizer, Forestry technician
machinery, and chemicals - - A . ul I"
gnc tura mISSIonary
_ _ Landscape consultant -
_ _ Precision agricultural technician
Lawn caretaker
planned that will go into effect two years from the time a survey is adminis
tered, instruments should be administered to students in the lower grades
who will be able to select vocational and technical courses two years hence.
Obtaining Assistance
Curriculum planners who are unfamiliar with the administration and inter
pretation of test results may want to seek professional assistance. Most colleges
and universities with vocational and technical instructor' education programs
have personnel who can provide assistance to local schools in collecting and
interpreting data related to educational decision making. Specialists in state
departments of education also have expertise in this area. Furthermore, private
consultants' are available to local school systems on a fee basis; however, the
cost for this type of service may prove to be prohibitive.
E-mail au•
.ut::~;:,
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~
3.H you took no more than one course, what were the reasons that
made you decide not to reenroll? ___________ .____.
4. Have you used the knowledge and skills learned in the vocational
courses? Yes No ___.._
5. Would you say that the training received in your vocational course was im
portant in securing your first job? Yes _ _ _ No _ _
VI. List all jobs held since graduation from high school. .
Dates Job TItle Employer
88
Chapter 4: Collecting and Assessing School-Related Data 89
also prove to be valuable. Figure 4-5 is an example of a fonn that can collect
information as to why adults enrolled in courses and whether they were able
to accomplish their goals after completing them.
The information discussed in the last few pages can provide valuable
data for curriculum planners. For example, discussion may be underway as
to whether a vocational program should be continued. A standard may be
thus established that at least 75 percent of the graduates from a particular
vocational service area either must be employed in a job related to their train
ing or must be continuing their education. Data-collected by use of the forms
in Figures 4-4 and 4-5 will provide this information.
The need to project into the future is vital to the effectiveness of any educa
tional program and is basic to any curriculum planning. Many time~ pro
grams developed will not be available to students until two, three, four, or
-. more years in the future. Therefore, curriculum planners need to establish
standards concerning potential enrollments for an educational program in
order to balance the progr -.. ~ with the number of students in the school sys
tem or attendance area.
Community Data
Most projections begin by considering only those students currently enrolled
in school, although it would not be too premature to look even further.
Securing data about the current birth rates in anyone county or school dis
trict may give curriculum planner., ~eads as to trends that might occur in th..:
future. Tentative answers can be found for such questions as: "Will school
enrollments increase or decrease in the future?" "What will be the gender
ratio?" "Will the educational programs and facilities be adequate to meet
future needs?" Seeking answers or at least tentative answers to questions
such as these through the use of census data might have prevented some of
-,
the critical enrollment situations that some schools find themselves involved
in today.
Highest grade completed: (circle) Under 7, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, over 16
2. \-\"hite -----
3. Kative American ------~ -----
4. Asian ----~-~- ------~
5. Hispanic
Disad\'antagE:J
1. Academic ------ -----
2. Econorr;c
3. Social
------
-_._-
--~--
3. Speech defed
4. Orthopedically
-----
--~.--.
--.-
----~- -~~--
-~--
impaired
5. Learning disabled --~-
8. Other health
impaired
----- ---~-
9. Gifted
10. Talented
----- --'--' ---'- ---
----- ---- ----
II. Attention Deficit
Disorder
-----
12. Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity
Disorder
injury
student body are concerned. This form··could be used for any class from
which curriculum planners may wish to collect information. In addition, the
projected-year column can be readjusted to reflect the future years under dis
cussion. The one point that needs to be remembered is that curriculum plan
92 Section II: Planning the Curriculum
School facilities
Curriculum planners must always be working toward a more efficient use of
current facilities. With the increased cost of building construction and the
reluctance of taxpayer" to spend more money on education, decision makers
in the future must spend more time identifying alternative ways of using
current faciliti,es. Remodeling schools and adding new sections to existing
ones are becoming more common. Furthermore, as distance education gains
popularity, schools will have more choices related to curricular offerings that
are not limited to the physical plant.
SUMMARY
The importance of understanding the school system and related data calU10t
be underestimated when vocational and technical educatior. curricula are
being plalU1ed. Many curriculum plalU1ers will not be developing programs
from scratch; thus, the current school situation and existing programs may
have a great impact on decisions that must he made in the future.
One of the first factors that must be assessed is the status of the current
program. This includes thE' listing of all vocational and technical courses as
well as an understanding of all courses offered. Course capacity, current
'.
enrollment, and especially trends must be studied. Obtaining input of stu
dents is vital to sound educational plalU1ing. Students can provide valuable
ideas and suggestions if provided the opportunity. The community also has a
right to express its feelings, and planners must assure that input from parents
is secured in order to promote acceptance of new and different programs.
Without a doubt, the follow up of former students is a must if planners
and decision makers are to have sound and realistic data on what is hap
pening to former students of their school system. Distinct trends can be iden
tified that have strong implications for planners. The projection of future
enrollments and the assessment of facilities will serve to provide plalU1ers'
with input to help avoid critical problems in the future.
And last, distance education is an untapped resource that is just begin
ning to enter the educational arena. Its impact has not yet been felt in educa
tional curriculum planning.
RELATED REFERENCES
DAY Career Plmming Program. 3th ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Educational
Measurement, 1990.
Herman, Jerry J. "External and Internal Scanning: Identifying Variables that AGect
Your School." NASSP Bulletin 73, no. 520 (November 1989): 48-52.
Hintzen Neil. "An Approach to Conducting Follow Up on Vocational Students:
Implications for Educational Planning." Performance & Illstruction 29, no. 9
(September 1990): 33-·1,0.
94 Section II: Planning the Curriculum
Kuder (KOIS) Form DD-General Interest Survey. Rosemont, Ill.: CTB, McGraw Hill,
1991.
Maddox, Taddy, ed. Tests, 4th ed. Austin, Tex.: PRO-ED, 1997.
Martinez, Reynaldo Jr., and Sweger, Bill. "Plugged In." Vocational Education Journal
71, no. 3 (March 1996): 30-31.
McCune, Shirley D. Guide to Strategic Planning for Educators. Alexandria, Va.:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1936.
McKee, William L., and Froeschle, Richard C. Where the Jobs Are. Kalamazoo, Mich.:
W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, 1985.
McKenzie, Floretta D. "City Schools with Corporate Partners." VocEd
(November/December 1985): 40-42.
Ohio Vocational Interest Survey (OVIS). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1981.
Sanders, Donald. and Chism, Nancy. "Updating Curriculum: A Process that Never
Ends." VocEd (March 1985): 28-30.
Sawyer, David E. "Hands-on-Labs in an Academic High School." Vocational
Education Journal (May 1986): 50-52.
Walsh, W. Bruce, and Betz, Nancy F. Tests and Measurements. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall, 199':;
.,
~5
Collecting and
Assessing Community
Related Data
INTRODUCTION
-~'---' ------
The development of vocational education curricula cannot be discussed
without gi\"ing some consideration to the community in which a school
is located. Some may refer to this as "external scanning" of the envir:on
ment. The community surrounding a school has a major influence on the
type of curriculum offerings, since local labor supply and demand, pro
gram resources, and existing educational programs will aid curriculum
planners in determining if established quality program standards can be
met.
Labor supply and demand signals reflect the current employment situa
tion in a community; resources aid in determining the level of funding avail
able, personnel on hand, and facilities and equipment feasible; and existing
educational programs point to voids in current curricula offerings. Thus, the
• following discussion focuses on various aspects of the community and how
they affect the curriculum planner.
THE COMMUNITY
--------- --------------------------------------
Curriculum planners cannot develop realistic educational programs if they
do not first obtain a valid picture of the community in which a school is locat
ed; familiarity with the community is an important aspect of curriculum
95
96 Section II: Planning the Curriculum
Community Boundaries
A major question that the curriculum planner must answer (if it has not
already been defined) is "What are the geographical boundaries of the com
munity?" To solve this problem accurately, he or she must take into account
several considerations. For example, in one situation, the community might
represent the same geographical area contained in the established school dis
trict's lines. In another situation, the word community must take on a broad
er concept, especially if graduating students tend to migrate out of a local
area into surrounding areas for employment. Thus, the community might
include two or more counties or sections of counties surrounding the school.
However, it may be appropriate and necessary in "pecial situations to think
in terms of regional and statewide areas. An example of this might be a post
secondary institution that offers a program for farriers with graduates being
prepared to fill the labor needs within a particula region of the state or sev
eral states.
The curriculum planner must use established standards as a focal point
in determining the geographical lines of a community. In fact, one may need
to readjust community boundaries for different types of data collection. For
example, in assessing occupational programs currently available to students,
a planner might need to consider a smaller geographical area than if he or
she were attempting to assess labor demands that might influence the type
uf c:micula offered by a community coll~ge.
Population Trends
The number of people within a community will vary over the years, and the
curriculum planner must be aware of any shifts in population. One shift that
may occur would be immigration or emigration. Either population shift has
major implications for developing vocational curricula. An emigration of
people would cause curriculum planners to look outside their traditional
community lines to discover the types of jobs taken by graduates. An immi
gration could result in increased school enrollments and thus a demand for
~ater diversity of vocational education offerings. One of the most popular
methods of determining population trends is the use of census data. A cur
riculum planner could also study other indicators of popUlation trends, such
as school enrollments, housing starts, and new businesses or factories com
ing into the area.
Chapter 5: Collecting and Assessillg Community-Related Data 97
Community Goals
A discussion in Chapter 3 concerned the philosophy held by members of ded- .
sion-making groups and the effect that their philosophy might have on deci
sions. Associated with this philosophy are community goals. Whether the
goals are for an entire community or individual members of that community,
they are nonetheless an important source of community-related data.
The logical place to begin the formulation of community goals would be
the development of a workforce or labor policy, or as some individuals would
state it, a written set of priorities, for a particular community based upon polit
ical, social, and moral values. Examples of local situations that might give rise
to community goals are (1) reduce unemployment; (2) reduce unemployment
in target groups (Le., teenagers, the twenty-to-thirty-year age group); (3) pro
-. vide qualified labor for new and expanding businesses; (4) retrain the under
employed; or (5) provide more educational opportunities for females and
minorities. These five examples are not intended to be all-inclusive; any par
ticular community may identify similar or different goals. For example, one
community might place a higher priority on helping disadvantaged students
to obtain employment rather than helping those who are unemployed.
If the curriculum planner discovers that goals do not exist for a COIllinu
nity, steps must be taken to ensure that decision-making groups (e.g., gov
erning boards) take the lead and, in cooperation with lay people in the com
munity, develop these goals. The important point to keep in mind is that
before any decision is made to establish a vocational program, standards
should be established which, when met, indicate that the program will
indeed serve to meet a community's priority in vocational education.
(Chapter 8 treats goal development in greater depth.)
_~~~;:'~\J$::t~~~~~~~""~,
I
sonnel managers to recruit new employees, and small. businesses may
choose to seek and hire their own employees directly. Thus, some busi
nesses will not be identified if a planner relies only on employment com
missions for information.
These items would indicate that sewing machine operators, computer tech
nicians, and editors are among the occupatiOl.~ t:!xisting in the area. .
1
pations most closely related to those areas. For example, when marketing
education is mentioned, people immediately think of salespersons, agricul
tural education such as farming, and so forth. However, a close search of the
literature will point up many other occupations. The point is that a curricu
lum planner must be open-minded as he or she goes about the job of assess
ing labor supply and demand.
may not even share information with individuals they know). Thus, when
using this approach, it is helpful to contact employers before the actual per
sonal interview to make them aware of why information is needed and how it
will be used. Another limitation in using this approach is that businesses mov
ing into the area may not be reflected in the final data. The best that planners
can do in this situation is to stay alert to business and industry movement 3....'1d
through a brief reassessment of the community be able to identify areas of key
employment opportunities or possibly of a decrease in opportunities.
If the curriculum planners intend to use employer surveys, a data-col
lecting instrument must be developed that will assist in determining if estab
lished program standards in the area of labor demands can be met. Data
shoUld be collected regarding current and projected labor demands, and the
instrument used should accomplish both purposes. The form illustrated in
Figure 5--1 is designed to accomplish that task. Figure 5--2 provldes an exam
ple of how this form will appear once it has been completed. Using this exam
ple, the curriculum planner can readily see that here is a business currently
employing twenty-two full-time and five part-time workers, with the projec
tion of thirty-three employees three years hence and, in six years, forty-four.
Furthermore, the projected demand for each job title can be assessed as well
as ~e number of extra people needed at high demand times.
Once data have been collected from businesses and companies in the
community, information can then be summarized using the form shown in
Figure 5--3. Sample data have been included to illustrate how this form could
be used by the curriculum developer. Using the forms provided in Figure
5--1 and Figure 5--3, the planner can begin to determine if established stan
dards may be met regarding labor demand and occupational-experience
training program stations. In addition to the information collected by use of
the form depicted in Figure 5--1, the planner may identify other relevant data
needed for a particulM school and provide for the collection of these data. It
should be kept in mind that data collection instruments must be as short as
possible in order to help ensure an employer's cooperation and assistance.
Several approaches may be used in the collection of data from employ
ers. Mailed questionnaires, personal interviews, and telephone calls consti
tute the most common approaches. The personal interview approach is by
far the best to use, since a high rate of response may be obtained. If the tele
phone approach is to be used, a letter and sample form should be sent to the
employer in advance in order to ensure cooperation and to assist in collect
ing data during the conversation.
-.
6. If you have seasonal demand for labor, please indicate job titles and the num·
ber needed in a high demand time.
Number of Extra
Job Title Employees Needed Months
Signature Interviewer
P~ _2 2 _1_ _ 2_
5UPERVISOR o ~.- _1_
6. If you have seasonal demand for labor, please indicate job titles and the n.umber
needed in a high demand time..
Job Title Number Extra Months
Employees Needed
1 MAY-OCTOBER
2 APRIL-NOVEMBER
Signature
Plumbers
--~-
Job TItle
Total 22 9(2) 6 11
as to what will happen in the future. The strength of this approach is that it
is relatively easy to perform and can be done in a short time. Additionally,
the cost of extrapolating is quite low. An example of this procedure, as
applied to the occupation of child care assistant, follows.
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
--S -8 ~ 21 34 ---s4
In this situation, a community might have had five individuals employed
as child care assistants in 1985, and by 1990, the number had increased to
eight. By 2000, the number employed had reached twenty-one, or about a 160
percent increase every five years. Extrapolating into the future, and making
the assumption that the number of child care assistants will continue to
increase at approximately the same rate, the curriculum planner may project
that by 2010, fifty-four child care assistants will be needed within that com
munity Further analysis of the data for 2000-2010 indicates that about three
to four new positivns of child care assistant would occur each year, thus giv
ing the curriculum planner a basis for determining if this type of vocational
education program should be initiated. However, the planner must realize
that the further into the future projections are made, the greater the likelihood
that projection!'> -,"ill be inaccurate.
106 Section II: Planning the Curriculum
assessment of current labor supply, the planner is able to estimate fairly accu
rate labor needs within the community. Assessment of the real labor supply
in any community is illustrated in Figure 5-4, and a discussion follows relat
ed to various segments of this supply.
\.
Retirement
Emigration
Death
Occupational transfer
Disabled
Unqualified
Not interested in working
Real
Labor
~lll\\+=--~.>,
Supply
~
Available for
employme~_
Currently
employed
Immigration. People in the United states tend to be mobile, and this fact
creates population fluctuations in any community. Immigration implies that
... people will be moving into communities and thus creating an impact on the
labor supply. Since it is difficult to obtain a general estimate of immigrating
numbers that the curriculum planner might expect for his or her particular
community, each planner must attempt to calculate expected immigration on
a community-to-community basis. U.S. census data and state employment
commissions are two sources that should be investigated for current infor
mation pertaining to. specific communities.
New Entrants. A new entrant into the labor market is one who is not
included in any of the four previous categories and who has not been previ
ously employed. This category consists primarily of dropouts from educa
tional programs and spouses who are now entering the labor market. The
number of dropouts from educational programs in any community can be
obtained quite readily, whereas it is more difficult to assess the number of
spouses entering the labor market.
influenced. In addition, there will be individuals who would like to work but
who are disabled in some way that prohibits them from entering the labor
market. Unqualified individuals are those who do not possess sufficient
knowledge of the basic skills to permit them to seek employment. Finally,
there will be those individuals who are able and qualified to work, but who
choose not to work for some reason.
Occupational Title
The occupational titles that are placed in this column should reflect titles for
which a local school and the curriculum developer wish to assess the labor
demand and supply. Specific titles would be those occupations ide~tified by
the use of a form such as that contained in Figure 5-1.
Number Employed
This cJlumn is used to indicate the number of people currently employed in
each particular job title within a community. The procedure used to identify
the number employed within a job title may be accomplished by using
appropriate labor demand approaches discussed earlier in this chapter or by
otlu:.: means available within a community, The value of this figure becomes
important when calculating the annual need for a specific occupation based
.f'P' ,..'f"~'"
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,\ ?t..~~~~~~
;,' .-
i·...... J,~/J
.... ;-
.~;.;..
:,; :
'.,}
~ t-- .". . i!
':'.1 .;-~;
':!
'!'-: i
~. _,", ~i
::.l). 44;.
'CJ vej
~!
'.....-.
~
'fl.
Labor Demand Labor Supply
Number
Occupational Currently New Replace- Grad. of Net Labor
Title Employed Positions + ment' = TLD' Voc. Prog. + Others' = TLS' Needs
+ = + =
+ = +
--- -- + +
----- + +
------- + + -----
+ +
FIGURE 5-5 Interfacing Labor Demand with Labor Supply to Assess Net Labor Needs
I Annual Replacement 'Estimate of others who may be available for that occupational title
upon annual replacement percentages. This figure is also valuable when past
employment numbers are available for a specific occupation such that pro
jection for labor demands can be made by extrapolation.
Labot Demand
The labor demand column enables identification to be made of demand fig
ures for each occupational title under study. The subcolumn indicated by
"New Positions" represents positions to be added during the year(s) under
consideration. The replacement column provides the opportunity to calcu
late the number of individuals needed to replace people lost for any reasons
outlined as "Losses" LTl Figure 5--4. The replacement calculation must be
made on the projected number to be employed during the year ur.der study
and not the current employed number. The end result is the Total Labor
Demand (TLD), which indicates the total demand for a specific occupation
al title beyond the current number of employees. A local community can
decide if this should be done for a specific year or years and project into the
'. future to a year congruent to its local philosophy and goals.
Labor Supply
The labor supply column has been divided into two subcolumns, represent
ing vocational graduates coming into the labor market and others represent
ing a source of employees. The vocational graduates represent those indi
viduals coming into the labor market possessing the skills necessary for
entry level employment in that occupation. The figure placed in the column
headed "Others" represents an estimate of those individuals who might be
coming into the labor mnket. As was pointed out earlier in this chapter, the
figure in this latter column would be influenced by immigration, transfer
from other occupations, graduates from nonvocational programs, and new
entrants, for all of which absolute figures may not be available. The ultimate
value of this column is the Total Labor Supply (TLS). This fig:lre represents
(for each occupational title) the total number of individuals available for new
.. or replacement positions identified in the Total Labor Demand (TLD) esti
mated for the year or years under study.
earlier, Net Labor Needs are, at best, an estimate. The existing local, region
al, national, and international economic situation, teclmological advance,
human judgment, error, and individuals' changing career choices all influ
ence the accuracy of the Net Labor Needs. However, if those individuals
responsible for collecting data develop a systematic approach to assess Net
Labor Needs, the projections developed should be more accurate and pro
vide a much firmer base upon which decisions affecting curriculum pro
grams can be made.
An example of how the form appearing in Figure 5-5 can be used is pro
vided in Figure 5-6. This example is for a local school district with the pro
jection being made for five years into the future.
In this example, the size of the group currently employed and the cur
rent replacement percentage require additional calculations. The following
table helps to detail this procedure.
New
Employed Positions Replacements
Year 1 475 20 48
Year 2 495 20 50
Year 3 515 20 52
Year 4 535 20 5-1
Year 5 555 20 56
Total 100 260
.~----~~--.~--
1his provides an estimate for the TLO as 360 for the next five years.
Calculating the TLS, the graduates entering the labor market tdtai 300 (60 x 5)
and the 100 others who may enter give a u.s of 400. The Net Labor Needs is
-40 (360 - 400), or an estimated oversupply of telephone solicitors.
FIGURE 5-6 Interfacing Labor Demand with Labor Supply to Assess Net Labor Needs for _ __
School District for Five Years into the Future
1 Total Labor Demand
occupation for which they were trained. Combined with these variables is
the unpredictable source of new entrants. Thus, when a number is obtained
for Net Labor Needs, this represents the best estimate considering what is
known at the time the data were collected.
Estimates for Net Labor Needs must be carefully analyzed with regard
to established standards. Referring again to Figure 5-6, let us assume that a
standard was established as follows: "If twelve farm equipment mechanics
would be needed in the next five years, a course -should be initiated in
Agricultural Machinery Service." Following the Net Labor Needs formula, a
curriculum planner would have determined that, in fact, the estimated need
for farm equipment mechanics did not meet the established standards.
The Net Labor Needs formula may also provide data that are useful in
establishing standards for future curriculum development. For example, a
situation may occur that a Net Labor Need is found to be fifty for an occu
pation in which no vocational program exists. Thus, the curriculum planner
may further study this situation to determine if ~".ndards should be estab
lished in deciding whether vocational courses should be offered that would
'. prepare individuals for employment in that occupation. One note of caution
needs to be mentioned if a large Net Labor Need oevelops for a specific occu
pation. The example of dishwashers in Figure 5-6 is an excellent illustration.
Ther~ are certain jobs that experience a high turnover rate, thus resulting in
a high job vacancy. The problem may not be a lack of people available to fill
such a positioh, but a shortage due to low wages, poor working conditions,
or other undesirable aspects of a job that keep people from seeking employ
ment in it. Another example would be sewing machine operators in a doth
ing factory. This job tends to become extremely monotonous for some
employees, and as a result, a high turnOF:!r rate often occurs.
Evert with limitations that may exist with forecasting labor supply and
demand, vocational education curriculum developers must wntinue to forecast
and predict labor needs for various occupations. Only in this way will voca
tional education programs remain relevant to the needs of society. Until the
techniques and procedures for predicting labor supply and demand become
'. more sophisticated, and until data used to make these predictions become more
reliable, one must continue to use approaches that will provide the best oppor
tunity to determine if established program quality standards can be met.
Costs for New Programs. Projecting costs for a new program may begin by
using the outline contained in Figure 5-7.
Instructional and Support Staff. Estimates for hiring staff vary widely
from state to state and even within states. Curriculum planners contemplat
ing the development of new vocational programs should have little trouble
in projecting the salaIy and fringe benefit costs needed to obtain staff associ
ated for the program under consideration.
TOTALS $-----'
ClassXYZ
.
,
Project
or
Quantity
per
Number
of
Total
Quantity
Activity Material Size Student Students Needed
Machine Round iron 40 21.6 feet
Bolt
Hex. nuts 1," NC 2 40 80
Wiring. instructional 1 40 40
Single manual
Pole
Switch
jecting costs for materials and supplies for any program(s) under considera
tion; an example has been included on each form. In summarizirig costs on
the form in Figure 5-9, cost per vocational service can be obtained, cost per
vocational course can be determined, and cost per student course and/or per
120 Section II: Planning the Curriculum
vocational service area can be projected. All of these total cost figures can be
transferred to the form in Figure 5-7 where they may be used to assist plan
ners in arriving at the projected instructional materials and supplies cost for
a course under consideration.
Equipment. The cost to equip a new facility will vary widely and is largely
dependent on the vocational service area and type of equipment needed.
Although it is difficult to provide an estimate that will be accurate for all situations,
curriculum planners must rely on equipment lists available for each vocational
service area from state departments of education or teacher education institutions.
Travel. Expenses for the instructors' travel and field trips for students
should be provided. In vocational education, supervised occupational expe
rience projects are a part of the programs; thus, instructors must be provid
ed ample travel expenses in order to supervise and establish educational
occupational experience projects for each sf"'''ient. Costs of field trips may
also be included under this category.
Inflation Considerations
The need to consider inflation rates must be considered, since the time from
which a prograln is first conceived to the actual building construction may be
three to five years. Failing to account for rising costs due to inflation may
place a school in a situation of having to cut back on some of the facilities,
equipment, supplies, or staff when the expense occurs. If this situation
matelializes, then realizing established quality program staHJards may be
impossible.
with disabilities. The construction of new facilities and renovation of older facil
ities will need to accommodate the disabled. Rexibility is the key to vocational
programs in the future. Never before in history has the type of jobs changed so
rapidly, and in the future, changes will be occurring at an ever-increasing rate.
Construction of new facilities must incorporate flexibility so that as programs
and courses become obsolete, changes for emerging courses and programs
needed for job-entry skills can be initiated with a minimum of expense.
Funds
The monetary resources for vocatic:-o~'! programs may originate from local,
state, or federal sources, or in some cases, special gifts from individuals, busi
nesses, or private foundations. The percentage of funds for each source may
vary from state to state or locality to locality, so those individuals planning
vocational programs must determine just how much is available and from
what source. Although the treatment of the topic here is not lengthy, funds
are, nonetheless, one of the most critical factors in achieving program quali
ty. Furthermore, as funds are identified for educational programs, curriculum plan
ners must determine just how much of those jui.';'S will be used for vocational edu
cation programs. With there being more possibility that the distribution of
funds obtained for anyone vocational program might be different than for
other vocational programs, a slight revision to the form in Figure 5-10 per
mits information about anyone vocational course or service area to be ana
lyzed with relative ease. The revised form is included in Figure 5-11 and pro
vides the planner with an opportunity to designate the source and amount
of funds received from each funding level.
TOTALS 5 $
Source of Funds
Local 5 $
State 5 $
Federal 5 $
Private 5 $
"
TOTALS 5 $
nity resources could be pointed out, for example, if an employer owned a piece
of equipment valued at $3,000 and the school were able to rent or borrow the
equipment. This arrangement might be more economical than investinb $3,000
in this equipment and leaving it idle for fifty weeks out of the year.
Human Resources
Effective and quality vocational programs do not rely only on adequate
equipment, funds, and materials, hut also on competent instructors to con
duct the programs. Human resources include support personnel as well as
.. administrators. Thus, a standard must be established regarding the specifi
cation of human resources needed for a quality program, and data. need to be
collected to measure whether this standard can be met.
standard in this area. Information collected from employers with the use of
the form shown in Figure 5-1 permits a school to assess whether or not suf
ficient training stations are available. Information collected via this form
might also be useful for developing a list of those employers who need more
information about cooperative programs, and this may lead to further con
tact and cooperation between the school and community.
SUMMARY
The Vocational Education Acts of 1963 and 1968 and their subsequent
amendments, as well as the Perkins Act, and the School-to-Work
Opportunities Act of 1994, were based on preparing youth and adults for
placement ir. entry-level jobs, and with this concept, the need to collect and
analyze community-based data for use in decision making in voqltional edu
cation programs became vitally important. One of the first tasks of curricu
lum development is to define community boundaries, and these boundaries
might fluctuate depending upon the standard being measured. Once stan
dards and geographical boundaries are firmly defined, collection of data can
be achieved.
Data are usually needed regarding the types of industries and business
es existing in the community, as well as the number of people employed by
occupational title. In addition, attempts to determine new and emerging
sources of employment will aid in keeping vocational programs relevant.
Labor demand and supply must be assessed to establish Net Labor Needs.
The Net Labor Needs reflect the number of individuals not available who are
needed to fill newly created jobs or to replace those leaving their occupa
tions. Although many uncontrollable varic.:-!es will influence the estimates
made for future labor demand and supply, vocational educators, especially
those responsible for curriculum development, must continue their efforts to
arrive at realistic projections.
Vocational education program quality will not be achieved unless ade
quate resources can be identified and committed to the program. Funding,
facilities and equipment, human resources, and cooperative training stations
are just a few such resources. Projected costs for initiating new or expanded
programs must be assessed to determine if established standards can be met.
Consideration must also be given to energy conservation, safety, people with
disabilities, and program flexibility.
Established program standards related to community-based information
have a great influence on the success of quality vocational education pro
grams. Therefore every effort must be made to collect accurate data, so that
decisions that affect curriculum development will be based on the best avail
able information.
Clwpter 5: Collecting and Assessing Community-Related Data 125
,,/
RElATED REFERENCES
Bailey, Thomas. "Jobs of the Future and the Education They Will Require: Evidence
from Occupational Forecasts." Educational Researcher 20, no. 3 (March 1991):
11-20.
BLS Handbook ofMethods. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Report 2490, U.S. Department of
Labor, Washington, D.C: U.S. Government Printmg Office, April 1997.
Cyert, Richard M., and Mowery, David C, eds. Technology and Employment.
Washington, D.C: National Academy of Sciences, 1987.
Haub, Carl. "Demographics: What Lies Ahea'd? Shifts, Growth and Change." VocEd
59, no. 4 (May 1984): 29-31.
Herman, Jerry J. "External and Internal Scarming: Identifying Variables that Affect
Your School." NASSP Bulletin 73, no. 520 (November 1989): 48-52.
"Hiring Trends," Techniques. 72, no. 3 (March 1997): 30-31.
Major Programs, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Repmt 793. U.s. Department of Labor,
'vVashington, D.C: U.s. Government Printing Office, 1991.
Middleton, John, Ziderman, Adrian, and Van Adams, Arvi!. Skills for Productivity:
\Iocational Educatioll and Trainillg ill Developillg Coulltrles. New York, N.Y.: Oxford
-- Cniversity Press,1993.
Occupational Outlook Handbook. U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C: U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1996-1997.
Occupational Projections and Training Data, 1990 Edition. Bureau of Labor Statistics,
C.s. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C: US. Government Printing Office,
1990, No. 2351.
Outlook 1990-2005. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.s. Department of Labor,
Washington, D.C: U.S. Governmmt Printing Office, ~ay 1992.
Rifkin, J. The End of Work: The Decline of the Global Labor Force and the Dawn of the Post
Market Era. New York: Putnam, 19%.
Roberts, Katharine M. "Today's Trade and Industrial Revolution." Vocational
Educatio11 Journal. 71, no. 5 (May 1996): 27-29, 57.
Thiers, Naomi. "A Good Trade." Vocational Educatioll Journal 71, no. 3 (March 1996):
32-35.
Thiers, Naomi. "Technical Support." Vocational Educatioll Journal 71, no. 4 (April
1996): 42-45.
Warnat, Winifred L. "Preparing a World-Class Work Force." Vocational Education
Journal 66, no. 5 (May 1991): 22-25.
. "
, .
"
~ Section III
Establishing
Curriculum Content
....
The initial sections of this book have served to provide a meaningful plan
ning base for the vocational and technical curriculum. School- and commu
nity-related data should be thoroughly examined to determine whether or
not the curriculum should be offered and, if so, what its general scope should
be. Whereas decisions associated with planning are a fundamental part of the
curriculum development process, they are not designed to pinpoint content
essential to the curriculum. Thus, the planning base must be expanded to
include the specific content a curriculum will contain.
This section deals with the processes used to establish meaningful cur
riculum content. Whether a curriculum is just being formulated or is under
going re\'ision, it becomes vitally important to ensure that its content reflects
the needs of the work world. This section provides curriculum developers
with a means of establishing relevant content while placing particular em
phasis on approaches that can be used in applied settings.
Although the chapters in this section may be used independently, they
>-
have been designed to project a sequence of events in the process of estab
lishing meaningful content. Initially, it is important to determine the range of
content that has poter,~ial to be included in a curriculum (Chapter 6). After
"
potential content has been identified, the curriculum developer must make
decisions regarding which content may be used in a particular educational
setting (Chapter 7). Constraints such as time, facilities, personnel, and stu
dents can affect the amount of content that can be covered. Thus, the usable
content is typically less than that initially identified. An additional element in
the establishment of meaningful content deals with developing curriculum
goals and objectives, and in recent years, standards (Chapter 8). Certainly it
127
128 Section III: Establishing Curriculum Content
would be possible first to establish goals and objectives and then move on to
the identhication of content, but the end result might be a lack of content rel
evance.
The reader should be mindful that this section is not meant to be pre
scriptive. Whereas some persons may be able to follow the sequence sug
gested in Chapters 6, 7, and 8, others may find that content has already been
derived for their teaching areas.
~6
Determining
Curriculum Content
'. INTRODUCTION
Perhaps it seems that one could just sit down and decide which content is
most important to indude in a curriculum, but this impression is far from
reality. In a typical educational setting, the curriculum developer is con
fronted with a variety of factoJ;s that may affect the task of determining
what should actually be taught. These factors may have great impact on
129
130 Section III: Establishing Curriculum Content
als or pressure groups may feel it is in the best interests of themselv~s moth
ers to support inclusion of certain content in the curriculum. The reasons
behind this sort of support are numerous, since local situations and personali
ties often enter into the process. Reasons may range from honest concern for
students' ,"'elfare toquasipolitical tactics. Regardless of the reason behind such
pressure, the curriculum developer must recognize that in some cases the
cause supported by certain individuals or groups may not be in the best inter
ests of students. For example, emotional concern about content that might be
included in a curriculum is no substitute for systematic content derivation.
This is not to say that concerns of this type should be ignored. The contempo
rary curriculum developer mu~t maintain an open mind and search for mean
ingful curriculum concerns that individuals and groups might possess.
Pressure in support of certain content might be exerted from within an
educational environment by several sources. Administrators, vocational and
technical instructors, academic instructors, guidance counselors, students,
and placement specialists may each feel that certain content must be includ
ed ;" a curriculum and strongly support that conviction. A major responsi
bilit}I of the curriculum developer is to sort out these concerns and determine
which are valid and which are not. If this critical analysis is not accom
pF:;hed, an invalid concern might receive widespread support and actually
be included as content in a curriculum. When a situation such as this occurs,
students as well as the school may suffer the consequences.
Pressures from outside the educational environment may emanate from
areas such as busineSses, industries, self-employed persons, professional organi
zations, unions, and advisory committees. Since every vocational curriculum
must be responsive to the world of work, concerns from these areas cannot be
ignored. In certain situations where pressure for specific content is applied from
an individual or group outside the edu.:ational environment, the validity for a
claim must be established. It might be that a particular business firm supports the
inclusion of curriculum content dealing with word processing, since they have a
need for competent workers in this area; or an occupational advisory committee
might believe that metrication should be an integral part of a building construc
tion curriculum. In either case, such concern might be valid and should, therefore,
be verified during the content derivation process. Working with the public is an
ongoing responsibilit}, of vocational educators and handling the concerns of lay
". persons is just one part of this responsibility. The curriclli ...... n developer must be
responsive to public concerns and pressures by examining their implications and
determining which claims are valid and justifiable.
view of what skills their workers need. Factors such as the evolving nature
of the vvorkplace and the time lag in knowledge dissemination cause some
employers to fall behind others in terms of understanding workplace needs.
This is particularly true of future worker needs since employers are more
likely to focus on the present rather than the future.
Thus, in the determination of curriculum content, consideration must be
given to future as well as current employer needs. This task is made easier
through the use of content determination strategies such as the Delphi tech
nique that focus what workers may be doing in the future. However, more
general views of the current and future workplace may be drawn from stud
ies that focus on entire industries or businesses or employers-at-large. These
studies can provide the curriculum developer with much valuable informa
tion about current and future employer needs, needs that may not be dis
covered through contacts and discussions with individual employers and
workers.
One such study, conducted by the American Society for Training and
Development (ASTD), focused on workplace basics: rl:ills that employers
-. want their workers to have (Carnevale, Gainer, & Meltzer, 1988). The ASTD
report indicates that a new breed of worker is needed-one that may not
. have to demonstrate as many skills in a narrow area bllt will have to demon
strate knowledge in a broad range of skills. It is revealed that basic skill
requirements will continue to increase in a wide variety of occupations and
that the preparation of skill and craft employees with better basic skills may
assist America in regaining its competitive advantage. Provided in the ASTD
report are descriptions of what employers want. These are organized into a
hierarchy of seven skill groups ranging from most advanced to most basic.
The groups include:
Interpersonal/Negotiation/Teamwork
Development
-.
3 Rs (Reading, Writing, Computation)
Learning to Learn
As noted earlier, employers currently need and will continue to need work
ers who can demonstrate facility in mathematics, I"':ience, and communica
tion skills, and this need will continue to grow as the workplace continues
to become more and more complex. This situation, coupled with the over
arching responsibility of education to prepare persons for both life and
earning a living, presents educators with a thorny problem: how to prepare
Chapter 6: Determining Curriculum Content 135
we would have a c::mtinuum along which each of the strategies could rough
ly be placed. The philosophical basis for determining content is perhaps the
most subjective strategy, since a specific philosophy or set of philosophies
serves as a foundation for content decisions. This strategy is most typically
-. used to develop curriculum content in academic areas. Introspection is used by
an individual or group to examine personal experiences and knowledges and
to incorporate these into a framework for .the vocational curriculum content.
This strategy may be classed as quite subjective, since every little (if any)
"hard" data are used in the decision-making process. The DACUM content
determination approach utilizes occupational experts to derive relevant con
tent. Its focus is on development of a single-sheet skill profile that serves both
as curriculum plan and an evaluation instrument. Task analysis focuses on the
identification and verification of tasks performed by workers in a certain
occupation or cluster of occupations. Its procedures enable this strategy to
produce quite objective data related to worker tast.<;. The "all aspects" strate
gy is used to identify content that is drawn from broad industries and fields.
Several other meaningful strategies may be considered by the curriculum
developer. These include the critical incident technique and the Delphi technique.
The critical incident technique is useful in identifying curriculum content
related to worker values and attitudes. Content in emerging occupations may
be identified via the Delphi technique.
The observation may be made that the more objective curriculum con
tent strategies are, the more costly they are to use. For example, task analysis
is a very Jbjective process, but this objectivity is obtained at a high cost, since
one must send materials or travel to locations where workers are employed.
The philosophical approach is very inexpensive and the small investment
yields a meager return in terms of objectivity. Realistically, the curriculum
develct'er should consider using several strategies, since each has its own par
ticular strengths and weaknesses. When several strategies are used, there is
a much greater likelihood that the content developed will be valid.
138 Section III: Establishing Curriculum Content
Establishing a Philosophy
A det<l:iled discussion dealing with philosophical foundations of vocational
education is beyond the scope of this volume, however, focusing on some
examples of philosophy is certainly appropriate. These serve to illustrate the
ways that a philosophy might be specified. One must keep in mind that a
person's philosophy is basically that which he or she believes. We may say
that a philosophy is composed of several belief statements, each of which
contributes in some way to the overall makeup of the philosophy. Philoso
phy tends to vary from individual to individual and group to group just as
might be expected of such a value-laden area. Therefore a group may have
difficulty reaching consensus regarding some belief statements whereas other
statements may be agreed upon unanimously with little or no discussion.
The establishment of belief statements is a rather straightforward activi
ty. Various sources are examined to identify statements that might align with
onQ'S personal philosophy. Textbooks, articles, and speeches can all serve as
usefd sources of information. Philosophies developed by professional asso
ciations, community colleges, school districts, and similar units provide a
wealth of potential belief statements. Whatever sources may be used, it is
important to recognize that those statements represent a potential philoso
phy. Eventually, a group of concerned and knowledgeable persons must
examine each belief statement and agree as to which ones will constitul;e a
philosophical base for the curriculum.
A literature search might serve first to clarify the characteristics of voca
tional education. For example, a review of numerous sources that included
individuals, organizations, agencies, and federal legislation served as a basis
for the following statements about vocational education's character:
1. Preparation for gainful employment that requires less than the bac
calaureate degree.
Chapter 6: Determining Curriculum Content 139
These statements are but a few of the many that may be drawn from the
literature and used as foundation for the voca~ional curriculum. Dedication
to the task of identifying belief statements such as these will ensure that a
comprehensi\'e philosophy is developed.
that "vocational education should be available to all those who can profit
by it," their actions should be directed toward the establishment and main
tenance of curricula for these groups. 1his does not mean merely providing
a few token offerings but actually aligning curricula with students' needs
on a large-scale basis. If it is stated in a philosophy that "a comprehensive
placement service should be provided to both currently enrolled and for
mer students," then action should be taken to establish the type of service
to align with each curriculum. .
These few examples serve to illustrate the broad impact that a sound phi
losophy can have on curriculum development. However, this impact is not
as great in the area of specific technical content, and here is where problems
tend to arise in relating philosophy to content. The general nature of a belief
statement may not describe specific competencies needed by an individual
in the work environment. Thus, the curriculum developer must speculate
about what the specific competence should be and hope that this speculation
results in the identification of appropriate content.
INTROSPECTION
introspection but shares few of its shortcomings. The reason for this is that.
DACUM relies on experts employed in the occupational area to determine
curriculum content and allows them to be guided through a systematic con
tent determination process. Although the approach has some commonalities
with other content determination strategies, DACUM will be examined in a
singular fashion because of the success curriculum developers worldwide
have had using this approach in content determination.
DACUM was initially created as a joint effort of the Experimental
Projects Branch, Canada Department of Manpower and Immigration, and
General Learning Corporation. The idea was later adopted and used" by
Nova Scotia New Start, Inc. and utilized in the determination of vocational
curriculum content for disadvantaged adult learners (Adams, 1975).
DACUM was felt to be particularly useful for the New Start activity because
immediate action needed to be taken on curriculum development and li.'nit
ed dollar resources were available.
DACUM may be defined as "a single sheet skill profile that serves as
both a curriCUlum plan and an evaluation instrument for occupational train
ing programs" (Adams, 1975, p. 24). However, more recently the DACUM
approach has been expanded in scope to encompass course and program
developmen.:. This is accomplished by using a development process called
Systematic Curriculum and Instructional Development (SCID). DACUM is
used in the analysis phase which is the first of five SClD phases. The other
four phases include design, instructional development, training implemen
tation, and program evaluation (Stammen, 1997).
A unique aspect of the DACUM approach is the way that curriculum
content is displayed. A single-sheet skill profile is used to present the skills
of an entire occupation, thus reducing the chance of treating one element of
an occupation separately from the others. The p(ofile provides an indepen
dent specification of ~rtch of the behaviors or skills associated with compe
tence in the occupation. These behaviors are stated in a rather simple man
ner so that the student can understand them and are organized in small
blocks on the chart in such a manner that each can be used as an indepen
dent goal for the student. The profile can also contain a rating scale that facil
itates evaluation of achievement for each of the behaviors. In this manner, the
profile may be used as a record of achievement for both student and teacher.
As the example in Figure 6-1 indicates, a profile need not only serve as a
record of achievement in school, but may also be used as a sort of diploma
or documentation of skill development in an occupation.
The deve!;.,pment of a DACUM profile involves using a committee of ten
to twelve resource persons who are experts in a particular occupation.
Employers nominate as resource persons, people who are skilled in the occu
pation and who are currently serving as a worker or supervisor in the area.
Experiences with this approach have revealed that instructors in an occupa
Chapter 6: Determining Curriculum Content 143
Once the DACUM profile has been developed, the product may serve as
a basis for developing instructional content and materials that focus on stu
dent attainment of specified skills. It should be noted that sometimes instruc
tors are involved after the profile has been produced. This procedure has the
advantage of identifying only those skills that are most relevant to the work
setting. This does not mean instructors are disenfranchised; they are recog
nized for their overall technical expertise and ability to organize, sequence,
and detail curriculum content.
Also, instructors may become involved at the beginning of the DACUM
process. Decisions about whether and when instructors should be involved
in the process are based on the extent to which they are fully aware of what
-. is included in the occupation being analyzed. An additional consideration is
the degree to which instructors believe they can link their instruction with
",hat employers expect or' their new and! or seasoned employees. If instruc
'.
tors are able to align with these arus in meaningful ways, they can be valu
able contributors to the D..!\CUM process.
The DACUM approach to curriculum development has some distinct
advantages. First, the committee procedure results in a relatively low devel
opment cost. The major expense -,'.'ould be payments to committee members,
and in many caSes, a business or industry will gladly release "experts" from
their duties to assist in this process. Second, the time frame for conducting
'~l"f.
lVCTC
.
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Occupational Analysis
for
JE1!eei11t!@fJIfl6ehanical
.-'!.._"" .l"-C 11/ -' .. _ '-";;' __-"" o. L., , \...... ~:. . '.
January 1996
DACUM Panel Participants
JIM LUECK JIM CASAMASSA JGELKUCHER
Maint/Programmer Mgr. Field Operations Servo Group Electronic Technician
Tape Machining Oil Gear Magnetek Drives & Syst~ms
TOM BAUER
Maint. Group T..emf£r
8Mtrice Cheese
jan LAthrop Bob Sugden Lucinda Cloutier
DACUM Facilitator DACUM Coordinator DACUM Recorder
I The DACUM uses expert workers to describe their oo:upalion. The job can be described in
terms of DUTIES (arbitrary grouping of related tasks and TASKS (obRtvable units of work),
144
Chapter 6: Determining Curriculum Content 145
ELECfROMECHANICAL TECHNICIAN
.---DUTIES ---.., ,
Assemble&: Detemtine Create design Read enginee:· Design and Fabricate parts
Build Small system specs if small ing specs, &. / rr layout for if needed
requirements systems blueprinls if inhouse system
Electromechanical purchased machitf(
Systems A AJ A:l system -<., A4 AS
Troubleshootl Assess the Identify the Determine tht Simulate prob. Refer to
problem or problem: history where rrwntenanoe
Repair situation electrical or win ofevtnt~ appropriate history
Electromechanical 4Sl:~ mechanical l124kLithtlppm
Systems B 51 Il2 !3 lIgttin B4 B5
Comply with FoUo,,-OSHA Practice Recognize Comply with Handle disposal
standards lockoutb. potential ANSI &: NFPA of hazardous
Safety Practices tagout dangers standards materials
&: Regulations procedu.... appropriately
C C1 C2 0 C4 CS
install &: Setup Determine Verify Inspect Verify that site Locate&:
")!Stem requirements equipment for requirements anchor EM
Complete requirements for hookup shipping arem(!t equipment
Electromechanical &:puq>ose damage la<:tlliort.tntnron·
System;; E EI E2 B £4 Ittnllalsp«S. E5
instruct Communicate Train Trainlcross Instruct plan. Explain
manufacturing operators train other maintenence documentation
Personnel specs on pre- electromema:;- technicians
venth-e maint. ical technician::.
F Fl F2 =:; F4 F5
Conduct Provide f,~ on Perform Suggest~ order Consultl refer to Evaluate
pre\"enl mainl pr~'ious maint. or maintain document:; environmental
Preventive specs based on dl%lll'. lubric.ol~ Cr parts. inventcr.:-' ttUmllt1./!', conditions
Maintenance 6eld/in-house rtl'taCY'pm1s &: supp. s<hed. frtri.fiulir.vt'f
(PM) G observ. Cl C2 jn·del. G:: G4 GS
Document &: Compl~- with Maintain Refer to Prepare Update
co. policies on machin.logs documentation detailed ~rvice blueprints with
Write Reports documentation ;:roor-,t Jt.m~, I"'obitms. for diagnosis report changes
ISO Sflrndtlrd ~lwliMs
H HI HZ B-3 H4 H5
January 2996
Continued
'.
TASKS
Handle static Solder
•
Mount Perform basic ! Test system
hydraulics, setup sensitive connections&:
A6 A7 AS A9 AIO
Isolate the Trace the Identify and Determine I"IX it &: record Research the Recommend
problem further problem through acquire needed interfaceabilityl problem &: problem using changes to
to the rompo· PLC program or parts compatibility solution for quality tools or prevent future
nent level drive software with other future reference other resources occurance
DataSbeets results
relevant to
C6 worksite C7 C8
Updatelcreate Identify&: Schedule Make the Test the change
D6 D7 OS D9 DIO
Hookup Initial setup, Coord.,,~th Power up EM Conduct test Verlt..·~M
multiple EM sperslexpetta·
E6 E7 systems E8 E9 EIO :ions Ell
,T'i:'monstrate Provide/receive
operation instruction
procedures
F6 F7
Determine/ Explain conse- Negotiate PM Follow / alter Adjust systems Record PM Evaluate PM
production activities
H6 de H7 H8
Communicate
with
co-workers
I-
16, l- I- L
1
traditional introspection process is quite clear. The process allows more rele
vant content to be identified and incorporated into a curriculum. At first glance,
the DACUM approach appears no different from the traditional trade and job
analysis process. One should note, however, that these approaches rely on the
instructor to determine what the content should be with little direct considera
tion given to input from persons employed in the actual work setting.
Chapter 6: Determining Curriculum Content 147
ELECTROMECHANICAL TECHNICIAN
Knowledge/Skills
Blueprint Reading. Understand Engineering Documents. Use Test Equipment: Meters, Scopes.
Measurement. Communications. Customer Realtions. Use Computer & Diagnostic Software.
Electrical Technology. Hydraulics. Pneumatics. Servo Systems. Machine Repair. Mechanics.
Basic Physics: Friction, Pressure Vacuum. Codes: Lockout/Tagout • ISO 1400 (New Environmental
Standards). Awareness of :-:FDA<ANSI Standards. Cost/Benefit. Listening. Telephone Etiquette.
Persuasive Speaking. Team Skills. How to Travel to Toledo (Teach iT) Sociology), Adapting Style to
Different Customers/Co-workers. Material Safety Data Sheets. Handle Static Sensitive Equipment.
Time ~Ianagement • Interpersonal Skills. General Business. Basic Machine Tools. Organized
Problem Solving. Basic Computer Skills: Operating Systems, Basic lXJS Commands, Word Processing.
Letters, Documentations; File Management, Retrieve & Copy File. Use Control System Software
TASK ANALYSIS
Few content determination strategies have seen such widespread use as task
analysis. This particular approach has been employed by vocational educa
tors in varying forms for a number of years. However, during the mid-1960s,
several developments occurred that resulted in major refinements to the task
analysis process. These refinements have enabled curriculum developers to
. make more objective decisions regarding cuntent that should be included in
various curriculi'1. Of particular note was research conducted at the Personnel
Laboratory, Lackland Air Force Base, Texas, which resulted in the develop
ment of a procedural guide for conducting occupational surveys (Morsh and
Archer, 1967). This guide has enabled educators to study systematically the
behavioral aspects of job requirements. Further refinement and use of the
task analysis process by groups such as the Vocational-Technical Education
Consortium of States (V-TECS) has shown this approach to be quite applica
ble to secondary and postsecondary vocational and technical education, as
well as training programs in business and industry.
Duties are large segments of work done by an individual that typically serve
as broad categories within which tasks may be placed. Examples of duties
would be organizing and planning, typing, maintaining equipment and
tools, and loading and hauling. Tasks, on the other hand, are work activity
units that form a significant aspect of a duty. Each task has a definite begin
ning and ending point and usually consists of four or more distinct steps.
Examples of tasks performed by workers would be planning menus, filing
materials, computing depreciation, and winterizing vehicles. Basic to the
task analysis process is the gathering of information directly from workers.
Obtaining information from this source ensures that workers are actually
providing input for curriculum content decisions. Just as the name "task
analysis" unplies, potential tasks are identified and then verified by job
incumbents, with the resultant analysis serving to determine which tasks are
actually associated with a particular job.
which other analyses may have already been conducted. If meaningful analy
ses have been completed, there is usually no reason to go any further with the
analysis process. A second use of the literature review is to develop lists of
potential tasks and equipment associated with the occupational area. Tasks
may be listed for one or several jobs, with the exact scope of the analysis being
determined by the curriculum developer. Thus, an occupational area typical
ly consists of two or more jobs in a related area or duster. Equipment lists
serve to identify the extent to which equipment is used and, once verified,
serve as meaningful aids in laboratory planning and similar areas.
Equipment Description %1 %2 %3 %4 %5
Needle nose pliers, small 96 93 0 0 0
Ground strap 96 93 0 0 0
Screwdriver, flat (slotted), medium 95 92 0 '0 0
Software, diagnostic 94 91 0 0 0
Screwdriver, Phillips #1, small 94 91 0 0 0
Screwdriver, flat (slotted), small 94 91 0 0 0
Nutdriver, %6" 94 91 0 0 0
Screwdriver, Phillips #2, medium 93 90 0 0 0
Cloth (cleaning) 93 90 0 0 0
Chip extraction and replacement tool 93 90 0 0 0
Wrrecutter 92 89 0 0 0
Nutdriver, 1,4" 92 89 0 0 0
Multimeter 91 88 0 0 0
Solder iron (low wattage) 89 86 0 0 0
Needle nose pliers, large 89 86 0 0 0
Wire stripper 88 85 0 0 0
Plug, diagnostic loopback 87 84 0 0 0
Wrench set, Allen (standard) 86 83 0 0 0
Solder (electronic) 86 83 0 0 0
Screwdriver, Phillips #3, large 86 33 0 0 0
Desoldering equipment 86 83 0 0 0
Solder sucker 85 82 0 0 0
Screwdriver, flat (slotted), large 85 82 0 0 0
Screw extractor, plastic 85 82 0 0 0
Alcohol 85 82 0 0 0
Ie (integrated circuit) puller 84 81 0 0 0
Swabs (for electronic use) 83 80 0 0 0
Contact deaner spray 81 81 0 0 0
Tweezers, small 75 72 0 0 0
Wrench set, metric 71 69 0 0 0
Plug-in chard, diagnostic 68 66 0 0 0
IC (integrated circuit) inserter 68 66 0 0 0
Tweezers, medium 67 65 0 0 0
whether or not tasks are done in the present job, and they may permit the
indication of time spent doing the tasks. Unfortunately, time spent on a task
does not indicate that it is more or less important than other tasks. Some very
important tasks take a very short time to complete. Data collected from
workers are used to determine whether or not a particular task is of sufficient
importance to warrant its inclusion in the ct.:rriculum. Figure 6-3 contains
one task-list page from an inventory for biomedical equipment technicians.
The information in Figure 6-4 lists som€ of the related adidemic skills
that are important to the work of persons engaged in computer equipment
repair. It is becoming more common to identify important academic skills
when the occupation is being analyzed because this assists curriculum devel
opers in preparing programs and courses that emphasize the link between
basic and applied content. Additionally, this information can be used to aid
in integrating academic instruction with vocational and technical instruction.
DIRECTIONS
A. l. DO Mark (Xl by the tasks you perform now in the column
labeled "Mark If Done in Present Job" and Add any tasks
you do now which are not listed.
B. 1- DO NOT Mark tasks you have done in past jobs.
supervise.
I
-
MARK
IF OFFICE
DONE USE
DUTY H; MAINTAINING EYE, EAR, NOSE AND THROAT IN ONLY
(EENT) EQUIPMENT PRESENT
JOB
TASKS
I
booths.
impedance bridges.
bronchoscopes.
, -_...... __ .. _---- ,
,,,,
FIGURE 6-4 Page from a Related Academic Skills List for Computer
Equipment Repair
Source: From "Computer Equipment Repair," an occupational analysis by V·TECS (Vocational
Technical Education Consortium of States).
153
154 Section III: Establishing Curriculum Content
• Does the theme align closely with the needs of students Wh'l will be
enrolled?
• Does it build on employers' areas of strength and the ways they can
contribute to curriculum success?
• Does it link closely with and build upon community resources?
and agriculture are broadly organized and thus may be useful content infor
mation sources. World Wide Web search..:s and list serves may be used to
identify relevant information that might otherwise remain hidden.
Once a broad theme has been framed, content areas can be determined.
Here is where "all aspects" formally enters the curriculum process. Even
though the "all aspects" concept has bet:::,1 around for quite some time, legis
lation has helped to define this concept in much clearer terms. For example,
156 Section III: Establishing Curriculum Content
Even though the critical mcident technique has been available for many
years, its use in deriving curriculum content has been quite limited. This
technique is comprised of "procedures for collecting direct observations of
human behavior in such a way as to facilitate their potential usefulness in
solving practical problems" (Flanagan,1954).
An incident is any observable human activity that enables "inferences
and predictions to be made about the person performing the act" (Flanagan,
1954'. Incidents are classified as critical when the observer sees their purpose
and consequences as being clear. A major contribution that the critical inci
dent technique can make to curriculum content identificatiori is its potential
to deal more directly with isolating important values and attitudes. Whereas
task analysis and similar approaches are useful in the identification of con
Chapter 6: Detennining Curriculum Content 157
tent, they tend to focus more exclusively on technical content and less direct
lyon affective concerns. With the critical incident technique, one can select
those behaviors that are attitude- or value-laden and thus provide a firmer
foundation for affective content in the curriculum.
The technique may be illustrated by using an example of a concern that
many curriculum developers have. Assume that a certain curriculum has a
poor record of graduates holding jobs. Placement has been high and no dif
ficulties have been identified with the workers' technical. ~ompetence, yet
persons who have been placed on jobs tend to be dismissed at a much high
er rate than those who studied other curricula. When approaching this prob
lem, one would first want to identify those nontechnical essentials that make
the difference between job success and failure. To accomplish this, supervi
sors are asked to record in the form of anecdotes or stories those job behav
iors that contributed to worker dismissal. The data gathered are then used to
build a composite picture of job behavior.
In order to obtain the necessary information, a critical incident form is
devised that allows supervisors who have day-to-day contact with workers
-,
.to record specific instances of workers' inappropriate affective behavior. The
form provided in Figure 6-5 may be used for this purpose. Supervisors com
plete a form for each critical incident that they can remember. In addition to
Directions: Think of the workers you dismissed over the past six months. Focus
your attention on anyone nontechnical thing that one of your workers
may have done that contributed to his or her dismissal. In other words,
think of a criticai incident related to nontechnical failures of your work
ers. Please do not place any person's name on this form.
The above incidents are merely illustrative and must be combined with
many others to arrive at any meaningful inferences. Typically, from 100 to
200 incidents are gathered,. with the actual usable number being somewhat
less. The reported incidents are then conceptually grouped into categories
with general headings. Categories associated with the area of nontechnical
failures might consist of the following:
1. Punctuality
2. Interpersonal relations
3. interpretation of company policy
4. Personal initiative
Other categories could, of course, be added, with the exact number being
determined by the incidents that have been gathered.
The utility of this information is quite evident. Categories and their asso
ciated incidents serve as a foundation for curriculum contell( that focuses on
developing appropriate attitudes and values. Curriculum developers must
recognize that instruction based upon this type of content is not provided on
a lesson, project, or similar basis. Affective education must be infused into
the curriculum in such a way that students develop appropriate values and
attitudes across their entire educational experience instead of just during for
mal classroom or laboratory sessions.
SYNTHESIS OF STRATEGIES
SUMMARY·
This chapter has focused directly on the business of determining curriculum
content. Efforts made to determine content must take into account the vari
.,
,
"
,,
...
...
0'1
162 Section III: Establishing Curriculum Content
ous factors that can effect the entire process. The actual time and dollars
available to determine what content should be included in a curriculum con
stitute potential constraints for the developer. Likewise, internal and external
pressures and concerns must be examined to determine which types of con
tent are valid and justifiable. Requirements already established at federal,
state, and local levels must be identified and taken into account as the cur
riculum.is being established. Skills needed by employers must be consid
ered, and relationships between academic and vocational education must be
acknowledged. The level at which content is provided needs to be examined
in relation to the students served so their needs may be fully met.
Other areas of concern to the curriculum developer include the educa
tional settit"lg, the occupatio!-,al setting, and the various content determina
tion strategies available. The unique aspects of an educational or occupa
tional setting might result in the choice of one strategy over another.
Strategies range from the more subjective philosophical basis and introspec
tion to the more objective task analysis. The "all aspects" approach aids in
creating a curriculum with broadly based, thematic content that can expose
students to a wide range of industry- and field-wide experiences. The criti
cal incident technique has greatest utility in the values and attitudes area,
whereas the Delphi technique is most useful for d~:~rmining content in
emerging occupational areas. Since the curriculum developer may not be
able to gather complete information when one strategy is used, several
strategies should be utilized to identify meaningful content. This will make
the final curriculum better able to meet all student needs.
RELATED REFERENCES
Adams, R. E. DACUM Approach to Curriculum, Learning and Evaluation in
Occupational Training. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia: Department of Regional
Economic Expansion, 1975.
American Vocational Association. Guide to the earl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied
Technology Education Act. Alexandria, Va.: Author, 1990.
Bailey, Thomas. "Jobs of the Future and the Skills They Will Require." American
Educator 14, no. 1 (Spring 1990), pp. 10-15,40-44.
Carnevale, Anthony P., Gainer, Leila L and Meltzer, Ann. S. Workplace Basics: The
Skills Employers Want. Alexandria, Va.: American Society for Training and
Development, 1988.
Faber, Dennis M. DACUM: A Practkal Response to Corporate Training Needs. Baltimore,
Md.: Maryland DAO.JM Re"ource Center, Dundalk CommunityCoUege.
Finch, Curtis R., and Mooney, Marianne. Building All Aspects of Industries and Fields
into High School Curriculum. Paper presented at the National High Schools that
Work Conference. Louisville, Ky., 1996.
Chapter 6: Determining Curriculum Content 163
Finch, Curtis R., Frantz, Nevin. F., Mooney, Marianne, and Aneke, !'Jorbert O.
Designing tile Thematic Curriculum: An All Aspects Approach. Berkeley, Calif.:
National Center for Research in Vocational Education, 1997.
Flanagan, John C. "The Critical Incident Technique." Psychological Bulletin 51, no. 4
Ouly 1954): 327-358.
Norton, Robert E. DACUM Handbook. Columbus, Ohio: National Center for Research
in Vocational Education, 1985.
Morsh, Joseph E. and Archer, Wayne B. Procedural Guide for Conducting OCCllpatiol1al
Sllri..'eJ.}S in the United States Air Force. Tx.: Lackland Air Force Base, Personnel
Research Laboratory, September, 1967.
Stammen, Ronald M. Web Pages Created Via SCID Process. Paper presented at the
American Vocational Association National Conference, Las Vegas, Nev., 1997.
-,
~ ~;;.--
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utn\re.RS"r\~ "tr.£~,~Gt;.~""l\.T\,{~
~7
Making Curricu.lum
Content Decisions
-. INTRODUCTION
Decision making is perhaps one of the highest-level skills that a person can
develop. It is a skill that permeates our society and is recognized as a part of
virtuaily all professional, vocational, and technical occupations. Naturally,
decision making is an integral part of the curriculum development process.
Decisions must be made regarding numerous areas, including whether or not
to offer a curriculum, how curriculum content may be identified, and what .
the substance of.? curriculum should be. Chapter 3 provided an overview of
the decision-making process and showed how decision making applies to
curriculum planning. This chapter applies the process in an equally important
area: curri::::tlum content. Initial consideration is given to the purpose and
scope of the content decis.i.on-making process. lhis is followed by a descrip
tion of how constraints are identified that may affect content decisions. Next
comes a discussion of the ways that potential content may bE: related to iden
tified constraints. Finally, the curriculum framework is described, and the
ways it may be utilized are detailed. In sum, this chapter serves to emphasize
further the role of decision making in the curriculum development process
and to point out how it may be applied to curriculum content decisions.
165
166 Section Ill: Establishing Curriculum Content
The Student
Vocational and technical students represent a major force in the shaping of
curriculum content. Student characteristics can have great impact on cur
riculum content and should, therefore, receive close scrutiny as the content
selection process takes place. Initial consideration must be given to stu
dents' entering characteristics. What are the students' general and applied
skills? Are they interested and motivated? What are their maturity levels?
These and other related questions are of particular relevance, since such
factors greatly affect the amount and type of content that can actually be
covered. While recognizing that it is not always beneficial to use group
data when a curriculum focuses on meeting the needs of individual stu
dents, (he curriculum developer may need to obtain some group informa
tion duri:.1g the decision-making process. Assume that content is being
determined for a printing technology program. Data from prospective stu
dents indicate that 50 percent read at or above the eighth-grade level; the
remainder read below this level. If it has been established that printing
technology content mastery requires an eighth-graqe reading level or bet
-- ter, a number of implications for content can be drawn regarding the stu
dents who are poorer readers. Those might include the need for remedial
reading instruction, tutorial help, a printing technology instructor who is
also skilled in teaching reading, or an arrangement whereby i'eading
instruction would be integraled with the printing technology instruction.
All of these have implications for the amount of printing technology con
tent selected, since time would need to be spent providing some students
with basic reading instruction.
staff, more time is available to the instructor for dealing with important cur
riculum content areas. .
Directions: Before major curriculum content decisions are made, check to be sure that
information is available about the areas described below.
1. Student Entering Characteristics
o General and applied skills
o Interest and motivation
o Maturity levels
o Special needs
o Other
2. Instructors and Support Staff
o Content instructors can teach
o Provision for teaching supporting coursework
o Provision for integrating general and vocational education content
o Availabilitv of support staff (e.g., guidance, placement)
o Other
3. The Curricl,lar Arrangement
o Time available to teach students
o Required vocational content coverage
o Required general content coverage
o Ftmding available for equipment, resources, and supplies
o Other
4. The Employment Setting
o Minimum expected employability level of graduates
o Employment areas graduates will be prepared to enter
o Learning experiences best obtained in employment settings
o Other
FIGURE 7-1 Checklist for Preparing to Make Curriculum Content
Decisions
lum associated With supply technology (a fictitious area). Initially, the deci
sion is made to look at content as it relates to the curricular arrangement.
This is followed by examining the employment setting, the student, and labt
ly, the instructor and support staff. Scrutiny of potenti?-l constraints associat
ed with the curricular arrangement reveals the following:
area.
These three statements provide useful input for content decisions be
cause they help to point out the direction the curriculum should take.
Since it is noted that graduates may be employed as entry-level workers,
conient coverage should prepare persons to attain at least this minimum
level. Assuming that entry-level skills were detailed when potential con
tent was' identified, the curriculum developer may use these skills as a
basis for content selection. At this point, however, some conflicts may
arise between content coverage needed and time available to teach the
content. Problems related to content coverage are not easily resolved and,
in most instances, end up in a compromise between what is needed and
what can actually be done. The indication that physical requirements exist
in different occupational settings has major implications. Whereas it
would be p·)ssible to prepare persons for a variety of occupations with
businesses and industries, this must be considered in light of student
characteristics. Variations in employment requirements might serve to
limit the enrollment of certain groups (e.g., spedal needs) if these re
quirements are not taken into account as content is selected. Thus, the
employment settings prepared for can seriously affect the types of stu
dents to be enrolled in a curriculum.
With regard to students involved in the curriculum, the following infor
mation was identified:
172 Section III: Establishing Curriculum Content
Of the entering students, 20 percent have deficiencies ill the reading area.
content areas.
Educators often express concern about the ways curriculum content and
associated areas may be documented. This concern has evolved from a per
ceived gap between curriculum as defined in its broader sense and instruc
tion as defined in its narrower sense. Whereas the curriculum encompasses
all those experiences provided unde:: the direction or auspices of the school,
it is apparent that documentation of content often does not extend beyond
the course level. Of particular note is the course syllabus, which serves as for
malized course outline. This type of document does little more than provide
students and visitors with some idea about content scope and sequence.
Although the syllabus is important to instruction, this sort of documentation
covers but a small part of the total curriculum.
Another form of instructional communication is the course of study, the
importance of which cannot be underestimated. It is certainly useful for an
instructor to have program or course units and plans delineated so instruc
tion may be conducted most efficiently. However, the vocational course of
study typically fails to include any information about nonvocational content
as well as numerous other items such as instructor and support staff capa
bilities. Thus, although the course of study serves a most useful function
from an individual vocational or technical instructor's vantage point, it does
!lot clarify the total scope of the curriculum.
Vocational and technical curriculum guides represent an additional form
of documentation and communication. The curriculum guide is typically
developed by a committee or group at a state or regional level and is used by
vocational and technical teachers in theJr particular instructional areas.
Representative course titles may include Horticulture, Welding, Restaurant
Management, and Office Administration. Curriculum guides often serve as
guidelines for instruction in vocational areas and provide the instructor with
meaningful information about suggested content coverage including time
Chapter 7: Making Curriculum Content Decisions 175
-.
SUMMARY
Making sound curriculum content decisions has been pointed out as an
essential elempnt of the curriculum development process. The content deci
sion-making process involves an examination of potential content and con
straints to determine what content can actually be used in the curriculum.
Constraints associated with the curriculum appear in relation to four distinct
areas: the student, the instructors and support staff, the curricular arrange
ment, and the employment settiIlg. It must be recognized that these factors
tend to limit the content that can logically be taught. Thus, the curriculum
developer must select the best cont':':1t for a given educational setting. The
curriculum framework document provides an overall structure for planning
instruction. It is comprehensive in scope, including vocational, academic,
and related content. Since this document serves as a basis for the develop
ment of specific curricular objectives, it is important that content be identi
fied which will be of greatest value to students.
RELATED REFERENCES
Foell, Nelson A. "The Curriculum in Vocational Education." In L. Duenk, ed.
Improving Vocational Curriculum. South Holland, Ill.: Goodheart-Wilcox, 1993.
Sarkees, Michelle D., and Scott, John L. Vocational Special Needs. Homewood, Ill.:
American Technical Publishers, 1995.
~8
Setting Curriculum
Goals and Objectives
--
INTRODUCTION
The establishment of sound goals and objectives represents one of the most
crucial steps in curriculum development. Without quality objectives, a cur
riculum may wander from topic to topic and result in students being unpre
pared for employment. One can often find references in the literature to
goals, general objectives, specific objectives, terminal objectives, enabling
objectives, performance objectives, as well as others. Realistically, a clear
understanding of each goal and objective is needed if the curriculum devel
oper is to ccmprehend an .~ deal with their basic similarities and differences.
This chapter deals with the different types of curricular outcomes as well
as the way goals and objectives may be pr~pared for use in vocational and
technical education. Specific examples have been included to help clarify dif
ferences between goals and objectives and to indicate how they may be bet
ter prepared.
CURRICULUM OUTCOMES
179
180 Section III: Establishing Curriculum Content
Measurable Outcomes
Measurable outcomes in vocational and technical education can- take many
forms; for example, a student identifying twenty carpentry tools, baking a
cake according to the directions in the recipe, correctly applying a mathe
matical formula in a problem situation, or completing a job application form.
In reality, measurable outcomes represent those results that can be assessed
with quantifiable data or in an objective manner.
Unmeasurable Outcomes
The other extreme represents outcomes that tend to be unmeasurable.
Examples of these outcomes might be that a student develops an appreciation
of the value of work in society, develops the ability to use leisure time wisely,
or forms an attitude conducive to working in a group setting. As can be seen,
measuring student performance associated with these outcomes would be
most difficult. This is not to say unmeasurable outcomes are undesirable in
vocational education. The three examples just cited, as well as other similar
types of outcomes, represent important aspects of vocational education.
Any vocational curriculum will have both measurable and unmeasur
able outcomes; thus, objectives that are developed should speak to both
types. A oasic rule to be followed by the developer is that a sufficient num
ber of measurable outcomes be identified in order to assure ~tudent compe
tence as determined by objective student performance measures in critical
vocational or technical areas. This enables vocational programs to be evalu
ated more accurately in terms of graduates' competence and assists in mak
ing vocational education more accountable when the curriculum is being
evaluated.
Goals
Goals are broad (unmeasurable) aims or purposes of a total educational cur
riculum or, in some cases, the broad outcomes expected within a specific pro
gram. The purpose of each goal is to give direction and provide a basis for the
development of more detailed general and specific objectives. Since numerous
goals have been developed at the national, state, and local levels, it is often quite
easy to find statements that align closely with a particular school or curriculum.
A reviev, of goal statements for a typical local school illustrates how
goals are usually stated. These goals tend to be broad and unmeasurable and
attempt to reflect the philosophy of the community. Examples of goal state
ments for a local high school might include the following:
Students will:
Broad goals are often established for specific curricular areas. asn exam
ple, the follovdng selected goals might be appropriate for consumer and
homemaking education:
School ""'ill:
Provide preparation for the area of homemaking for youth and adults of
both sexes.
careers.
By closely scrutinizing these examples, one can visualize the difficulties that
might arise if measurable outcomes were to be sought from these goals.
Goals can and do serv~ a useful purpose in giving further direction for the
development of specific objectives; however, they never serve as substitutes.
Broad goals can also provide a basis for. discussion in determining the direc
tion that an educational program should be taking.
182 Section III: Establishing Curriculum Content
General Objectives
General objectives are similar to goals in that they tend to be broad state
ments and are usually unmeasurable. The major difference seems to occur in
the use of general objectives. General objectives are more apt to be used for
a vocational or technical education courRe or to appear as gffieral objectives
in a specific course syllabus. In reality, goals and general objectives are some
times interchanged to the point where a clear distinction between the two is
impossible. Examples of general objectives might include:
Specific Objectives
Specific Objectives-or performan:ce objectives, as many prefer to call them-
are precise, measurable statements of particular behaviors to be exhibited by
a learner under specified conditions. The performance objective is different
from a general objective in clarity and specificity in that the activity to be per
formed is described as well as the level of acceptable performance, and the
condition under which the performance must take place.
For each general objective developed, at least one performance objective
must be established to indicate precisely what is expected of the student. In fact,
several specific or performance objectives usually need to be developed for
each general objective in order to assure that stuc1ents develop the competence
associated with the general objective. Examples of specific o~jectives include:
Given a 6' folding rule, a 2' length of %" diameter copper tubing, hold
ing device, hacksaw, and reamer, measure and cut 6" from a length of
Chapter 8: Setting Curriculum Goals and Objectives 183
copper tubing. A tolerance of ±t,i" will be allowed for the cut piece. All
burrs must be removed from cut ends.
Given sample specimens of grass, identify the blade, sheath, collar, and
ligule with 100-percent accuracy.
Goal statements may be found at all levels of education. Virtually all of these
-, statements tend to be quite broad and stated in unmeasurable terms. Before
the development of a goal statement begins, one should become familiar
with goals that have hoen already established at various educational levels
and that may have a direct influence on the development process. The devel
opment of goals is certainly related to philosophy; however, further discus
sion will not be d~voted to the impact of philosophy on educational goals
and programs, sinc~ this topic was discussed in Chapter 6.
Although these goals were developed to meet the needs of society in 1918,
the substance of each can still be found today in many goal statements.
184 Section III: Establishing Curriculum Content
Several other major national efforts were conducted after 1918 to revise
the original seven cardinal principles. In 1938, four broad goals were out
lined in the Purposes of Education in American Democracy. The White House
Conference on Education in 1955 developed fourteen basic goals of educa
tion, and in 1961, the National Education Association stressed the common
thread of education as the "ability to think."
Since the late 19705 there have been numerous national studies conduct
ed by private and public organizations that have produced suggested reform
movements for education. A common thread running through many of these
reports indicates the purposes of education are to develop in students the
basic skills of communication (especially reading, writing, and arithmetic
needed to succeed in a democracy), to create in students the ability to think
and to think creatively, to develop those human relation skills that are essen
tial for interacting with others in our SOciety, and to ensure that students can
function in an information-based society. \
National goals were presented as an outgrowth of the historic gover
nor's summit at Charlottesville, VIrginia. Six goals for U.S. schools were for
malized to prepare students for the twenty-first century. These goals were:
changes.
Meet the critical need for highly skilled craftsmen and technicians
F. Works with Diversity-works well with men and women from diverse j,'lck
grounds
Employability skills;
Since the Vocational Education Act of 1963 was initiated and the subsequent
Carl Perkins Act of 1984 and School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994 were
enacted, each vocational area has updated its national ~oals for the purpose of
bringing these goals in line with the new emphasis on scl~ool-to-work, and to
stimulate states and localities in the development of new goals and objectives.
"..
Visioll Statemel1t
The vision of the State Board of Vocational Education is to ensure that the
vocational education needs of all youths and adults in Virginia are met
consistent with thE:: needs of the workplace.
~
Goals
Consistent with the needs of the workplace, and with individual apti
tudes, interests, and educational needs, youths and adults in Virginia will:
Other schools may choose to list several goals in statement form and thus
end up with five, ten, or even more separate goals.
For the most part, goals for vocational education at the local level should
be closely aligned with goals at the state level. However, an exact duplication
of state goals is not recommended, since each school and community should
develop goals consistent with its unique local needs. For example, goals for
vocational and technical education at Butler Community College might
include the following points:
This entire discussion of goals from the national level to the local level
has been designed to provide a foundation from which goals may be devel
oped. A broad review and understanding of goals already developed at var
ious levels and for a particular curriculum should assist in the development
of more relevant and realistic goals.
-. PREPARING GOALS
Although it has been indicated that their preparation can be frustrating, the
actual development of goals is relatively easy. The frustrating aspect 'of goal
preparation occurs when a group of individuals attempts to reach agree
ment on a set of goals that reflects the true purposes of the organization.
The development of broad goals for a vocational education curricuium
must take three factors into consi.deration. These include ensuring that (1)
individuals who will be affected by the goals are involved in their devel
opment, (2) the goals being developed are consistent with goals established
at ot11.er educational levels, and (3) careful consideration is given to each
goal developed. This is important because each goal must be supported by
relevant objectives.
Individual Involvement
. The need for involvement of many individuals in the development of goal
statements has been stressed in vocational educ~tion for many years. Voca-:
tional education cUrrIcula must be designed for students, and it is philo
sophically sound that students assume active roles in their education. This
implies that regardless of the level for which goals are being developed-stu
dents, parents, educators, citizens, and others-the people concerned should
be involved as the goals are being established. Involvement can occur via
advisory councils, revi.ew by concerned individuals, or other appropriate
means. Persons are more apt to accept and use established goals if they have
actively participated in the preparation of them.
190 Section III: Establishing Curriculum Content
NATIONAL
NATIONAL
NATIONAL GOALS
GOALS
GOAlS FOR
I- FOR I-
FOR VOCATIONAL
VOCATIONAL
EDUCATION EDUCATION
EDUCATION
TEACHING AREAS
I I I
STATE
STATE
STATE GOALS
GOAlS
GOALS FOR
I- FOR I-
FOR VOCATIONAL
VOCATIONAL
EDUCATION EDUCATION
EDUCATION
TEACHING AREAS
I I I
I
LOCAL
LOCAL
LOCAL GOAlS
GOALS
GOAlS FOR
c- FOR I-
FOR VOCATIONAL
VOCATIONAL
EDUCATION EDUCATION
EDUCATION
TEACHING AREAS
L
way state goals for vocational education lJlay be affected. There is a variety
of factors that tend to influence goal formation, regardless of the level for
which goals are being developed. Thus, the developer must be aware of
goals that have already been established at other levels and determine how
they can give direction to goal formation at the local level.
-..
PREPARING OBJECTIVES
Identification
When consideration is first given to preparing objectives, Gcvelopers must
identify which kinds of objectives they hope to prepare. Earlier, a distinction
was made between general and performance objectives. Since general objec
tives are typically broad and unmeasurable, it would seem logical to focus
attention on preparing performance objectives because they most closely
192 Section lll: Establishing Curriculum Content
align with the leamer's needs. Consequently, this discussion will deal direct
ly with developing performance objectives, since they play such an impor
tant role in communic&.ting curriculum outcomes to others, In terms of fur
ther clarifying performance objectives, it should be noted that there are two
types: the terminal objective and the enabling objective, These two types are
both used in the curriculum, each having a distinct purpose.
Enabling Objective. The enabling objective focuses on what the student must
learn to attain the terminal objective. The enabling objective serves to guide stu
dents from where they are at the beginning of instruction to where they should
be at the end of the instruction. It may focus on basic factual knowledge, aware
ness, fundamental skills, or attitudes. Basic to any enab-ling objecti\'e is the con
tribution it makes to achievir,g one or more terminal objectives. If this support
ive relationship does not exist, one may question the value of having the
enabling objectives in the first place, As an example of how enabling objectives
might relate, let us consider a termina! objective that f9Cuses on completing a
successful job interview. Enabling objectives that might conceivably contribute
to this terminal objective include exhibiting proper dress and grooming, under
standing questions that should and should not be asked, and deMonstrating
skill in answering questions posed by prospective employers.
Selection
Once the appropriate types of objectives have been identified, it is necessary
to select those that will actually be used in the curriculum. During the selec
Chapter 8: Setting Curriculum Goals and Objectives 193
Classification
As objectives are being prepared, it is most beneficial to classify them accord
ing to the basic behavior they describe. Classifying objectives is necessary in
order "1) to avoid concentrating on one or two categories to the exclusion of
others, 2) to make sure that instruction is provided for prerequisite objectives
before attempting to teach more complex ones, and 3) to assure that appro
priate instruments are employed to evaluate desired outcomes" (Kibler et aI.,
1981). Numerous classification schemes have evolved over the last· tWo
decades, each of which has attempted to assist educators in organizing objec
tives lOgically and systematically. Several of the more useful classification
schemes are described briefly in the paragraphs that follow.
Cl~sification of objectives in the cognitive domain is most thoroughly
detailed in a document by Bloom (1956). A taxonomy is presented for objectives
"which deal with the recall or recognition of knowledge and the development
of intellectual abilities or skills" (Bloom, 1956). Six major classes included in the
taxonomy consist of knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthe
sis, and evaluation. These classes represent the hierarchical order of different
cognitive objectives. Curriculum developers may find this classification scheme
quite useful when cognitive objectives are being prepared, since levels ·of the
taxonomy ca.t"\ correspond with the way objectives are sequenced and taught.
A companion publication focuses on classifying affective objectives
(Krathwohl et aI., 1964). The authors establish a taxonomy for objectives
"which emphasize a feeling tone, an emotion or a degree of acceptance or
rejection" (Krathwohl et al., 1964). The affective domain consists of five
major classes: receiving (attending), responding, valuing, organizing, and
characterizing. This taxonomy also distinguishes among levels, with "receiv
ing" representing the lowest level and "characterizing" the highest. By using
this taxonomy, affective objectives may be distinguished from each other and
more effectively incorporated into the curriculum. .
Classification of objectives in the psychomotor domain is dealt with
most comprehensively by Harrow (1977). Psychomotor objectives"empha
size some muscular or motor control, some manipulation of material or
objects, or some act which requires a neuromuscular coordination"
(Krathwohl et aI., 1964). Given that specialized psychomotor skill develop
ment is an integral part of mos~ vocational and technical education curricu
la, it is certainly important to examine objectives in this area. The following
five classes of psychomotor objectives have been established: perception, set,
guided response, mechanism, and complex overt response. Although it may
be difficult to distinguish between some of these classes, the taxonomy pro
vides a much needed framework for curriculum developers.
Interestingly enough, authors of the aforementioned classification
schemes all note that questions may be raised about the rigid distinctions
.c
Chapter 8: Setting Curriculum Goals and Objectives 195
Some objectives do not fall into any of these categories. Some objectives invo Jv "
two or more types of behaviors. For example, often personal!sodal objectives
involve both attitudinal and physical behaviors. In these cases, it is easy to claSSify
a performance objective using two numbers.
Specification
In order for performance objectives to be useful, they must be clearly delin
eated. Just as it becomes quite difficult to hit a target when one does not
know what the target is, vocational educators must first have clear objectives
if they expect to develop relevant instructional strategies. Numerous refer
ences are available that describe how performance objectives may be speci
fied, but they typically include the three elements espoused by Mager (1997):
the activity, the conditions, and the standard.
"
might include provisions for soil, sand, peat moss, and artificial soil amend
ments such as perlite, calcified day, and vermiculite. If it is important that a
student be able to multiply numbers without any aids, this should be indi
cated; however, if a calculator may be used, this needs to be specified.
Conditions are most useful in further clarifying student performances, espe
cially when they serve to point out any differences in performance created by
these conditions.
(
SEQUENCING OBJECTIVES WITHIN THE CURRICULUM
Although much has been discussed in the literature about the ways objec
tives may be sequenced within the curriculum, little empirical evidence
exists to support one approach over any other. The lack of concrete informa
tion in this area makes one wonder if students learn in spite of sequencing
rather than because of it. Even though problems exist in pinpointing a basis
for correct sequencing of objectives, it is nonetheless important that this
activity take place. Perhaps the best way to think of sequencing is as "com
mon sense logical ordering" (Gagne and Briggs, 1988). When the time comes
198 Section III: Establishing Curriculum Content
Sequencing Factors
Several factors can have impact on the way that objectives are sequenced.
These are essentially practical considerations that relate to the entire curricu
lum; however, each must receive d'le consideration when the sequencing
process takes place.
Approaches to Sequencing
Numerous approaches to sequencing objectives have been suggested in the
literature. Some are drawn from a theoretical base whereas others are quite
-. pragmatic, but most have not been validated to any great extent. Thus, the
curriculum developer is often faced with a trial (and, it is hoped, a no-error)
situation. The approaches that will be di~_·~,.5sed are representative of those
found to be useful by certain instructors in certain instructional settings. The
ultimate test of any approach to sequencing lies in its acceptability and util
ity within a particular curriculum.
Figure 8-4 contrasts these relationships, gi"es examples of each, and illus
trates how the relationship affects sequencing. When two or more objectives
DEPENDENT SUPPORTIVE INDEPENDENT I
Skills and knowl- Skills and knowl· Skills and knowl·
RELATION· edges in one edges in one edges in one
SHIP objective are objective have objective are un·
closely related to some relationship related to those
those in other to those in other in other
I objectives. objectives. objectives.
I To master one of The learning Mastering one of
the objectives. it involved in the objectives
MASTERY is first necessary mastery of one does not sim·
to master objective trans· plify mastering
another. fers to another. another.
making learning
involved in the
mastery of the
other easier.
In business educa In horticulture. In auto mechanics,
tion, the typing of pruning a shrub "adjusting a ear-
a letter cannot be has a supportive buretor" is inde
accomplished relationship to pendent of
without first pruning an apple "torquing engine
EXAMPLES mastering th~ tree. In both ex· head bolts." In
keyboard. The amples. learning both examples,
efficient use of a to do one would knowing how to
computer is help considerably do one would not
totally dependent in learning to do help much with
upon the prior the other. the other.
learning of the
keyboard.
transfer of learn
ing from one
objective to
~----------
.: ..vther. . . -
200
Chapter 8: Setting Curriculum Goals and Objectives 201
1. Knowledge
a. Of terminology.
b. Of conventions.
c. Of criteria.
d. Of methodology.
e. Of theories and structures.
2. Comprehension
a. Translation
b. Interpretation
3. Application
4. Analysis
-,
a. Of elements.
~
b. Of relationships.
c. Of organized principles.
5. Synthesis
a. Production of a unique communication.
b. Production of a plan or proposed set of operations.
• From Kibler et aI., Objectives for Instruction and Evaluation, Second Edition. Needham Heights,
Mass.: Allyn & Bacon, Inc., 1981, pp. 111-13.
202 Section Ill: Establishing Curriculum Content
6. Evaluation
a. Judged in terms of internal evidence.
simple to complex
earliest to most recent
closest to farthest
east to west
small to large
part to whole
concrete to abstract
specifics to generalizations
observing to hands-on
skill acquisition to skill application
familiar to remote
less difficult to more difficult
more interesting to less interesting
theory to application
known to unknown
SUMMARY
This chapter has focused on goals and objectives as two essential elements in
the vocational education curriculum. A strong distinction has been made
between meosurable and unmeasurable curricular outcomes. It was also rec
ognized that one cannot assess all outcomes associated with a curriculum.
Goals that have broad, unmeasurable outcomes can serve as a foundation for
further curriculum building. Objectives represent the measurable outcomes
in a curriculum. Their development requires detailed and systematic effort if
objectives are to communicate exactly what is expected of the learner. Basic
elements included in each performance objective include the activity to be
performed, the conditions under which it should be performed, and the stan
'i
dards of acceptable performance. Finally, several types of sequencing ar
rangements have been presented, each of which has the pot~ntial to aid cur
riculum developers in sequencing objectives best to meet students' needs.
RELATED REFERENCES
America 2000: The President's Education Strategy. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
Printing O~fice, 1991.
Bloom, Benjamin 5., ed. Taxo/lomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: Cognitive
Domail1. New York: David McKay Company, 1956.
204 Section Ill: Establishing Curriculum Content
Bott, Paul A. Teaching Your Occupation to Others: A Guide to SurViving Your First
Year.,2nd ed. Needham Heights, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon, 1997.
Darling-Hammond, Linda, and Falk, Beverly. "Using Standards and Assessments to
Support Student Learning." Phi Delta Kappan 79, no. 3 (November 1997): 190-199.
Dyman, Ann. "Setting the Bar for What Students Must Know." Techniques, 71, no. 8
(November/December 1996): 30-32,68.
Education for a Changing World of Work. Panel of Consultants on Vocational
Education. Washington, D.C.: Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, 1963.
Gray, Kenneth c., and Herr, Edwin. Workforce Education: The Basics. Needham
Heights, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon, 1998.
Gagne. Robert M., and Briggs, Leslie J. Pril1ciples of Instructional Design. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1988.
Harmon, Paul. A Classification or Performance Objective Behaviors in Job Training
If
Curriculum
The final section of this book follows directly from planning and content
determination. Preceding sections have dealt with planning the curriculum
and establishing curriculum content; however, they have not focused direct
lyon the ways a curriculum may be implemented in a school setting. This
section provides meaningful information for curriculum developers respon
sible for the implementation of relevant vocational curricula.
Once curriculum content has been established, quality materials must
be obtained to aid in planning and conducting meaningful student learn
ing experiences. These materials may already be available from various
sources. Thus, the task of the vocational educator is to identify and select
materials that can aid students in reaching predetermined objectives
(Chapter 9). If materials are not available and must be developed, Chapter
10 provides information that is useful in guiding the materials develop
ment process, whereas Chapter 11 is designed to provide the curriculum
developer with a broad understanding of strategies that may be used to
implement the curriculum.
Assessment must be a continuous process in order to ensure that the cur
riculum j<: ~~levant for today's needs and for future needs of society. Chapter
12 emphasizes the comprehensive nature of assessment and provides direc
tion for assessing both programs and materials. Although treated as a sepa
rate chapter, it must also be recognized that asses~Ttlent is an integral part of
curriculum development, all the way from planning through content deter
mination and implementation.
205
~9
Identifying and
Selecting Curriculum
Materials
INTRODUCTION
CURRICULUM MATERIALS
Curriculum materials may be of many different types and forms. When dis
cussing them, one of the first areas to clarify is a definition. The follO\'\'ing
paragraphs will serve as a basis for futUre comments on these materials.
207
208 Section IV: Implementing the Curriculum
1. Pictures 8. Films
2. Graphics 9. Film loops
3. Transparencies 10. Slide series
4. Filmstrips 11. Videotapes
5. Posters 12. Microcomputers
6. Audiotapes 13. Internet
7. Records
Chapter 9: Identifying and Selecting Curriculum Materials 209
A master instructor must make wise use of all potential resources when
planning for and conducting instruction. This implies that innovative
instruc\tors rely upon a variety of curriculum materials to supplement and
complement their professional expertise in teaching situations. This is not to
be construed thal instructional materials are the sole basis on which an
"
effective teaching-learning situation rests. The point is that curriculum
materials can make teaching more effective for an instructor and more effi
cient for a learnt.:.
A second reason for securing curriculum materials is the lack of time
instructors usually have to develop their own materials. Time may be the
critical factor as to whether an instructor develops certain materials or pur
chases the completed product from a publisher or other source. Many
instructors do not have ample time to devote to curriculum material devel
opment. Thus, if any such development is undertaken, it is usually restrict
ed to the transparency, slide, model, or handout.
Cost:; .constitute a third factor in determining wl,ether materials should
be purchased or developed. If instructors fully account for the time that is
required to develop quality materials in addition to needed monetary inputs,
the savings experienced, if any, in materials development may not be suffi
cient to warrant the effort.
" !
Quality control is another concern in the development of curriculum
materials. Some instructors may have the time to develop certain materials;
however, sufficient time and resources may not be available to field test,
. " revise, and retest them in order to assure a quality product. Materials avail
able through commercial sources may not always be of superior quality; how
ever, the materials may have been tested and used to qetepnine their effec
tiveness prior to marketing. Thus, the purchase of curriculum materials that
have already been developed may result in a higher-quality product than
those that could be developed using r",sources available to the instructor.
In some cases, an instructor may not find desired instructional materials
from commercial sources and thus must rely on developmental efforts to
210 Section IV: Implementing the Curriculum
provide them. Whereas this chapter is concerned with the identification and
selection ofmaterials already available, Chapter 10 deals specifically with the
process involved in developing such materials.
The person selecting quality materials for a curriculum must take several fac
tors. into consideration. All of these factors are important, and the failur.e to
examine materials in relation to each of these factors may result in the pur
chase of items that cannot be used to achieve the desired leaming outcomes.
The assessment of curriculum materials must be carried out in a logical,
planned order. Factors that the developer should consider when selecting
materials include (1) general information (a descriphon of the materials); (2)
acceptable standards of quality relating to:llreas of bias, readability, content,
presentation,leaming, support, and cost-benefit; and (3) strengths and weak
nesses. Each of these factors is discussed on the following pages, and an
example of a complete Materials Assessment Form is included in Appendix
A. In addition, sample exercises are prOvided to illustrate how materials can
be assessed and selected.
Genera/Information
The first step in the selection process is to obtain an overall understanding of
the materiaL Section I, General Infon:iiation, of the Materials Assessment
Form may be used as a guide in this process. Completing Section I enables
an individual to develop an overall understanding of the materials. Space is
provided to indicate the title, author, publisher, and supplier of the publica
tion. In addition, the year and place published, cost, and format of packag
ing can be indicated. Space is also provided to indicate vocational subject
area, potential students for which the material is intended, and how the
material is to be applied in an educational setting.
Assessment Areas
Section IT of the Materials Assessment Form focuses on specific areas by
which materials under consideration should be evaluated. While any num
ber of assessment scale!" could be used, the ultimate decision a reviewer must
make is whether the materials are acceptable or unacceptable according to
some type of predetermined standards. Discussion on eam of the specific
standards follows; the complete Section IT of the Materials Assessment Form
is in Appendix A.
Chapter 9: Identifying and Selecting Curriculum Materials 211
Bias. Today public concern with bias has strong implications for vocation
al educators when materials are selected. In the past, developers of materials
gave little consideration to whether photographs or words were biased.
Thus, highly biased materials were unintentionally produced, which ulti
mately had an effect on students' attitudes and opinions. Bias may occur as
any of the following:
• From Novella M. Ross. "Assessing Readability of Instructional Materials." VocEd 54, no. 2
(February 1979): 10-11.
....
t-)
t-)
Reminders Check Ust
Balan"" in the materials is important. Do not make a judgment based In t.he illustrations and words, ..
on one page. Bia.~~d Biased Balanced
against against Males &
There are ways to give ronstructive criticism: I. Are both males nnd females shown in
Female.~ Males F~males
rocus on the words and pictures-not on the author, illustrator traditionally sex·biased occupations'? Both
The doze procedure requires the instructor to use the materials with stu
dent assistance. If instructors desire to measure the rea,dability levels of cur
riculum materials before using the materials, they could use the common
simplified Flesch formula mentioned earlier or a shorter procedure knO~'::l as
the forecast formula.
An example will help to clarify the use of this formula. Assume a ISO-word
passage has 80 one-syllable words. Using the formula, the calculations
would be as follows:
80 20 - 8 = 12 RGL
20
10
Thus, the reading grade-level for this particular passage was judged to be
twelfth grade. To make a valid assessment of the materials, eight to ten pas
sages must be reviewed using the formula. The passages may be averaged to
determine the average reading grade-level for the material.
Assessment Summary
Section N of the Materials Assessment Form provides an opportunity for the
reviewer to summarize ratings assigned to standards in Section II of the
form. After the ratings of acceptkble, questionable, unacceptable, or does not
apply are recorded, the reviewer can then form a judgement regardL..6 the
'. overall assessment for the material under consideration.
TEXTBOOK SELECTION
riculum materials. Warming and Baber (1980) developed what they call a
"harmonious, hoiistic approach" to the selection of textbooks. The form
consists of a twenty-item inventory referred to as "Touchstones for
Textbook Selection Inventory." The complete form is in Figure 9-2; a
teacher could use this inventory in assessing the desirability of textbooks
under consideration.
Vocational Potential
The vocational instructor must assess each individual's vocational potential
and, once this assessment is made, arrive at implications for the selection of
appropriate curriculum materials. The assessment of these general student
characteristics is important regardless of the type of special need a student
has. Assessment of a student's vocational potential might focus on the fol
lowing areas:
r
Excellent Adequate Inadequate
5 3 1
1. Appropriate readability level
2. Author{s) reputable in field
3. Indicates successful field-testing of
development of subject
students
and accurately
glossary
concepts
for readers
well presented
language
of abstract concepts
research projects
instructional objectives
Subtotals
Total score
Text __~____________
Author _______________ Reviewer ___________________________
Publisher ________~___
Publication date _ _ __ Some inventory users will wish to assign extra
.. Date of review_ _ _ __
weight to certain "touchstones."
217
Unique Char.aderistics
The individual qualities that make a student special have a direct impact on
the type of curriculum materials that are appropriate for that student. One
needs only to review the various categories of special-needs learners to begin
eliminating certain types of curriculum materials. Special-needs learners
may be or have
Internet
A few short years ago, the Internet was virtually unknown to the general
public including the educatio"lal community. But recently, the Internet and
computers have taken on new and exciting roles in teaching and program
offerings for both instmctoc and students in all curricula. In the most sim
plest of terms, the Internet is many computers linked together by telephone
lines, or now called data lines. Furthermore, these computers can interact
with each other; in other words they can send and receive messages in dif
ferent formats-written, audio, and/or visual. Any person, instructor or stu
dent, who has a computer, modem, and telephone line, can connect with a
commercial on-line service or an Internet service provlder to access other
computer systems. The opportunities for instructors and students to link
with other data sources (e.g. libraries, museums, research facilities, universi
ties, commercial and private orgaruzations, and other databases) either
nationally or internationally-has opened up new and exciting sources of
information for educational uses.
The Internet in reality is another tool for the instructor to use in prepar
ing and delivering curriculum content. Similar to traditional instructional
tools such as overheads or workbooks, the instructor must determine if an
Internet resource is a better tool to use than others in teaching specific cur
riculum content. An advantage of the Internet is that it is relatively inexpen
sive given the vast sources of information, provides installt access to infor
mation, and allows simultaneous communication with others electronically.
Furthermore, the number of resources available is almost infinite, and both
students and instructors can communicate with others through the E-mail
. system for the purpose of sharing ideas, curriculum content, learning activi
ties or information.
Since Internet sources available through the World Wide Web (WWW)
are growing daily, it is not possible to list all the Internet resources available
to occupational instructors and students. A few are provided to give an idea
of the variety of organizations and agencies that might be valuable to occu
pational instructors as they identify and select curriculum materials. Most of
the sites list other connecting sites that may lead to the identification of var
ious useful materials_
220 Section IV: Implementing the Curriculum
u. S. Department of Education-www.ed.gov
http://ncrve.berkeley.edu
http://www.odci.gov / cia/publication/pubs
AskERIC-http:/ericir.syr.ec.u.html
. Smithsonian Institute-http://www.si.edu
NASCO Catalogue-http://www.nascofa.com
Short-Range Planning
Short-range planning for curriculum materials consists of determining
which materials are essential for the coming years. The criterion for deter
mining essential materials would be which items include information that
an instructor desires to teach during the year. Another factor might be
which materials could be used in a variety of situations or learning envi
ronments. For example, basic texts or visual aids that contain pertinent
information might represent a higher priority the first year than workbooks
that could not be used again. Anoti l2r consideration would be the amount
of money available. As an illustration, assume that sufficient money were
Chapter 9: Identifying and Selecting Curriculum Materials 221
Long~Range Planning
The value of giving consideration to long~range planning in purchasing cur
riculum materials becomes evident when one starts to look at the priJ:es of
such materials. Very few budgets will permit any instructor to order all the
materials desired for a given year. Thus, it is vital that a long-range plan be
developed for securing them. Materials that might be included in long-range
plans v·.'Quld be those that treat more advanced subject matter. Another way
to approach this decision would be to consider those materials that build on
prior student knowledge or learning sessions. As mentioned in the preced
ing section, limited budgets must be considered. Materials .that entail a high
cost or require special equipment might be included in the long-range plan
if current situations would prevent their being used effectively.
SUMMARY
19 X 2 20 X 3
Short-Range Needs Long-Range Need by Year
Cost Total Cost Total
Material Each Cost Priority Each Cost Priority
1. ABC of Auto Mechanics $10.00 $100.00 3 $ $
2. ABC of Auto Mechanics Transparencies 100.00 2
3. Beginning Auto Mechanics 12.50 125.00 1
.. ~~
4. Intermediate Auto Mechanics 12.50 125.00 1
5. Advanced Auto Mechanics 15.00 150.00 4
6. Auto Electrical Systems 7.50 75.00 4
7. Acme Transmissions 20.00 200.00 3
8. Computer Software for Troubleshooting 40.00 400.00 2
Auto Engines
I:irst, one must consider exactly what curriculum materials are. Basically,
they are resources that assist an instructor in bringing about a desirable
change of behavior in students. Curriculum materials may consist of printed
matter, audiovisual materials, and/ or manipulative aids. Certainly instruc
tors can and should develop some of the materials needed, but eventually a
situation will exist where materials need to be purchased.
Educators must consider several important factors before ~ decision is
made to purchase or not to purchase a specific item. Factors to consider in
selection of materials include an· overall general description of the material,
bias, readability, content, presentation, learning, support, and cost-benefit.
The selection of materials for learners with special needs must focus on the
unique charact~ristics of these learners.
Sources of curriculum materials are limited only by one's ingenuity and
creativity. General areas of sources are commercial publishers, journals and
magazines, curriculum centers, ERIC system, state educational agencies, the
US Government Printing Office, the military, and private companies. Many
of these sources can be contacted through conventional means or many now
through the Internet and the World Wide Web.
Securing curriculum materials should follow a logical and systematic
plan. Short-range planning is used to identify those materials that are basic
for the units of instruction to be taught in the near future. Long-range plan
ning serves to identify materials that represent advanced units of instruction
occurring at a later date. But by following a systematic process, instructors,
either individually or as a group, will be more likely to secure materials that
are appropriate for the instructional units planned and to eliminate others.
RELATED REFERENCES
Arkin, DanieL "Finding Your Way on the Internet." Virginia Joumal of Education 89,
no. 2 (November 1995): 7-10.
Catri, Deborah B. "Teacher's Helpers." Vocational Education Jour/1al71, no. 2 (March
1996): 28-29.
Gall, Meredith Damien. Handbook for Evaluating and Selecting Curriculum Materials.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1981.
Leiken, Erana. "The 1':2t: Where it's @!" Techniques 71, no. 8 (November/December
1996): 34-40.
Make Learning Easier: A Guide for Educational/Training Materials. Rome, Italy: Food and
Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, 1990.
Mehlinger, Howard D. "American Textbook Reform: What Can We Learn from the
Soviet Experience?" Pili Delta Kappan 70, no. 1 (September 1989): 29-35.
Peterson, Marla, and Vet'ier, Louise. "What to Do About Those Biased Materials."
VocEd 55, no. 4 (1980): 34-36.
224 Section IV: Implementing the Curriculum
~10
Developing
Curriculunl Materials
- INTRODUCTION
Even with the variety of vocational and technical curriculum materials avail
able today, the curriculum developer is often faced with the need to produce
new materials, This need becomes evident when materials are required for a
certain instructional situation and are not available. Furthermore, a need may
be established when the available materials are not appropriate for an intend
ed audience or when their use is limited by other factoFS that might prohibit
an instructor from using them with established instructional objectives.
This chapter deals directly with factors associated with the development
and dissemination of curriculum materials. During the development process,
consideration must be given to factors such as time and dollars available, the
audience, and the development alternatives. In addition, the actual develop
ment process must take on a logical and orderly format to assure that usable
materials are produced.
225
226 Section IV: Implementing the Curriculum
the needed materials. On the other hand, a search may produce several items
that are related to the instructional content but for some reason the materials
may appear to be deficient in certain areas. Therefore, educators would be
faced with the task of developing or adapting the curriculum materials.
Expertise Available
Regardless of the experience and knowledge possessed by those individuals
involved in curriculum materials development, there ~"ill often be instances
where outside assistance should be sought. Special assistance might be need
ed with regard to technical information, editing, media, and duplication.
Chapter 10: Developing Curriculum Materials 227
Dollars Available
One of the most important factors to consider when developing curriculum
materials is the monetary resources available. Obviously, the amount of
228 Section IV; Implementing the Curriculum
accessible money can have great impact on the quality of materials devel
oped. The relationship between the dollars available and curriculUm materi
als development can be pointed out in several ways. First, compensation
may need to be made to outside experts who are asked to provide assistance.
For example, seeking input from a lawyer regarding legal concerns may
result in a substantial expense. A second set of expenses is associated with
the actual development of materials. This might include, but not be limited
to, pencils, paper, resource materials, typing, and general supplies. Third,'
costs will occur when the materials are duplicated. This cost, which involves
the printing of materials and associated media, is often quite expensive, and
therefore must receive close ...ttention. A fourth cost is related to the dissem
ination of materials, which might include workshop expenses, travel costs
for the developer and instructor, or postage charges. And fifth, the time
required of those individuals actually developing the material represents a
monetary investment. Thus, when one considers ,\11 the expenses associated
with curriculum materials development, some thought must be given to the
cur~t budget as it relates to the development effort and whether an addi
tional source of funds needs to be identified.
If materials are being developed over a lengthy time period, some pro
vision must be made for inflation. For example, if materials that are now
being developed will not be duplicated until a year from now, current print
ing prices may not be appropriate figures to use when preparing operational
budgets for the next year. Failing to allow for inflation may later result in
reducing the quantity of items printed.
t
Decisions to Make Regarding Materials Development
~s educators begin the task of curriClllum materials development, there are
several crucial'decisions to be made. These decisions could be thought of as
the what, w i:lY, who, when, and where of materials development.
What Materials Should Be Developed and Why? The answer to this ques
tion is quite obvbus. If the material needed to complete an instructional unit
successfully is not available, then the typical response is to develop it.
However, a more complex situation arises when individuals with different
philosophical beliefs attempt to decide exactly what i;:"';urmation to include
in the material and what to delete.
Who Should Develop the Materials? This type of decision is critical, since
individuals developing the materials must be knowledgeable in the techni
cal area for which the items are to be used. These individualS must be up-to
date as to the latest developments in their area of concern. Furthermore, they
ClUlpter 10: Developing Curriculum Materials 229
must have the ability to put their thoughts down on paper in a clear, logical,
and concise manner. Other considerations include the time available to
devote to a project of this magnitude as well as the involvement of the per
son or persons actually willing to undertake the task.
When Should the Materials Be Developed? The decision associated with this
question depends to some degree on the individuals involved. If the material
developers are responsible for teaching, time that can be devoted:to materials
development ,,,ill probably be somewhat restricted. Of course, more time could
be devoted to materials development during the summer or if an individual
were released from some or" all of his or her teaching load. Regardless of when
the materials are developed, blocks of time-at least two to three hours per work
session-are needed in order for developers to be productive and efficient.
Target Population
The target population represents the audience for which the materials are
being developed. There are basically two factors to consider with regard to
target population as the development process begins. First, consideration
must be given to the grade level(s) of the group(s) who will be using the
materials. This will not only influence the reading level at which the materi
al is written, but also the depth to which technical information will be cov
ered. A second consideration deals with the use of materials on a local, state,
regional, or national basis. Curriculum materials developers want to be sure
that the materials being developed will be applicable to the entire audience
and not be limited due to differences in geographical locations.
Dissemination
Dissemination involves the process of distributing materials produced to
those who have a need. A planned dissemination scheme is important to
help ensure that materials are adopted and used. To overlook this step may
result in quality materials being shelved, which would be a great waste of
money alld human effort. The dissemination of curriculum materials is treat
ed in greater depth later in this chapter.
230 Section IV: Implementing the Curriculum
Support Needed
In addition to the need for adequate physical facilities in support of prepa
ration efforts, including computers with appropriate word processing soft
ware, several other types of support are needed. Reference materials are
needed as materials are being developed. In fact, multiple copies of certain
references may be needed if a team approach to development is used. If over
head transparencies are to be developed to supplement written materials,
overhead projectors, screens, and other types of equipment will be needed.
In addition to the above support items, moral support needs to be pro
vided by those who are giving leadership to the project. The development of
quality curriculum materials in vocational and technical education is an
essential part of curriculum development, and this process should be
encouraged and supported by vocational administrators and supervisors
when the need arises.
Development Alternatives
One factor that must be considered is the way materials will actually be
developed. Basically there are two approaches to development: individual or
team. There are distinct advantages and disadvantages to each approach,
which will be discussed in the following paragraphs.
..,..
'tA\\".,'/r. .. ~fl~\)"'t~' ~ P
,.t.,~ ~
\I'IA"~
\ \J""
232 Section IV: Implementing the Curriculum
Thus, the most logical decision at this time would be to focus on that part of
the curriculum where supporting materials may not be available.
Establish Priorities for Needed Materials. The situation may arise where
several different materials have been identified as being needed, but avail
able resources will not permit the development of every item. When this
occurs, priorities need to be established as to which materials are more
important than others. Although it is difficult to provide precise guidelines
to use in establishing priorities, there are several factors to be considered.
These include competencies of the instructors who will be using the materi
als, the type and level of other available materials related to the content, and
the projected length of time needed to develop each identified item.
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Directions for Use
Technical Content
Bibliography
Chapter 10: Developing Curriculum Materials 235
Prepare a First Draft of the Materials. Preparation of the initial draft may be
the most tirne-consuming activity in the development of curriculum materials.
Based on the performance objectives and identified content, individuals
charged with the responsibility of actually preparing the materials can now
begin the task of merging techl1ical content with sound educational principles.
Edit the First Drait. Once the first draft of materials has been completed, a
thorough editing should be conducted before proceeding further. Materials
should be subjected to at least three types of editing, including technical
accuracy, composition, and applicability. Furthermore, possible ideas for
needed improvement can be ider.tified if the materials being developed are
evaluated with the Curriculum Materials Assessment Form, which was dis
cussed in Chapter 9.
Do the materials present information that will aid in meeting the estab
lished objectives?
Are the materials structured according to the approved format?
Do the materials either incorporate sound learning strategies or provide
for the inclusion of such learning strategies?
Prepare a Second Draft. After the materials have been edited for technical
accuracy, composition, and applicability, revisions must be made. These r~vi
sions are typically based on the suggestions provided by reviewers and are to
be made by the same individuals who prepared the first draft. This will help
to avoid the possibility of changing the writing style throughout the materials.
Pilot-Test the Second Draft. The materials should now be ready to be tried
with a small group from the intended audience (e.g., instructors and stu
dents). Details about the pilot-testing process are provided in Chapter 12..
Generally, the group that pilot-tests the materials need not be large. Most
important is that persons using the materials have sufficient opportunity to
try them out in realbtic settings and have the ability to provide meaningful
feedback to the developer. Students need to be informed that the purpose of
the exercise is to help evaluate the materials and not student performance.
Prepare the Third iJraft. A third draft of the materials is prep~red so that any
suggestions of recommendations resulting from the pilot testing can be taken
Chilpter 10: Developing Curriculum Materials 237
into account. Revision at this point occurs only after all student data as well as
instructors' corrunents from the pilot testing have been gathered and analyzed.
Field-Test the Third Draft. As detailed in Chapter 12, field testing should
be carried out with several groups in settings representative of those where
the materials are to be used. The purpose of this field testing is to assess the
materials' quality with a larger number of students and instruct?rs.
Prepare the Final Draft. Although few major revisions are likely to be
needed at this point, the field-testing results should be carefully examined to
determine if any steps must be taken to make appropriate changes in the
materials so that they can be ready for dissemination.
Accountability
If resources such as money and time are to be associated with the develop
ment of materials, then some form of accountability must be employed to
ensure that these resources are used wisely. Accountability is necessary
regardless of who is providing the resources. For example, if a special pro
posal has been written and approved for the development of materials with
funds from some outside agency (e.g., state department of education), ~i\en
the sponsoring organization will be expecting quality materials to be devel
oped within the time frame specified in the original proposaL
Another example of accountability deals with materials produced using
resources provided at the local level. As mentioned earlier, time is money,
238 Section fV: Implementing the Curriculum
Quality Control
Another important consideration in the management of curriculum materi
als development is quality control. The quality of materials must be consid
ered continuously during the entire development process, with every effort
made to help ensure that the final proauct is of the highest possible quality.
The development of quality materials takes two key areas into consideration:
standards of quality and management of quality.
The first area concerns factors associated with the materials quality. These
factors can be the assessment areas comprising the Curriculum MaterWs
Assessment Form (Appendix A). Such areas include readability, presentation,
bias, content, learning, support, and cost-benefit. These and perhaps others
must be considered durmg the development process if the materials pro
duced are to be of high quality. Detailed discussions of each of these factors
are provided in Chapter 9 and therefore will not be discussed here.
A second key area of quality control that was briefly mentioned earlier
concerns the systematic approach to the development of materials. Ii: is
imperative that management techniques be developed and followed to
ensure quality control. Two of the many management schemes that may be
used will be discussed here. These are a checksheet approach and the
Program Evaluation and ReviewTechnique (PERT).
Completion Dales·
CI)11I' Personl")
pkled D. velopmenl Stage ReSl'ollsi/J{e Proposed AclUlli Commenl,
FIGURE 10-1 Checksheet for the Development of a Booklet Titled "Interviewing for a Job"
N
W
ID
~ Com- Person[sl
Completion Dates~
..; 2• Obtain relevant references and reo Brown. Smith. S+6 mos. 8+6 mos.
sources Bailey. Jackson
.,.
DISSEMINATING CURRICULUM MATERIALS
The curriculum materials development cycle is not cUluplete until materials
have been disseminated to the ir.tended users. The value of disseminating
curriculum materials is quite clear, since valuable and useful material may
end up on a shelf and never be used if instructors are not made aware of their
worth. Failure to provide plans for dissemination would be a great loss to
those who might have benefited from the materials and a great waste of
human and monetary resources to those who developed the materials. When
devising plans for the dissemination of materials, several factors need to be
considered in order to ensure that those who are to be reached during the
dissemination are efficiently and effectively informed about how the materi
als may be used.
Potential Audience
One of the first steps in dissemination is to determine the potential audience
for the materials. Since primary consideration has been given to the devel
opment of materials in vocational education, the major audience will natu
rally be vocational educators. In addition to these people, consideration
should also be given to applicability in other teaching areas.
curriculum materials can serve a useful purpose in this integration, since many
.. of them may be used by academic il'lstructors, especially those materials
designed for student use. As an illustration, assume that trade and industrial
instructors develop curriculum materials for student use in the area of carpen
try and that each student must read the materials. Thus, the materials could be
used by reading or English instructors to develop the student's reading abili
ty Another example would be a set of materials developed in agribusiness
management that includes numerous mathematical problems. Mathematics
instructors could make use of these problems in their classes. Without a doubt,
many of the materials developed for use in vocational education classes could
be used by academic instructors in teaching students the skills, kJ::towledges,
and attitudes associated with their particular teaching areas.
Geographical Consideration;,
The size of the potential audience for curriculum materials is difficult to
assess. If materials are developed at the local level, local schools may not see
-:. the dissemination of materials to other parts of the state as a high priority In
this case, any dissemination that occurs may take place more by accident
than through any planned effort. However, if the materials al~Jeveloped by
a university, state educational agency, or other similar group, the dissemina
tion should be targeted to a larger audience. In fact, materials developed
through these organizations should be disseminated widely, since this is typ
ically one of their responsibilities. The dissemination might take on a state
wide, regional, or even national flavor.
Any dissemination program must include plarmed activities that will place
an educator or prospective user of the materials in contact with them in such
a way as to experience these five adoption stages in a positive marmer. This
dissemination applies to in-service programs as well as preservice programs.
,
improve the materials or change the suggested format and make them even
more effective. Furthermore, follow up activities by curriculum materials
developers or their colleagues serve to encourage those who have not used
the material to do so.
-~
SUMMARY
Regardless of the materials available on the market today, curriculum special
ists anil instructors are often faced with the situation of needing certain types
of curriculum materials and discovering that none exist in the content area
where teaching is to be done. This situation leaves few alternatives for the edu
cator, with the most logical one being to develop the materials needed.
Before the actual decision is made to develop these materials, several
important factors must be considered to determine if such development is
feasible. These factors include dollars and time available, time needed to
develop the materials, and available expertise. Among the decisions that
must be made concerning the developm~nt of materials are what materials
are needed and why, who should devel6p them, and when and where they
should be developed. Other factors to consider are the target population,
computer based or not, dissemination planned, support needed, and devel
opment alternatives, either through a team or individual approach.
The curri,-..tium materials development process consists of several
stages. Once the needed materials are identified, the development stages
include obtaining the references and resources needed, preparing the first
draft, editing the first draft, pilot testing, revising, field testing, preparing the
final copy, and duplicating. Management of the curriculum materials' devel
opment process can be guided by use of a PERT chart, checksheet, or other
similar management scheme that could be computerized
The dissemination of materials is a critical and important step. Without
instructors adoption and use, materials may be shelved and thus would be
useless. For this reasoJ'l.. materials need to be disseminated in an orderly
manner to vocational educators and others who may have an interest in
them. Before the dissemination is conducted, decisions regarding cost must
be made as well as regarding the way materials will be introduced through
in-service education to instructors and to preservice students.
Chapter 10: Developing Curriculum Materials 247
RElATED REFERENCES
School-to-Work
"
Transition
:
INTRODUCTION
249
250 Section IV: Implementing the Curriculum
SCHOOL-TO-WORK TRANSITION
School-based Leaming. In the United States there has been a long history
of school-based preparation for work. Unlike many European countries such
as Germany with irs nationwide, comprehensive Dual System (of appren
ticeship), the United States has traditionally focused on preparing most stu
dents for employment in school classroom and laboratory teaching/learning
environments. S1W transition builds on these traditional environments
through school-based learning that (1) uses work contexts and examples
throughout the coursework taken by students, (2) focuses on the achieve
ment of high level academic and applied studies knowledge and skills
through authentic learning, and (3) links school learning exp':'riences with
businesses, industry, and the corruriunity in creative ways that support and
strengthen school-based learning. Examples of ways that STW transition can
be incorporated into school-based learning include the int2gration of acade
mic and vocational stuclies, Tech Prep, school-based enterprise, and student
projects and portfolios.
learn in new and different contexts. This is where work-based learning can have
meaningful impact on students. Work-based learning can occur in actual work
settings and simulations of these settings. Compare, for example, mechanical
engineering technology students viewing a videotape of a steel-making factory
versus actually touring a steel-making factory and beLT1.g able to "feel" the pro
duction process and ask employees questions about what they do. This does
not mean every mechanical engineering technology student should tour a steel
making factory; it instead reflects what may be gained and lost by using or not
utilizing available work-based learning opportunities. Examples of various
work-based learning opportunities include workplace tours, shadowing, and
mentoring; cooperative education; community service learning; on-the-job
training; and youth apprenticeship (Hoerner & Wherley, 1995).
Connecting Linkages. Linkages between school- and work-based learning
can be considered as the glue that ties the sc;nool and the workplace together
so students can be provided with successful iransitions. Many linkages are
informaL This is exemplified by instruct""S who maintain informal contacts
with. persons they know in businesses, industries, and the community.
Although these linkages are very important, they can suffer when one instruc
tor moves on or retires and another is hired as a replacement. To guard against
the connective peaks and valleys inherent in informal linkages, educational
institutions as well as businesses, industries, and communities have sought to
establish more formal links. These may take t..'1e form of collaborative agree
ments, compacts, consortia, councils, and similar formulations of groups that
work together for a common purpose. Th~ prime mover for establishing and
mai.'1taining a fonnal linkage may vary hom one locale to another. In some
communities and regions, the local Chamber of Commerce provides leader
ship for linking; whereas in otr':!r areas educational leaders, business man~
agers, and/ or industrialists may take the lead in the linkage process.
One area that is often overlooked. in the linkage process is how students
can be assisted in connecting their learning back and forth between the
school to the workplace. Linking is typically ignored in the rush to provide
either work- or school-based leartUJ::g in creative ways and not <..Onsidering
what can help students connect the two. Cooperative education programs in
secondary schools and community colleges have for many years focused on
assisting students in making these connections through related instruction
classes that link directly with student's on-the-job experiences. Other strate
gies that may be considered include clinical interviews, student logs and
journals, project review panels, and small group seminars (Finch et al., 1997).
INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION
student can work and learn at his or her own pace and receive individual
attention and assistance. In addition, many vocational education class sizes
are limited by the number of laboratory work stations, thus providing
instructors with more opportunities to assist students. Finally, the individual
educational program (IEP) used with each student with special needs must
be prepared by a team that includes representatives from the special educa
tion and school psychology areas. For the vocational instructor, this means
much of the individualization for students with special needs will be built
into IEP preparation.
MODULARIZED INSTRUCTION
the premise that students are better able to learn if they do so at their own
rates and study those areas that focus directly on mastery of a particular
., objective or set of objectives. Naturally, persons who are concerned with the
establishment of individualized, competency-based curricula have recog
nized the potential of modularized instruction, since it appears to focus
directly on meeting students' needs and development of those competencies
that are critical for successful employment. For these reasons, instructional
modules can be found irl use where STW programs have been implemented.
Since the instructional module is quite different and distinct from its tradi
tional counterpart, anyone who is contemplating use of the modular .
256 Section IV: Implementing the Curriculum
Module Characteristics
In contrast with conventional curriculwn design, the modular approach uti
lizes the module as a basic instructional building block instead of arranging
content around a subject, unit, or lesson. This fundamental difference has
. many implications for anyone involved in curriculwn development and
implementation. What, then, is an instructional module? Briefly stated, it
may be defined as an instructional package that includes a planned serie::: oflearn
ing experiences designed to help the student master learning objectives. Although
modules are not always individualized, this appears to be the rule rather
than the exception. Naturally, when one is designing an instructional pack
age, it is fairly simple to incorporate various aspects of individualized
~truction into the finished product. It would, therefore, be in order to
include "individualized" in the above dE'hnition if developers are intent on
assisting all of their students to the maximwn extent possible.
A clearer understanding of the module may be obtained if its basic char
acteristics are described. These characteristics focus on the way a module is
organized and packaged, as well as how it relates to student needs.
First, fue module is self-contained. This means the student does not have
to go to the instructor and ask what to do next or what materials he or she
should use. Instead, information and directions are provided within the
module. Each module should provide explicit guidance with regard to what
the student is to do, how her or she shoiild proceed, and what resources and
materials might be used. Instructional resource materials are usually either
incorporated into the module or.made available on a check-out basis.
Next, the module is typically individualized. Although development
costs and time constraints may preclude the comylete and absolute individ
ualization of a module, the developer should attempt to include as many
characteristics of individualized instruction as possible. As a minimwn, each
module should make provision for self-pacing, feedback, and mastery.
Examples of these characteristics, as they apply to modular instruction,
would be as follows:
Self-pacing: The student may progress through the module at his or her
own rate. Each may set up a working-learning schedule based upon
personal capabilities.
Feedback: The student receives an assessment of progress as he or she
proceeds through each modt, Ie learning experience. At the end of each
learning experience, the student is provided with immediate results
of performance.
Chapter 11: Curriculum Development for School-to-Work Transition 257
\
Formatting
." Locating modules that have already been developed and using them would
be the easiest approach. Unfortunately, modules have not been developed
for all vocational and technical areas, nor does it appear likely that they will
be for some time. Realistically, the vocational and technical instruc~Jr should
plan to become involved in some module development if he or she intends
to have an individualized curriculum.
Since formatting is based on both instructor and learner considerations,
no attempt will be made to show all of the various formats one might use.
258 Section IV: Implementing the Curriculum
1. Each student is afforded the opportunity to "test out" of the total mod
ule or any of the learning experiences.
2. The student receives feedback as to his or her performance on each
learning experience and on the entire module.
3. No specific time limit for module completion is imposed on the student.
Instruction is self-paced.
4. There is no question as to what the student should do to demonstrate
moC::ule mastery.
COMPETENCY-BASED EDUCATION .
. ~
One approach that has gained much support from educators is competency
based education (eBE). eBE has been shown to be most effective as an alter
native to conventional forms of education
As one might expect, instructors and administrator~ alike have
eXPllessed concern about why a competency-based instructional focus
should be any different from that already being used. Instructors may, for
example, comment that all of their graduates are competent, so why should
any changes be made in the curriculum? In a broad sense, any mode of
instruction aims at, or should aim at, the competence of students and gradu
ates. However, as will be indicated, eBE does not differ from other modes of
education in its goals. Instead, eBE is unique in terms of its underlying
assumptions and the approaches that characterize it.
Introduction. In this section, the student is told how the module may serve as a
means of developing certain skills, know ledges, and attitudes. Specific prerequisites
(if any) are detailed and directions for proceeding with the module are provided.
Also included are a cover page and table of contents.
Objectives. Provided here are specific statements of performance the student
should be able to demonstrate while progressing through the module and when
completing it. Terminal and enabling objectives specify the activities to be per
formed, the conditions under which they are to be performed, and the levels of
acceptable performance.
Preassessment. _This section is useful in determining student entry performance
and provides a means of "testing out" of the module if the student can demonstrate
mastery. Student instructions and an assessment form with explicit criteria are
pla<:ed here to ensure that there is no question about what constitutes module mas
tery.
Learning Experiences. Learning experiences are detailed that 'correspond with
each of the enabling objectives. They are designed to provide each student with the
best means of mastering module objectives. Each learning experience consists of one
or more activities followed by assessment and feedback to the studellt.Learning
experiences may include resource materials such as computers, information sheets,
references, videotapes, and so on, that serve to enhance the learning process and
help individualize instruction.
Resource Materials. This section serves to reference all resource materials used
in the various learning experiences so that both instructor and student may iecate
them rapidly. The resource materials listing aids the instructor in "setting up" for
students and ensuring that all materials are available when they are needed.
Postassessmellt. This section is quite similar to the preassessment and, in many
cases, may be exactly the same. The postassessment focuses on the terminal objective
and an assessment form is used to determine whether or not it has been met.
gram. CBE has been variously described as focusing on several key areas.
The areas include the nature of competencies, criteria used to assess the com
petencies, ways that student competence is assessed, student progress
through the program, and theprogram's instructional intent.
• d
to call for a global exhibition of performance. The instructor must also have
specific criteria available that clarify each competency. For example, it might
job application form. In urder· to judge student competence in this area accu
. rately, one must know what standards the completed form should meet as
w~l as the conditions under which it should be filled out. Criteria associat
mance and the conditions associated with this performance. As with compe
tencies, criteria are also made available to each student so there is no ques
ticular rates, based upon their individual abilities, and thus master specified
competencies in a shorter (or longer) time period.
Competency-Based Materials
Successful delivery of CBE is closely aligned with the development and use
of relevant curriculum materials. Whereas Chapters 9 and 10 have presented
general guidelines for the selection and development of curriculum materi
als, it is also useful to focus on the more specific aspects of competency-based
materials. In a broad sense, any materials can be used in competency-based
education. However, it is important that consideration be given to how an
item (e.g., book) contributes to the development of student competence. The
extent to ,.\·hich a contribution is made reflects an item's value in the CBE set
ting. Keeping basic curriculum materials' standards in mind, we can expand
the list prodded in Chapter 9 to include these CBE-specific questions:
.. : ..... ,~
catalog and the competency profile. Each has its specific purpose within the
context of CBE and may have greater or lesser application depending on the
particular students, instructcr, and level of instruction.
ing these areas has tended to be neglected. 1bis is unfortunate since, in actu
ality, education is neither academic nor vocational. It is instead comprised of
two elements, that is, formal and infoIDlal education, and has as its goals
preparation for life and preparation for earning a living. As noted in Chapter
I, these two goals are not mutually exclusive; each must give consideration
to the other, and each can contribute to the accomplishment of the other.
Recent concern about the artificial distinctions between academic and
vocational education a well as reports critical of public education and new
federal. legislation focusing on integration have combined to create a more
urgent need for integrating academic and vocational education. It thus
appears that integration of academic and vocational education is more than
a passing thoughti this approach has been implemented in a number of
schools across the nation.
Basically, integration refers to the process by whid. academic and voca
tional education instructors work together-:tb ensure that program, course,
and lesson content and delivery are more relevant and meaningful to stu
dents. This is accomplished by providing academic content in vocational
education contexts and vocational content in academic contexts. Potential
benefits of integration include students achieving both academic and voca
tional competencies and graduates being better prepared to enter and suc
.ceed in the work world.
Norton Grubb and his associates (Grubb et al., 1991) noted that at last
eight different models of integration exist in schools across. the United States.
These models include a variety of practices, reflect a great deal of creativity
and innovation, and appear adaptable to"the wide range of schools and cur
ricula in American secondary schools. The eight models of integration inClude
Grubb notes that no single model may be applied to all schools. He indicates
that "each school can examine its existing programs, its local labor markets,
and the needs of its students and fashion its own approach to integration"
(Grubb, 1991, p. 24). According to Grubb, the most successful programs appear
to be ones where administrators and faculty have established a vision of what
Chapter 11: Curriculum Development for School-to-Work Transition 265
integration should be, decided together how the task should be accomplished,
and worked cooperatively to ensure that the vision becomes a reality.
Since the integration of vocational and academic education is a relative
ly recent movement, a number of questions can be raised about its imple
mentation in the schools. Among these are: How might integration be best
defined for a particular state, region, or school? Which. integration model is
most appropriate for a particular school system or school? In what ways
might integration opt:?rate successfully at the postsecondary level? How can
the success of such a reform be assessed? (Stasz & Grubb, 1991). It is Clear
that the concept of integration has a great deal of appeal. However, a num
ber of key questions must be answered as the movement evolves from con
cept to widespread implementation.
TECH PREP
SCHOOL-BASED ENTER!"'RISE
1. Exposure to ways that the business world operates and gaining a first
hand view of entrepreneurship in action
2. Reinforcement of what is learned in the classroom
3. Learning and enhancing applied team-building and group problem
solving skills
4. Providing greater opportunities for integrating vocational and academ
ic studies
5. Developing individual personal and social skills
6. Development of skills that may later contribute to community econom
ic development
A specific SBE may not include all these student benefits. However, as the
SBE is being established and later when it is operating, student benefits may
be used. as a gauge to judge how useful the program has been or will be.
Flexibility, creativity, and utility best describe the successful SBE.
Because SBEs need not be course-credit dr:ven, school officials can have
great latitude with an SBE's organization and operation. In some instances,
students operate enterprises such as restaurants or stores in high-cus
tomer/traffic locations that are far removed from the school campus. Often,
SBEs are available to all students in the school; involvement need not be lim
ited to those enrolled in vocati9nal classes. Clearly, benefits can aCCfl,le for all
·w
students regardless of their personal goalS and aspirations.
The establishment and operation of SBEs force school administrators to
deal with a range of concerns. These concerns include: What resources are
needed to manage the SBE's fiscal complexities? Which faculty member or
members will serve as SBE managers, anti what qualifications must they
have? How can the school deal with the public's perception that the SBE is
"stealing" customers away from businesses in the community? What should
268 Section IV; Implemellting the Curriculum
be charged for SBE-produced goods and services? How can the school be
sure that the enterprise and "profit" aspects of the SBE do not overshadow
the need to provide learning experiences for students? There may be other
questions that emerge as the SBE is being established and operated. But these
basic questions should be addressed early in the planning process to ensure
that the probability of SBE success is maximized.
SUMMARY
Meeting students' School-to-Work transition needs is both a challenge and
an opportunity. The challenge centers on establishing a STW curriculum or
program that maximizes students' success as they move from the school into
the workplace. The opportunity for success is imbedded in STW transition's
three components: school-based learning, "york-based learning, and linkages
that connect schbol- and work-based learning in meaningful ways. Since
there are numerous ways that STW transition can be provided to students,
curriculum developers need to consider which approaches are most useful
for their particular educational setting, needs, and locality.
Three of the more commonly used approaches should be considered
when implementing any curriculum. Individualized instruction centers on
providing learning experiences that align with students' individual interests,
aspirations, and capabilities. Modularized instruction can provide students
with opporturjties to learn at their own'rates and focus on the mastery of
various learning objectives. Competency-based education's emphasis on the
development of tasks, skills, attitudes, values, and appreciations critical to
success in life and!or earning a living makes it quite relevant to School-to
Work transition. CBE is often individualized and packaged into learning
modules. .
Approaches that are more specifically associated with STW transition
include the L.ltegration of academic and vocational education, Tech Prep, and
school-based enterprise. Integrating academic and vocational education has
the potential to make curriculum content more relevant for all students. It
builds on contextualized learning concepts to provide students with more
authentic learning experiences. More meaningful linkages between high
schools and communitY and technical colleges can be created through the
implementation of Tech Prep. This approach relie; on cross-institutional col
laboration to plan and implement the curriculum. The school-based enter
. prise bring realistic workplace exposure into the school by involving stu
dents in the operation of an enterprise such as a re~taurant, store, factory,
farm, or repair service. .
Chapter 11: Curriculum Development Jor School-to- Work Transition 269
RELATED REFERENCES .,
Berryman, Sue E., and Bailey, Thomas R. The Double Helix oj Education and the
Economy. New York: lnstitute on Education and the Economy, Teachers College,
Columbia University, 1992.
Bragg, Debra, and Phelps, L. Allen Tech Prep: A Definition and Discussion vJtlle Issues.
Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Site, National Center for Research in
Vocational Education, 1990.
Brustein, M., and Mahler, M. The School-to-Work Opportu11ities Act. Alexandria, Va.:
American Vocational Association, 1994.
Educational Resources lnformation Center. School-to-Work Transition (special
issue). ERIC Review 4, no. 2 (Spring 19961
Finch, Curtis R. "The High Performance vl/orkplace and the Evolving Nature of
"
Vocational Education Research." jOllmal oJ Vocational Education Research 12, no. 2
(1993): 1-19.
Finch, Curtis R. "School-to-Work Transj':on in the United States." Illtenwthma l
! /ollmal oj Vocational Edllcatioll and Trnillillg 5, no. 1 (1997): 69-84.
Finch, Curtis R., Frantz, Ne,'m R., Mooney, Marianne, and Aneke, Norbert.
Desigllillg the Thematic Clirriculum: All All Aspects Approach. Berkeley, Calif.:
National Center for Research in Vocational Education, University of California,
Berkeley, 1997.
Gray, Kenneth. "The Baccalaureate Game: Is it Right for Teens?" Phi Delta Kappan 77,
no. 8 (April 1996): 528-534.
Grubb, Norton, L., ed. Edllcatio11 through occupations in American high schools. Volume
1. Approaches to illtegrntillg academic and vocational education. New York: Teachers
College Press, 1995a.
Grubb, Norton, L., ed. Edllcatioll through OcCltpatiolls in American High Schools. Volume
2. The Challenges oj Impieme1ltillg Curriculum Integration. New York: Teachers
College Press, 1995b.
Grubb, W. Norton, Davis, Gary, Lum, Jeannie, Pliha\, Jane, and Morgaine, Carol. The
Cunning Hand, The Cliltured Mind. Models Jor Integratillg Vocational and Academic
Educati01t. Report MDS-141. Berkeley, Calif.: National Center for Research in
s
Vocational Education, July 1991.
Halprin, S. School-to-Work: A Larger Vision. Washington, D.C: American Youth Policy
Forum, 1994.
Hoerner, James L., and Weherley, James B: Work-Based Leaming: The Key to School-to
Work Transition. Columbus, Ohio: Glencoe McGraw Hill, 1995.
Pauly, E., Kopp, H., and Haimson, J. Home-Grown Lessons: Innovative Programs
Linking School und Work. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995.
270 Section IV: Implementing the Curriculum
Phelps, L. Allen, ed. Employers and School-to-Work: Policy Options for the Great Lakes
States. Madison, Wisc.: Center on Education and Work, University of Wisconsin
Madison, 1994.
Stasz, Cathy, and Grubb, W. Norton. Integrating Academic mui Vocational Education:
Guidelinesfor Assessing a Fuzzy Reform. Working Paper MDS-375. Berkeley, Calif.:
National Center for Research in Vocational Education, July 1991.
Stern, David, Stone m, James R., Hopkins, Charles, Mc Million, Martin, and Crain,
Robert. School-Based Enterprise: Productive Learning in American Public Schools.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1994.
.,
."; '"'
t
~ 12
Assessing the
Curriculum
INTRODUCTION
There can be no doubt that the way a curriculum is planned and estab
::
lished has great impact on its quality. However, the process used to define
and determine that quality is of at least equal importance. The role of as
sessment in curriculum development cannot be overemphasized. When
utilized properly, assessment can help ensure that the curriculum is of a
high quality and that deficiencies are identified before they cause major
problems to arise.
What, then, constit:lltes assessment? Within the context of curriculum
development, assessment may be defined as the determination of the merit or
wortll of a curriculum (or portion of that c:::·riculum). It includes gathering infor
mation for use in judging the merit ofthe curriculum, program, or curriculum mate
rials. Assessing an entire curriculum is quite complex and time-consuming.
Thus, assessments often tend to focus on programs and materials. Although
programs and materials are indeed closely related, the evaluation' of each
takes on a somewhat different focus. This may be easily seen in the assess
ment literature, where a clear distinction is made between the assessment of
educational programs and materials. Programs are often viewed as being
synonymous with curricula, however, they more logically focus on formal
aspects of education and typically on a specific course or instructional area
(e.g., agribusiness, reprographics, child care). Materials, on the other hand,
are typically instructional items such as guides, modules, computer software,
texts, or multimedia packages that the developer feels have utility beyond a
single instructor.
271
272 Section IV: Implementing the Curriculum
\.
expertise to bear on this area. Likewise, professionals at the state level as well
students.
CURRICULUM PLANNING
AND DEVELOPMENT
CURRICULUM OPERATION
AND REFINEMENT
Context Assessment
Context assessment is basic to the curriculum development process, since it
is closely associated with decisions about whether or not the curriculum
should be offered and what goals and objectives should be used.
Realistically, a comprehensive planning effort may include the essential ele
ments of context assessment. Speciiically, context assessment may define and
describe the environment in which a curriculum will be offered, identify
needs that have been used as criteria, and pinpoint any constraints that keep
Chapter 12: Assessing the Curriculum 275
these needs from being met. The aggregate d.ata and information gathered
r serve as a basis for curriculum decisions and the subsequent development of
objectives.
The following are representative of the numerous curriculum questions
one might seek to answer in relation to context assessment:
Input Assessment
Input assessment, with its focus on resource and strategy decision making,
has important implications for the curriculum developer. As a currisulum is
being structured, every etfort should be made to ensure that the best
resources are chosen and that provision is made for their proper use.
Decisirms made in this regard are all too often based upon conjecture rather
than data. Input assessment serves to aid the developer in making more
objective decisions about the ways content might be provided to students.
This is accomplished by systematically identifying and assessing relevant
capabilities of the educational agencJj resources for achieving curriculum
objectives, and alternate plan~ for their implementation (Stufflebeam et aL,
1971; Webster, 1981). Resources can range from media, modules, and learn
ing environments to teaching strategies and learning experiences.
Information based on this identification and assessment is used to select spe
cific resources and strategies to meet curriculum outcomes.
The use of input assessment is somewhat restricted, with a basic prereq
uisite being that a decision has been made to offer a vocational or technical
curriculum. Since input' assessment is used to determine how resources
might be best utilized to achieve curriculum outcomes, the assessor should
276 Section IV: Implementing the Curriculum
be aware that data-based decisions are somewhat more ar~itrary than their
countetparts in process and product evaluation. The logic for this is simple:
input assessment focuses on intended rather than actual outcomes. Thus, the
extent to which input assessment is meaningful depends on its true relation
ship to curriculum process and product. For example, a decision might be
made to utilize team teaching in a curriculum because there is some feeling
it will enable students to meet a greater number of objectives. This decision
obviously is classed as tentative until such time as data show team teaching
to be a significant contributor to student achievement.
Curriculum questions related to input assessment include (but are by no
means limited to)
Data gathering for input assessment can range from relatively simple to
complex, with instruments representing varying degrees of objectivity.
Techniques utilized in the data-gathering. process may include group con
sensus, team judgment, literature and cu,rriculum reviews, and quantitative
and naturalistic assessment efforts. .
Process Assessment
PI'OCt!l;S assessment is most closely aligned with instruction. Whereas all assess
ment ultimately needs to focus on how the curriculum actually helps students,
process assessment appears most appropriate when the immediate effects of
instruction are being examined. Since process assessment deals directly with
the operation of the curriculum, the information associated with this element is
most meaningful for the instructional staff. In the traditional sense, process
assessment is what many think of as being asses::-:;2nt. However, it is but one
part of a total assessment framework. Certainly, the student's success in school
is very important, but it is meaningful only to the extent that inferences may be
drawn to out-of-school success. Thus, although conclusions drawn frOI'".
process assessment are useful for curriculum improvement, they may not align
very closely with employment-related outcomes. .
Process assessment can be used to examine a variety of areas. For exam
ple, it might be appropriate to determine the extent to which students have
Chapter 12: Assessing the Curriculum 277
'I,
What are the costs and benefits associated with openitillg the curriculum?
Product Assessment
::
Assessment must extend beyond just putting the focus on the student in
school. Major consideration must be given to ways the curriculum has aided
former students. Product assessment uses the former student as a focal point
in determining this aspect of curriculum quality. The end product of any cur
riculum is the graduate, and this product (as well as his or her counterpart
who did not graduate) needs to be studied if realistic statements are to be
made about the worth of the curriculum.
Product assessment typically takes place "in the field," with information
gathered from sources such as employers, supervisors, and incumbent
workers (former students). These sources of information are extremely
important, since process assessment only deals with short-range in-school
(
effects. In terms of curriculum questions associated with product assess
ment, the following are illustrative: .
are the skills survey, job satisfaction, job satisfactoriness, and value of the cur
riculum. Information gathered may include time needed to locate and secure
employment, placement rates, entry-level salary, rate at which quarterly
earnings increase, and employer and employee satisfaction (Hoachlander,
1991). Consideration should also be given to use of naturalistic techniques
such as ethnography, historiography, and biography to capture the thick
descriptive information associated with this area.
Levels of Assessment
Even though a comprehensive model for curriculum assessment is useJ,
concerns can be raised about assessment specifics such as how focused and
applied should the assessment be and how do assessments align with the
context, input, process, and product elements. To respond to these concerns,
it is useful to consider assessment as havj..ri:g different levels. Kirkpatrick
(1994) has strongly advocated that assessment emphasis should be placed on
curriculum impact through focus on four differc-.. . t levels.
The first level of assessment, reaction (level 1) emphasizes determining
how persons related to a particular curriculum react to it These persons,
who might include students, instructors, and (ldministrators, are important
"consumers" and as such should react positively to the curriculum if it is
intended to be accepted and used.
Focus of the second assessment level, learning (level 2), is on partici
pants; primarily students. Do they improve their skills, gain knowledge,
and change their attitudes because of their involvement (Kirkpatrick,
1994)? An example would be determining the extent to which communi
ty college marketing students improved their attitudes toward customers
as a result of cooperative work exp"rience as sales associates in local
retail stores.
The third level of assessment, behavior (level 3), dealS with participants'
changes in behavior. Assessment at level three centers on applied behavior
change. An example of assessment at this level might be a t-risk students who
enroll in a high school aerospace and aviation academy and end up having
fewer absences and getting better grades than their counterparts who did not
enroll in the academy.
Emphasis of the fourth assessment level, results (level 4), is directed
toward overall outcomes of the curriculum. This could include, for example,
the percentage of practical nursing program graduates who pass the state
practical T'_ursing examination on the first attempt and/or the scores they
. receive on the exam.
The extent to which levels of assessment align with the four assessment
elements are displayed in Figure 12-2. In this figure, the contribution of
each level may range from greater (+) to less (-). Although all four levels
Chapter 12: Assessing the Curriculum 279
Assessment Levels
Assessment
Elements Reaction Learning Behavior Results
Context + 0 0
Input + + 0
Process 0 + + 0
Product 0 0 + +
The next lOgical step would be to develop more detailed questions related to
each of these areas. Some of the questions that might be included under these
broad areas are as follows:
Next, taking the first question and combining it with performance objec
tives, we can develop an assessment objective and standard such as
"
Chapter 12: As~essing the Curriculum 281
<l
This objective allows the graduates to serve as a data source. Each graduate
employed as a nurse is afforded an opportunity to indicate his or her job sat
isfaction by completing a standardized instrument. The actual level of qual
Chapter 12: Assessing the Curriculum 283
ity (in this case, ~2 or above) would most likely be determined through group
consensus (e.g,. The nursing advisory committee). As with the other objec
~.
tives, standards are established before data are gathered so the assessor will
be sure of what constitutes a measure of program quality.
There are a host of additional assessment objectives and standards that
could be presented; howeyer, the ones provided serve io illustrate the range
of possibilities a curriculum assessor might use. Whether the task is to .assess
curriculum materials, a specific program, or an entire curriculum, it is
extremely important that assessment planning include meaningful, measur
able assessment objectives. Otherwise, there is not much point in conducting
any assessment at all.
Need for the Assessment Plan. There are several reasons for using an
assessment plan. The first relates to the general value of planning. If an eval
uation were conducted \\'ithout any prior planning, the result might be a
faulty design for data gathering, missing data, or invalid results. From a
practical standpoint, time spent in the planning process pays large dividends
L."1 helping to determine curriculum quality accurately. Planning can assist
the curriculum deyeloper in overcoming a number of potential problem
areas such as scheduling, data gathering, and data analysis.
A second need for the assessment plan may be associated with docu
mentation. As an example, although many curriculum materials are "tried
out," the user seldom sees the detailed results of this tryout. What the assess
ment plan does in this regard is to help the curriculum developer document
procedures that were followed and results that were drawn for the data
-[ analysis. This documented evidence, together with the ways that the evi
dence was gathered, may be used by others who want to know just how well
the curriculum materials are suited to their needs.
- l'
assess. The typical components of an assessment plan are the overview; cur
riculum assessment program, or materials description; assessment design;
md assessment report description. An example of a table of contents from an
assessment plan is provided in Figure 12-3.
Overview. In this section of the assessment plan, a need for the assessment is
specified. It is imperative that the need be clearly established so others will know
exactly why the particular curriculum should be assessed. Since an assessment
plan may be used to help sell people on the idea or convince them to allocate
resources in this direction, the rationale section can serve as an introduction to
the assessment process and encourage the reader to read further. In addition to
a specific statement of need, the general assessment approach should be stated.
1his helps the reader obtain a fed for the assessment's overall scope. A final item
in this section consists of detailinf; the benefits derived from conducting the
assessment. These benefits shuuld focus oriihe groups served (e.g., instructors
and students) and how the evaluation will actually help them.
I. Overview 1
A. Need for Assessment
B. Assessment Approach
C. Benefit Derived from the Assessment
D. Assessment Objectives and Standards
II. Curriculum Description 4
A. Curriculum Objective
B. Philosophy and Content
C. Curriculum Procedures
D. Student Population
E. Curriculum Setting
III. Assessment Design 12
A. Constraints
B. Assessment Model or Framework
C. Appropriateness of Assessment Design
D. Determination of Achievement of Objectives and Standards
E. Sources of Information
F. Information Collection Methods
G. Analysis Procedures
H. Schedule of Events
1. Proposed Budget
Iv. Description of the Assessment Report 18
Appendix A: Assessment Instruments 19
"1
Curriculum Description. At this point in the plan, it is important to
describe thoroughly the curriculum, program, or materials being assessed.
The instructional objectives are provided and content is described. Any
unique aspects of the content are explicated. Items such as media and per
sonnel that must be available to support the curriculrnn need to be described;
and finally, details are given about the types of students who will use the cur
riculum and the settings in which it will be used.
report sho~ld be such that the quality and the process used to determine this
quality are clearly indicated. In many instances, the assessment plan can
serve as a basis for the report. With minor modifications, the first three sec
tions of the assessment plan can make up the first part of a comprehensive
assessment report. This, together with sections dealing with assessment
results, conclusions, and recommendations, constitutes a report that should
be most acceptable to administrators and/or sponsors. An outline of the
assessment report to be eventually produced is provided in this section so
that the reader will know what to expe<;t with regard to documentation of the
assessment effort. Also of value would be an indication of those who are ten
tatively scheduled to receive copies of the report. This infonnation need not
be of a specific nature (Le., actual names) but should include classes of per
sons who might find the report to be of value (e.g., instructors in specific
schools, administrators at certain levels, ~? other curriculum developers).
\
.
II'
Chapter 12: Assessing the Curriculum 287
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carefully and indieaLft how much you agree or disagree with it a«ording to the following 5Cale:
lID = STRONGLY DISAGREE D = DISAGREE N = NEUTRAL A = AGREE SA = STRONGLY AGR~:E
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than with understanding the malaial 0 0 0 0 0 37. This mothocI of inltnK\ion .... a pc!<l< _ 'u " , • SA
pt II> u.. my 0 0 0 0 U39. I dillliked ,tI. w.y that I WL' insuucted stl JI " " SA
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19. This instructional method did not ...... II> had aboot the I1IIIt.t!riol 00000
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cl..._ instrll<:tion 00000 typt' of i...1tUCtion 00000
20. 1· fell that J wanted to do my best. work S41 tl " "'V;, ..... TbiI typt' of tnltt.rUrtion mak~ n"lt" .anllO ~I tl '\ " ..-\
while taking this in.lnIctiun 000 DOw"'" IIarde< 00000
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think 00000 taking thi. in.'lfU<'lion 00000
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malaialthal was.oed 00000 _kt<I ... _ 00000
24 I felt frustrated by the instructional <\,IJ It '\ .. -.A
. tcituation 0 0 U0 D
288
Clwpter 12: Assessing the Curriculum 289
1.
290
Chapter 12: Assessing the Curriculum 291
..
,
COMPUTER OPINIONNAIRE
.~
Name: School:
Directions; Below are several statements about the computers that you have been
using with your classes. Read each statement carefully and indicate the extent to
which you agree or disagree with it according to the following scale:
SD- Strongly Disagree; I strongly disagree with the statement.
D-Oisagree; I disagree with the statement, but not strongly so.
A-Agree; I agree with the statement, but not strongly so.
SA-Strongly Agree; I strongly agree with the statement.
Portfolios. Although portfolios have been used for some time in the
architecture and commercial art fields, their application to education has
tended to be limited. Portfolios are typically used to assess students' long
term, applied progress in a course or program. What should the portfolio
contain? This may vary depending on what expectations exist in the par
ticular field of study. For example, a portfolio developed for an automo
tive technology program might be quite different from one that is pre
pared for a computer-aided design (CAD) program. The CAD student
might include best examples of CAD assignments, whereas, the automo-.
tive student may be asked to include detailed descriptions of representa
tive automutive service work that has been completed both within the
school and in different workplaces. Sometimes students are asked to
include other career-related items such as resumes and sample employ
ment letters in the portfolio. In effect, students are asked to save or docu
ment all or part of their assigned studies.:1'hen, at a specified future time,
the portfolio is presented for review and assessment.
Grading student portfolios can be conducted by the individual
instructor or by a committee consisting of instructors and workplace rep
resentatives. Additionally, each student may be required to present the
portfolio to the instructor or committee either orally, in writing, or both.
Portfolios are often assessed using criterion-referenced measures, with
criteria being drawn from workplace expectations. This focus is most
meaningful since students may at some time in the future share their
portfolios with prospective employers when they are interviewing for
employment.·
that has a dear framework within which it is to be conducted, and that gives
major consideration to staff input and involvement.
summative assessment, the focus will be on the formative type, since this level
,," of assessment is seen as as major role of the curriculum developer.
Effectiveness. This area of quality deals directly with assessing the effects
of materials used. Questions that might be raised about materials effective
ness include: Does use of the materials change student behavior? What
changes occur with what types of students? Do the materials effect a greater
change than other materials?
Efficiency. Efficiency is concerned with materials effectiveness as it relates
to time and cost. Materials may be deemed effective but at an increased cost
or with a greater time allocation. If this is the case, vocational educators
might find it more beneficial to remain with the original instructional
arrangement. Efficiency may be represented by either greater effectiveness
than materials now in use with no increase in time and/or cost, or equal
effectiveness to other materials with a decrease in time and/or cost.
Questions that can be raised about materials efficiency include: Do the mate
296 Section IV: Implementing the Curriculum
rials effect a greater student success rate than alternate modes of instruction
while not being greater in time or cost? Does it cost less to achieve a speci
fied student success rate with the materials than with other materials? Does
it take less time to achieve a specified student success rate with the materials
than with other materials?
Practicality. This area of quality is associated with materials use in the school
environment. It is concerned with potential constraints that might restrict
materials use even though they show up well in other quality areas. Questions
related to material"';'tacticality might include: Will use of the materials requir~
special facilities or equipment (e.g., laboratories, instructional media support,
Internet access)? L<; the cost prohibitive? Will in-service instructor education be
required? If so, how extensive will the in-service program be?
er steps have been detailed in the assessment plan and one that is most
rewarding, since the developer now has an opportunity to find out just how
" well materials fare in realistic educational settings.
'" The extent to which one can actually assess curriculum materials is
dependent on available resources. Dollars or time available to assess materi
" als destined for use at the local level may be considerably less than for assess
ing materials to be used by state and national audiences. Thus, the develop
ermay be faced with decisions about how extensive an assessment can be
accomplished for a given set of materials. Ideally, the assessment is a two
phase process consisting of pilot testing and field testing. Realistically, this
rrJght be limited to pilot testing if time and I or dollars are unavailable, with
the recognition that both pilot and field testing are necessary in order to
make a meaningful check of materials quality.
Field Testing. Field testing involves the trial of materials in several realis
tic settings. The field-testing process builds on pilot testing and typically
focuses on all five aspects of curriculum materials quality: effectiveness, effi
ciency, acceptability, practicality, and generalizability. Acceptability and
practicality have already been examined during the pilot testing; field testing
298 Section IV: Implementing the Curriculum
provides an additional opportunity to gather data about these areas and see
how the materials fare with other students and instructors.
The field test is characterized as being more rigorous than the pilot test
and may include one or several rather sophisticated designs. Most of the
basic approaches one can use to conduct field tests are drawn directly from
research and evaluation in the behavioral sciences, and with so many possi
bilities available, it sometimes becomes difficult to decide which design or
combination or designs will be best for a particular situation. When design
ing the field-test process, it is best to give initial consideration to internal and
external validity. This, in effect, means a close look should be taken at the
field-testing process to ensure that test results will be interpretable and that
they can be generalized to appropriate' populations, settings, and so fortlt.
Obviously, a true experimental design would be the best means of obtaining
internal ana external validity. Its use .enaples the curriculum developer to
control for sources of i.nvalidity in an effiCient manner. The developer should
recognize, however, that experiments cannot always be conducted when
asse$sments are done.
Other factors such as available time and dollars work against the use of
experiments in field testing. Because of these restrictions, developers often
tum to quasiexperimental and none: :perimental or preexperimental deSigns.
Although these deSigns are acknowledged as lacking in terms of internal and
external validity, they are typically used by assessors. Since field testing is
often a compromise situation, these designs seem at least to align with the
basic assessment constraints of an educational setting. It should be empha
sized that if the preexperimental design is used, serious consideration must
be given to conducting a number of field tests. Satisfactory performance over
repeated testing with different students should indicate that the materials are
of a high quality in terms of both effectiverteSs and generalizibility.
When considering the sample size to use in a field test, it is best to keep
in mind that a random sampling of students just cannot be accomplished. It
is impossible to take a completely random sample from all present and
future populations to which the field-test results are to be inferred. The logi
cal alternative is to conduct the field test with students whose personal char
acteristics. are representative of those who will eventually use them. This
helps to ensure that, when the materials are implemented on a large scale,
they will be as effective as when they were field tested.
The question is often raised as to what size a sample of students should
actually be. A rather vague answer to this question would be to use as large
a sample as can be aff-:.rded. In experimental research, a minimum of ten to
fifteen subjects is usually assigned to each group. This minimum number is
perhaps a good one to use. However, before numbers are actually firmed up,
the curriculum specialist should ask an important question about sample
Chapter 12: Assessing the Curriculum 299
'{'
size: How much difference will one student's performance make to the com
I
.." posite results? If one student represents 10 percent of the field-test sample,
success or failure by that individual will have much greater impact on results
r' than would a student who is part of a forty-student sample.
Site selection and coordination of the testing effort are equally as impor
~
tant in field testing as they are in pilot testing. In fact, since field testing
includes the use of multiple test locations, it is imperative that detailed
arrangements for testing be worked out as the assessment plan is being
developed. When multiple-location testi1:lg is being conducted, it is too late
to back up and make major revisions to the process. This is why testing
arrangements should be thought out and committed to paper far in advance
of the time testing begins.
Program Improvement
" The vocational program, which represents a substantial portion of .he cur
riculum, can cert.1inly benefit from sound assessment. Benefit is, of course,
rela tive and tends to parallel the comprehensiveness of assessment. Logi
cally, an assessment that only focuses on the educational process is not going
to produce as much meaningful data as one that deals directly with context,
input, process, and product.
Context assessment data may be used to help improve the educational
environment and refine a program's goals and objecti"es. Input assessment
data can assist the curriculum developer in determining which resources and
strategies have the greatest potential as well as how content might be
arranged. Process assessment data may be utilized to focus on improving
both teaching and learning, whereas product assc~<;ment data can aid in
determining which programs "are more successful in producing work force
members.
300 Section IV: Implementing the Curriculum
changes can be made to ensure that they are met in the future?
These questions are based on the assumption that realistic, measurabIe assess
ment objectives have been establish~d. Obviously, anything less than this will
not l:''1able questions to be answered. Vocational program improvement, then,
is most dependent on the objectives used in the assessment effort. If objectives
art> vague, it may never be known whet1'\er trey have been met, much less
what action should be taken to effect progrw improvement.
Program improvement is typically incremental. Certain changes are
made based on assessment results and then future assessments focus on the
results of these changes. Since it is usually not feasible to make wholesale
changes in <1 program, only those changes are made that will benefit students
the most. Program assessment Has the potential to assist educators in mak
ing meaningful improvements. However, the extent {Q which these improve
ments may actually be made depends on the quality and comprehensiveness
of the assessment effort.
y
SUMMARY
This chapter has focused on curriculum assessment in realistic educational set
tings. Comprehensive assessment of the curriculum may best be achieved if
focus is on curriculum context, input, process, and product. The assessment
process is initiated with the establishment of assessment standards. This includes
actually defining what quality is as well as developing assessment objectives.
A key to the success of any assessment effort is the development of a
4\
practical assessment plan. This plan serves as a framework for gathering and
examining assessment data. Included in the plan should be a rationale for the
assessment as well as a description of the curriculum and the assessment
design that will be utilized. After the assessment has been carried out, pro
vision must be made to use the results for curriculum improvement. It is only
in this way that the assessment effort will have fulfilled its purpose.
RELATED REFERENCES
Armstrong, David G. Developing and Documenting the Curriculum. Needham Heights,
Mass.: .\lIyn & Bacon, 1989.
Grummon, Phyllis T. H. Assessing Students for Workplace Readiness." Centerfocus
U
,
WJ0:l lUaWSSdSSV
SP:?!JalEV\1 wnln:J!JJn J
'\,
2. Author(s): _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
3. Source (publisher name, address, telephone, and fax number):
"'" ? = Questionable
U = Unacceptable
Deficiencies (explain): _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
12. _'_ READABILITY (The reading level of the material is satisfactory for
all intended students)
Reading level: Formulq. applied:,_ _ _ _ __
Deficiencies (explain):_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
13. __ CONTENT (The content is technically accurate, up-te-date, and
-... presented at a level that is appropriate for all intended students)
Deficiencies (explain):_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-
14. __ PRESENTATION (The content is presented in an easy-to-use for
~ mat, contains sufficient illustrations and examples, and has good
visual appeal)
Deficiencies (explain): _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
15. __ LEARNING (The material is organized and sequenced in such a
way that it contributes to student learning)
Deficiencies (explain): _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Tutorial
- - - Instructional
Demonstration
_ _ Other (describe)
Deficiencies (explain): _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
~
),
8, Provide below one or more of the software's limitations.
Assessor____________ ,_ _ _ Date_~ __
t ... "
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© 1998 Kevin R. Finch and Curtis R. Finch.
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Index
Academic subjects, 263-265
sex bias awareness guide, 212
Achievement tests, 83
Career Planning Program, 82
t,
stages in, 241
Technology Education Act of 1990,
steps in, 63
Chamber of Commerce, 99
" All aspects" approach, curriculum con Cloze procedure, readability, 213
~
Articulation of curriculum, 20
cost assessment, 117-122
Jf
Assessment e>f students, standards for,
data collection, 97-98
15-1t
employment sources, 98-99
Attitude instruments
enrollment data, 89
portfolios, 292
geographical boundaries, 96
Audience
goals, types c~, ';7
Biased materials
resource assessment, 122-124
311
,J --
312 Index
'"
,f ~ .' - __ ~-::.'""- ~-l
;' ,assessment In, 26Q~ ' .• ", - , , Cooperative training statio1)S, resource
,, ':.:
' ' . '.' 'truCti'
IDS, '. 't'efl''t,,2%.
Or).al',In, !' C'
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Cost assessment, 117-122
<,.,:
('
Content
materials development, 227-228
Content decisions
, decision-making about method, 272
time, 168
process assessment, 276-277
introspection, 140-141
models, 29-39
of program, 299-300
systems approach, 26-29
Index 313
Curriculwn framework
nominal group procedure, 59-60
32-34
Delphi technique, 158-159
Curricultun planning
process of, 159
site-based management, 47
Drafting, in materials development,
,
Dual System, 251
145-146
Data collectio!'l
goals of, 10-11
Decision making
example of, 103-104
errors in, 54
planning commissions; 99
futuristic decisions, 51
and product projections, 99
irreversible decisions, 50
state employment commissions,
Decision-making methods
Evaluation content analysis, 211
314 Index
Facilities
Instructors, See Staff
Federal legislation
Integration, academic/vocational sub
funds for vocational education, 7-9
jects, 263-265
Field testing
Introspection, content de\'e!opment,
of materials, 297-299
Irreversible decisions, 50
Formal education, 9, 10
Goals
109
inunigration, 109
ment,230
new entrants to labor market, 110
255
and other occupations, 109
Industrial Revolution, 5, 6, 1r
Linkage pT0~~SS, school-to-work transi
Informal education, 9, 10
Literature review
Input, 27, 28
materials development, 233, 235
ment, 12-14
Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Test, 83
Index 315
Materials
dissemination of materials, 229,
audiovisual, 208
duplication factors, 227
textbooks, 215-216
time factors, 226
content, 214
Education Curricula, 34-36
Materials development
Net labor projections, 111-117
audience, 229
labor demands, 113
316 Index
Objectives
Physical performance objectives, 195
195
Po:tfolios, grading of, 292
achievement tests, 83
net labor projections, 111-117
aptitude tests, 83
Psychomotor objectives, 194
interpretation o~, 86
reliability/validity of test, 84
Quality control
content, 136-137
materials development, 238--241
287-289
Questionnaires, about program, 292
Outcomes, 179-180
Ranking, decision matrix; 57
Outp1,lt, 27, 28
forecast formula, 213-214
Reliability
System, 36-37
of test, 84
Index 317
facilities~ 122-123
evaluation of, 215
staff, 123
255
Safety, 121
types of, 218
1994,8-9,124,187
resource assessment, 123
School-to-work transition
training, materials, 244-245
competency-based ed ucation,
Standardized tests
258-263
achievement tests, 83
School-workplace-community partner
State employment commissions, 98-99
ships, 16
State level goals, 187-188
based,202-203
and content decisions, 167, 171-172
relation-based, 199-201
and materials development, 229
198-199
Sumn'..<llve assessment, 294-295
taxonomic-related, 201-202
Surveys, occupational interests surveys,
220--221
curriculum develop,:'ent, 26--29
Smith-Hughes Act, 7, 16
28-29
318 Index
149, 151 .,
Updating, materials, 246
I.
231,234
Vision statement, 187
opment,227
Vocational Education Acts, 124, 187
Textbooks, 215-216
Consortium of States (V-TECS), 262
Time factors
SCANS Report for America 2000,