Estabilidad y Compensacion

Electronica de Sistemas de
Potencia

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt

Cuenca, Ecuador
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
Estabilidad y Compensacion
Electronica de Sistemas de
Potencia

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Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control

 Flexible AC Transmission Systems
(FACTS)
An outline

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control

 Direct-Current Transmission
Scheme
Lines and Station
cost

Break even
AC Distance
DC
Converter
Station AC 50 km
Submarine
Circuit
800 km
AC Overhead
Transmission
Station Line
distance
Costs of DC and AC transmission
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Commonly used converters for HVDC schemes
• Current Source Converters (CSC)
Vac L

Id
CSC (constant)

• Voltage Source Converters (VSC)

Vac

VSC Vd
C
(constant)

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control

 Thyristors
• Thyristors are manufactured from silicon wafers and are four-layer
versions of the simple rectifier p-n junction Id
Forward on-state
Anode
voltage drop
Anode (A)
Id Reverse leakage
Latching
current I g1 I g2
P current
N Ig
Gate + Vd
P Gate
(G) Vd Forward
N breakdown
- voltage
Cathode Forward
Cathode leakage
(K) Reverse current
on → Vd  0 & Vg  0 Structure of a four-
breakdown
< 1% of rated
voltage
layer thyristor
off → I d  0 Thyristor characteristic: Ig gate current to switch
thyristor on at forward voltage
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Circuitry associated with each thyristor
• When many thyristors are
connected in series to form a valve,
it is necessary to:
1. Obtain a uniform voltage
R1 distribution across each
R0 thyristor.
C1 2. Retain uniform transient voltage
distributions with time.
Light Pulses
to gate 3. Control the rate of rise of current.
L

Circuitry associated with each thyristor

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT)
• The IGBT is a development of the MOSFET, in which removal of the
voltage from the gate switches off the through current, thereby
allowing power to be switched on or off at any point of an AC cycle.
Gate Collector VGE = 11
5,000
IC
Emitter
4,000 VGE = 10
+
n n

IC ( A )
p Gate 3,000 VGE = 9
VCE
+ 2,000 VGE = 8
n -
VGE -
p substrate 1,000

Collector Emitter
4 8 12 16 20
structure of an IGBT VCE (V )
IGBT characteristic

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control

 Current Source Converter (CSC)
HVDC

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control

 Current Source Converter (CSC) HVDC
• Symbolic representation of two alternating current systems connected
by a direct-current link I d

Vdr − Vdi RL
Id =
RL AC AC
system 1 + + system 2
P1 = Vdr I d
Vdr Vdi
P2 = Vdi ( − I d ) - -
Rectifier Inverter
Id
Vdr − Vdi RL
Id =
RL AC AC
P1 = Vdi ( − I d )
-
system 1 system 2
-
Vdi Vdr
P2 = Vdr I d + +
Inverter Rectifier
Vdr: direct voltage across rectifier Power flow reversed
Vdi: direct voltage across inverter
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Rectification V̂ V0
is the peak AC
voltage
• Rectification process 
0

Time
−
a
-
+ 2 3

Vdr Vdi   2
+
2 3
b Ld +
- 3
V0 mean value of
Voltage
Current
the direct-output
c Id voltage
Id Phase a

Time
Three-phase rectifier
ˆ 3 3
V0 = V
2
Phase (b)
3
Time V0 = VL
2

Phase (c)

Time

VL: RMS line-to-line voltage Waveforms of anode voltage and rectified current in each phase
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Commutation
• Two anodes conduct
simultaneously over a
period known as the

Voltage
V̂
commutation time or
Time
overlap angle ().
• When the valve in phase b
commences to conduct, it
short circuits the a and b
phases, the current

Current
eventually becoming zero in
the valve of phase a and Id Id
Time
in the valve of phase b. 
Power factor
angle

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control

 Gate Control
• A positive pulse applied to a gate situated between anode and cathode
controls the instant at which conduction commences, and once
conduction has occurred the gate exercises no further control.

3 3 V0 is the maximum
Voltage V0 = Vˆ value of direct-output
2 voltage

The new direct-output voltage V’0

Time with a delay angle of :

3 3 ˆ
V '0 = V cos 
2

 commutation angle V '0 = V0 cos 
delay angle
Waveforms of rectifier with instant of firing delayed by
an angle a by means of gate control
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Bridge Connection (1/2)
• The following bridge arrangement is the common implementation of
CSC HVDC schemes, mainly because the DC output voltage is
V V V V V
doubled A B C A B

Vdr
Id 2
0
1 3 5 + Voltage
-

+ Waveforms
VA I1 I3 I5 Vd
2 Vdr
VB I A - Time
N O Vdi i1
VC I B +
Vd i2
IC I4 I6 I2
2
-
4 6 2 - i3
+

Bridge arrangement of valves i4

iA = i1 − i4

Idealized voltage and current waveforms for bridge arrangement

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Bridge Connection (12/2)
• The mean DC voltage for the bridge rectifier V0 is
VA 1
3 VL 3 2
V0 = 2 = VL = 1.35VL
VB 3
2  
Ld

VC
+
VL: RMS line-to-line voltage
5 Vdr
2
-
N
O
VA 4 + The new direct-output voltage V’0
Vdr
with a delay angle of :
2
VB 6 -
Ld
V '0 = V0 cos 
VC 2

Equivalent circuit of the bridge arrangement

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Current Relationships
α
in the Bridge Circuit
1
 • Voltage and current
(a) 3 (c) 5 (a) 1
P waveforms in the
(a)
R bridge connection,
including commutation
Q Voltages
S () and delay ().
f Rectifier action

6 2 4 6
Current in valves
Id 1,3 and 5

Current in
phase (a)

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control

 Current Relationships in the Bridge Circuit
• Waveforms showing voltage drop due to commutation
Supply (anode) voltage
VA 1
The short-circuit current (iS)
diS
= VˆL sin t
VB 3 Ld

VC 5
+
Vdr 2L
dr
2
-
N
O
VA +

VˆL sin t
4
Vdr
2
VB -

iS = − +A
6 Ld

L
VC 2

Common V̂ Area lost

anode VˆL sin t
voltage
A= cos 
2 L
VL
id = cos  − cos ( +  ) 
   2 L
Vˆ sin  −  f
2 3
  
2 − 3
  α 

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control

 Current Relationships in the Bridge Circuit
Voltage drop (mean value of lost area)
V0 Supply (anode) voltage
= cos  − cos ( +  ) 
2
The direct-voltage output, Vd,
V0
Vd = V0 cos  − cos  − cos ( +  ) 
2 Common V̂ Area lost
anode
V0
Vd = cos  + cos ( +  )  voltage
2
Finally, Vd,

Vd = V0 cos  − Rc I d ˆ   
V sin  −  f
2 3
where:
RcId represents the voltage drop   
3X 2 − 3
Rc = due to commutation and not a   α 
 physical resistance drop

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control

 Power Factor
• Applying Fourier analysis to the phase a current waveform

Current in valves
Id 1,3 and 5

Current in
phase (a)

RC Id The RMS value of the fundamental line current

2 3 1 6
+ IL = Id = Id
 2 
V0 cos  Vd
- 3VL I L cos  = Vd I d
1
Equivalent circuit representing operation of a cos  = cos  + cos ( +  ) 
bridge rectifier. Reactance per phase X () 2
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Inversion
• With rectifier operation the output current Id and output voltage Vd
are such that power is absorbed by a load.
Phase a b c

Vd 0
Time

α = 90º
Waveforms with operation with  = 90, direct voltage zero.
Transition from rectifier to inverter action
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Inversion
4a 6b 2c 4a

Id Ld

+ a 0
4 6 2 D t
By-pass C
(if requiered) c b B −Vd
1 3 5 Valve 3 A 5 1  3 5
 
Voltages
Bridge connection–inverter operation 
5 3
Id Current in
valves 1, 3 and 5
Time
4 6 2
Current in
valves 4,6,2
Time
Ia Current in
phase (a)
Time
Bridge connection–inverter voltage and current
waveforms
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Inversion 4a 6b 2c 4a

0
D t
C
B −Vd
Valve 3 A 5 1  3 5
 
Voltages

For inverter operation it is usual to replace the delay The angle () between the extinction of valve 1 and the
angle  by  =  - 180 point F, where the anode voltages are equal, is called
the extinction angle
V0
Id = cos  − cos  
2Rc
V0
−Vd = cos (180 −  ) + cos (180 −  ) 
2
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Inversion Id
RC

• Vd and the power factor: + +

V0
Vd =  cos  + cos  
2 Vd V0 cos 
1
cos  =  cos  + cos   (leading)
-
2 −
Equivalent circuit of inverter in terms of
• Finally the inverter operation is angle of advance, 
described by: Id
− RC

Vd = V0 cos  + I d Rc  + +

Vd = V0 cos  + I d Rc  Vd V0 cos 

- −
Equivalent circuit of inverter in terms of
extinction angle, 
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Complete Direct-Current Link
• Complete equivalent circuit for a DC transmission link under steady-
state operation
cr Id L ci Vdr − Vdi
Id =
+ + RL

Vdr Vdi V0 r cos  − V0 r cos 

Vor  .
.
.  Voi Id =
.
.
. RL + Rcr + Rci
- -
RL is the loop resistance of the line or cable, and Rcr and Rci
are the effective commutation resistances of the rectifier
and inverter, respectively.
3 2VL 3 L Constant 
Vd = cos  + Id
 
3 2VL 3 L Constant 
Vd = cos  − Id
 
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Control of HVDC Link
Converter A Converter B
3 phase 3 phase
Id

V Current V
Constant Phase transducer Phase Constant
extinction locked locked extinction
angle control oscillator oscillator angle control
Tap Tap
Id Id
Controller Controller
Constant Constant
current current
 control control 
 
Control for converter A Control for converter B

Schematic diagram of control of an HVDC system

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control

 Control of HVDC Link
Converter A acts as a rectifier and the optimum characteristic
Vd
Vd = V0 cos  − R I
• Full characteristics of
P
min cr d Y Q
Q
Constant δ control
the two converters of a
Z link are shown, with
constant-current
 is increased,
thus Vdr is reduced
each converter
(CC) CC Control
control
Vd = V0 cos  − Rcr I d
to maintain constant
current in the DC
operating as rectifier
A rectifier
link Idc = ctte. and inverter in turn.
B inverter Is • The thick line PQRST
A inverter
X R Id
Constant current represents the
B rectifier operation can still be
maintained by operation of Converter
 reaches 0 and Converter A
Vd = V0 cos  + Rci I d
decreasing the angle
of advance, . A.
operates in constant excitation
angle control
T
− Rci Id Converter A
S Vd = V0 cos  0 Converter B
V W Converter A acts as a inverter
and the optimum characteristic
Voltage-current characteristics of converters with compounding
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Control of HVDC Link
• Inverter and rectifier operation characteristics with constant-current
compounding.V d
Converter A operates as a rectifier and
Converter B operates as an inverter
P
Q
Z A
Inverter
X (Constant δ
control )
Y

Rectifier
(CC control)

S R

T B R
0 Im in Iorder Iorder Id
2
• The operating point is where the two characteristics intersect
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Transmission Systems
• Possible conductor arrangements for DC transmissions

Ground return

Vd

Two conductors, return earthed at one end

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Transmission Systems
• Bridge arrangement

+
Vd
-
+
Vd

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control

 Harmonic
17

16
• The direct-voltage output of a n=7
15
converter has a waveform containing
a harmonic content, which results in 14

current and voltage harmonics along

I7 as a % of fundamental I(1)
13
the line. 12
• These are normally reduced by a 11
smoothing inductor.
10 α = 80°
• The currents produced by the α = 40°
converter currents on the AC side 9
α = 30°
contain harmonics. 8
α = 20°
α = 10°
7
α = 10°
6

Variation of seventh harmonic current with delay angle 5

0 10 20 30 40
a and commutation angle. Angle of overlap ϒ (degrees)
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Filter Banks 230 kV
Coal Creek 499 kV
1250A
Dickinson
345 kV
Y/Y Y/Y

32.5 Mvar Y/D D/Y 31.5 Mvar

31.5 Mvar
34 Mvar

68 Mvar
57 Mvar
137 Mvar
Y/D D/Y

Y/Y Y/Y 31.5 Mvar

32.5 Mvar
499 kV
1250A

34 Mvar 31.5 Mvar

68 Mvar
57 Mvar
137 Mvar
68 Mvar
Single-line diagram of the main circuit of an HVDC scheme showing filter banks and shunt compensation
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Voltage Source Converter
• One-leg VSC
+ +
Vd Vd
2
- T1 T1 off
VAN T1 on
T2 off T2 on
A
O
Time
Vd
2
T2
+ VAO
Vd
2 Time
Vd
- N −
2
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 Voltage Source Converter
• Bridge VSC
+

T1 A T1B T1C

a
Vd b
c

T2 A T2B T2C

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control

 PMW Modulating signal
Frequency fm
Carrier signal
Frequency Fc
Amplitude Am Amplitude Ac

0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01

PWM waveform Fundamental

0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01
PWM waveform (only half a cycle is shown)
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 A five-level modular converter +
T14
+

Vd
2
T24
VAN Current Vd

Vd zero 2
T13
2 Vd
2
T23
Vd A
+
VAN
T12
Vd Vd
– –
− – N
2 2
T22
T23 on T23 on T23 on T21 on T21 on T21 on
T14 on T24 on T14 on T12 on T22 on T12 on
Vd
One possible switching sequence T11 −
2
Vd
2
T21
–
+
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control
 A five-level modular converter +
T14
+

Vd
4
T24
VAN Vd
Vd 2
T13
2 Vd
Vd 4
T23
4 Series
switch
T1
Vd
A
Vd
− T2 +
4 –
VAN
–
T12
Vd Vd – N
− 4
2 T13 on T23 on T23 on T11 on T21 on T21 on T22
T14 on T14 on T24 on T12 on T12 on T22 on
T1 on; T2 off T1 off T2 on −
Vd
T11 2
One possible switching sequence Vd
4
T21
– +

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control

 Control of VSC HVDC
• Active and reactive power
transfer to the grid is:

VacVVSC
+ P+jQ P= sin 
X I X
Vd VSC Vac VVSC cos  − Vac 
+ + Q=
– VVSC  Va.c 0 X
– –

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control

 Complete control system for VSC based HVDC
Vd1 Vd 2
VSC VSC
Va.c.2
Va.c.1 _ ref Va.c.1 Va.c.2 _ ref
+
-
Vd _ ref Vd _ ref
- -
+ +
Switching Switching
AC signals for signals for AC
Voltage Active and converter Active and Voltage
converter DC DC
cont rol reactive valves reactive cont rol
valves voltage voltage
power power
cont rol cont rol

Inner control Inner control

(current loops) (current loops)

Reactive Active Active Reactive

power power power power
cont rol cont rol cont rol cont rol

Qref 1 Pr ef 1 Pr ef 2 Qref 2

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control

 d-q controller for VSC HVDC

X
P,Q
Vd
Three-phase
voltages

PLL Three-phase
abc-dq currents
Switching signals
for converter valves
ψ

dq-abc abc-dq
DC d-axis q-axis Reac tive
Vd voltage Vd Vq power
control
current current
control
Q
Vd_ref control control
- -
+ +
- + + - + +
Id_ref Iq_re f Iq Id
Id
Decupling Decupling
Iq Qref
term s term s

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control

 Estabilidad y Compensacion
Electronica de Sistemas de
Potencia

Questions and Answers

Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt
Cuenca, Ecuador
Professor Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt Power System Stability and Control 6 Enero 2020 al 17 Enero 2020