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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Buchmann, Isidor, 1943–

Batteries in a portable world: a handbook on rechargeable batteries for non-engineers.

Fourth edition
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-9682118-4-7

1. Storage batteries. I. Cadex Electronics Inc. II. Title.

Printed in Canada
 he information in this book is provided for the
T benefit of all battery users. Batteries have become
our steady travel companion. They help us reach a friend,
allow us to work outside the confines of four walls, offer
entertainment when time permits and enable personal
transportation. But most importantly, batteries connect
humanity and support missions that help people in need.

dedicate this book to my five children and many

I grandchildren, who have a keen interest in batteries.
They understand the importance of clean power to
maintain freedom of mobility while protecting our
environment and reducing the dependence on fossil fuel.
They also want to pass our wonderful world to future
generations as God’s gift to us, well-sustained and
unspoiled by mankind.
Contents

With Special Thanks

Acknowledgments
Preface to the Fourth Edition
Introduction

Part One — Sharing Battery Knowledge

Chapter 1 – Crash Course on Batteries
When Was the Battery Invented?
Early Batteries
Invention of the Rechargeable Battery
Electricity Through Magnetism
Early Innovators
Global Battery Markets
Overview of Battery Types
Advancements in Batteries
Battery Breakthroughs: Myth or Fact?
Getting to Know the Battery
The Octagon Battery
Comparing the Battery with Other Power Sources
Battery Building Blocks
Battery Definitions
Primary Batteries
Choices of Primary Batteries
 Secondary Batteries

Chapter 2 – Battery Types

Lead-based Batteries
Sealed Lead Acid
Starter Battery
Deep-cycle Battery
Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM)
New Lead Acid Systems
Nickel-based Batteries
Nickel-cadmium (NiCd)
Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)
Nickel-iron (NiFe)
Nickel-zinc NiZn)
Nickel-hydrogen (NiH)
Lithium-based Batteries
Lithium-ion Architecture
Types of Lithium-ion Batteries
Lithium-polymer: Substance or Hype?
Cycling Performance
Nickel-cadmium
Nickel-metal-hydride
Lithium-ion
Alternate Battery Systems
Supercapacitor
Fuel Cell
Flow Battery
Sodium-sulfur
 Zinc-air
Silver-zinc
Reusable Alkaline
Future Batteries
Lithium-air (Li-air)
Lithium-metal (Li-metal)
Solid-state Lithium
Lithium-sulfur (Li-S)
Sodium-ion (Na-ion)

Chapter 3 – Packaging and Safety

A Look at Old and New Battery Formats
Cylindrical Cell
Button Cell
Prismatic Cell
Pouch Cell
Series and Parallel Connection
Confusion with Voltages
Protection Circuits
Intrinsically Safe Batteries
Safety Concerns with Li-ion
Making Lithium-ion Safe
Building a Lithium-ion Pack
Meeting Safety Approvals
Battery Components
Battery Separator
Electrolyte
Availability of Lithium
 Graphite
Cobalt
Battery Raw Materials

Chapter 4 – Charge Methods

All about Chargers
Types of Chargers
Ultra-fast Charging
What Is C-rate?
Charging Lead Acid
Watering
Equalizing Charge
How to Charge with a Power Supply
Battery as a Buffer
Charging Nickel-cadmium
Charging Nickel-metal-hydride
Charging Lithium-ion
Charging at High and Low Temperatures
Charging from a USB Port
Charging Without Wires
Charging with Solar, Turbine
How to Store Renewable Energy in a Battery
Charger Chips
How to Charge – When to Charge Table

Chapter 5 – Discharge Methods

Basics About Discharging
Depth of Discharge
What Constitutes a Discharge Cycle?
 Discharging at High and Low Temperatures
Discharge Characteristics of Li-ion
Discharge Signature
How to Calculate Battery Runtime
How to Verify Sufficient Battery Capacity

Chapter 6 – Smart Battery

Inner Workings of a Smart Battery
Single-wire Bus
System Management Bus
Fuel Gauge
Calibration
Processing Data from a Smart Battery

Part Two — You and the Battery

Chapter 7 – From Birth to Retirement
Caring for the Battery
How to Prime Batteries
How to Store Batteries
Health Concerns with Batteries
How to Transport Batteries
Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by Air
Packaging Instruction 965
Packaging Instructions 966 and 967
Packaging Instruction 968
Packaging Instruction 969 and 970
How to Recycle Batteries
Recycling Process
 Battery Recycling as a Business
Summary Table of Battery Do’s and Don’ts

Chapter 8 – How to Extend Battery Life

Setting Performance Standards
How to Rate Battery Runtime
How to Define Battery Life
Four Renegades of Battery Failure
Declining Capacity
Rising Internal Resistance
Elevated Self-discharge
End-of-discharge Voltage
Can Batteries Be Restored?
Cell Matching and Balancing
Shorted Cells
Loss of Electrolyte
How to Prolong Lead Acid Batteries
Corrosion, Shedding and Internal Short
Sulfation
Acid Stratification
Surface Charge
Additives
How Age Affects Capacity and Resistance
How Heat and Loading Affect Battery Life
How to Restore Nickel-based Batteries
Memory: Myth or Fact?
Effect of Zapping
How to Prolong Lithium-based Batteries
 What Causes Lithium-ion to Age?
What the User Can Do
How to Awaken an Over-discharged Li-ion
What Causes Lithium-ion to Die?
Coulombic Efficiency
Additives and the Effects on Coulombic Efficiency
How to Maximize Runtime of Mobile Phones
Aftermarket Batteries

Chapter 9 –Testing and Monitoring

Fundamentals in Battery Testing
How to Measure Internal Resistance
What Is Impedance?
DC Load Method
AC Conductance
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)
How to Measure CCA
How to Measure State-of-charge
Voltage Method
Hydrometer
Coulomb Counting
Impedance Spectroscopy
How to Measure Capacity
Testing Lead Acid
Testing Nickel-based Batteries
Testing Lithium-based Batteries
Battery Management System
Battery Sensing by Voltage-Current-Temperature
 Adding Capacity Estimations to the BMS
Battery Test Equipment
Battery Analyzer
Battery Test Systems
How to Repair a Battery Pack
How to Repair a Laptop Battery
How to Service Mobile Phone Batteries
How to Maintain Fleet Batteries

Part Three — Battery as Power Source

Chapter 10 – Amazing Value of the Battery
Batteries in Industry
Batteries for Traction
Batteries for Aviation
Batteries for Aerospace
Stationary Batteries
Grid Storage Batteries
Electric Powertrain
Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Electric Vehicle
Charging an Electric Vehicle
Fuel Cell Vehicles
Cost of Mobile and Renewable Power
Power from Primary Batteries
Power from Secondary Batteries
Power from Other Sources
 Net Calorific Value
Working Towards Sustainability
Glossary
Abbreviation / Conversion
Bibliography
Index
About the Author
About Cadex
Afterword — The Battery Paradox
With Special Thanks
Jeff Dahn | Professor of Physics and Chemistry, Dalhousie University
DAHN is recognized worldwide as a distinguished scientist in the field of
advanced lithium batteries. He is one of the pioneering developers of the
lithium-ion battery, has authored 610 refereed journal papers and has issued or
filed 65 patented inventions. According to the Electrochemical Society Interface,
Dahn is one of the most prolific authors in the Journal of the Electrochemical
Society and has one of the most-cited papers in the journal.
Dahn obtained his B.Sc. in physics from Dalhousie University (1978) and
earned his Ph.D. from the University of British Columbia in 1982. He then
worked at the National Research Council (NRC) of Canada (1982–85) and at
Moli Energy Limited (1985–1990) before taking up a faculty position in the
Physics Department at Simon Fraser University in 1990. He joined Dalhousie
University in 1996 as the NSERC/3M Canada Industrial Research Chair in
Materials for Advanced Batteries and was appointed Canada Research Chair in
2003.
Dahn has received numerous national and international awards, including
the Herzberg Medal, Canadian Association of Physicists; Battery Division
Research Award of the Electrochemical Society (1996) and the Battery Division
Technology Award (2011); NSERC University/Industry Synergy Award for
collaborative efforts with 3M Canada (2003) and the Medal for Excellence in
Teaching from the Canadian Association of Physicists. In 2015, Dahn entered an
exclusive agreement with Tesla Motors for a five-year partnership beginning in
June 2016.

Paul Craig | Director of Technology at E-One Moli Energy (Canada) Ltd.

CRAIG began his battery career in 1986 in the R&D department at Moli Energy,
where he designed equipment for manufacturing and testing of rechargeable
lithium batteries. As Senior Applications Engineer, he developed fuel gauges for
smart batteries and was responsible for specifying and approving batteries for
military, medical and commercial use. In his position as Director of Technology
he is a key interface between the battery industry and the R&D department.
Craig travels the world and devotes equal time to batteries for portable
applications and the electric vehicle. He provided invaluable resources for this
book, especially on manganese-based chemistries and user applications.

Jörn Tinnemeyer | Senior Director Energy Storage Systems, Teco Group

TINNEMEYER has contributed to this book on the electrical, chemical and
implicational side of the battery. He has won many prestigious awards, honors
and international research scholarships, but his main achievements are battery
rapid-test technologies to estimate state-of-health that secured five patents.
Today, these innovations are in commercial use and are known as Spectro™ and
QuickSort™. Tinnemeyer holds a degree from the University of Toronto in
mathematics and applied physics, completed graduate work in high-energy
physics at Simon Fraser University and earned a master’s degree in astronautics
and space engineering at Cranfield University in the UK.

Tina Shoa | Ph.D., Senior Research Engineer, Cadex Electronics Inc.

SHOA received her Ph.D. in electrical engineering from the University of British
Columbia (UBC) in the field of modeling and characterization of
electrochemical systems. She contributed to multi-dimensional modeling for
energy storage systems including batteries, fuel cells and polymer actuators and
sensors. She has won prestigious awards in the area of applied electrochemical
systems, received the NSREC industrial postdoctoral fellowship and completed
the postdoctoral program at Automotive Fuel Cell Cooperation (AFCC) as a
research scientist. Shoa has authored a book chapter and 15 peer-reviewed
articles in the areas of electro-chemical devices, served on the Graduate
Advisory Board at UBC and supervised graduate students in conducting research
in energy storage systems. With her research team, Shoa is studying new
products in battery management and diagnostics, including battery rapid-testing.

David Conn | Professor Emeritus of Electrical and Computer Engineering,

McMaster University

CONN received his Ph.D. degree from Queen’s University (1970) in the field of
Microwave Device Modelling where he introduced the concepts of State-Space-
Analysis to the microwave community. This technique allows the combination of
circuit and device modeling into one unified method of studying microwave
systems.
He conducted research and development in academia and played a
significant role in developing microwave solid state circuits while working in the
digital radio department of Bell-Northern Research. His research spanned the
areas from circuit applications to opto-electronic measurement systems. He was
later appointed an NSERC Research Chair at McMaster University where he
became Chair of the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department and an
Associate Member of the Engineering Physics Department.
Acknowledgments
he author thanks Cadex Electronics for sponsoring this book. The Cadex

T staff has been most supportive in providing discoveries from their

laboratories and sharing material that is of interest to battery users. Special
attention goes to the advancements in diagnostic technologies and rapid-testing
in particular.

The author also thanks Bill Campbell, John Bradshaw, David Conn and Deborah
Hutton for their dedicated editing and proofreading efforts. Special thanks go to
Ljuba Levstek for the line drawings in Chapter 1 and Corporate Graphics for
production assistance. No one is able to complete a book single-handedly and in
the end it’s the teamwork that adds quality and provides completeness.
Preface to the Fourth Edition
attery research is advancing at a rapid pace, which is a clear indication

B that the Super Battery has not yet been found but it might be just around
the corner. While today’s batteries satisfy most portable applications,
improvements are needed if this power source is to become a serious contender
for the electric vehicle.
The fourth edition of Batteries in a Portable World comes with much new
material. The first edition appeared in 1997 and the handy little book sold out
quickly. The larger second edition was published in 2001 and served public
safety, healthcare and defense industries, as well as esteemed hobbyists and
everyday battery users. The third edition was released in 2011; steady demand
prompted me to write this fourth edition.
There are no black and whites in batteries, only shades of gray. The battery
is a black box with a mind of its own: mystical and unexplainable. For some, the
battery causes no problems whatsoever; for others it’s nothing but a headache.
With so much hype about batteries, people want unbiased knowledge, not just
test data.
The material of this book is also on www.BatteryUniversity.com. The
website went live in 2003 and quickly gained popularity. Besides being a
teaching tool, it has become a social media network to exchange information
about your battery experience. Users’ input, in my opinion, is as important as
reams of laboratory test data. The critical mass speaks louder than the promises
made by device manufacturers, which cannot always be met.
Much effort is devoted to battery care, and it appears as if battery
diagnostics are stuck in medieval times. Let’s not blame our scientists for this;
the technology is complex. Also good care alone does not always show the
expected results. The often asked question, “How many cycles can I get out of
my battery if I do this?” has no quantitative answer. The reasons for the eventual
demise are multifold and have similarities with our own human frailty. We suffer
health issues even if we try to keep fit and eat our vegetables.
This book is written for the professional needing a basic understanding of
how a battery behaves, a student completing an essay, and a user wanting to get
the most out of a battery. The information comes from my battle-tested
experience working with batteries in the Cadex laboratories as well as from
research organizations and everyday battery users. I appreciate these
contributions; the results get filtered and receive a citation where appropriate.
There is no perfect battery and each pack is tailored for a given use.
Batteries in consumer products are optimized for long runtime, small size and
low cost; longevity is less important. Industrial batteries may have high load
capabilities and improved reliability, but the pack gets bulkier. A third variety
offers long service life and these packs are expensive.
All batteries have one thing in common: they run for a while, need
recharging and require an eventual replacement as the capacity fades. Battery
replacement comes often before retiring the host. The idea of an uninterrupted
energy source is still a pipedream.
Introduction
he word “battery” comes from the Old French word baterie, meaning

T “action of beating,” relating to a group of cannons in battle. In the

endeavor to find an energy storage device, scientists in the 1700s adopted the
term “battery” to represent multiple electrochemical cells connected together.
The battery consists of two electrodes that are isolated by a separator and
soaked in electrolyte to promote the movement of ions. New active materials are
being tried, each offering unique attributes but none delivering an ultimate
solution.
Improvements have been slow. Whereas Moore’s Law* doubled the number
of transistors in an integrated circuit every two years, capacity gain of lithium-
ion (Li-ion) has been about 8 percent per year in the last two decades.
Theoretical battery models reveal specific energy levels that are ten times higher
than the commercial equivalent. They remain theoretical, and these lofty goals
may never be achieved in real life.
The battery is a feeble vessel that is slow to fill, holds limited energy, runs
for a time like a wind-up toy, fades and eventually becomes a nuisance. It
exhibits human qualities in that it needs recuperation from the daily travails by
applying a long and restful charge. It then delivers for a time and quits on its
own terms. Some batteries need as much charging time as they deliver, and there
is a resemblance to growing teenagers. (I raised five.)
The lithium-ion family receives the most attention and is gradually
replacing the nickel-based predecessors that dominated the battery world until
the 1990s. Lead acid with its many warts and blemishes holds a solid position
for starter and standby batteries. No other system can meet its price and
robustness for now.
Li-ion is expensive but when calculating the price-per-cycle, it wins over
lead acid when repeat cycling is required. Basing calculations on cost per
kilowatt hour (kWh) no longer holds; operational costs must be considered. A
battery expert said that the switch from lead acid to Li-ion will be faster than the
advancement of the Internet.
We want to learn as much about batteries as possible, but this book
addresses only the most commonly used battery systems. My background is in
electrical, and I tackle batteries from the electrical side rather than studying
chemical reactions. I avoid formulas, and I back my material with practical and
hands-on field data.

_____________
* In 1965, Gordon Moore said that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit would double every two

years. The prediction became true and is being carried into the 21st century. Applied to a battery, Moore’s
Law would shrink a starter battery in a car to the size of a coin.
 Part One

Sharing Battery Knowledge



A battery behaves like a human being.

It senses the kindness provided and
delivers on the care and attention given.
 Chapter 1 | Crash Course on Batteries

When Was the Battery Invented?

One of the most remarkable and novel discoveries in the last 400 years was
electricity. We might ask, “Has electricity been around that long?” The answer is
yes, and perhaps much longer. Its practical use has only been at our disposal
since the mid to late 1800s, and in a limited way at first. Some of the earliest
public works gaining attention were streets lights in Berlin in 1882, lighting up
the Chicago World’s Fair in 1893 with 250,000 light bulbs, and illuminating a
bridge over the river Seine during the Paris 1900 World Fair.
The use of electricity may go back further. While constructing a railway in
1936 near Baghdad, workers uncovered what appeared to be a prehistoric
battery, also known as the Parthian Battery. The object dates back to the Parthian
empire and is believed to be 2,000 years old. The battery consisted of a clay jar
that was filled with a vinegar solution into which an iron rod surrounded by a
copper cylinder was inserted. This device produced 1.1 to 2.0 volts of electricity.
Figure 1-1 illustrates the Parthian Battery.
Figure 1-1: Parthian Battery.
A clay jar of a prehistoric battery holds an iron rod surrounded by a copper cylinder. When filled with
vinegar or an electrolytic solution, the jar produces 1.1 to 2 volts.

Not all scientists accept the Parthian Battery as a source of energy. It is

possible that the appliance was used for electroplating, adding a layer of gold or
other precious metals to a surface. The Egyptians are said to have electroplated
antimony onto copper over 4,300 years ago. Archeological evidence suggests
that the Babylonians were the first to discover and employ a galvanic technique
in the manufacturing of jewelry by using an electrolyte that was based on grape
juice to gold-plate stoneware. The Parthians who ruled Baghdad (247 BC–224
AD) may have utilized batteries to electroplate silver.
One of the earliest methods to generate electricity in modern times was by
creating a static charge. In 1660, Otto von Guericke constructed an electrical
machine featuring a large sulfur globe that, when rubbed and turned, attracted
feathers and small pieces of paper. Guericke proved that the sparks generated
were electrical in nature.
In 1744, Ewald Georg von Kleist developed the Leyden jar that stored static
charge in a glass jar that was lined with metallic foil on the inside and outside of
the container. Many scientists, including Peter van Musschenbroek, professor at
Leiden, the Netherlands, thought that electricity resembled a fluid that could be
captured in a bottle. They did not know that the two metallic foils formed a
capacitor. When charged up with high voltage, the Leyden jar gave the
gentlemen an unexplainable hefty shock when they touched the metallic foil.
The first practical use of static electricity was the “electric pistol” that
Alessandro Volta (1745–1827) invented. He wanted to provide long-distance
communications, albeit only one Boolean bit. An iron wire supported by wooden
poles was to be strung from Como to Milan, Italy. At the receiving end, the wire
would terminate in a jar filled with methane gas. To signal a coded event, an
electrical spark would be sent through the strung wire to detonate the jar. This
communications link was never built. Figure 1-2 shows a pencil rendering of
Alessandro Volta.
Figure 1-2: Alessandro Volta, inventor of the electric battery.
Volta’s discovery of the decomposition of water by an electrical current laid the foundation of
electrochemistry.

Courtesy of Cadex

In 1791, while working at Bologna University, Luigi Galvani discovered

that the muscle of a frog would contract when touched by a metallic object. This
phenomenon became known as animal electricity. Prompted by these
experiments, Volta initiated a series of experiments using zinc, lead, tin and iron
as negative plates; and copper, silver, gold and graphite as positive plates. The
interest in galvanic electricity soon became widespread.
Early Batteries
In 1800, Volta discovered that certain fluids would generate a continuous flow of
electrical power when used as a conductor. This led to the invention of the first
voltaic cell, more commonly known as the battery. Volta learned further that the
voltage would increase when voltaic cells were stacked on top of each other.
Figure 1-3 illustrates such a series connection.

Figure 1-3: Volta’s experiments with the electric battery in 1796. Metals in a battery have different
electron affinities. Volta noticed that the voltage potential of dissimilar metals became stronger the farther
apart the affinity numbers moved.
The first number in the metals listed below demonstrates the affinity to attract electrons; the second is the
oxidation state.
Zinc = 1.6 / –0.76 V
Lead = 1.9 / –0.13 V
Tin = 1.8 / –1.07 V
Iron = 1.8 / –0.04 V
Copper = 1.9 / 0.159 V
Silver = 1.9 / 1.98 V
Gold = 2.4 / 1.83 V
Carbon = 2.5 / 0.13 V
The metals determine the battery voltage; they were separated with moist paper soaked in salt water.
Courtesy of Cadex

In the same year, Volta released his discovery of a continuous source of

electricity to the Royal Society of London. No longer were experiments limited
to a brief display of sparks that lasted a fraction of a second; an endless stream of
electric current now seemed possible.
France was one of the first nations to officially recognize Volta’s
discoveries. This was during a time when France was approaching the height of
scientific advancements. New ideas were welcomed with open arms as they
helped to support the country’s political agenda. In a series of lectures, Volta
addressed the Institute of France. Napoleon Bonaparte participated in the
experiments, drawing sparks from the battery, melting a steel wire, discharging
an electric pistol and decomposing water into its elements (see Figure 1-4).
In 1800, Sir Humphry Davy, inventor of the miner’s safety lamp, began
testing the chemical effects of electricity and found out that decomposition
occurred when passing electrical current through substances. This process was
later called electrolysis.
He made new discoveries by installing the world’s largest and most
powerful electric battery in the vaults of the Royal Institution of London,
connecting the battery to charcoal electrodes. Witnesses reported that his so-
called voltaic arc lamp produced “the most brilliant ascending arch of light ever
seen.”
Figure 1-4: Volta’s experimentations at the Institute of France.
Volta’s discoveries so impressed the world that in November 1800, the Institute of France invited him to
lecture at events in which Napoleon Bonaparte participated. Napoleon helped with the experiments,
drawing sparks from the battery, melting a steel wire, discharging an electric pistol and decomposing water
into its elements.
Courtesy of Cadex

In 1802, William Cruickshank designed the first electric battery for mass
production. He arranged square sheets of copper with equal-sized sheets of zinc
placed into a long rectangular wooden box and soldered together. Grooves in the
box held the metal plates in position. The sealed box was then filled with an
electrolyte of brine, or watered-down acid. This resembled the flooded battery
that is still with us today. Figure 1-5 illustrates his battery workshop.
Figure 1-5: Cruickshank and the first flooded battery.
William Cruickshank, an English chemist, built a battery of electric cells by joining zinc and copper plates
in a wooden box filled with an electrolyte solution. The flooded design did not dry out with use and
provided more energy than Volta’s disc arrangement.
Courtesy of Cadex

Invention of the Rechargeable Battery

In 1836, John F. Daniell, an English chemist, developed an improved battery that
produced a steadier current than earlier attempts to store electrical energy. In
1859, the French physician Gaston Planté invented the first rechargeable battery
based on lead acid, a system that is still used today. Until then, all batteries were
primary, meaning they could not be recharged.
In 1899, Waldmar Jungner from Sweden invented the nickel-cadmium
(NiCd) battery that used nickel as the positive electrode (cathode) and cadmium
as the negative (anode). High material costs compared to lead limited its use.
Two years later, Thomas Edison replaced cadmium with iron, and this battery
was called nickel-iron (NiFe). Low specific energy (capacity), poor performance
at low temperature and high self-discharge limited the success of the nickel-iron
battery. It was not until 1932 that Schlecht and Ackermann achieved higher load
currents and improved the longevity of NiCd by inventing the sintered pole
plate. In 1947, Georg Neumann succeeded in sealing the cell.
For many years, NiCd was the only rechargeable battery for portable
applications. In the 1990s, environmentalists in Europe became concerned about
the harm incurred when NiCd is carelessly disposed. The Battery Directive
2006/66/EC now restricts the sale of NiCd batteries in the European Union
except for specialty industrial use for which no replacement is suitable. The
alternative is nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH), a more environmentally friendly
battery that is similar to NiCd.
Most research activities today revolve around improving lithium-based
systems, first commercialized by Sony in 1991. Besides powering cellular
phones, laptops, digital cameras, power tools and medical devices, Li-ion is also
used for electric vehicles and satellites. The battery has a number of benefits,
most notably its high specific energy, simple charging, low maintenance and
being environmentally benign.

Electricity Through Magnetism

Generating electricity through magnetism came relatively late. In 1820, André-
Marie Ampère (1775–1836) noticed that wires carrying an electric current were
at times attracted to, and at other times repelled from, one another. In 1831,
Michael Faraday (1791–1867) demonstrated how a copper disc provided a
constant flow of electricity while revolving in a strong magnetic field. Faraday,
assisting Humphry Davy and his research team, succeeded in generating an
endless electrical force as long as the movement between a coil and magnet
continued. This led to the invention of the electric generator, as well as the
electric motor by reversing the process.
Shortly thereafter, transformers were developed that converted alternating
current (AC) to any desired voltage. In 1833, Faraday established the foundation
of electrochemistry on which Faraday’s law is based. It relates to
electromagnetism found in transformers, inductors and many types of electrical
motors and generators. Once the relationship with magnetism was understood,
large generators were built to produce a steady flow of electricity. Motors
followed that enabled mechanical movement and Thomas Edison’s light bulb
appeared to conquer darkness.
Figure 1-6: Nikola Tesla (1856–1943).
Serbian-American physicist, inventor and engineer best known for alternating current supply systems and
rotating magnetic fields.

Early electrical plants produced direct current (DC) with distribution

limitations from the plant of no more than 3km (~2 miles) in distance. In around
1886, the Niagara Falls Power Company offered $100,000 for a method to
transmit electricity over a long distance. When no one responded, the world’s
brightest minds met in London, England. The prize was eventually given to
Nikola Tesla (1856–1943), a Serbian immigrant who created the AC
transmission system.
DC systems run on low voltage and require heavy wires; AC could be
transformed to higher voltages for transmission over light wires and then
reduced for use. Older folks supported DC while younger geniuses gravitated
towards AC. Thomas Edison was dead set against AC, giving danger by
electrocution as a reason.
The disagreement continued, but AC became the accepted norm that was
also supported by Europe. George Westinghouse, an American inventor and
manufacturer, began developing the Tesla system to the displeasure of Thomas
Edison.
In 1883, Westinghouse created a lighting system for Niagara Falls using AC
current and to everyone’s amazement lit up the Chicago World’s Fair in 1893.
Westinghouse then built three large generators to transform energy from the
Niagara Falls to electricity. Three-phase AC technology developed by Tesla
enabled the transmission of electric power over great distances cheaply.
Electricity was thus made widely available to humanity to improve the quality of
life.
Telecommunications by wire strung along railways operated mostly by
primary batteries that needed frequent replacement. Telex, an early means to
transmit data, was digital in that the batteries activated a series of relays. The
price to send a message was based on the number of relay clicks required.
 In the mid-1800s, telegraphy opened new careers for bright young men.
Staff operating these devices moved into the growing middle class, far removed
from mills and mines burdened with labor, dirt and danger. Steel magnate
Andrew Carnegie recalled his early days as a telegraphy messenger; Alfred
Hitchcock started his career as an estimator before becoming an illustrator.
The invention of the electronic vacuum tube in the early 1900s formed the
significant next step towards high technology. It enabled frequency oscillators,
signal amplifications and digital switching. This led to radio broadcasting in the
1920s and the first digital computer, called ENIAC, in 1946. The invention of
the transistor in 1947 paved the way for the arrival of the integrated circuit 10
years later, and the microprocessor that ushered in the Information Age. This
forever changed the way we live and work.

Early Innovators
Inventions are well documented and credit goes to the dignified inventors.
Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) invented the Franklin stove, bifocal eyeglasses
and the lightning rod. He was unequaled in American history as an inventor until
Thomas Edison emerged.
Edison was a good businessman who may have taken credit for earlier
discoveries others had made. Contrary to popular belief, Edison did not invent
the light bulb; he improved on a 50-year-old idea by using a small, carbonized
filament lit up in a better vacuum. In the end, it was Edison who gained financial
reward by making the concept commercially viable.
The phonograph is another invention for which Edison is credited, rightly
or wrongly. The cylinder phonograph introduced in 1877 recorded and played
back sound. He envisioned this invention becoming a business machine,
eventually eliminating the written letter, but the public wanted to play music.
Making multiple copies for sale from a cylinder posed a problem as a tenor
needed to sing into 10 flaring horns to produce simultaneous recording.
It was Emile Berliner who initiated the transition from cylinders to discs to
enable mass production — and the gramophone was born. Master recordings
were made on zinc plates that were electroplated, and a negative image was
prepared to stamp multiple discs. Berliner records were 7 inches (177mm) in
diameter and played for 2 minutes per side, running at 60–70 rpm.
The gramophones of 1896 were made by Philadelphia machinist Eldridge
Johnson, who added a spring motor to drive the previously hand-rotated
turntable. Berliner discs produced a louder sound than the Edison cylinders and
the popularity of the gramophone grew. Berliner transferred his patents to
Johnson, and the Victor Talking Machine Company was formed, also known as
His Master’s Voice. Much to Edison’s surprise and annoyance, gramophone
records became a hot consumer item as folks wanted to “own” recorded music
from famous artists such as tenor Caruso. (Phonograph refers to “word”;
gramophone is a trademark for a record player.)
Thomas Edison may be the best remembered inventor in the USA, but he
lost out to Tesla’s AC over DC as the electric power source, the Berliner
gramophone disc over the cylindrical recording system, and lead acid over his
much promoted nickel-iron battery for the electric vehicle. Nevertheless, Edison
grew wealthy and lived in a mansion while Tesla struggled financially. None of
the companies that Tesla started survived, while Edison’s businesses
amalgamated into the mighty General Electric in 1892. Edison was also
connected with other well-known people in the industry, such as George
Eastman, the founder of Kodak. This may be the reason for the many high-
quality photos of these two fine gentlemen.
Countries often credit their own citizens for having made important
inventions, whether deserved or not. When visiting museums in Europe, the
USA and Japan, one sees such bestowment. The work to develop the car, x-ray
machines, telephones, broadcast radio, TV and computers might have been done
in parallel, not knowing of others’ advancements at that time, and the rightful
inventor is often not clearly known or identified.
Similar uncertainties exist with the invention of new battery systems, and
we give respect to research teams and organizations rather than individuals.
Table 1-7 summarizes battery advancements and lists inventors when available.
Table 1-7: History of modern battery development. No new major battery system has entered the
commercial market since the invention of Li-phosphate in 1996.

Global Battery Markets

According to The Freedonia Group, a Cleveland-based industry research firm,
the world demand for primary and secondary batteries is forecasted to grow by
7.7 percent annually, amounting to US$120 billion in 2019. The real growth lies
in secondary (rechargeable) batteries and according to Frost & Sullivan,
secondary batteries account for 76.4 percent of the global market, a number that
is expected to increase to 82.6 percent in 2015. The demand is driven by mobile
phones and tablets. Earlier estimations over-estimated the demand for electric
vehicles and the figures have since been adjusted downwards.
In 2009, primary batteries made up 23.6 percent of the global market, and
Frost & Sullivan predicted a 7.4 percent decline by 2015. Non-rechargeable
batteries are used in watches, electronic keys, remote controls, toys, flashlights,
beacons and military devices in combat.

Overview of Battery Types

Batteries are classified by chemistry, and the most common are lithium-, lead-,
and nickel-based systems. Figure 1-8 illustrates the distribution of these
chemistries. At a 37 percent revenue share, Li-ion is the battery of choice for
portable devices and the electric powertrain. There are no other systems that
threaten its dominance today.

Figure 1-8: Revenue by battery chemistries.

37% Lithium-ion
20% Lead acid, starter battery
15% Alkaline, primary
8% Lead acid, stationary
6% Zinc-carbon, primary
5% Lead acid, deep-cycle
3% Nickel-metal-hydride
3% Lithium, primary
2% Nickel-cadmium
1% Other
Source: Frost & Sullivan (2009)

Lead acid stands its ground as being a robust and economical power source
for bulk use. Even though Li-ion is making inroads into the lead acid market, the
demand for lead acid batteries is still growing. The applications are divided into
starter batteries for automotive, also known as SLI (20%), stationary batteries for
power backup (8%), and deep-cycle batteries for wheeled mobility (5%) such as
golf cars, wheelchairs and scissor lifts.
High specific energy and long storage have made alkaline more popular
than the old zinc- carbon, which Georges Leclanché invented in 1868. Nickel-
metal-hydride (NiMH) continues to hold an important role as it replaces
applications previously served by nickel-cadmium (NiCd). However, at a 3
percent market share and declining, NiMH is becoming a minor player.
An emerging battery usage is the electric powertrain for personal
transportation. Battery cost, longevity and environmental issues dictate how
quickly the automotive sector will adopt this new propulsion system. Fossil fuel
is cheap, convenient and readily available; alternative modes face stiff
opposition, especially in North America. Government incentives may be needed,
but such intervention distorts the true energy cost, shields underlying problems
with fossil fuel and serves select lobby groups with short-term solutions. (See
“Electric Powertrain” on page 305.)
New markets that further boost battery growth are the electric bicycle and
storage systems for renewable energy, from which homeowners, businesses and
developing nations are benefiting. Large grid storage batteries collect surplus
energy during high activity and bridge the gap when the input is low or when
user demand is heavy. (See “Grid Storage Batteries” on page 304.)

Advancements in Batteries
Batteries are advancing on two fronts, reflecting in increased specific energy for
longer runtimes and improved specific power for high-current load requirements.
Improving one characteristic of the battery may not automatically strengthen the
other and there is often a compromise. Figure 1-9 illustrates the relationship
between specific energy in Wh/kg and specific power in W/kg.

Figure 1-9: Specific energy and specific power of rechargeable batteries.

Specific energy is the capacity a battery can hold in watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg), and specific power is
the battery’s ability to deliver power in watts per kilogram (W/kg).

The best performing battery in terms of specific energy and specific power
is the secondary lithium-metal (Li-metal). An early version was introduced in the
1980s by then Moli Energy, but instability with metallic lithium on the anode
prompted a recall in 1991. Solid lithium tends to form metal filaments, or
dendrites, that cause short circuits. Further attempts to solve this problem by
other companies ended in discontinuing the developments.
The unique qualities of Li-metal are prompting manufacturers to revisit this
powerful chemistry. Taming the dendrites and achieving the desired safety
standard may be achieved by mixing metallic lithium with tin and silicon.
Graphene is also being tried as part of an improved separator. Graphene is a thin
layer of pure carbon with a thickness of one atom bonded together in a
hexagonal honeycomb. (See “Graphite” on page 119.) Multi-layer separators that
prevent the penetration of dendrites have also been tried. New experimental Li-
metal batteries achieve 300Wh/kg and higher. This is of special interest for the
electric vehicle.

Battery Breakthroughs: Myth or Fact?

The battery is increasingly promoted as a green energy solution to liberate
society from the dependency of fossil fuel. While this is noble and right, the
battery has not yet matured to assume this vital task. Pushing the boundaries of
the battery reminds us of its many limitations by being an electrochemical power
source that is slow to fill, holds limited energy, runs for a time like a wind-up
toy, and has a short life span of only a few hundred cycles before it becomes a
nuisance.
In an age where surprise developments flash before our eyes almost daily,
the battery seems slow in maturing. Improvements achieved since the
commercialization of lithium-ion in 1991 by Sony are pale compared to the vast
advancements made in microelectronics. Compared to Moore’s Law, where the
number of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles every two years, Li-ion
only gained 8 percent capacity per year during the last two decades. This has
slowed to 5 percent, but the good news is a cost reduction of 8 percent per year.
Progress is being made but not without roadblocks. Lithium-air, proposed in
the 1970s with a theoretical specific energy resembling gasoline, has been
delayed due to stability and air-purity issues as the battery “breathes” oxygen
from the air. The promising lithium-metal introduced in the 1980s still grows
dendrites, leading to possible violent events if an electrical short develops.
Lithium-sulfur may be close to commercialization, but scientists must still
resolve the short cycle life. The redox-flow battery promises to be an alternative
for large battery systems by pumping fluids from external tanks through a
membrane that resembles a battery, but the system suffers from corrosion.
There is a glimmer of hope to increase the energy density of Li-ion by
coating the anode with graphene, a layer that is only one atom thick. This is said
to quadruple the energy. Emerging battery technologies take four years to
commercialize, and there are no heavy lifters.
The Joint Centre for Energy Storage Research (JCESR) is more optimistic;
they gathered the brightest minds from US national laboratories, universities and
private enterprises to improve the battery. With a grant of $120 million from the
US Department of Energy, JCESR wants to develop a battery that is “five times
more powerful and five times cheaper in five years.” They call this the 5-5-5
Plan, which should get a boost by throwing a ton of money at it.
Toyota is also in the race for a new battery, calling it the “Sakichi battery”
after Sakichi Toyoda, the inventor of Japan’s power loom. (The surname Toyoda
is spelled with a d.) Sakichi Toyoda is often called the father of the Japanese
industrial revolution, and it is said that in 1925 he promised a yet-to-be-claimed
prize of 1 million yen for a storage battery that produces more energy than
gasoline. To qualify, the Sakichi battery must also be durable and quick to
charge. The prize has not yet been claimed.
Consumers are generally satisfied with battery performance in portable
devices, but the electric vehicle (EV) has a higher demand; cost and endurance
will determine the long-term success. It’s as if the EV sets the threshold for how
far the battery can go.
It makes little sense to use batteries to propel trains, ocean-going ships and
large airplanes. Batteries are simply too heavy. If all engines and the fuel in an
aircraft were to be replaced with batteries, the flight would last under 10 minutes
before the fuel would be exhausted. Competing against fossil fuel with a net
calorific value that is 100 times higher than the battery is a challenge. (See “Net
Calorific Value” on page 326.) Conversely, petroleum cannot match the battery,
which is clean, quiet, small, and has an immediate start-up with the flick of a
switch.

Getting to Know the Battery

Nature offers many ways to produce power. Most result through combustion,
mechanical movement and photosynthesis, as in a solar cell. Electrical energy
generation of the battery develops by an electrochemical reaction between two
metals of different affinities. When exposed to acids, a voltage develops between
the metals as part of ion transfer; closing the circuit induces a current. In 1800,
inventor Alessandro Volta discovered that the voltage potential became stronger
the farther apart the affinity numbers moved.
The simplest manifestation of a battery is a lemon. Driving a zinc-plated
nail and a copper coin into a lemon creates a voltage, but this quasi battery does
not deliver much power. Any electrical load causes the voltage to collapse and to
light an incandescent flashlight bulb, 500 lemons are needed. The energy does
not come from the lemon itself but from the chemical change in dissolving zinc
into the acid or lemon juice. Figure 1-10 illustrates the lemon battery.

Figure 1-10: Lemon battery.

The experiment is often used for educational purposes. The electrodes are zinc in the form of a galvanized
nail and copper in a coin. The lemon juice acts as electrolyte to induce a chemical reaction.
Standard potential of zinc = –0.76
Standard potential of copper = 0.34
Cell potential with conducting path = 1.10V

Elements with the greatest negative electrode potential serve as cathodes;

those with the highest positive potential assist as anodes. The difference between
the electrodes provides the terminal voltage. For a rechargeable battery to be
practical, the chemical reactions between the elements must be reversible. To
complicate matters further, chemical reactions between compounds cannot
consume the active chemicals, and this limits the pool of suitable electrodes.
Multiplying the voltage by the current provides power. Power is measured
in watts in honor of James Watt, the 18th-century developer of the steam engine.
The amount of energy a battery can store is expressed in watt-hours (Wh).
All energy sources have limitations, and power must be harnessed carefully
so as not to cause an overload. An analogy is a bicycle rider (Figure 1-11) who
chooses the best gear ratio to transfer power into propulsion. On a flat road, a
high gear provides high speed with moderate pedal torque simulating high
voltage. Climbing a hill, the pedal torque increases while the speed decreases.
This, in our analogy, results in a lower voltage and higher current. The pedal
force the rider exerts relates to torque in newton meter (Nm); the endurance
before exhaustion defines energy in watt-hours (Wh).

Figure 1-11: Analogy of a bicycle rider.

Energy is the product of power and time, measured in watt-hours (Wh); power is the flow of energy at any
one time, measured in watts (W).

A battery is rated in ampere-hours (Ah). This specifies how much charge a

pack can hold. Like fluid in a container, the energy can be dispensed slowly over
a long period of time or rapidly in a short time. The amount of liquid a container
holds is analogous to the energy in a battery; how quickly the liquid is dispensed
is analogous to power.
The physical dimensions are specified by volume in liters (l) and kilograms
(kg). Adding dimension and weight provides specific energy in Wh/kg, power
density in W/l and specific power in W/kg. Most batteries are rated in Wh/kg,
revealing how much energy a given weight can generate. Wh/l denotes watt-
hours per liter. (See “Battery Definitions” on page 35.)
Batteries are custom-fit for a specific use, and manufacturers are well in
tune with customer needs. Mobile phone and EV markets are examples of clever
adaptations at opposite extremes. While batteries for consumer products
emphasize small size, high specific energy and low cost, industrial batteries
strive for reliable performance and long life. Safety in all applications is of
utmost importance.

The Octagon Battery

A battery has some of the most stringent requirements and is on par with
complex pharmaceutical products for which one change can have multiple side
effects. To make a battery viable as an electric storage device, eight basic
requirements must be met and a battery is fittingly called the octagon battery
(Figure 1-12). The eight key elements to a working battery are as follows.
Figure 1-12: Octagon battery.
So-called because of the eight critical requirements needed to achieve basic function. Many new arrivals
claim to meet or exceed some prerequisites but fail in others, limiting market acceptance.
Courtesy of Cadex

1. High specific energy

A key feature in consumer products is long runtime, and device
manufacturers achieve this by building batteries with high ampere-hours
(Ah). The term lithium-ion is synonymous with a high specific energy.
This does not mean that all Li-ion batteries have high Ah ratings. While
the Energy Cell in an 18650 package can have 250Ah/kg, the same
chemistry in a Power Cell is 150Ah/kg or less, and a long-life Li-ion for
the powertrain is as low as 60Ah/kg. Furthermore, consumer NiMH has
about 90Ah/kg compared to a 45Ah/kg for long-life units in the electric
powertrain, 45Ah/kg being almost par with lead acid.
2. High specific power
Batteries made for power tools and electric powertrains provide high
load capabilities but the specific energy is low.
3. Affordable price
Materials, refining processes, manufacturing, quality control and cell
matching add cost to battery manufacturing; volume production only
assists in part to reduce costs. Single cell use in mobile phones when no
cell matching is required also lowers costs.
4. Long life
Nowhere is longevity more important than in large, expensive battery
packs. If the battery life of the electric car could be extended from the
 anticipated 8–10 years to 20 years, driving an EV could be justified even
if the initial investment is high. Longevity does not depend on battery
design alone but also on how the battery is used. Adverse temperature,
fast charge times and harsh discharge conditions stress the battery.
5. Safe usage
Lithium-based batteries can be built with high specific energy, but these
systems are often reactive and unstable. Nickel-based Li-ion is such an
example, so is metallic lithium. Most manufacturers stopped production
of these systems because of safety issues. When used correctly, brand-
name Li-ion is very safe.
6. Wide operating range
Batteries perform best at room temperature as cold temperatures slow
the electrochemical reaction of all batteries. Li-ion cannot be charged
below freezing, and heating blankets are often added to facilitate
charging. High heat shortens battery life and compromises safety.
7. Low toxicity
Cadmium- and mercury-based batteries have been replaced with
alternative metals for environmental reasons. Authorities in Europe are
attempting to ban lead acid, but no economical replacement of similar
performance is available. Nickel- and lithium-based batteries contain
little toxic material, but they still pose a hazard if disposed carelessly.
8. Fast charging
Lithium- and nickel-based batteries should be charged at 1C or slower
(See “What Is C-rate” on page 131.) At 1C, a nickel-based battery fully
charges in about 90 minutes and Li-ion in 2–3 hours. Lead acid cannot
be fast charged and the charge time is 8–16 hours. Fast charge times are
possible for nickel and lithium, but the batteries must be built for it, be in
good condition and be charged at room temperature. Aged and
mismatched cells do not lend themselves to fast charging. Any charge
above 1C causes undue stress, especially on the Energy Cell, and this
should be avoided. (See “Ultra-fast Charging” on page 129.) NiCd is the
only battery that accepts ultra-fast charge with minimal stress.
In addition to the eight basic requirements of the octagon battery, a battery
must have low self-discharge to allow long storage and provide an instant start-
up when needed. All batteries have self-discharge, and the loss increases with
temperature and age. Secondary batteries have a higher self-discharge rate than
the primary equivalent. A further requirement is a long shelf life with little
performance degradation. A battery is perishable, and like a food product it is
only good for a time. While alkaline batteries can be stored for 10 years and still
provide 70 percent charge, secondary batteries permanently lose capacity with
age, even if not used.

Comparing the Battery with Other Power Sources

One hears of wonderful improvements in battery technologies, each offering
distinct benefits, but none providing a fully satisfactory solution to all of today’s
energy needs. Though the battery has many advantages over other energy
sources, it also has major limitations that need addressing.
Energy storage
Batteries store energy reasonably well and for a long time. Primary batteries
(non-rechargeable) hold more energy than secondary (rechargeable) and self-
discharge is lower. Lead-, nickel- and lithium-based batteries need periodic
recharges to compensate for lost energy.
Specific energy (capacity)
Compared to fossil fuel, the energy storage capability of the battery is less
impressive. The energy by mass of gasoline is over 12,000Wh/kg. In contrast a
modern Li-ion battery carries only about 200Wh/kg. However, the battery has
the advantage of delivering energy more effectively than a thermal engine.
Responsiveness
Batteries have a large advantage over other power sources by being ready to
deliver on short notice — think of the quick action of the camera flash! There is
no warm-up, as is the case with the internal combustion engine (ICE); battery
power flows within a fraction of a second. In comparison, a jet engine takes
several seconds to rev up, a fuel cell requires a few minutes to gain power, and
the cold steam engine of a locomotive needs hours to build up steam.
Power bandwidth
Most rechargeable batteries have a wide power bandwidth, meaning that they
can effectively handle small and large loads, a quality that is shared with the
diesel engine. In comparison, the bandwidth of the fuel cell is narrow and works
best within a specific load. So does the jet engine, which operates most
efficiently at a defined revolution-per-minute (RPM).
Environment
The battery runs clean and stays reasonably cool. Most sealed cells have no
vents, run quietly and do not vibrate. This is in sharp contrast with the ICE and
large fuel cells that require compressors and cooling fans. The ICE also needs air
intake and provision to exhaust toxic gases.
Efficiency
The battery is highly efficient. Li-ion has 99 percent charge efficiency, and the
discharge loss is small. In comparison, the energy efficiency of the fuel cell is
20–60 percent, and the ICE is 25–30 percent. At optimal air intake speed and
temperature, the GE90-115 on the Boeing 777 jetliner achieves an efficiency of
37 percent. (The charge efficiency of a battery is connected with the ability to
accept charge. See also “Coulombic Efficiency” on page 255.)
Installation
The sealed battery operates in any position and offers good shock and vibration
tolerance. Most ICEs must be positioned in the upright position and mounted on
shock-absorbing dampers to reduce vibration. Thermal engines also need an air
intake manifold and an exhaust muffler.
Operating cost
Lithium- and nickel-based batteries are best suited for portable devices; lead acid
batteries are economical for wheeled mobility and stationary applications. Price
and weight make batteries impractical for the electric powertrain in larger
vehicles. The cost of drawing energy from a battery is about three times higher
than getting it off the AC grid. The calculation includes the cost of the battery,
charging it from the grid and budgeting for an eventual replacement. (See “Cost
of Mobile Power” on page 321.)
Maintenance
With the exception of watering of flooded lead batteries and exercising NiCds to
prevent “memory,” rechargeable batteries are low maintenance. Service includes
cleaning the corrosion buildup on the outside terminals and applying periodic
performance checks.
Service life
The rechargeable battery has a relatively short service life and ages even if not in
use. The 3- to 5-year lifespan is satisfactory for consumer products, but this is
not acceptable for larger batteries. Hybrid and electric vehicle batteries are
guaranteed for 8–10 years; the fuel cell delivers 2,000–5,000 hours of service,
and depending on temperature, large stationary batteries are good for 5–20 years.
Temperature extremes
Like molasses, cold temperatures slow the electrochemical reaction and batteries
do not perform well below freezing. The fuel cell shares the same problem, but
the internal combustion engine does well once warmed up. Fast charging must
always be done above freezing. Operating at a high temperature provides a
performance boost, but this causes rapid aging due to added stress.
Charge time
Here, the battery has an undisputed disadvantage. Lithium- and nickel-based
systems take 1–3 hours to charge; lead acid typically takes 14 hours. In
comparison, filling up a vehicle with fuel takes only a few minutes. Although
some electric vehicles can be charged to 80 percent in less than one hour on a
high-power outlet, Li-ion batteries get stressed on ultra-fast charges.
Disposal
Nickel-cadmium and lead acid batteries contain hazardous material and cannot
be disposed of in landfills. Nickel-metal-hydride and lithium systems are
environmentally friendly and can in small quantities be included with regular
household items, but authorities recommend that all batteries be recycled.

Battery Building Blocks

An electrochemical battery consists of a cathode, an anode and electrolyte that
acts as a catalyst. When charging, a buildup of electrons forms on the cathode,
creating a voltage potential between the cathode and the anode. Release is by a
passing current from the positive cathode through an external load and back to
the negative anode. On charge, the current flows in the other direction.
A battery has two separate pathways; one is the electric circuit through
which electrons flow, feeding the load, and the other is the path where ions move
between the electrodes though the separator that acts as an insulator for
electrons. Ions are atoms that have lost or gained electrons and have become
electrically charged. The separator electrically isolates the electrodes but allows
the movement of ions.
Anode and Cathode
The electrode of a battery that releases electrons during discharge is called the
anode; the electrode that absorbs the electrons is the cathode.

Battery symbol.
The cathode of a battery is positive; the anode is negative.

The battery anode is always negative and the cathode is positive. This
seems to violate the convention as the anode is the terminal into which current
flows. A vacuum tube, diode or a battery on charge follows this convention;
however, taking power away from a battery on discharge turns the anode into
negative. Since the battery is an electric storage device providing energy, the
designation does not change between charging and discharging. The battery
anode is always negative.
Tables 1-13a, b, c and d summarize the components of lead-, nickel- and
lithium-based secondary batteries, including the primary alkaline.
Table 1-13a: Composition of lead acid.

Table 1-13b: Composition of NiMH and NiCd.

Table 1-13c: Composition of Li-ion.

Table 1-13d: Composition of primary alkaline battery.

Electrolyte and Separator

Ion flow is made possible with an activator called the electrolyte. In a flooded
battery system, the electrolyte moves freely between the inserted electrodes; in a
sealed cell, the electrolyte is normally added to the separator in a moistened
form. The separator segregates the anode from the cathode, forming an isolator
for electrons but allowing ions to pass through. (See “Battery Separator” on page
114 and “Electrolyte” both on page 116.)

Battery Definitions
Batteries are specified by three main characteristics: chemistry, voltage and
specific energy (capacity). A starter battery also provides cold cranking amps
(CCA), which relates to the ability to provide high current at cold temperatures.
Chemistry: The most common battery chemistries are lead, nickel and lithium,
and each system needs a designated charger. Charging a battery on a
charger designed for a different chemistry may appear to work at first but
might fail to terminate the charge correctly. Observe the chemistry when
shipping and disposing of batteries as each chemistry has a different
regulatory requirement.
Voltage: Batteries are marked with nominal voltage; however, the open circuit
voltage (OCV) on a fully charged battery is 5–7 percent higher. Chemistry
and the number of cells connected in series provide the OCV. The closed
circuit voltage (CCV) is the operating voltage. Always check for the correct
nominal voltage before connecting a battery.
Capacity: Capacity represents specific energy in ampere-hours (Ah). Ah is the
discharge current a battery can deliver over time. You can install a battery
with a higher Ah than specified and get a longer runtime; you can also use a
slightly smaller pack and expect a shorter runtime. Chargers have some
tolerance as to Ah rating (with same voltage and chemistry); a larger battery
will simply take longer to charge than a smaller pack, but the Ah
discrepancy should not exceed 25 percent. European starter batteries are
marked in Ah; North America uses Reserve Capacity (RC). RC reflects the
discharge time in minutes at a 25A discharge. (See “Reserve Capacity” in
the Glossary on page 337.)
Cold cranking amps (CCA): Starter batteries, also known as SLI (starter light
ignition) are marked with CCA. The number indicates the current in ampere
that the battery can deliver at –18°C (0°F). American and European norms
 differ slightly. (See definitions and specifications of BCI, DIN, IEC norms
starting on page 340 under “Abbreviation / Conversion.” See also “How to
Measure CCA” on page 268.)
Specific energy and energy density: Specific energy, or gravimetric energy
density, defines battery capacity in weight (Wh/kg); energy density, or
volumetric energy density, reflects volume in liters (Wh/l). Products
requiring long runtimes at moderate load are optimized for high specific
energy; the ability to deliver high current loads can be ignored.
Specific power: Specific power, or gravimetric power density, indicates loading
capability. Batteries for power tools are made for high specific power and
come with reduced specific energy (capacity). Figure 1-14 illustrates the
relationship between specific energy (water in bottle) and specific power
(spout opening).

Figure 1-14: Relationship between specific energy and specific power.

The water in the bottle represents specific energy (capacity); the spout pouring the water governs specific
power (loading).
A battery can have high specific energy but poor specific power as is the case with the alkaline battery, or
low specific energy but high specific power as with the supercapacitor.
C-rate: The C-rate specifies the speed a battery is charged or discharged. At 1C,
the battery charges and discharges at a current that is on par with the
marked Ah rating. At 0.5C, the current is half and the time is doubled, and
at 0.1C the current is one-tenth and the time is 10-fold. (More in “What Is
C-rate?” on page 131.)
Load: A load defines the current that is drawn from the battery. Internal battery
resistance and depleting state-of-charge (SoC) cause the voltage to drop
under load, triggering end of discharge. Power relates to current delivery
measured in watts (W); energy is the physical work over time measured in
watt-hours (Wh).
Watts and Volt-amps (VA): Watt is real power that is being metered; VA is the
apparent power that is affected by a reactive load. On a purely resistive
load, watt and VA readings are alike; a reactive load such as an inductive
motor or fluorescent light causes a phase shift between voltage and current
that lowers the power factor (pf) from the ideal one (1) to 0.7 or lower. The
sizing of electrical wiring and the circuit breakers must be based on VA
power.

Primary Batteries
Primary batteries, also known as non-rechargeable batteries, tend to get
overshadowed by the media attention secondary or rechargeable batteries
receive. Heavy focus on one product over another may convince folks that
primary batteries are old technology on the way out. Not so.
Primaries play an important role, especially when charging is impractical or
impossible, such as in military combat, rescue missions and forest-fire services.
Regulated under IEC 60086, primary batteries also service pacemakers in heart
patients, tire pressure gauges in vehicles, smart meters, intelligent drill bits in
mining, animal-tracking, remote light beacons, as well as wristwatches, remote
controls, electric keys and children’s toys.
Most implantable pacemaker batteries are lithium-based, draw only10–20
microamperes (µA) and last 5–10 years. Many hearing aid batteries are also
primary with a capacity from 70–600mAh, good for 5–14 days before a
replacement is needed. The rechargeable version offers less capacity per size and
lasts for about 20 hours. Cost-saving is the major advantage.
High specific energy, long storage times and instant readiness give primary
batteries a unique advantage. They can be carried to remote locations and used
instantly, even after long storage; they are also readily available and
environmentally friendly when disposed.
The most popular primary battery is alkaline. It has a high specific energy
and is cost effective, environmentally friendly and leak-proof even when fully
discharged. Alkaline can be stored for up to 10 years, has a good safety record
and can be carried on an aircraft without being subject to UN Transport and
other regulations. The negative is low load currents, limiting its use to light loads
such as remote controls, flashlights and portable entertainment devices.
Moving into higher capacities and better loading leads to lithium-metal
batteries. These have very strict air shipping guidelines and are subject to
Dangerous Good Regulations involving Class 9 hazardous material. Figure 1-15
compares the specific energy of lead acid, NiMH and Li-ion as secondary, as
well as alkaline and lithium-metal serving as primary batteries.
Figure 1-15: Specific energy comparison of secondary and primary batteries.
Secondary batteries are typically rated at 1C; alkaline uses lower discharge currents.
Courtesy of Cadex

Specific energy only indicates the capacity a battery can hold and does not
include power delivery, a weakness with most primary batteries. Manufacturers
of primary batteries publish specify specific energy; specific power is seldom
published. While most secondary batteries are rated at a 1C discharge current,
the capacity on consumer-grade primary batteries is measured with a very low
current of 25mA. In addition, the batteries are allowed to discharge from the
nominal 1.5V for alkaline to 0.8V before deemed fully discharged. This provides
impressive readings on paper, but the results are less flattering when applying
loads that draw higher currents.
Figure 1-16 compares the performance of primary and secondary batteries
as “Rated” and “Actual.” Rated refers to the specific energy when discharging at
a very low current; Actual discharges at 1C, the way most secondary batteries
are rated. The figure clearly demonstrates that the primary alkaline performs
well with light load typical to entertainment devices, while the secondary
batteries represented by lead acid, NiMH and Li-ion have a lower rated capacity
(Rated) but are better when being loaded with a 1C discharge (Actual).

Figure 1-16: Comparing energy and power under load.

“Rated” refers to a mild discharge; “Actual” is a load at 1C. High internal resistance limits alkaline battery
to light loads.
Courtesy of Cadex

One of the reasons for low performance under load conditions is the high
internal resistance of primary batteries, which causes the voltage to collapse.
Resistance determines how well electrical current flows through a material or
device and is measured in ohms (Ω). As the battery depletes on discharge, the
already elevated resistance increases further. Digital cameras with primary
batteries are borderline cases — a power tool on alkaline would be impractical.
A spent alkaline in a digital camera often leaves enough energy to run the
kitchen clock for two years.
 Table 1-17 illustrates the capacity of standard alkaline batteries with loads
that run typical personal entertainment devices or small flashlights.

Table 1-17: Alkaline specifications. The discharge resembles entertainment devices with low loads.
Source: Panasonic

Note: Resistance can also be measured in siemens (s) units, which is equal to reciprocal ohm.

AA and AAA are the most common cell formats for primary batteries.
Known as penlight batteries for pocket lights, the AA became available to the
public in 1915 and was used as a spy tool during World War I; the American
National Standards Institute standardized the format in 1947. The AAA was
developed in 1954 to reduce the size of the Kodak and Polaroid cameras and
shrink other portable devices. In the 1990s, an offshoot of the 9V battery
produced the AAAA for laser pointers, LED penlights, computer styli and
headphone amplifiers. (The 9V uses six AAAA in series.) Table 1-18 compares
common primary batteries.
Table 1-18: Summary of batteries available in AA and AAA format

The AA cell contains roughly twice the capacity of the smaller AAA at a
similar price. This doubles the energy cost of the AAA over the AA. Energy cost
often takes second stage in preference to downsizing. This is the case with
bicycle lights where the AA format would only increase the size of the light
slightly but could deliver twice the runtime for the same cost.
To cut cost, cities often consolidate purchases and this includes bulk
acquisitions of alkaline batteries. A city the size of Vancouver, Canada, with
about 600,000 citizens would buy roughly 33,000 AA, 16,000 AAA, 4,500 C
and 5,600 D size alkaline cells for general use.
Retail prices of the alkaline AA vary, so does performance. Exponent Inc. a
US engineering firm, checked the capacity of eight brand-name alkaline batteries
in AA packages and discovered an 800 percent discrepancy between the highest
and lowest performers. The test standard was based on counting the shots of a
digital camera until the batteries were depleted, a test that considered capacity
and loading capability of a battery.
Figure 1-19 illustrates the number of shots a digital camera can take with
discharge pulses of 1.3W using alkaline, NiMH and Lithium LiFeS2 in an AA
format. (With two cells in series at 3V, 1.3W draws 433mA.) The clear winner
was LiFeS2 (Lithium AA) with 690 pulses; the second was NiMH with 520
pulses; and the distant third was standard alkaline, producing only 85 pulses.
Internal resistance rather than capacity governs the shot count. (See “How to
Rate Battery Runtime” on page 217.)

Figure 1-19: Number of shots a digital camera can take with alkaline, NiMH and lithium.
LiFeS2, NiMH and alkaline have similar capacities; the internal resistance governs the shot count on a
digital camera.
LiFeS2, 3Ah, 690 pulses
NiMH, 2.5Ah, 520 pulses
Alkaline, 3Ah, 85 pulses
Test: ANSI C18.1
Source: Exponent Inc.

The relationship between battery capacity and current delivery is best

illustrated with the Ragone chart. Named after David V. Ragone, the Ragone
chart evaluates an energy storage device on energy and power. Energy in Ah
presents the available storage capacity of a battery that is responsible for the
runtime; power in watts governs the load current.
Figure 1-20 illustrates the Ragone chart with the 1.3W load of a digital
camera (indicated by the arrow and dotted line) using lithium (LiFeS2), NiMH
and alkaline. The horizontal axis displays energy in Wh and the vertical axis
provides power in watts. The scale is logarithmic to allow a wide selection of
battery sizes.

Figure 1-20: Ragone chart illustrates battery performance with various load conditions.
Digital camera loads NiMH, LiFeS2 and alkaline with 1.3W pulses according to ANSI C18.1 (dotted line).
The results are:
- LiFeS2 690 pluses
- NiMH 520 pulses
- Alkaline 85 pulses
Energy = Capacity x V
Power = Current x V
Source: Quinn Horn, Exponent Inc.

The performance of the battery chemistries varies according to the position

of the Ragone line. NiMH delivers the highest power and works well at high
loads but it has the lowest specific energy. Lithium LiFeS2 has the highest
specific energy and satisfies moderate loading conditions, and alkaline offers an
economic solution for lower current drains.
Summary
Primary batteries are practical for applications that draw occasional power, but
they can get expensive when in continuous use. Price is a further issue when the
packs are replaced after each mission, regardless of length of use. Discarding
partially used batteries is common, especially in fleet applications and critical
missions as it is convenient to simply issue fresh packs with each assignment
rather than estimating the usage. At a battery conference a US Army general said
that half of the batteries discarded still have 50 percent energy left.
The state-of-charge of primary batteries can be estimated by measuring the
internal resistance. Each battery type needs its own look-up table as the resistive
characteristics may differ. A more accurate method is coulomb counting that
observes out-flowing energy, but this requires a more expensive circuit and is
seldom done.

Choices of Primary Batteries

Zinc-carbon, also known as carbon-zinc or the Leclanché battery, is one of the
earliest and least expensive primary batteries. It delivers 1.5V and often come
with consumer devices. The first zinc-carbon invented by Georges Leclanché in
1859 was wet.

Alkaline. Alkaline-manganese, also known as alkaline, is an improved version

of the zinc-carbon battery and delivers 1.5V. Lewis Urry (1927–2004) invented
alkaline in 1949 while working with the Eveready Battery Company laboratory
in Ohio, USA.
Alkaline delivers more energy at higher load currents than zinc-carbon.
Furthermore, a regular household alkaline provides about 40 percent more
energy than the average Li-ion but alkaline is not as strong as Li-ion on loading.
Alkaline has very low self-discharge and does not leak electrolyte when depleted
as the old zinc-carbon does, but it is not totally leak-proof.
All primary batteries produce a small amount of hydroxide gas on discharge
and battery-powered devices must make provision for venting. Pressure buildup
in the cell can rupture the seal and cause corrosion. This is visible in form of a
feathery crystalline structure that can develop and spread to neighboring parts in
the device and cause damage.
Lithium iron disulfide (LiFeS2) is a newcomer to the primary battery family
and offers improved performance compared to alkaline. Lithium batteries
normally deliver 3 volts and higher, but LiFeS2 has 1.5 volts to be compatible
with the AA and AAA formats. It has a higher capacity and a lower internal
resistance than alkaline. This enables moderate to heavy loads and is ideal for
digital cameras. Further advantages are improved low temperature performance,
superior leakage resistance and low self-discharge, allowing 15 years of storage
at ambient temperatures.
The disadvantages of the LiFeS2 are a higher price and transportation issues
due to the lithium-metal content in the anode. In 2004, the US DOT and the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) banned bulk shipments of primary
lithium batteries on passenger flights, but airline passengers can still carry them
on board if the allotted lithium content is not exceeded. Each AA-sized LiFeS2
contains 0.98 grams of lithium; the air limitation of primary lithium batteries is 2
grams (8 grams for rechargeable Li-ion). This restricts each passenger to two
cells, but exceptions have been made in which 12 sample batteries can be
carried. (See “Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by air” on page 204.)
The LiFeS2 includes safety devices in the form of a positive thermal
coefficient (PTC) that limits the current at high temperature and resets when
normal. The LiFeS2 cell cannot be recharged as is possible with NiMH in the AA
and AAA formats. Recharging, putting a cell in backwards, mixing in a depleted
cell or adding a foreign cell could cause a leak or explosion.
Figures 1-21 and 1-22 compare the discharge voltage and internal resistance
of alkaline and LiFeS2 at a 50mA pulsed load. Of interest is the flat voltage curve
and the low internal resistance of lithium; alkaline shows a rapid voltage drop
and a permanent increase in resistance with use. This shortens the runtime,
especially at an elevated load.

Figure 1-21: Voltage and internal resistance of alkaline on discharge. Voltage drops rapidly and causes
the internal resistance to rise.
Source: Energizer
Figure 1-22: Voltage and internal resistance of lithium on discharge. Voltage stays flat and the internal
resistance is low.
Source: Energizer

Lithium thionyl chloride (LiSOCI2 or LTC) is one of the most rugged lithium-
metal batteries. The ability to withstand high heat and strong vibration enables
horizontal drilling, also known as fracking. Some LTC are said to operate from
0°C to 200°C (32°F to 392°F). Other uses are in medical and sensor applications.
With a specific energy of over 500Wh/kg, LTC offers twice the capacity of
the best Li-ion. The nominal voltage is 3.6V/cell; the end-of-discharge cutoff
voltage is 3.0V. The runtime is not based on capacity alone; thermal conditions
and load pattern also have an effect. Constant current is more enduring than
pulsed load; a phenomenon that applies to most batteries.
Like alkaline, LTC has a relatively high resistance and can only be used for
moderate discharge loads. If stored for a time, a passivation layer forms between
the lithium anode and the carbon-based cathode that dissipates when applying a
load. This layer protects the battery by granting low self-discharge and a long
 shelf life. (See “How to Prime Batteries” on page 191.)
LTC is one of the most powerful and potent battery chemistries and should
only be used by trained workers. For safety reasons, this battery is not used in
consumer devices.
Lithium manganese dioxide (LiMnO2 or Li-M) is similar to LTC but has a
lower specific capacity and is safe for public use. The voltage is 3.0–3.30V and
the specific energy is about 280Wh/kg. Li-M is economically priced, has a long
life and allows moderate loads but can deliver high pulse currents. Operational
temperature ranges from -30°C to 60°C (-22°F to 140°F). Typical uses are meter
sensing, medical devices, road toll sensors and cameras.
Lithium sulfur dioxide (LiSO2) is a primary battery with a voltage of 2.8V and
an energy density up to 330Wh/kg. It offers a wide temperature range of -54°C
to 71°C (-65°F to 160°F) with a projected shelf life of 5–10 years at room
temperature. LiSO2 is inexpensive to make and is commonly used by the
military. The Iraqi war used tons of these batteries, but it is giving way to the
more superior Li-M.
Note: Primary lithium batteries are also known as lithium-metal. The cathode is carbon and the anode holds the
active material, the reverse of Li-ion, which features a carbon anode.

CAUTION LTC and Li-M are safe but workers handling these batteries must be familiar with safety
precautions, transportation and disposal. Protect the batteries from heat, short circuit, and
physical or electrical abuses.

Secondary Batteries
Rechargeable batteries play an important role in our lives and many daily chores
would be unthinkable without the ability to recharge. The most common
rechargeable batteries are lead acid, NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion. Here is a brief
summary of their characteristics.
Lead acid – This is the oldest rechargeable battery system. Lead acid is
rugged, forgiving if abused and is economically priced, but it has a low specific
energy and limited cycle count. Lead acid is used for wheelchairs, golf cars,
personnel carriers, emergency lighting and uninterruptible power supply (UPS).
Lead is toxic and cannot be disposed in landfills.
Nickel-cadmium – Mature and well understood, NiCd is used where long
service life, high discharge current and extreme temperatures are required. NiCd
is one of the most rugged and enduring batteries; it is the only chemistry that
allows ultra-fast charging with minimal stress. Main applications are power
tools, medical devices, aviation and UPS. Due to environmental concerns, NiCd
is being replaced with other chemistries, but it retains its status in aircraft due to
its good safety record.
Nickel-metal-hydride – Serves as a replacement for NiCd as it has only
mild toxic metals and provides higher specific energy. NiMH is used for medical
instruments, hybrid cars and industrial applications. NiMH is also available in
AA and AAA cells for consumer use.
Lithium-ion – Li-ion is replacing many applications that were previously
served by lead and nickel-based batteries. Due to safety concerns, Li-ion needs a
protection circuit. It is more expensive than most other batteries, but high cycle
count and low maintenance reduce the cost per cycle over many other
chemistries.
Table 1-23 compares the characteristics of the four commonly used
rechargeable battery systems, showing average performance ratings at time of
publication. Li-ion is divided into different types, named by their active
materials, which are cobalt, manganese, phosphate and titanate. (See “Types of
Lithium-ion Batteries” on page 61.)
Missing from the list is the popular lithium-ion-polymer that gets its name
from the unique separator and electrolyte system. Most are a hybrid version that
shares performance with other Li-ion. Also missing is the rechargeable lithium-
metal, a battery that, once the safety issues are resolved, has the potential of
becoming a battery choice with extraordinarily high specific energy and good
specific power. The table only addresses portable batteries and excludes large
systems that resemble a refinery.

Comments to Table 1-23

1. Combining cobalt, nickel, manganese and aluminum raises energy

density up to 250Wh/kg.
2. Cycle life is based on the depth of discharge (DoD). Shallow DoD
prolongs cycle life.
3. Cycle life is based on battery receiving regular maintenance to prevent
memory.
4. Ultra-fast charge batteries are made for a special purpose. (See “Ultra-
fast Charging” on page 129.)
5. Self-discharge is highest immediately after charge. NiCd loses 10% in
the first 24 hours, then declines to 10% every 30 days. High temperature
and age increase self-discharge.
6. 1.25V is traditional; 1.20V is more common. (See “Confusion with
Voltages” on page 105.)
7. Manufacturers may rate voltage higher because of low internal resistance
(marketing).
8. Capable of high current pulses; needs time to recuperate.
9. Do not charge Li-ion below freezing. (See “Charging at High and Low
Temperatures” on page 148.)
10. Maintenance may be in the form of equalizing or topping charge to
prevent sulfation.
11. Protection circuit cuts off below about 2.20V and above 4.30V on most
Li-ion; different voltage settings apply for lithium iron phosphate.
12. Coulombic efficiently is higher with quicker charge (in part due to self-
discharge error).
13. Li-ion may have lower cost-per-cycle than lead acid.
Table 1-23: Characteristics of common rechargeable batteries. The figures are average ratings of
commercial batteries at time of publication. Specialty batteries with above-average ratings are excluded.
 Chapter 2 | Battery Types

Lead-based Batteries
Invented by the French physician Gaston Planté in 1859, lead acid was the first
rechargeable battery for commercial use. Despite its advanced age, the lead
chemistry continues to be in wide use today. There are good reasons for its
popularity; lead acid is dependable and inexpensive on a cost-per-watt base.
There are few other batteries that deliver bulk power as cheaply as lead acid, and
this makes the battery cost-effective for automobiles, golf cars, forklifts, marine
and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
The grid structure of the lead acid battery is made from a lead alloy. Pure
lead is too soft and would not support itself, so small quantities of other metals
are added to get the mechanical strength and improve electrical properties. The
most common additives are antimony, calcium, tin and selenium. These batteries
are often known as “lead-antimony” and “lead-calcium.”
Adding antimony and tin improves deep cycling, but this increases water
consumption and escalates the need to equalize. Calcium reduces self-discharge,
but the positive lead-calcium plate has the side effect of growing due to grid
oxidation when being over-charged. Modern lead acid batteries also make use of
doping agents such as selenium, cadmium, tin and arsenic to lower the antimony
and calcium content.
Lead acid is heavy and is less durable than nickel- and lithium-based
systems when deep cycled. A full discharge causes strain and each
discharge/charge cycle permanently robs the battery of a small amount of
capacity. This loss is small while the battery is in good operating condition, but
the fading increases once the performance drops.
Depending on the depth of discharge, lead acid for deep-cycle applications
provides 200 to 300 discharge/charge cycles. The primary reasons for its
relatively short cycle life are grid corrosion on the positive electrode, depletion
of the active material and expansion of the positive plates. This aging
phenomenon is accelerated at elevated operating temperatures and when drawing
high discharge currents. (See “How to Prolong Lead Acid Batteries” on page
235.)
Charging a lead acid battery is simple, but the correct voltage limits must be
observed. Choosing a low voltage limit shelters the battery, but this produces
poor performance and causes a buildup of sulfation on the negative plate. A high
voltage limit improves performance but forms grid corrosion on the positive
plate. While sulfation can be reversed if serviced in time, corrosion is
permanent. (See “Charging Lead Acid” on page 133.)
Lead acid does not lend itself to fast charging and with most types, a full
charge takes 14–16 hours. The battery must always be stored at full state-of-
charge. Low charge causes sulfation, a condition that robs the battery of
performance. Adding carbon on the negative electrode reduces this problem but
this lowers the specific energy.
Lead acid has a moderate life span, but it is not subject to memory as
nickel-based systems are, and the charge retention is best among rechargeable
batteries. While nickel-based batteries lose approximately 40 percent of their
stored energy in three months, lead acid self-discharges the same amount in one
year. The lead acid battery works well at cold temperatures and is superior to
lithium-ion when operating in subzero conditions.

Sealed Lead Acid

The first sealed, or maintenance-free, lead acid emerged in the mid-1970s.
Engineers argued that the term “sealed lead acid” was a misnomer because no
lead acid battery can be totally sealed. To control venting during stressful charge
and rapid discharge, valves have been added that release gases if pressure builds
up. Rather than submerging the plates in a liquid, the electrolyte is impregnated
into a moistened separator, a design that resembles nickel- and lithium-based
systems. This enables operating the battery in any physical orientation without
leakage.
The sealed battery contains less electrolyte than the flooded type, hence the
term “acid-starved.” Perhaps the most significant advantage of sealed lead acid
is the ability to combine oxygen and hydrogen to create water and prevent dry
out during cycling. The recombination occurs at a moderate pressure of 0.14 bar
(2psi). The valve serves as a safety vent if the gas buildup rises. Repeated
venting should be avoided as this will lead to an eventual dry-out.
Several types of sealed lead acid have emerged and the most common are
gel, also known as valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA), and absorbent glass mat
(AGM). The gel cell contains a silica type gel that suspends the electrolyte in a
paste. Smaller packs with capacities of up to 30Ah are often called SLA (sealed
lead acid). Packaged in a plastic container, these batteries are used for small
UPS, emergency lighting and wheelchairs. Because of low price, dependable
service and low maintenance, the SLA remains the preferred choice for
healthcare in hospitals and retirement homes. The larger VRLA is used as power
backup for cellular repeater towers, Internet hubs, banks, hospitals, airports and
more.
The AGM suspends the electrolyte in a specially designed glass mat. This
offers several advantages to lead acid systems, including faster charging and
instant high load currents on demand. AGM works best as a mid-range battery
with capacities of 30 to 100Ah and is less suited for large systems, such as UPS.
Typical uses are starter batteries for motorcycles, start-stop function for micro-
hybrid cars, as well as marine and RV that need some cycling.
With cycling and age, the capacity of AGM fades gradually; gel, on the
other hand, has a dome shaped performance curve and stays in the high
performance range longer but then drops suddenly towards the end of life. AGM
is more expensive than flooded, but is cheaper than gel. See “Absorbent Glass
Mat (AGM)” on page 50.)
Unlike the flooded, the sealed lead acid battery is designed with a low over-
voltage potential to prohibit the battery from reaching its gas-generating
potential during charge. Excess charging causes gassing, venting and subsequent
water depletion and dry-out. Consequently, gel, and in part also AGM, cannot be
charged to their full potential and the charge voltage limit must be set lower than
that of a flooded. This also applies to the float charge on full charge. In respect to
charging, the gel and AGM are no direct replacements for the flooded type. If no
designated charger is available for AGM with lower voltage settings, disconnect
the charger after 24 hours of charge. This prevents gassing due to a float voltage
that is set too high.
The optimum operating temperature for a VRLA battery is 25°C (77°F);
every 8°C (15°F) rise above this temperature threshold cuts battery life in half.
Lead acid batteries are rated at a 5-hour (0.2C) and 20-hour (0.05C) discharge
rate. The battery performs best when discharged slowly; the capacity readings
are substantially higher at a slower discharge than at the 1C-rate. Lead acid can,
however, deliver high pulse currents of several C if done for only a few seconds.
This makes the lead acid well suited as a starter battery, also known as starter-
light-ignition (SLI). The high lead content and the sulfuric acid make lead acid
environmentally unfriendly.
Lead acid batteries are commonly classified into three usages: Automotive
(starter or SLI), motive power (traction or deep cycle) and stationary (UPS).

Starter Battery
The starter battery is designed to crank an engine with a momentary high-power
load lasting a second or so. For its size, the battery is able to deliver high current
but it cannot be deep-cycled. Starter batteries are rated with Ah or RS (Reserve
Capacity) to indicate energy storage capability, as well as CCA (cold cranking
amps) to signify the current a battery can deliver at cold temperature. SAE J537
specifies 30 seconds of discharge at –18°C (0°F) at the rated CCA ampere
without the battery voltage dropping below 7.2 volts. RC reflects the runtime in
minutes at a steady discharge of 25A. (SAE stands for Society of Automotive
Engineers; see page 337.)
Starter batteries have a very low internal resistance that is achieved by
adding extra plates for maximum surface area (Figure 2-1). The plates are thin
and the lead is applied in a sponge-like form that has the appearance of fine
foam, expanding the surface area further. Plate thickness, which is important for
a deep-cycle battery is less important because the discharge is short and the
battery is recharged while driving; the emphasis is on power rather than capacity.

Figure 2-1: Starter battery

The starter battery has many thin plates in parallel to achieve low resistance with high surface area. The
starter battery does not allow deep cycling.
Courtesy of Cadex

Deep-cycle Battery
The deep-cycle battery is built to provide continuous power for wheelchairs, golf
cars, forklifts and more. This battery is built for maximum capacity and a
reasonably high cycle count. This is achieved by making the lead plates thick
(Figure 2-2). Although the battery is designed for cycling, full discharges still
induce stress and the cycle count relates to the depth-of-discharge (DoD). Deep-
cycle batteries are marked in Ah or minutes of runtime. The capacity is typically
rated as a 5-hour and 20-hour discharge.
Figure 2-2: Deep-cycle battery
The deep-cycle battery has thick plates for improved cycling abilities. The deep-cycle battery generally
allows about 300 cycles.
Courtesy of Cadex

A starter battery cannot be swapped with a deep-cycle battery or vice versa.

While an inventive senior may be tempted to install a starter battery rather than
the more expensive deep-cycle on his wheelchair to save money, the starter
battery would not last because the thin sponge-like plates would quickly dissolve
with repeated deep cycling.
There are hybrid starter/deep-cycle batteries available for trucks, buses,
public safety and military vehicles, but these units are big and heavy. As a
simple guideline, the heavier the battery is, the more lead it contains, and the
longer it will last. Table 2-3 compares the typical life of starter and deep-cycle
batteries when deep cycled.
Batteries are expensive and have a relatively short life span. As discarded
batteries grow by the tonnage, entrepreneurs are enticed to start a business in
recycling. With an annual world market of $33 billion, lead acid is the most
common battery in use. This is followed by Li-ion at $16.6 billion, NiMH at $2
billion and NiCd at $1 billion. All other chemistries only make up $1 billion.
Table 7-13 lists the material cost per ton to build these batteries.

Depth of discharge Starter battery Deep-cycle battery

100% 12–15 cycles 150–200 cycles

50% 100–120 cycles 400–500 cycles

 30% 130–150 cycles 1,000 and more cycles

Table 2-3: Cycle performance of starter and deep-cycle batteries. A discharge of 100% refers to a full
discharge; 50% is half and 30% is a moderate discharge with 70% remaining.

Lead is toxic and environmentalists would like to replace the lead acid
battery with an alternative chemistry. Europe succeeded in keeping NiCd out of
consumer products, and similar efforts are being made with the starter battery.
The choices are NiMH and Li-ion, but the price is too high and low temperature
performance is poor. With a 99 percent recycling rate, the lead acid battery poses
little environmental hazard and will likely continue to be the battery of choice.
Table 2-4 lists advantages and limitations of common lead acid batteries in use
today.

Advantages Inexpensive and simple to manufacture; lowest cost per watt-

hour
Mature and well-understood technology; provides dependable
service
Low self-discharge; lowest among rechargeable batteries
High specific power, capable of high discharge currents

Limitations Low specific energy; poor weight-to-energy ratio

Slow charge; fully saturated charge takes 14–16 hours
Must always be stored in charged condition
Limited cycle life; repeated deep-cycling reduces battery life
Flooded version requires watering
Not environmentally friendly
Transportation restrictions on the flooded type

Table 2-4: Advantages and limitations of lead acid batteries. Dry systems have advantages over flooded
but are less rugged. The table does not include new lead acid chemistries.

Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM)

AGM technology became popular in the early 1980s as a sealed lead acid battery
for military aircraft, vehicles and UPS to reduce weight and improve reliability.
The sulfuric acid is absorbed by a very fine fiberglass mat, making the battery
spill-proof. This enables shipment without hazardous material restrictions. The
plates can be made flat to resemble a standard flooded lead acid pack in a
rectangular case; they can also be wound into a cylindrical cell.
AGM has very low internal resistance, is capable of delivering high
currents on demand and offers a relatively long service life, even when deep
cycled. AGM is maintenance free, has good electrical reliability and is lighter
than the flooded lead acid type. While regular lead acid batteries need a topping
charge every six months to prevent the buildup of sulfation, AGM batteries are
less prone to sulfation and can sit in storage for longer before a charge becomes
necessary. The battery stands up well to cold temperatures and has low self-
discharge.
The leading advantages are a charge that is up to five times faster than the
flooded version and the ability to deep cycle. AGM offers a depth-of-discharge
of 80 percent; the flooded, on the other hand, is specified at 50 percent DoD to
attain the same cycle life. The negatives are slightly lower specific energy and
higher manufacturing costs than the flooded.
Most AGM batteries are mid-sized and range from 30 to 100Ah. They are
commonly built to size and are found in high-end vehicles to run power-hungry
accessories such as heated seats, steering wheels, mirrors and windshields.
NASCAR and other auto racing leagues choose AGM products because they are
vibration resistant.
AGM is the preferred battery for upscale motorcycles. Being sealed, AGM
reduces acid spilling in an accident, lowers the weight for the same performance
and allows installation at odd angles. Because of good performance at cold
temperatures, AGM batteries are also used for marine, motor home and robotic
applications.
AGM is making inroads into the start-stop function of cars. The classic
flooded type is simply not robust enough and repeated cycling causes a sharp
capacity fade after only two years of use. (See “How Heat and Loading Affects
Battery Life” on page 244.)
As with all gelled and sealed units, AGM batteries are sensitive to
overcharging. A charge to 2.40V/cell (and higher) is fine; however, the float
charge should be reduced to between 2.25 and 2.30V/cell when fully charged.
Summer temperatures may require lower voltages. Automotive charging systems
for flooded lead acid often have a fixed float voltage setting of 14.40V (2.40V
per cell); a direct replacement with a sealed unit could overcharge the battery on
a long drive.
AGM and other sealed batteries do not like heat and should be installed
away from the engine compartment. Manufacturers recommend halting charge if
the battery core reaches 49°C (120°F). Table 2-5 spells out the advantages and
limitations of AGM.

Advantages Spill-proof through acid encapsulation in matting technology

High specific power, low internal resistance, responsive to load
Up to 5 times faster charge than with flooded lead acid
Better cycle life than with flooded systems
Water retention (oxygen and hydrogen combine to produce
water)
Vibration resistance; stands up well to cold temperature
Less prone to sulfation if not regularly topping charged

Limitations Higher manufacturing cost than flooded (but cheaper than gel)
 Sensitive to overcharging (gel has tighter tolerances than AGM)
Capacity has gradual decline (gel has a performance dome)
Low specific energy
Must be stored in charged condition (less critical than flooded)
Not environmentally friendly (has less electrolyte and lead than
flooded)

Table 2-5: Advantages and limitations of AGM.

New Lead Acid Systems

Most battery systems allow reasonably fast charging of one hour or so. The
energy can also be withdrawn in about the same time, meaning that the charge
and discharge times can be made similar. Lead acid is unique in that the battery
can be discharged at a very high rate but requires more than 14 hours to fully
charge. Lead acid also needs periodic equalization to de-sulfate the plates and
correct other ills.
The answer to the inherent low charge acceptance relates to the formation
and dissolution of lead sulfate on the negative electrode, which is pure lead. On
discharge, lead sulfate adheres to the surface and dissolves again on charge. The
process is sluggish and when trying to hasten the charge, excess electrons have
nowhere to go; this leads to hydrogen generation and water loss. With age, the
lead sulfate crystals engrain, which reduces the charge acceptance even further.
The positive electrode also contains lead sulfate, but it supports a high
charge rate. It is clear that the negative electrode is the problem with lead acid
batteries. New lead acid systems try to solve this problem by adding carbon to
this electrode with promising results.
Advanced Lead-carbon
Scientists have known for years that sulfate accumulation prevents the classic
lead acid from delivering sustained performance; partial charge and aging are the
main culprits because the negative lead plate is not sufficiently scrubbed. The
advanced lead-carbon (ALC) battery solves this by adding carbon to the negative
plate (cathode). This turns the battery into a quasi-asymmetric supercapacitor to
improve charge and discharge performance.
Figure 2-6 illustrates the classic lead acid cell with the lead negative plate
being replaced with a carbon electrode to benefit from the qualities of a
supercapacitor.

Figure 2-6: The classic lead acid develops into an advanced lead-carbon battery.
The negative plate is replaced with a carbon electrode that shares the qualities of a supercapacitor.
Source: Advanced Lead-Acid Battery Consortium (ALABC)

The ALC is being tested as a replacement for the classic starter battery in
start-stop applications and in 48V micro and mild hybrid systems. Rapid
charging on regenerative breaking is a decisive advantage with these batteries, a
task that is difficult to achieve with regular lead acid. Although larger and
heavier than Li-ion, the ALC is low-cost, operates at subfreezing temperatures
and does not need active cooling — advantages Li-ion cannot claim. Unlike
regular lead acid, lead carbon can operate between 30 and 70 percent state-of-
charge without fear of becoming sulfated. The ALC is said to outlive the regular
lead acid battery, but the negative is a rapid voltage drop on discharge,
resembling that of a supercapacitor.

Firefly Energy
The composite plate material of the Firefly Energy battery is based on a lead
acid variant, and the maker claims that the battery is lighter, longer living and
offers a higher active material utilization than current lead acid systems. It is also
one of the few lead acid batteries that can operate for extended time in partial-
states-of-charge. The battery includes carbon-foam electrodes for the negative
plates, which gives it a performance that is comparable to NiMH but at lower
manufacturing costs. Firefly Energy was a spin-off of Caterpillar, and in 2010 it
went into bankruptcy. The company was revived later under separate ownership.
Today, Firefly International Energy manufactures the Oasis line of batteries in
limited quantities in the US.
Altraverda Bipolar
Similar to the Firefly Energy battery, the Altraverda battery is based on lead. It
uses a proprietary titanium sub-oxide ceramic structure called Ebonex® for the
grid and an AGM separator. The un-pasted plate contains Ebonex® particles in a
polymer matrix that holds a thin lead alloy foil on the external surfaces. At a
specific energy of 50–60Wh/kg, the battery is comparable with NiCd and is said
to be well suited for high voltage applications. Based in the UK, Altraverda
works with East Penn in the USA.
Axion Power
The Axion Power e3 Supercell is a hybrid battery/supercapacitor in which the
positive electrode is made of standard lead dioxide and the negative electrode is
activated carbon. The assembly process is similar to lead acid. The Axion Power
battery offers faster recharge times and longer cycle life on repeated deep
discharges than what is possible with regular lead acid systems, opening the door
for the start-stop application in micro-hybrid cars. The lead-carbon combination
lowers the lead content on the negative plate, which results in a weight reduction
of 30 percent compared to a regular lead acid. This, however, also decreases the
specific energy to 15–25Wh/kg instead of the 30–50Wh/kg with a regular lead
acid. Another negative is a steep voltage decline on discharge that shares
similarities with the supercapacitor.
CSIRO Ultrabattery
The Ultrabattery by Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organisation (CSIRO) of Australia combines the asymmetric ultracapacitor with
the lead acid battery, sharing similarities with the advanced lead-carbon
described above. The capacitor enhances the power and lifetime of the battery by
acting as a buffer during charging and discharging. This is said to prolong
battery lifetime by a factor of four over regular lead acid systems while boosting
the power by 50 percent. The manufacturer further claims a 70 percent cost
reduction over current batteries in hybrid electric vehicles. CSIRO batteries were
tested in a Honda Insight HEV, and the results were said to be positive. The
battery is also being tested for start-stop applications in micro-hybrid cars.
Unlike other advanced lead acid, the ability to rapid-charge is a decisive
advantage over the regular lead acid. Furukawa Battery in Japan licensed the
technology and also makes the battery.
EEStor
This is the mystery battery/supercapacitor combination that has received much
media attention. The battery is based on a modified barium titanate ceramic
powder and claims a specific energy of up to 280Wh/kg, higher than lithium-ion.
The company is very secretive about their invention and releases only limited
information. Some of their astonishing claims include: One-tenth of the weight
of a NiMH battery in a hybrid application; no deep-cycle wear down; 3–6
minute charge time; no hazardous material; similar manufacturing costs to lead
acid; and a self-discharge of 0.02 percent per month, a fraction of that of lead
acid and Li-ion. Tests conducted in 2013 did not find meaningful levels of
energy because of high resistance between the layers. Research is continuing.
Enhanced Flooded Battery (EFB)
Car manufacturers are aware of the added stress when a regular starter battery is
in start-stop mode. AGM (absorbent glass mat) batteries can withstand the repeat
start function, but car manufacturers looking for a lower cost solution came up
with the enhanced flooded battery (EFB). Tests reveal that the EFB performs
better than the regular flooded version, but it is not as good as AGM.
Performance appears to be directly related with battery cost.
Nickel-based Batteries
For 50 years, portable devices relied almost exclusively on nickel-cadmium
(NiCd). This generated a large amount of data, but in the 1990s, nickel-metal-
hydride (NiMH) took over the reign to solve the toxicity problem of the
otherwise robust NiCd. Many of the characteristics of NiCd were transferred to
the NiMH camp, offering a quasi-replacement as these two systems are similar.
Because of environmental regulations, NiCd is limited to specialty applications
today.

Nickel-cadmium (NiCd)
Invented by Waldemar Jungner in 1899, the nickel-cadmium battery offered
several advantages over lead acid, then the only other rechargeable battery;
however, the materials for NiCd were expensive. Developments were slow, but
in 1932, advancements were made to deposit the active materials inside a porous
nickel-plated electrode. Further improvements occurred in 1947 by absorbing the
gases generated during charge, which led to the modern sealed NiCd battery.
For many years, NiCd was the preferred battery choice for two-way radios,
emergency medical equipment, professional video cameras and power tools. In
the late 1980s, the ultra-high capacity NiCd rocked the world with capacities that
were up to 60 percent higher than the standard NiCd. Packing more active
material into the cell achieved this, but the gain was shadowed by higher internal
resistance and reduced cycle count.
The standard NiCd remains one of the most rugged and forgiving batteries,
and the airline industry stays true to this system, but it needs proper care to attain
longevity. NiCd, and in part also NiMH, have memory effect that causes a loss of
capacity if not given a periodic full discharge cycle. The battery appears to
remember the previous energy delivered and once a routine has been established,
it does not want to give more. (See “Memory: Myth or Fact?” on page 246.)
Table 2-7 lists the advantages and limitations of the standard NiCd.
 Advantages Rugged, high cycle count with proper maintenance
Only battery that can be ultra-fast charged with little stress
Good load performance; forgiving if abused
Long shelf life; can be stored in a discharged state, needs
priming before use
Simple storage and transportation; not subject to regulatory
control
Good low-temperature performance
Economically priced; NiCd is the lowest in terms of cost per
cycle
Available in a wide range of sizes and performance options

Limitations Relatively low specific energy compared with newer systems

Memory effect; needs periodic full discharges and can be
rejuvenated
Cadmium is a toxic metal. Cannot be disposed of in landfills
High self-discharge; needs recharging after storage
Low cell voltage of 1.20V requires many cells to achieve high
voltage

Table 2-7: Advantages and limitations of NiCd batteries.

Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)
Research on nickel-metal-hydride started in 1967; however, instabilities with the
metal-hydride led to the development of the nickel-hydrogen (NiH) instead. New
hydride alloys discovered in the 1980s eventually improved the stability issues
and today NiMH provides 40 percent higher specific energy than the standard
NiCd.
 Nickel-metal-hydride is not without drawbacks. The battery is more
delicate and trickier to charge than NiCd. With 20 percent self-discharge in the
first 24 hours after charge and 10 percent per month thereafter, NiMH ranks
among the highest in the class. Modifying the hydride materials lowers the self-
discharge and reduces corrosion of the alloy, but this decreases the specific
energy. Batteries for the electric powertrain make use of this modification to
achieve the needed robustness and long life span.

Consumer Applications
NiMH has become one of the most readily available rechargeable batteries for
consumer use. Battery manufacturers, such as Panasonic, Energizer, Duracell
and Rayovac, have recognized the need for a durable and low-cost rechargeable
battery and offer NiMH in AA, AAA and other sizes. The battery manufacturers
want to lure buyers away from disposable alkaline to rechargeable batteries.
The NiMH battery for the consumer market is an alternative for the failed
reusable alkaline that appeared in the 1990s. Limited cycle life and poor loading
characteristics hindered its success. (See “Reusable Alkaline” on page 89.)
Table 2-8 compares the specific energy, voltage, self-discharge and runtime
of over-the-counter batteries. Available in AA, AAA and other sizes, these cells
can be used in portable devices designed for these norms. Even though the cell
voltages may vary, the end-of-discharge voltages are common, which is typically
1V/cell. Portable devices have some flexibility in terms of voltage range. It is
important not to mix cells and to always use the same type of batteries in the
holder. Safety concerns and voltage incompatibility prevent the sale of most
lithium-ion batteries in AA and AAA formats.
Table 2-8: Comparison of alkaline, reusable alkaline, Eneloop and NiMH.
* Eneloop is a Sanyo trademark, based on NiMH

High self-discharge is of ongoing concern to consumers using rechargeable

batteries, and NiMH behaves like a leaky basketball or bicycle tire. A flashlight
or portable entertainment device with a NiMH battery gets “flat” when put away
for only a few weeks. Having to recharge the device before each use does not sit
well with many consumers, especially for flashlights that sit on standby for the
occasional power-outage; alkaline keeps the charge for 10 years.
The Eneloop NiMH by Panasonic and Sanyo has reduced the self-discharge
by a factor of six. This means you can store the charged battery six times longer
than a regular NiMH before a recharge becomes necessary. The drawback of the
Eneloop to regular NiMH is a slightly lower specific energy.
Table 2-9 summarizes the advantages and limitations of industrial-grade
NiMH. The table does not include the Eneloop and other consumer brands.

Advantages 30–40 percent higher capacity than a standard NiCd

Less prone to memory than NiCd, can be rejuvenated
Simple storage and transportation; not subject to regulatory
control
 Environmentally friendly; contains only mild toxins
Nickel content makes recycling profitable
Wide temperature range

Limitations Limited service life; deep discharge reduces service life

Discharge load current not as good as NiCd
Requires complex charge algorithm. Sensitive to overcharge.
Does not absorb overcharge well; trickle charge must be kept
low
Generates heat during fast charge and high-load discharge
High self-discharge
Coulombic efficiency only about 65% (99% with Li-ion)

Table 2-9: Advantages and limitations of NiMH batteries

Nickel-iron (NiFe)
After inventing nickel-cadmium in 1899, Sweden’s Waldemar Jungner tried to
substitute iron for cadmium to save money; however, poor charge efficiency and
gassing (hydrogen formation) prompted him to abandon the development
without securing a patent.
In 1901, Thomas Edison continued the development of the nickel-iron
battery as a substitute to lead acid for electric vehicles. He claimed that nickel-
iron was “far superior to batteries using lead plates and acid” and counted on the
emerging electric vehicle market. He lost out when gasoline-powered cars took
over and was deeply disappointed when the auto industry did not adopt nickel-
iron as the starter, lighting and ignition battery (SLI) for cars.
The nickel-iron battery (NiFe) uses an oxide-hydroxide cathode and an iron
anode with potassium hydroxide electrolyte that produces a nominal cell voltage
of 1.20V. NiFe is resilient to overcharge and over-discharge and can last for
more than 20 years in standby applications. Resistance to vibrations and high
temperatures made NiFe the preferred battery for mining in Europe; during
World War II the battery powered German V-1 flying bombs and V-2 rockets.
Other uses are railroad signaling, forklifts and stationary applications.
NiFe has a low specific energy of about 50Wh/kg, has poor low-
temperature performance and exhibits high self-discharge of 20–40 percent a
month. This, together with high fabrication cost, prompted the industry to stay
faithful to lead acid.
Improvements are being made, and NiFe is becoming a viable alternative to
lead acid in off-grid power systems. Pocket plate technology lowered the self-
discharge; the battery is virtually immune to over- and under-charging and
should last for over 50 years. This compares to less than 12 years with deep
cycle lead acids in cycling mode. NiFe costs about four times as much as lead
acid and is comparable with Li-ion in purchase price.
Nickel-iron batteries use a taper charge similar to NiCd and NiMH. Do not
use constant voltage charge as with lead acid and lithium-ion batteries, but allow
the voltage to float freely. Similar to nickel-based batteries, the cell voltage
begins to drop at full charge as the internal gas builds up and the temperature
rises. Avoid overcharging as this causes water evaporation and dry-out.
Low capacity can often be improved by applying a high discharge current
of up to three times the C-rate for periods of 30 minutes. Assure that the
temperature of the electrolyte does not exceed 46˚C (115˚F).

Nickel-zinc (NiZn)
Nickel-zinc is similar to nickel-cadmium in that it uses an alkaline electrolyte
and a nickel electrode, but it differs in voltage; NiZn provides 1.65V/cell rather
than 1.20V, which NiCd and NiMH deliver. NiZn charges at a constant current to
1.9V/cell and cannot take trickle charge, also known as maintenance charge. The
specific energy is 100Wh/kg and can be cycled 200–300 times. NiZn has no
heavy toxic materials and can easily be recycled. Some packaging is available in
the AA cell format.
In 1901, Thomas Edison was awarded the U.S. patent for a rechargeable
nickel–zinc battery system that was installed in rail cars between 1932 and 1948.
NiZn suffered from high self-discharge and short cycle life caused by dendrite
growth, which often led to an electrical short. Improvements in the electrolyte
have reduced this problem, and NiZn is being considered again for commercial
uses. Low cost, high power output and good temperature operating range make
this chemistry attractive.

Nickel-hydrogen (NiH)
When research for nickel-metal-hydride began in 1967, problems with metal
instabilities caused a shift towards the development of the nickel-hydrogen
battery (NiH). NiH uses a steel canister to store hydrogen at a pressure of
8,270kPa (1,200psi). The cell includes solid nickel electrodes, hydrogen
electrodes, gas screens and electrolyte that are encapsulated in the pressurized
vessel.
NiH has a nominal cell voltage of 1.25V and the specific energy is 40–
75Wh/kg. The advantages are long service life, even with full discharge cycles,
good calendar life due to low corrosion, minimal self-discharge, and a
remarkable temperature performance of –28°C to 54°C (–20°F to 130°F). These
attributes make NiH ideal for satellite use. Scientists tried to develop NiH
batteries for terrestrial use, but low specific energy and high cost worked against
this endeavor. A single cell for a satellite application costs thousands of dollars.
As NiH replaced NiCd in satellites, there is a move towards long-life Li-ion.

Lithium-based Batteries
Pioneering work of the lithium battery began in 1912 under G.N. Lewis, but it
was not until the early 1970s that the first non-rechargeable lithium batteries
became commercially available. Attempts to develop rechargeable lithium
batteries followed in the 1980s but failed because of instabilities in the metallic
lithium used as anode material. (The metal-lithium battery uses lithium as anode;
Li-ion uses graphite as anode and active materials in the cathode.)
Lithium is the lightest of all metals, has the greatest electrochemical
potential and provides the largest specific energy per weight. Rechargeable
batteries with lithium-metal on the anode could provide extraordinarily high
energy densities; however, it was discovered in the mid-1980s that cycling
produced unwanted dendrites on the anode. These growth particles penetrate the
separator and cause an electrical short. The cell temperature would rise quickly
and approach the melting point of lithium, causing thermal runaway, also known
as “venting with flame.” A large number of rechargeable metallic lithium
batteries sent to Japan were recalled in 1991 after a battery in a mobile phone
released flaming gases and inflicted burns to a man’s face.
The inherent instability of lithium-metal, especially during charging, shifted
research to a non-metallic solution using lithium ions. In 1991, Sony
commercialized the first Li-ion, and today this chemistry has become the most
promising and fastest growing battery on the market. Although lower in specific
energy than lithium-metal, Li-ion is safe, provided the voltage and currents
limits are being respected.
Credit for the pioneering work leading to the lithium-cobalt-oxide battery
goes to John B. Goodenough (1922). It is said that during the developments, a
graduate student employed by Nippon Telephone & Telegraph (NTT) worked
with Goodenough in the USA. Shortly after the breakthrough, the student
traveled back to Japan, taking the discovery with him. Then in 1991, Sony
announced an international patent on a lithium-cobalt-oxide cathode. Years of
litigation ensued, but Sony was able to keep the patent and Goodenough
received nothing for his efforts. In recognition of contributions made in Li-ion
developments, the U.S. National Academy of Engineering awarded Goodenough
and other contributors the Charles Stark Draper Prize in 2014. In 2015, Israel
awarded Goodenough a $1 million prize, which he will donate to the Texas
Materials Institute to assist in materials research.
 The key to the superior specific energy is the high cell voltage of 3.60V.
Improvements in the active materials and electrolytes have the potential to
further boost the energy density. Load characteristics are good and the flat
discharge curve offers effective utilization of the stored energy in a desirable and
flat voltage spectrum of 3.70–2.80V/cell.
In 1994, the cost to manufacture Li-ion in the 18650 cylindrical cell was
over US$10 and the capacity was 1,100mAh. In 2001, the price dropped to
below $3 while the capacity rose to 1,900mAh. Today, high energy-dense 18650
cells deliver over 3,000mAh and the costs are dropping. Cost reduction,
increased specific energy and the absence of toxic material paved the road to
make Li-ion the universally accepted battery for portable applications, heavy
industries, electric powertrains and satellites. The 18650 cell measures 18mm in
diameter and 65mm in length. (See “A Look at Old and New Battery Formats”
on page 93.)
Li-ion is a low-maintenance battery, an advantage that most other
chemistries cannot claim. The battery has no memory and does not need
exercising (deliberate full discharge) to keep it in good shape. Self-discharge is
less than half that of nickel-based systems and this helps fuel the gauge
applications. The nominal cell voltage of 3.60V can directly power mobile
phones, tablets and digital cameras, offering simplifications and cost reductions
over multi-cell designs. The drawbacks are the need for protection circuits to
prevent abuse, as well as high price.

Lithium-ion Architecture
Lithium-ion uses a cathode (positive electrode), an anode (negative electrode)
and electrolyte as conductor. The cathode is metal oxide and the anode consists
of porous carbon. During discharge, the ions flow from the anode to the cathode
through the electrolyte and separator; charge reverses the direction and the ions
flow from the cathode to the anode. Figure 2-10 illustrates the process.
Figure 2-10: Ion flow in lithium-ion battery.
On charge and discharge, ions shuttle between the cathode (positive electrode) and anode (negative
electrode). On discharge the anode undergoes oxidation or loss of electrons and the cathode sees a reduction
or a gain of electrons. Charge reverses the movement.

Li-ion batteries come in many varieties but all have one thing in common –
the “lithium-ion” catchword. Although strikingly similar at first glance, these
batteries vary in performance and the choice of active materials gives them
unique personalities.
Sony’s original lithium-ion battery used coke as the anode (coal product).
Since 1997, most Li-ion manufacturers, including Sony, shifted to graphite to
attain a flatter discharge curve. Graphite is a form of carbon that has long-term
cycle stability and is used in lead pencils. It is the most common carbon material,
followed by hard and soft carbons. Nanotube carbons have not yet found
commercial use in Li-ion as they tend to entangle and affect performance. A
future material that promises to enhance the performance of Li-ion is graphene.
Figure 2-11 illustrates the voltage discharge curve of a modern Li-ion with
graphite anode and the early coke version.
Figure 2-11: Voltage discharge curve of lithium-ion.
A battery should have a flat voltage curve in the usable discharge range. The modern graphite anode does
this better than the early coke version.
Courtesy of Cadex

Several additives have been tried, including silicon-based alloys, to enhance

the performance of the graphite anode. It takes six carbon (graphite) atoms to
bind to a single lithium ion; a single silicon atom can bind to four lithium ions.
This means that the silicon anode could theoretically store over 10 times the
energy of graphite, but expansion of the anode during charge is a problem. Pure
silicone anodes are therefore not practical and only 3–5 percent of silicon is
typically added to the anode of a silicon-based to achieve good cycle life.
Using nano-structured lithium-titanate as an anode additive shows
promising cycle life, good load capabilities, excellent low-temperature
performance and superior safety, but the specific energy is low and the cost is
high.
Experimenting with cathode and anode material allows manufacturers to
strengthen intrinsic qualities, but one enhancement may compromise another.
The so-called “Energy Cell” optimizes the specific energy (capacity) to achieve
long runtimes but at lower specific power; the “Power Cell” offers exceptional
specific power but at lower capacity. The “Hybrid Cell” is a compromise and
offers a little bit of both.
Manufacturers can attain a high specific energy and low cost relatively
easily by adding nickel in lieu of the more expensive cobalt, but this makes the
cell less stable. While a start-up company may focus on high specific energy and
low price to gain quick market acceptance, reputable manufacturers place high
integrity on safety and longevity.

Types of Lithium-ion Batteries

Lithium-ion is named for its active materials; the words are either written in full
or shortened by their chemical symbols. A series of letters and numbers strung
together can be hard to remember and even harder to pronounce, and battery
chemistries are also identified in abbreviated letters.
For example, lithium cobalt oxide, one of the most common Li-ions, has the
chemical symbols LiCoO2 and the abbreviation LCO. For reasons of simplicity,
the short form Li-cobalt can also be used for this battery. Cobalt is the main
active material that gives this battery character. Other Li-ion chemistries are
given similar short-form names. This section lists six of the most common Li-
ions. All readings are average estimates at time of writing.

Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO2)

Its high specific energy makes Li-cobalt the popular choice for mobile phones,
laptops and digital cameras. The battery consists of a cobalt oxide cathode and a
graphite carbon anode. The cathode has a layered structure and during discharge,
lithium ions move from the anode to the cathode. The flow reverses on charge.
Figure 2-12 illustrates the structure.
Figure 2-12: Li-cobalt structure.
The cathode has a layered structure. During discharge the lithium ions move from the anode to the cathode;
on charge the flow is from cathode to anode.
Courtesy of Cadex

The drawback of Li-cobalt is a relatively short life span, low thermal stability
and limited load capabilities (specific power). Li-cobalt is maturing and newer
systems include nickel, manganese and/or aluminum to improve longevity,
loading capabilities and cost.
Li-cobalt should not be charged and discharged at a current higher than its C-
rating. This means that an 18650 cell with 2,400mAh can only be charged and
discharged at 2,400mA. Forcing a fast charge or applying a load higher than
2,400mA causes overheating and undue stress. For optimal fast charge, the
manufacturer recommends a C-rate of 0.8C or about 2,000mA. (See “What Is C-
rate” on page 131.) The mandatory battery protection circuit limits the charge
and discharge rate to a safe level of about 1C for the Energy Cell.
The hexagonal spider graphic (Figure 2-13) summarizes the performance of
Li-cobalt in terms of specific energy or capacity that relates to runtime; specific
power or the ability to deliver high current; safety; performance at hot and cold
temperatures; life span reflecting cycle life and longevity; and cost. Other
characteristics of interest not shown in the spider webs are toxicity, fast charge
capabilities, self-discharge and shelf life.

Figure 2-13: Snapshot of an average Li-cobalt battery.

Li-cobalt excels on high specific energy but offers only moderate performance on specific power, safety and
life span.
Courtesy of Cadex

Lithium Cobalt Oxide: LiCoO2 cathode (~60% Co), graphite anode

Short form: LCO or Li-cobalt. Since 1991

Voltages 3.60V nominal; typical operating range 3.0–4.2V/cell

Specific energy (capacity) 150–200Wh/kg. Specialty cells provide up to 240Wh/kg.

Charge (C-rate) 0.7–1C, charges to 4.20V (most cells); 3h charge typical. Charge current
above 1C shortens battery life.

Discharge (C-rate) 1C; 2.50V cut off. Discharge current above 1C shortens battery life.

Cycle life 500–1000, related to depth of discharge, load, temperature

Thermal runaway 150°C (302°F). Full charge promotes thermal runaway

Applications Mobile phones, tablets, laptops, cameras

Comments Very high specific energy, limited specific power. Cobalt is expensive.
Serves as Energy Cell. Market share has stabilized.

Summary Table 2-14: Characteristics of lithium cobalt oxide.

Lithium Manganese Oxide (LiMn2O4)
Li-ion with manganese spinel was first published in the Materials Research
Bulletin in 1983. In 1996, Moli Energy commercialized a Li-ion cell with
lithium manganese oxide as cathode material. The architecture forms a three-
dimensional spinel structure that improves ion flow on the electrode, which
results in lower internal resistance and improved current handling. A further
advantage of spinel is high thermal stability and enhanced safety, but the cycle
and calendar life are limited.
Figure 2-15 illustrates the formation of a three-dimensional crystalline
framework on the cathode of a Li-manganese battery. This spinel structure,
which is usually composed of diamond shapes connected into a lattice, appears
after initial formation.

Figure 2-15: Li-manganese structure.

The cathode crystalline formation of lithium manganese oxide has a three-dimensional framework structure
that appears after initial formation. Spinel provides low resistance but has more moderate specific energy
than cobalt.
Courtesy of Cadex

Low internal cell resistance enables fast charging and high-current

discharging. In an 18650 package, Li-manganese can be discharged at currents
of 20–30A with moderate heat buildup. It is also possible to apply one-second
load pulses of up to 50A. A continuous high load at this current would cause heat
buildup and the cell temperature cannot exceed 80°C (176°F). Li-manganese is
used for power tools, medical instruments, as well as hybrid and electric
vehicles.
Li-manganese has a capacity that is roughly one-third lower than Li-cobalt.
Design flexibility allows engineers to maximize the battery for either optimal
longevity (life span), maximum load current (specific power) or high capacity
(specific energy). For example, the long-life version in the 18650 cell has a
moderate capacity of only 1,100mAh; the high-capacity version is 1,500mAh.
Figure 2-16 shows the spider web of a typical Li-manganese battery. The
characteristics appear marginal but newer designs have improved in terms of
specific power, safety and life span. Pure Li-manganese batteries are no longer
common today; they may only be used for special applications.

Figure 2-16: Snapshot of a typical Li-manganese battery.

Although moderate in overall performance, newer designs of Li-manganese offer improvements in specific
power, safety and life span.
Source: Boston Consulting Group

Most Li-manganese batteries blend with lithium nickel manganese cobalt

oxide (NMC) to improve the specific energy and prolong the life span. This
combination brings out the best in each system, and the LMO (NMC) is chosen
for most electric vehicles, such as the Nissan Leaf, Chevy Volt and BMW i3.
The LMO part of the battery, which can be about 30 percent, provides high
current boost on acceleration; the NMC part gives the long driving range.
Li-ion research gravitates heavily towards combining Li-manganese with
cobalt, nickel, manganese and/or aluminum as active cathode material. In some
architecture, a small amount of silicon is added to the anode. This provides a 25
percent capacity boost; however, the gain is commonly connected with a shorter
cycle life as silicon grows and shrinks with charge and discharge, causing
mechanical stress.
These three active metals, as well as the silicon enhancement can
conveniently be chosen to enhance the specific energy (capacity), specific power
(load capability) or longevity. While consumer batteries go for high capacity,
industrial applications require battery systems that have good loading
capabilities, deliver a long life and provide safe and dependable service.

Lithium Manganese Oxide: LiMn2O4 cathode. graphite anode

Short form: LMO or Li-manganese (spinel structure) Since 1996

Voltages 3.70V (3.80V) nominal; typical operating range 3.0–4.2V/cell

Specific energy (capacity) 100–150Wh/kg

Charge (C-rate) 0.7–1C typical, 3C maximum, charges to 4.20V (most cells)

Discharge (C-rate) 1C; 10C possible with some cells, 30C pulse (5s), 2.50V cutoff

Cycle life 300–700 (related to depth of discharge, temperature)

Thermal runaway 250°C (482°F) typical. High charge promotes thermal runaway

Applications Power tools, medical devices, electric powertrains

Comments High power but less capacity; safer than Li-cobalt; commonly mixed
with NMC to improve performance.

Summary Table 2-17: Characteristics of lithium manganese oxide.

Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (LiNiMnCoO2 or NMC)

One of the most successful Li-ion systems is a cathode combination of nickel-
manganese-cobalt (NMC). Similar to Li-manganese, these systems can be
tailored to serve as Energy Cells or Power Cells. For example, NMC in an 18650
cell for moderate load condition has a capacity of about 2,800mAh and can
deliver 4–5A; NMC in the same cell optimized for specific power has a capacity
of only about 2,000mWh but delivers a continuous discharge current of 20A. A
silicon-based anode will go to 4,000mAh and higher but at reduced loading
capability and shorter cycle life. Silicon added to graphite has the drawback that
the anode grows and shrinks with charge and discharge, making the cell
mechanically unstable.
The secret of NMC lies in combining nickel and manganese. An analogy of
this is table salt in which the main ingredients, sodium and chloride, are toxic on
their own but mixing them serves as seasoning salt and food preserver. Nickel is
known for its high specific energy but poor stability; manganese has the benefit
of forming a spinel structure to achieve low internal resistance but offers a low
specific energy. Combining the metals enhances each other strengths.
NMC is the battery of choice for power tools, e-bikes and other electric
powertrains. The cathode combination is typically one-third nickel, one-third
manganese and one-third cobalt, also known as 1-1-1. This offers a unique blend
that also lowers the raw material cost due to reduced cobalt content. Another
successful combination is NCM with 5 parts nickel, 3 parts cobalt and 2 parts
manganese. Further combinations using various amounts of cathode materials
are possible. New electrolytes and additives enable charging to 4.4V/cell and
higher to boost capacity. Figure 2-18 demonstrates the characteristics of the
NMC.
Figure 2-18: Snapshot of NMC.
NMC has good overall performance and excels on specific energy. This battery is the preferred candidate
for the electric vehicle and has the lowest self-heating rates.
Source: Boston Consulting Group

There is a move towards NMC-blended Li-ion as the system can be built

economically and it achieves a good performance. The three active materials of
nickel, manganese and cobalt can easily be blended to suit a wide range of
applications for automotive and energy storage systems (EES) that need frequent
cycling. The NMC family is growing in its diversity.

Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide: LiNiMnCoO2 cathode, graphite anode

Short form: NMC (NCM, CMN, CNM, MNC, MCN similar with different metal combinations)
Since 2008

Voltages 3.60V, 3.70V nominal; typical operating range 3.0–4.2V/cell, or higher

Specific energy (capacity) 150–220Wh/kg

Charge (C-rate) .7–1C, charges to 4.20V, some go to 4.30V; 3h charge typical. Charge
current above 1C shortens battery life.

Discharge (C-rate) 1C; 2C possible on some cells; 2.50V cutoff

Cycle life 1000–2000 (related to depth of discharge, temperature)

Thermal runaway 210°C (410°F) typical. High charge promotes thermal runaway

Applications E-bikes, medical devices, EVs, industrial

 Comments Provides high capacity and high power. Serves as Hybrid Cell. Favorite
chemistry for many uses; market share is increasing.

Summary Table 2-19: Characteristics of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC).

Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4)

In 1996, the University of Texas (and other contributors) discovered phosphate
as cathode material for rechargeable lithium batteries. Li-phosphate offers good
electrochemical performance with low resistance. This is made possible with
nano-scale phosphate cathode material. The key benefits are high current rating
and long cycle life, besides good thermal stability, enhanced safety and tolerance
if abused.
Li-phosphate is more tolerant to full charge conditions and is less stressed
than other lithium-ion systems if kept at high voltage for a prolonged time. (See
“How to Prolong Lithium-based Batteries” on page 249.) As a trade-off, the
lower voltage of 3.2V/cell reduces the specific energy to less than that of Li-
manganese. With most batteries, cold temperature reduces performance and
elevated storage temperature shortens the service life, and Li-phosphate is no
exception. Li-Phosphate has a higher self-discharge than other Li-ion batteries,
which can cause balancing issues with aging. Figure 2-20 summarizes the
attributes of Li-phosphate.
Figure 2-20 Snapshot of a typical Li-phosphate battery.
Li-phosphate has excellent safety and long life span but moderate specific energy and elevated self-
discharge.
Courtesy of Cadex

Lithium Iron Phosphate: LiFePO4 cathode, graphite anode

Short form: LFP or Li-phosphate Since 1996

Voltages 3.20, 3.30V nominal; typical operating range 2.5–3.65V/cell

Specific energy (capacity) 90–120Wh/kg

Charge (C-rate) 1C typical, charges to 3.65V; 3h charge time typical

Discharge (C-rate) 1C, 25C on some cells; 40A pulse (2s); 2.50V cutoff (lower that 2V
causes damage)

Cycle life 1000–2000 (related to depth of discharge, temperature)

Thermal runaway 270°C (518°F) Very safe battery even if fully charged

Applications Portable and stationary needing high load currents and endurance

Comments Very flat voltage discharge curve but low capacity. One of safest Li-ions.
Used for special markets. Elevated self-discharge.

Summary Table 2-21: Characteristics of lithium iron phosphate.

Li-phosphate is often used to replace the lead acid starter battery. Four cells
in series produce 12.80V, a similar voltage to six 2V lead acid cells in series.
Vehicles charge lead acid to 14.40V (2.40V/cell) and maintain a topping charge.
With four Li-phosphate cells in series, each cell tops at 3.60V, which is the
correct full-charge voltage. At this point, the charge should be disconnected but
the topping charge continues while driving. Li-phosphate is tolerant to some
overcharge; however, keeping the voltage at 14.40V for a prolonged time, as
most vehicles do on a long drive, could stress Li-phosphate. Cold temperature
operation starting could also be an issue with Li-phosphate as a starter battery.

Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (LiNiCoAlO2)

Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide battery, or NCA, has been around since
1999 for special applications. It shares similarities with NMC by offering high
specific energy, reasonably good specific power and a long life span. Less
flattering are safety and cost. Figure 2-22 summarizes the six key characteristics.
NCA is a further development of lithium nickel oxide; adding aluminum gives
the chemistry greater stability.

Figure 2-22: Snapshot of NCA.

High energy and power densities, as well as good life span, make NCA a candidate for EV powertrains.
High cost and marginal safety are negatives.
Courtesy of Cadex

Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide: LiNiCoAlO2 cathode (~9% Co), graphite anode
Short form: NCA or Li-aluminum. Since 1999

Voltages 3.60V nominal; typical operating range 3.0–4.2V/cell

Specific energy (capacity) 200-260Wh/kg; 300Wh/kg predictable

Charge (C-rate) 0.7C, charges to 4.20V (most cells), 3h charge typical, fast charge
possible with some cells

Discharge (C-rate) 1C typical; 3.0V cutoff; high discharge rate shortens battery life

Cycle life 500 (related to depth of discharge, temperature)

Thermal runaway 150°C (302°F) typical, High charge promotes thermal runaway

Applications Medical devices, industrial, electric powertrain (Tesla)

Comments Shares similarities with Li-cobalt. Serves as Energy Cell.

Summary Table 2-23: Characteristics of lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide.

Lithium Titanate (Li4Ti5O12)
Batteries with lithium titanate anodes have been known since the 1980s. Li-
titanate replaces the graphite in the anode of a typical lithium-ion battery and the
material forms into a spinel structure. The cathode can be lithium manganese
oxide or NMC. Li-titanate has a nominal cell voltage of 2.40V, can be fast
charged and delivers a high discharge current of 10C, or 10 times the rated
capacity. The cycle count is said to be higher than that of a regular Li-ion. Li-
titanate is safe, has excellent low-temperature discharge characteristics and
obtains a capacity of 80 percent at –30°C (–22°F). However, the battery is
expensive and at 65Wh/kg the specific energy is low, rivalling that of NiCd. Li-
titanate charges to 2.80V/cell, and the end of discharge is 1.80V/cell. Figure 2-24
illustrates the characteristics of the Li-titanate battery. Typical uses are electric
powertrains, UPS and solar-powered street lighting.

Figure 2-24: Snapshot of Li-titanate.

Li-titanate excels in safety, low-temperature performance and life span. Efforts are being made to improve
the specific energy and lower cost.
Source: Boston Consulting Group

Lithium Titanate: Can be lithium manganese oxide or NMC; Li4Ti5O12 (titanate) anode
Short form: LTO or Li-titanate Commercially available since about 2008
 Voltages 2.40V nominal; typical operating range 1.8–2.85V/cell

Specific energy (capacity) 70–80Wh/kg

Charge (C-rate) 1C typical; 5C maximum, charges to 2.85V,

Discharge (C-rate) 10C possible, 30C 5s pulse; 1.80V cutoff on LCO/LTO

Cycle life 3,000–7,000

Thermal runaway One of safest Li-ion batteries

Applications UPS, electric powertrain, solar-powered street lighting

Comments Long life, fast charge, wide temperature range but low specific energy
and expensive. Among safest Li-ion batteries.

Summary Table 2-25: Characteristics of lithium titanate.

Figure 2-26 compares the specific energy of lead-, nickel- and lithium-
based systems. While Li-aluminum (NCA) is the clear winner by storing more
capacity than other systems, this only applies to specific energy. In terms of
specific power and thermal stability, Li-manganese (LMO) and Li-phosphate
(LFP) are superior. Li-titanate (LTO) may have low capacity but this chemistry
outlives most other batteries in terms of life span and also has the best cold
temperature performance. Moving towards the electric powertrain, safety and
cycle life will gain dominance over capacity. (LCO stands for Li-cobalt, the
original Li-ion.
Figure 2-26: Specific energy of lead-, nickel- and lithium-based batteries.
NCA enjoys the highest specific energy; however, manganese and phosphate are superior in terms of
specific power and thermal stability. Li-titanate has the best life span.
Courtesy of Cadex

Lithium-polymer: Substance or Hype?

The term polymer is commonly mentioned when describing a lithium-based
battery, yet users cannot distinguish between regular Li-ion and a pack with the
polymer architecture. Adding another battery type has little benefit and only
confuses the market further. While the word “polymer” is perceived as a plastic,
polymers range from synthetic plastics to natural biopolymers and proteins that
form fundamental biological structures.
Lithium-polymer differs from other battery systems in the type of
electrolyte used. The original polymer design dating back to the 1970s used a
solid (dry) polymer electrolyte that resembles a plastic-like film. This insulator
allows the exchange of ions (electrically charged atoms) and replaces the
traditional porous separator that is soaked with electrolyte.
 A solid polymer has poor conductivity at room temperature, and the battery
must be heated to 60°C (140°F) and higher to enable current flow. Large
polymer batteries for stationary applications were installed that needed heating,
but these have since disappeared. The much anticipated hype of the “true plastic
battery” promised in the early 2000s did not materialize as conductivity could
not be attained at ambient temperature.
To make the modern Li-polymer battery conductive at room temperature,
gelled electrolyte has been added. Most Li-ion polymer cells today incorporate a
micro porous separator with some moisture. Li-polymer can be built on many
systems, the likes of Li-cobalt, NMC, Li-phosphate and Li-manganese, and is
not considered a unique battery chemistry. The majority of Li-polymer packs are
cobalt based; other active material may also be added.
With gelled electrolyte, what is the difference between a normal Li-ion and
Li-ion polymer? As far as the user is concerned, lithium polymer is essentially
the same as lithium-ion. Both systems use identical cathode and anode material
and contain a similar amount of electrolyte.
Li-polymer is unique in that a micro porous electrolyte replaces the
traditional porous separator. Li-polymer offers slightly higher specific energy
and can be made thinner than conventional Li-ion, but the manufacturing cost is
said to be higher than cylindrical design. For the purpose of discussion, pouch
cells are often identified as being Li-polymer.
Li-polymer cells also come in a flexible foil-type case that resembles a food
package. While a standard Li-ion needs a rigid case to press the electrodes
together, Li-polymer uses laminated sheets that do not need compression. A foil-
type enclosure reduces the weight by more than 20 percent over the classic hard
shell. Thin film technology liberates the design as the battery can be made into
any shape, fitting neatly into stylish mobile phones and tablets. Li-polymer can
also be made very slim to resemble a credit card. (See “Pouch Cell” page 98.)
Light weight and high specific power make Li-polymer the preferred choice for
hobbyists.
 Charge and discharge characteristics of Li-polymer are identical to other Li-
ion systems and do not require a dedicated charger. Safety issues are also similar
in that protection circuits are needed. Gas buildup during charge can cause some
prismatic and pouch cells to swell, and equipment manufacturers must make
allowances for expansion. Li-polymer in a foil package may be less durable than
Li-ion in the cylindrical package. Table 2-27 compares the advantages and
limitations of Li-ion.

Advantages High specific energy and high load capabilities with Power
Cells
Long cycle and extended shelf-life; maintenance-free
High capacity, low internal resistance, good coulombic
efficiency
Simple charge algorithm and reasonably short charge times
Nickel content makes recycling profitable
Low self-discharge (less than half that of NiCd and NiMH)

Limitations Requires protection circuit to prevent thermal runaway if

stressed
Degrades at high temperature and when stored at high voltage
No rapid charge possible at freezing temperatures (<0°C,
<32°F)
Transportation regulations required when shipping in larger
quantities

Table 2-27: Advantages and limitations of Li-ion batteries

Cycling Performance
To compare older and newer battery systems, Cadex tested a large volume of
nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal-hydride and lithium-ion batteries used in portable
communication devices. Preparations included an initial charge, followed by a
regime of full discharge/charge cycles at a 1C rate. The following tables show
the capacity in percent, DC resistance measurement and self-discharge obtained
from time to time by reading the capacity loss incurred during a 48-hour rest
period. The tests were carried out on Cadex 7000 Series battery analyzers with a
1C charge and discharge and a 100 percent depth-of-discharge (DoD).

Nickel-cadmium
In terms of life cycling, NiCd is the most enduring battery. Figure 2-28 illustrates
capacity, internal resistance and self-discharge of a 7.2V, 900mA pack with
standard NiCd cell. The internal resistance stayed low at 75mΩ and the self-
discharge was stable. Due to time constraints, the test was terminated after 2,300
cycles.
This battery receives a grade “A” rating for almost perfect performance in
terms of minimal capacity loss when cycling with a 100 percent DoD and rock-
solid internal resistance over the entire test. NiCd is the only chemistry that can
be ultra-fast charged with little stress. Due to its safe operation, NiCd remains
the preferred choice of battery on board aircrafts.
Figure 2-28: Performance of standard NiCd. (7.2V, 900mAh)
This battery receives an “A” rating for stable capacity; low internal resistance and moderate self-discharge
over many cycles.

Courtesy of Cadex

The ultra-high capacity nickel-cadmium offers up to 60 percent higher

specific energy compared to the standard version, but this comes at the expense
of reduced cycle life. Figure 2-29 observes a steady drop of capacity during
2,000 cycles, a slight increase in internal resistance and a notable rise in self-
discharge after 1,000 cycles.
Figure 2-29: Performance of ultra-high-capacity NiCd. (6V, 700mAh)
This battery offers higher specific energy than the standard version at the expense of reduced cycle life.

Courtesy of Cadex

Nickel-metal-hydride
Figure 2-30 examines NiMH, a battery that offers high specific energy but loses
capacity after the 300-cycle mark. There is also a rapid increase in internal
resistance after a cycle count of 700 and a rise in self-discharge after 1000
cycles. The test was done on an older generation NiMH.
Figure 2-30: Performance of NiMH. (6V, 950mAh)
This battery offers good performance at first but past 300 cycles, the capacity, internal resistance and self-
discharge start to increase rapidly.

Courtesy of Cadex

Lithium-ion
Figure 2-31 examines the capacity fade of a modern Li-ion Power Cell at a 2A,
10A, 15A and 20A discharge. Stresses increase with higher load currents and this
also applies to fast charging. The rugged Power Cell is more enduring than the
more delicate Energy Cell.
Li-ion manufacturers seldom specify the rise of internal resistance and self-
discharge as a function of cycling. Advancements have been made with
electrolyte additives that keep the resistance low through most of the battery life.
The self-discharge of Li-ion is normally low but it can increase if misused or if
exposed to deep discharges.
Figure 2-31: Cycle characteristics of IHR18650C by E-One Moli. (3.6V, 2,000mA)
18650 Power Cell was charged with 2A and discharged at 2, 10, 15 and 20A. The internal resistance and
self-discharge are N/A.

Source: E-One Moli Energy

Batteries tested in a laboratory tend to provide better results than in the

field. Elements of stress in everyday use do not always transfer well into a test
laboratory. Aging plays a negligible role in a lab because the batteries are cycled
over a period of a few months rather than the expected service life of several
years. The temperature is often moderate and the batteries are charged under
controlled charging condition and with approved chargers.
The load signature also plays a role as all batteries were discharged with a
DC load. Batteries tend to have a lower cycle life if discharged with pulses. (See
“Basics about Discharging” on page 165.) Do not overstress a battery as this will
shorten the life. If a battery must repeatedly be loaded at peak currents, choose a
pack with increased Ah rating.

Alternate Battery Systems

The media promotes wonderful new batteries that promise long runtimes, charge
in minutes, are paper-thin and will one day power the electric car. While these
experimental batteries produce a voltage, the downsides are seldom mentioned.
The typical shortcomings are low load capacity and short cycle life.
As a lemon can be made into a battery, so also has seawater been tried as
electrolyte, but the retrieved energy is only good to light an incandescent
flashlight for a short time before corrosion buildup renders the battery unusable.
Many chemical processes are being tried to generate electricity but only a few
promise to surpass today’s lead, nickel and lithium systems.
There is much media hype, and this may be done in part to attract venture
capitalists to fund research projects. Few products have incubation periods that
are as long as a battery’s. Although glamorous and promising at first, especially
if the battery promises to power the electric vehicle, investment firms are
beginning to realize the high development costs, uncertainties and long gestation
periods before a return can be realized. Meanwhile, universities continue
publishing papers about battery breakthroughs to keep receiving government
funding while private companies throw in a paper or two to appease investors
and boost their own stock value.

Supercapacitor
The supercapacitor, also known as ultracapacitor or double-layer capacitor,
differs from a regular capacitor in that it has very high capacitance. A capacitor
stores energy by means of a static charge as opposed to an electrochemical
reaction. Applying a voltage differential on the positive and negative plates
charges the capacitor. This is similar to the buildup of electrical charge when
walking on a carpet. Touching an object releases the energy through the finger.
 There are three types of capacitors and the most basic is the electrostatic
capacitor with a dry separator. This classic capacitor has very low capacitance
and is mainly used to tune radio frequencies and filtering. The size ranges from a
few pico-farads (pf) to low microfarad (μF).
The electrolytic capacitor provides higher capacitance than the electrostatic
capacitor and is rated in microfarads (μF), which is a million times larger than a
pico-farad. These capacitors deploy a moist separator and are used for filtering,
buffering and signal coupling. Similar to a battery, the electrostatic capacity has
a positive and negative that must be observed.
The third type is the supercapacitor, rated in farads, which is thousands of
times higher than the electrolytic capacitor. The supercapacitor is used for
energy storage undergoing frequent charge and discharge cycles at high current
and short duration.
Farad is a unit of capacitance named after the English physicist Michael
Faraday (1791–1867). One farad stores one coulomb of electrical charge when
applying one volt. One microfarad is one million times smaller than a farad, and
one pico-farad is again one million times smaller than the microfarad.
Engineers at General Electric first experimented with an early version of
supercapacitor in 1957, but there were no known commercial applications. In
1966, Standard Oil rediscovered the effect of the double-layer capacitor by
accident while working on experimental fuel cell designs. The double-layer
greatly improved the ability to store energy. The company did not commercialize
the invention and licensed it to NEC, who in 1978 marketed the technology as
“supercapacitor” for computer memory backup. It was not until the 1990s that
advances in materials and manufacturing methods led to improved performance
and lower cost.
The supercapacitor has evolved and crosses into battery technology by
using special electrodes and electrolyte. While the basic Electrochemical Double
Layer Capacitor (EDLC) depends on electrostatic action, the Asymmetric
Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitor (AEDLC) uses battery-like electrodes
to gain higher energy density, but this has a shorter cycle life and other burdens
that are shared with the battery. Graphene electrodes promise improvements to
supercapacitors and batteries but such developments are 15 years away.
Several types of electrodes have been tried and the most common systems
today are built on the electrochemical double-layer capacitor that is carbon-
based, has an organic electrolyte and is easy to manufacture.
All capacitors have voltage limits. While the electrostatic capacitor can be
made to withstand high volts, the supercapacitor is confined to 2.5–2.7V.
Voltages of 2.8V and higher are possible, but at a reduced service life. To get
higher voltages, several supercapacitors are connected in series. Series
connection reduces the total capacitance and increases the internal resistance.
Strings of more than three capacitors require voltage balancing to prevent any
cell from going into over-voltage. Lithium-ion batteries share a similar
protection circuit.
The specific energy of the supercapacitor ranges from 1Wh/kg to 30Wh/kg,
10–50 times less than Li-ion. The discharge curve is another disadvantage.
Whereas the electrochemical battery delivers a steady voltage in the usable
power band, the voltage of the supercapacitor decreases on a linear scale,
reducing the usable power spectrum.
Take a 6V power source that is allowed to discharge to 4.5V before the
equipment cuts off. By the time the supercapacitor reaches this voltage
threshold, a linear discharge only delivers 44% of the energy; the remaining 56%
is reserved. An optional DC-DC converter helps to recover the energy dwelling
in the low voltage band, but this adds costs and introduces loss. A battery with a
flat discharge curve, in comparison, delivers 90 to 95 percent of its energy
reserve before reaching the voltage threshold.
Figures 2-32 and 2-33 demonstrate voltage and current characteristics on
charge and discharge of a supercapacitor. On charge, the voltage increases
linearly and the current drops by default when the capacitor is full without the
need of a full-charge detection circuit. On discharge, the voltage drops linearly.
To maintain a steady wattage level as the voltage drops, the DC-DC converter
begins drawing more and more current. The end of discharge is reached when
the load requirements can no longer be met.

Figure 2-32: Charge profile of a supercapacitor.

The voltage increases linearly during a constant current charge. When the capacitor is full, the current drops
by default.
Source: PPM Power
Figure 2-33: Discharge profile of a supercapacitor.
The voltage drops linearly on discharge. The optional DC-DC convertor maintains the wattage level by
drawing higher current with dropping voltage.
Source: PPM Power

The charge time of a supercapacitor is 1–10 seconds. The charge

characteristic is similar to an electrochemical battery and the charge current is, to
a large extent, limited by the charger’s current handling capability. The initial
charge can be made very fast, and the topping charge will take extra time.
Provision must be made to limit the inrush current when charging an empty
supercapacitor as it will suck up all it can. The supercapacitor is not subject to
overcharge and does not require full-charge detection; the current simply stops
flowing when full.
Table 2-34 compares the supercapacitor with a typical Li-ion.
 Function Supercapacitor Lithium-ion (general)

Charge time 1–10 seconds 1–3 hours

Cycle life 1 million or 30,000h 500 and higher

Cell voltage 2.30–2.75V 3.60V nominal

Specific energy (Wh/kg) 5 (typical) 120–240
Specific power (W/kg) Up to 10,000 1,000–3,000

Cost per kWh $10,000 (typical) $250–$1,000 (large system)

Service life (industrial) 10–15 years 5–10 years

Charge temperature –40 to 65°C (–40 to 149°F) 0 to 45°C (32° to 113°F)

Discharge temperature –40 to 65°C (–40 to 149°F) –20 to 60°C (–4 to 140°F)

Table 2-34: Performance comparison between supercapacitor and Li-ion.

Source: Maxwell Technologies, Inc.

The supercapacitor can be charged and discharged a virtually unlimited

number of times. Unlike the electrochemical battery, which has a defined cycle
life, there is little wear and tear by cycling a supercapacitor. Age is also kinder to
the supercapacitor than a battery. Under normal conditions, a supercapacitor
fades from the original 100 percent capacity to 80 percent in 10 years. Applying
higher voltages than specified shortens the life. The supercapacitor is forgiving
in hot and cold temperatures, an advantage that batteries cannot meet equally
well.
The self-discharge of a supercapacitor is substantially higher than that of an
electrostatic capacitor and somewhat higher than an electrochemical battery; the
organic electrolyte contributes to this. The supercapacitor discharges from 100 to
50 percent in 30 to 40 days. Lead and lithium-based batteries, in comparison,
self-discharge about 5 percent per month.
Applications
Supercapacitors are ideal when a quick charge is needed to fill a short-term
power need; whereas batteries are chosen to provide long-term energy.
Combining the two into a hybrid battery satisfies both needs and reduces battery
stress, which reflects in a longer service life. Such batteries are being made
available today in the lead acid family.
Supercapacitors are most effective to bridge power gaps lasting from a few
seconds to a few minutes and can be recharged quickly. A flywheel offers similar
qualities, and an application where the supercapacitor competes against the
flywheel is the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) trial in New York. LIRR is one of
the busiest railroads in North America.
To prevent voltage sag during acceleration of a train and to reduce peak
power usage, a 2MW supercapacitor bank is being tested in New York against
flywheels that deliver 2.5MW of power. Both systems must provide continuous
power for 30 seconds at their respective megawatt capacity and fully recharge in
the same time. The goal is to achieve a regulation that is within 10 percent of the
nominal voltage; both systems must have low maintenance and last for 20 years.
(Authorities believe that flywheels are more rugged and energy efficient for this
application than batteries. Time will tell.)
Japan also employs large supercapacitors. The 4MW systems are installed
in commercial buildings to reduce grid consumption at peak demand times and
ease loading. Other applications are to start backup generators during power
outages and provide power until the switch-over is stabilized.
Supercapacitors have also made critical inroads into electric powertrains.
The virtue of ultra-rapid charging during regenerative braking and delivery of
high current on acceleration makes the supercapacitor ideal as a peak-load
enhancer for hybrid vehicles as well as for fuel cell applications. Its broad
temperature range and long life offers an advantage over the battery.
Supercapacitors have low specific energy and are expensive in terms of cost
per watt. Some design engineers argue that the money for the supercapacitor
would be spent better on a larger battery. Table 2-35 summarizes the advantages
and limitations of the supercapacitor.

Advantages Virtually unlimited cycle life; can be cycled millions of time

 High specific power; low resistance enables high load currents
Charges in seconds; no end-of-charge termination required
Simple charging; draws only what it needs; not subject to
overcharge
Safe; forgiving if abused
Excellent low-temperature charge and discharge performance

Limitations Low specific energy; holds a fraction of a regular battery

Linear discharge voltage prevents using the full energy
spectrum
High self-discharge; higher than most batteries
Low cell voltage; requires series connections with voltage
balancing
High cost per watt

Table 2-35: Advantages and limitations of supercapacitors.

Fuel Cell
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen fuel with
oxygen to produce electricity, heat and water. The fuel cell is similar to a battery
in that an electrochemical reaction occurs as long as fuel is available. Hydrogen
is stored in a pressurized container and oxygen is taken from the air. Because of
the absence of combustion, there are no harmful emissions and the only by-
product is fresh water. So pure is the water emitted from the proton exchange
membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) that visitors to Vancouver’s Ballard Power
Systems were served hot tea made from this clean water.
Fundamentally, a fuel cell is electrolysis in reverse, using two electrodes
separated by an electrolyte. The anode (negative electrode) receives hydrogen
and the cathode (positive electrode) collects oxygen. A catalyst at the anode
separates hydrogen into positively charged hydrogen ions and electrons. The
oxygen is ionized and migrates across the electrolyte to the anodic compartment,
where it combines with hydrogen. A single fuel cell produces 0.6–0.8V under
load. Figure 2-36 illustrates the concept of a fuel cell.

Figure 2-36: Concept of a fuel cell.

The anode (negative electrode) receives the hydrogen and the cathode (positive electrode) collects the
oxygen.

Source: US Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Fuel cell technology is twice as efficient as combustion in turning carbon

fuel to energy. Hydrogen, the simplest chemical element (one proton and one
electron), is plentiful and exceptionally clean as a fuel. Hydrogen makes up 90
percent of the universe and is the third most abundant element on the earth’s
surface. Such a wealth of fuel would provide an almost unlimited pool of clean
energy at relatively low cost. But there is a hitch.
In most fuels, hydrogen is bonded to other substances and “unleashing” the
gas takes energy. In terms of net calorific value (NCV), hydrogen is more costly
to produce than gasoline. Some say that hydrogen is nearly energy neutral,
meaning that it takes as much energy to produce as it delivers at the end
destination.
Storage of hydrogen poses a further disadvantage. Pressurized hydrogen
requires heavy steel tanks, and the NCV by volume is about 24 times lower than
a liquid petroleum product. In liquid form, which is much denser, hydrogen
needs extensive insulation for cold storage.
Hydrogen can also be produced with a reformer by means of extraction
from methanol, propane, butane and natural gas. Converting fossil fuel into pure
hydrogen releases some leftover carbon, but it is 90 percent less harmful than
what comes from the tailpipe of a car. Carrying a reformer would increase cost
and add to vehicle weight; reformers are also sluggish. Hydrogen conversion is
in question because it does not solve the energy problem.
Sir William Grove, a Welsh judge and gentleman scientist, developed the
fuel cell concept in 1839, but the invention never took off. This was during the
development of the internal combustion engine (ICE) that showed promising
results. It was not until the 1960s that the fuel cell was put to practical use during
the Gemini space program. NASA preferred this power source to nuclear or solar
power. The alkaline fuel cell system that was chosen generated electricity and
also produced drinking water for the astronauts.
High material costs made the fuel cell prohibitive for commercial use. The
fuel cell core (stack) is expensive and has a limited life span. Burning fossil fuel
in a combustion engine is the simplest and most effective means to harness
energy, but it pollutes.
High cost did not discourage the late Karl Kordesch, the co-inventor of the
alkaline battery, from converting his car to an alkaline fuel cell in the early
1970s. He mounted the hydrogen tank on the roof and placed the fuel cell and
backup batteries in the trunk. According to Kordesch, there was enough room for
four people and a dog. He drove his car for many years in Ohio, USA, but the
only problem, Kordesch told me in person, was that the car did not pass
inspections because it had not tail pipe. Here are the most common fuel cell
concepts.
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
The proton exchange membrane, also known as PEM, uses a polymer
electrolyte. PEM is one of the furthest developed and most commonly used fuel
cell systems; it powers cars, serves as a portable power source and provides
backup power in lieu of stationary batteries in offices. The PEM system allows
compact design and achieves a high energy-to-weight ratio. Another advantage
is a relatively quick start-up when applying hydrogen. The stack runs at a
moderate temperature of 80°C (176°F) and is 50 percent efficient. (The ICE is
25–30 percent efficient.)
On the negative, the PEM fuel cell has high manufacturing costs and a
complex water management system. The stack contains hydrogen, oxygen and
water, and if dry, water must be added to get the system started; too much water
causes flooding. The stack requires chemical grade hydrogen; lower fuel grades
can cause decomposition and clogging of the membrane. Testing and repairing a
stack is difficult, given that a 150V stack requires 250 cells.
Freezing water can damage the stack and heating elements may be added to
prevent ice formation. Start-up is slow when cold and the performance is poor at
first. Excessive heat can also cause damage. Controlling temperatures and
supplying oxygen requires compressors, pumps and other accessories that
consume about 30 percent of the energy generated.
Operating a PEMFC in a vehicle provides a stack life of 2,000–4,000 hours.
Wetting and drying caused by short distance driving contributes to membrane
stress. Running continuously, the stationary stack is good for about 40,000
hours. The stack does not die suddenly but fades similar to a battery. Stack
replacement is a major expense.
Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)
The alkaline fuel cell is the choice for aerospace, including the space shuttle.
Manufacturing and operating costs are low. While the separator for the PEM
costs between $800 and $1,100 per square meter, the same for the alkaline
system is almost negligible. (The separator for a lead acid battery costs about $5
per square meter.) Water management is simple and does not need compressors
and other peripherals; efficiency is in the 60 percent range. A negative is that the
AFC is larger in physical size than the PEM and needs pure oxygen and
hydrogen as fuels. The amount of carbon dioxide present in a polluted city can
poison the stack and this limits the AFC to specialized applications.
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
Electric utilities deploy three types of fuel cells, molten carbonate, phosphoric
acid and solid oxide fuel cells. Among these, the solid oxide (SOFC) is the least
developed, but it has received renewed attention because of breakthroughs in cell
material and stack design. Rather than operating at a very high operating
temperature of 800–1,000°C (1,472–1,832°F), a new generation of ceramic
material has brought the core temperature down to a more manageable 500–
600°C (932–1,112°F). This allows the use of conventional stainless steel rather
than expensive ceramics for auxiliary parts.
High temperature allows direct extraction of hydrogen from natural gas
through a catalytic reforming process. Carbon monoxide, a contaminant for the
PEM, is a fuel for the SOFC. Being able to accept carbon-based fuels without a
designated reformer and delivering high efficiency poses significant advantages
for this type of fuel cell. Co-generation by running steam generators from the
heat by-product raises the efficiency to 60 percent, one of the highest among fuel
cells. As a negative, high stack temperature requires exotic materials for the core
that adds to manufacturing costs and reduces longevity.
Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)
Portable fuel cells have gained attention and the most promising development is
the direct methanol fuel cell. This small unit is inexpensive to manufacture,
convenient to use and does not require pressurized hydrogen gas. The DMFC
has good electrochemical performance and refilling is done by squirting in liquid
or replacing the cartridge. This enables continued operation without downtime.
Manufacturers admit that a direct battery replacement by the fuel cell is
years away. To bridge the gap, the micro fuel cell serves as a charger to provide
continuous operation for the onboard battery. Furthermore, methanol is toxic and
flammable, and there are limitations to how much fuel passengers can carry on
an aircraft. In 2008 the Department of Transportation issued a ruling to permit
passengers and crew to carry an approved fuel cell with an installed methanol
cartridge and up to two additional spare cartridges of 200 ml (6.76 fl oz). This
provision does not yet extend to bottled hydrogen. Figure 2-37 shows a micro
fuel cell by Toshiba and Figure 2-38 demonstrates refueling with methanol that
is 99.5 percent pure.
Improvements are being made, and Toshiba unveiled prototype fuel cells
for laptops and other applications generating 20 to 100 watts. The units are
compact and the specific energy is comparable with that of a NiCd battery.
Meanwhile, Panasonic claims to have doubled the power output with a similar
size, specifying a calendar life of 5,000 hours if the fuel cell is used
intermittently for 8 hours per day. The low longevity of these fuel cell is used
intermittently for 8 hours per day. The low longevity of these fuel cells has been
an issue to be reckoned with.
Figure 2-37: Micro fuel cell. This prototype micro fuel cell is capable of providing 300mW of continuous
power. Both courtesy of Toshiba

Figure 2-38: Toshiba fuel cell with refueling cartridge. The fuel in a 10ml tank is 99.5 percent pure
methanol.

Attempts are being made with small fuel cells running on stored hydrogen.
Increased efficiency and smaller size are the advantages of pure hydrogen over
methanol. These miniature systems have no pumps and fans and are totally
silent. A 21cc cartridge is said to provide the equivalent energy of about 10 AA
alkaline batteries with a runtime between refueling of 20 hours. This lends itself
to portable computing, wireless communications and flashlights for the lone
bicycle rider.
Military and recreational users are also experimenting with the miniature
fuel cell. Figure 2-39 illustrates a portable fuel cell made by SFC Smart Fuel
Cell. The EFOY fuel cell comes in different capacities that ranges from 600 to
2,160 watt-hours per day.

Figure 2-39: Portable fuel cell for consumer market.

The fuel cell converts hydrogen and oxygen to electricity and clean water is the only by-product. Fuel cells
can be used indoors as an electricity generator.

Source: SFC Smart Fuel Cell AG (2010)

Table 2-40 describes the applications and summarizes the advantages and
limitations of common fuel cells. The table also includes the molten carbonate
(MCFC) and phosphoric acid (PAFC), classic fuel cell systems that have been
around for a while and have unique advantages.
Table 2-40: Advantages and limitations of various fuel cell systems. Fuel cell developments have been
gradual; the specific power is low and a direct battery replacement may never be feasible.

Developments
Limitations involve slow start-up times, low power output, sluggish response on
power demand, poor loading capabilities, narrow power bandwidth, short service
life and high cost. Similar to batteries, the performance of all fuel cells degrades
with age, and the stack gradually loses efficiency. Such performance losses are
much less apparent with the ICE.
Fuel cells below 1kW are normally non-pressurized and only use a fan to
aid in oxygen supply; fuel cells above 1kW are pressurized and include a
compressor that lowers efficiency and the system can get rather noisy. The
relatively high internal resistance of fuel cells poses a further challenge. Each
cell of a stack produces about 1 volt in open circuit; a heavy load causes a
notable voltage drop. Similar to the battery, the power bandwidth decreases with
age. Individual cells in the stack are also known to cause failures and
contaminants are large contributors. Figure 2-41 illustrates the voltage and
power bandwidth as a function of load.
Fuel cells operate best at a 30 percent load factor; higher loads reduce
efficiency. This and poor throttle response place the fuel cell into a support mode
or a charger to keep batteries charged. A stand-alone power source, as the
developers had hoped, has not materialized.

Figure 2-41: Power band of a portable fuel cell.

High internal resistance causes the cell voltage to drop rapidly with load. The power band is limited to
between 300 and 800mA.

Courtesy of Cadex

Paradox of the fuel cell

The fuel cell enjoyed the height of popularity in the 1990s, when scientists and
stock promoters envisioned a world running on a clean and inexhaustible
resource — hydrogen. They predicted that cars would run on fuel cells, and that
household electricity would also be generated by fuel cells. The stock prices
skyrocketed but marginal performance, high manufacturing costs and limited
service life moderated the hydrogen dream.
It was said that the fuel cell would transform the world as the
microprocessor did in the 1970s. A clean and inexhaustible source of energy
would become available that would solve the environmental concerns of burning
fossil fuel. From 1999 through 2001, more than 2,000 organizations got actively
involved in fuel cell development, and four of the largest public fuel cell
companies in North America raised over a billion US dollars in public stock
offerings. What went wrong?
Hydrogen is not a source of energy per se but a medium to transport and
store energy similar to electricity that charges a battery. To envision “burning an
endless supply of hydrogen,” the fuel must first be produced, because hydrogen
cannot be pumped from the earth as is possible with oil. While fossil fuel lends
itself well to producing hydrogen, taking this valuable fuel to unleash hydrogen
makes little sense when it costs as much or more for extraction as burning it
directly. The only benefit is reduced greenhouse gases.
Just as the attempt to fly airplanes on steam failed in the mid-1800s, it is
conceivable that the fuel cell will never be the powerhouse scientists had hoped
for. But there is renewed interest in the automotive field in Japan. Fuel cells are
replacing battery banks and diesel generators in office buildings as they can be
installed in tight storage places with minimal maintenance and without the need
for exhaust. Fuel cells allow continuous and pollution-free operation of forklifts
in warehouses, whereas 40MW fuel cells generate clean electricity in remote
locations.
Fuel cells may one day taxi airplanes with electric wheel hub motors. This
would lower pollution and save up to 4 percent fuel by not running the jet
engines. Water produced from the fuel cell while charging the batteries could
serve as on-board drinking water; regenerative braking could further assist in
charging the batteries and supercapacitors for fast charge acceptance. The
ultimate dream is propelling airplanes and vehicles with the clean fuel cell.
Flow Battery
A flow battery is an electrical storage device that is a cross between a
conventional battery and a fuel cell. Liquid electrolyte of metallic salts is
pumped through a core that consists of a positive and negative electrode,
separated by a membrane. The ion exchange that occurs between the cathode
and anode generates electricity.
Most commercial flow batteries use acid sulfur with vanadium salt as
electrolyte; the electrodes are made of graphite bipolar plates. Vanadium is one
of few available active materials that keeps corrosion under control. Flow
batteries have been tried that contain precious metal such as platinum, which is
also used in fuels cells. Research is continuing to find materials that are low cost
and readily available.
Activated by pumps, flow batteries perform best at a size above 20kWh.
They are said to deliver more than 10,000 full cycles and are good for about 20
years. Each cell produces 1.15–1.55 volts; they are connected in series to
achieve the desired voltage levels. The battery has a specific energy of about
40Wh/kg, which resembles lead acid. Similar to the fuel cell, the power density
and ramp-up speed is moderate. This makes the battery best suited for bulk
energy storage; less for electric powertrains and load leveling that requires quick
action.
The electrolyte is stored in tanks. To increase the energy density, the tank
sizes can be doubled using ready-made storage tanks at an estimated cost
increase of only 50 percent compared to a new system. When replacing the
battery, the electrolyte can be reused, further saving cost. Problem areas are the
membranes that tend to corrode and are expensive; additives are said to solve
this issue. Figure 2-42 illustrates the battery concept.
Figure 2-42: Flow battery.
Electrolyte is stored in tanks and pumped through the core to generate electricity; charging is the process in
reverse. The volume of electrolyte governs battery capacity.

Vanadium is the 23rd element on the periodic table and is mined in China,
Russia and South Africa. Sun-backed central Nevada may soon become a
contributor in the form of heavily oxidized crumbled rock. Currently, 90 percent
of lower grade vanadium is used as an additive to strengthen steel. Battery
scientists, mining companies and politicians are excited about vanadium
becoming a strategic metal for “green energy.” As of now, the cost of the flow
battery is similar to that of lithium-ion at about $500/kWh; a future cost of
US$250/kWh seems feasible.
For a more precise cost estimation, the flow battery is divided into power
cost and energy cost. The power cost can go above $1,500/kW and consists of
stacks, pumps, pipes and power electronics. The energy cost consisting of tanks
and electrolyte comes in at a bit more than $300/kWh.
Large scale flow batteries exceeding 100kWh have been in use in Japan
since 1996. Some of the biggest current installations boast a capability of several
megawatts and a flow battery for frequency regulation is being installed in Japan
that will deliver a whooping 60MWh.
There is a move towards cost and size reduction. Rather than building a
monster battery resembling a chemical plant, newer systems come in container-
sizes of typically 250kWh that can be stacked. Modern flow batteries are also
becoming common in Europe.
The first patent for a titanium chloride flow battery was granted in July
1954. The present day vanadium redox battery was patented in 1986 by the
University of New South Wales in Australia. The term “redox” comes from
“electron transfer” of reduction and oxidation.

Sodium-sulfur
Sodium batteries, also known as molten salt or thermal batteries, come in
primary and secondary versions. The battery uses molten salts as an electrolyte
and gains conductivity by heating the stack to a temperature of 400–700°C (752–
1,292°F). Newer designs run at a lower 245–350°C (473–662°F) temperature.
Conceived by the Germans during World War II and used in their V-2
rockets, the electrolyte of the molten salt battery is inactive when cold and has a
long storage of more than 50 years in that state. Once activated with a heat
source, the battery can provide a high power burst for a fraction of a second or
deliver energy over several hours. High power is made possible by the good
ionic conductivity of the molten salt. Primary sodium batteries are almost
exclusively used for the military as a “one-shot” engagement in guided missiles,
but the interest lies in the rechargeable version.
The rechargeable sodium-sulfur (NaS) gained worldwide attention during
the 1970s and 1980s, but short service life and high cost dampened the
enthusiasm. The sodium-nickel-chloride battery, also known as ZEBRA, came to
the rescue, and today this battery is successfully being deployed in many
applications. (ZEBRA stands for Zeolite Battery Research Africa Project.)
 ZEBRA has a nominal cell voltage of 2.58 volts and a specific energy of
90–120Wh/kg, a level comparable with Li-manganese and Li-phosphate. The
service life is about 8 years and delivers about 3,000 cycles. It can be fast
charged, is non-toxic and the raw materials are abundant and low-cost. ZEBRA
batteries come in sizes of 10kWh or higher; typical applications are forklifts,
railways, ships, submarines and electric cars.
The Think City, an electric car, offered purchasers the choice of a ZEBRA
or a Li-ion battery. ZEBRA had advantages over regular batteries when
operating in a hot climate and when the battery is in continuous use, such as in
taxis and delivery vans. A growing market for sodium-based batteries is load
leveling, also known as grid storage.
The ZEBRA battery must be heated to 270–350°C (518–662°F), a
temperature that is lower than the original sodium-sulfur battery. Even with
special insulation that minimizes heat loss, heating consumes 14 percent of the
battery’s energy per day. Since the energy to keep the battery hot is taken from
the battery, the resulting parasitic load amounts to 18 percent. This can be
compared with the high self-discharge of a battery. A cool down takes 3 to 4
days; depending on SoC, reheating is about 2 days.
Common failures are electrical shorts due to corrosion of the insulators,
which then become conductive, as well as growth of dendrites, which increases
self-discharge. ZEBRA batteries are safer than sodium-sulfur, and an electrical
short does not cause a complete failure of the battery.

Zinc-air (Primary & Secondary)

Zinc-air batteries generate electrical power by an oxidation process of zinc and
oxygen from the air. The cell can produce 1.65V; however, cells with 1.4V and
lower voltages achieve a longer lifetime. To activate the battery, the user
removes a sealing tab that enables airflow. The battery reaches full operating
voltage within 5 seconds. Airflow can control the rate of the reaction somewhat
and once turned on, the battery cannot be reverted back to standby mode.
Adding a tape to stop the airflow only slows the chemical activity and the battery
will soon dry out.
The Zinc-air battery shares similarities with the fuel cell by using oxygen
from the air to fuel the positive electrode. It is considered a primary battery, and
recharging versions for high-power applications have been tried. Recharging
occurs by replacing the spent zinc electrodes, which can be in the form of a zinc
electrolyte paste. Other zinc-air batteries use zinc pellets.
At 300–400Wh/kg, zinc-air has a high specific energy but the specific
power is low. Manufacturing cost is low and in a sealed state, zinc-air has a 2
percent self-discharge per year. The battery is sensitive to hot and cold
temperatures and high humidity. Pollution also affects performance; high carbon
dioxide content reduces the performance by increasing the internal resistance.
Typical applications are hearing aids while large systems operate remote railway
signaling and safety lamps at construction sites.

Silver-zinc (Primary & Secondary)

The small silver-based batteries in button cells are typically called silver-oxide
and are non-rechargeable; the higher capacity rechargeable versions are referred
to as silver-zinc. Both have an open circuit voltage of 1.60 volts. Because of the
high cost of silver, these batteries come in either very small sizes where the
amount of silver does not contribute significantly to the overall product cost, or
they are available in larger sizes for critical applications where the superior
performance outweighs any cost considerations.
The primary cells are used for watches, hearing aids and memory backup;
the larger rechargeable version is found in submarines, missiles and aerospace
applications. Silver-zinc also powers TV cameras needing extra runtime. High
cost and short service life locked the silver-zinc out of the commercial market,
but it is on the verge of a rebirth with improvements.
The primary cause of failure in the original design was the decaying of the
zinc electrode and separator. Cycling developed zinc dendrites that pierced
through the separator, causing electrical shorts. In addition, the separator
degraded by sitting in the potassium hydroxide electrolyte. This limited the
calendar life to about 2 years.
Improvements in the zinc electrode and separator promise a longer service
life and a 40 percent higher specific energy than Li-ion. Silver-zinc is safe, has
no toxic metals and can be recycled, but the use of silver makes the battery
expensive to manufacture.

Reusable Alkaline
The reusable alkaline served as an alternative to disposable batteries. Although
fabrication costs were said to be similar to regular alkaline, the consumer did not
accept the product.
Recharging alkaline batteries is not new. Ordinary alkaline batteries have
been recharged in households for many years. Recharging is most effective if
alkaline is discharged to less than 50 percent before recharging. The number of
recharges depends on the depth of discharge and is limited to just a few cycles.
Battery makers do not endorse this practice for safety reasons; charging ordinary
alkaline batteries may generate hydrogen gas that can lead to an explosion.
The reusable alkaline overcomes some of these deficiencies, but a limited
cycle count and low capacity on repeat charge are major drawbacks. Longevity
is also in direct relationship to the depth of discharge. At a 50 percent depth of
discharge, the battery may deliver 50 cycles, but most users run a battery empty
before recharging and the manufacturer, including the inventor Karl Kordesch,
overestimated the eagerness of the user wanting to recharge early. An additional
limitation is its low load current of 400mA, which is only sufficient for
flashlights and personal entertainment devices. NiMH in AA and AAA cells has
mostly replaced the reusable alkaline.

Future Batteries
Experimental batteries live mostly in sheltered laboratories and communicate to
the outside world with promising reports, often to entice investors. Some designs
show unrealistic results with anticipated release dates that move with time. Most
concepts disappear from the battery scene and die gracefully in the lab without
anyone hearing of their passing.
Few other products have similar stringent requirements as the battery, and
the complexity puzzles venture capitalists who did well during the dot-com era
and expect similar generous returns of their investment in only 3 years; battery
development typically takes 10 years. Most venture capitalists don’t have the
patience to wait and they pull back the money, leaving the developer in deep
water. Raising capital is time consuming and many startups devote as much time
and energy to this task as to doing research.
Most experimental batteries in the lithium family have one thing in
common; they use a metallic lithium anode to achieve a higher specific energy
than what is possible with the oxidized cathode in lithium-ion, the battery that is
in common use today.
Moli Energy was first to mass-produce a rechargeable Li-metal battery in
the 1980s, but it posed a serious safety risk as the growth of lithium dendrites
caused electric shorts leading to thermal runaway conditions. The local fire
department knew exactly where to go on a fire alarm at the Moli plant; it was the
battery warehouse. After a venting event injured a battery user, all lithium-metal
packs were recalled in 1989. NEC and Tadiran tried to improve the design with
limited success. Very few companies make rechargeable lithium-metal batteries,
and most offer the primary versions only. Research continues and a possible
solution with new materials as part of the solid-state lithium could be on hand.
This design is described further in this section.
Researchers have also developed an anode structure for Li-ion batteries that
is based on silicon-carbon nanocomposite materials. A silicon anode could
theoretically store 10 times the energy of a graphite anode, but expansions and
shrinkage during charge and discharge make the system unstable. Adding
graphite to the anode is said to achieve a theoretical capacity that is five times
that of regular Li-ion with stable performance, however, the cycle life would be
limited due to structural problems when inserting and extracting lithium-ion at
high volume.
Meeting the eight basic requirements of the octagon battery (page 29) is a
challenge. Commercialization appears to dwell on a moving target that is always
a decade ahead, but scientists are not giving up. Here are some of the most
promising experimental batteries.

Lithium-air (Li-air)
Lithium-air provides an exciting new frontier because this battery promises to
store far more energy than is possible with current lithium-ion technologies.
Scientists borrow the idea from zinc-air and the fuel cell in making the battery
“breathe” air. The battery uses a catalytic air cathode that supplies oxygen, an
electrolyte and a lithium anode.
The theoretical specific energy of lithium-air is 13kWh/kg. Aluminum-air is
also being tried, and it is a bit lower at 8kWh/kg. If these energies could indeed
be delivered, metal-air, as the battery is also known, would be on par with
gasoline at roughly 13kWh/kg. But even if the end product were only one-
quarter of the theoretical energy density, the electric motor with its better than 90
percent efficiency would make up for its lower capacity against the ICE with a
thermal efficiency of only 25–30 percent.
Li-air was proposed in the 1970s and gained renewed interest in the late
2000s, in part because of advancements in material science and the endeavor to
find a better battery for the electric powertrain. Depending on the materials used,
lithium-air produces voltages of between 1.7 and 3.2V/cell. IBM, MIT, the
University of California and other research centers are developing the
technology.
As with other air-breathing batteries, the specific power may be low,
especially at cold temperatures. Air purity is also said to be a challenge as the air
we breathe in our cities is not clean enough for lithium-air and would need to be
filtered. For all we know, the battery may end up with compressors, pumps and
filters resembling a fuel cell, consuming 30 percent of its produced energy for
auxiliary support to stay alive.
Another problem is the sudden death syndrome. Lithium and oxygen form
lithium peroxide films that produce a barrier, which prevents electron movement
and results in an abrupt reduction in the battery’s storage capacity. Scientists are
experimenting with additives to prevent the film formation. The cycle life will
also need to improve; lab tests currently produce only 50 cycles.

Lithium-metal (Li-metal)
After several failed attempts to commercialize rechargeable lithium-metal
batteries, research and limited manufacturing of this battery continues. In 2010, a
trial lithium-metal with a capacity of 300Wh/kg was installed in an experimental
electric vehicle. DBM Energy, the German manufacturer of this battery, claims
2,500 cycles, short charge times and competitive pricing if the battery were
mass-produced.
An Audi A2 with these batteries drove over 450km (284mi) from Munich
to Berlin on a single charge. There is a rumor that the car destroyed itself by a
fire while on a laboratory test. Although the lithium-metal batteries passed the
stringent approval tests, long-term safety remains an issue because metal
filaments can form that might cause an electric short.
At 300Wh/kg, lithium-metal has one of the highest specific energies of
lithium-based rechargeable batteries. NCA in the Tesla S 85 comes in at
250Wh/kg, LMO in the BMW i3 has 120Wh/kg and a similar chemistry in the
Nissan Leaf has 80–96Wh/kg. The BMW i3 and Leaf batteries are made for high
durability; Tesla achieves this by over-sizing.

Solid-state Lithium
The current Li-ion uses a graphite anode and this reduces the specific energy.
Solid-state technology replaces graphite with pure lithium and substitutes the
liquid electrolyte soaked in a porous separator with a solid polymer or a ceramic
separator. This resembles the 1970 lithium-polymer that was discontinued due to
safety and performance reasons.
The solid-state battery shares similarity with lithium-metal and scientists
are trying to overcome the problem of metallic filament formation with the use
of dry polymer and ceramic separators. Additional challenges are achieving
sufficient conductivity at cool temperatures and the need to improve the cycle
count. Solid-state prototypes are said to only reach 100 cycles.
Solid-state batteries promise to store twice the energy compared to regular
Li-ion, but the loading capabilities might be low, making them less suited for
electric powertrains and similar applications requiring high currents. Targeted
applications are load leveling for renewable energy sources as well as EVs by
cashing in on the short charge times that this battery allows. Research
laboratories, including Bosch, predict that the solid-state battery might become
commercially available by 2020 and be implemented in cars in 2025.

Lithium-sulfur (Li-S)
By virtue of the low atomic weight of lithium and the moderate weight of sulfur,
lithium-sulfur batteries offer a very high specific energy of 550Wh/kg, about
three times that of Li-ion. Li-S also has a respectable specific power of
2,500W/kg. During discharge, lithium dissolves from the anode surface and
reverses itself when charging by plating itself back onto the anode. Li-S has a
cell voltage of 2.10V, offers good cold temperature discharge characteristics and
can be recharged at –60°C (–76°F). The battery is environmentally friendly;
sulfur, the main ingredient, is abundantly available and inexpensive. A price of
US$250 per kWh is said to be possible.
A typical Li-ion has a graphite anode that hosts lithium-ions much like a
hotel books guests. On discharge, the anode releases the ions to the cathode,
replicating guests checking out in the morning. In Li-S, graphite is replaced by
lithium metal, a catalyst that provides double duty as electrode and supplier of
lithium ions. The Li-S battery gets rid of “dead weight” by replacing the metal
oxide cathode used in a Li-ion with cheaper and lighter sulfur. Sulfur has the
added advantage of double-booking lithium atoms, something Li-ion cannot do.
A challenge with lithium-sulfur is the limited cycle life of only 40–50
charges/discharges as sulfur is lost during cycling by shuttling away from the
cathode and reacting with the lithium anode. Other problems are poor
conductivity, a degradation of the sulfur cathode with time and poor stability at
higher temperatures. Since 2007, Stanford engineers have experimented with
nanowire. Trials with graphene are also being done with promising results.

Sodium-ion (Na-ion)
Sodium-ion represents a possible lower-cost alternative to Li-ion as sodium is
inexpensive and readily available. Put aside in the late 1980s in favor of lithium,
Na-ion has the advantage that it can be completely discharged without
encountering stresses that are common with other battery systems. The battery
can also be shipped without having to adhere to Dangerous Goods Regulations.
Some cells have 3.6V, and the specific energy is about 90Wh/kg with a cost per
kWh that is similar to the lead acid battery. Further development will be needed
to improve the cycle count and solve the large volumetric expansion when the
battery is fully charged.
 Chapter 3 | Packaging and Safety

A Look at Old and New Battery Formats

Early batteries of the 1700s and 1800s developed in Europe were mostly encased
in glass jars. As batteries grew in size, jars shifted to sealed wooden containers
and composite materials. In the 1890s, battery manufacturing spread from
Europe to the United States and in 1896 the National Carbon Company
successfully produced a standard cell for widespread consumer use. It was the
zinc-carbon Columbia Dry Cell Battery producing 1.5 volts and measuring 6
inches in length.
With the move to portability, sealed cylindrical cells emerged that led to
standard sizes. The International Electrochemical Commission (IEC), a non-
governmental standards organization founded in 1906, developed standards for
most rechargeable batteries. In around 1917, the National Institute of Standards
and Technology formalized the alphabet nomenclature that is still used today.
Table 3-1 summarizes these historic and current battery sizes.
Standardization included primary cells, mostly in zinc-carbon; alkaline
emerged only in the early 1960s. With the growing popularity of the sealed
nickel-cadmium in the 1950s and 1960s, new sizes appeared, many of which
were derived from the “A” and “C” sizes. Beginning in the 1990s, makers of Li-
ion departed from conventional sizes and invented their own standards.
A successful standard is the 18650 cylindrical cell. Developed in the early
1990s for lithium-ion, these cells are used in laptops, electric bicycles and even
electric vehicles (Tesla). The first two digits of 18650 designate the diameter in
millimeters; the next three digits are the length in tenths of millimeters. The
18650 cell is 18mm in diameter and 65.0mm in length.
Other sizes are identified with a similar numbering scheme. For example, a
prismatic cell carries the number 564656P. It is 5.6mm thick, 46mm wide and
56mm long. P stands for prismatic. Because of the large variety of chemistries
and their diversity within, battery cells do not show the chemistry.
Looking at the batteries in mobile phones and laptops, one sees a departure
from established standards. This is due in part to the manufacturers’ inability to
agree on a standard, meaning that most consumer devices come with custom-
made cells or battery packs. Compact design and market demand are swaying
manufacturers to go their own way. High volume with planned obsolescence
allows the production of unique sizes in consumer products.
In the early days, a battery was perceived “big” by nature, and this is
reflected in the sizing convention. While the “F” nomenclature may have been
seen as mid-sized in the late 1800s, our forefathers did not anticipate that a
battery resembling a credit card could power computers, phones and cameras.
Running out of letters towards the smaller sizes led to the awkward numbering
of AA, AAA and AAAA.
Table 3-1: Common old and new battery norms.

Since the introduction of the 9V battery in 1956, no new formats have

emerged. Meanwhile portable devices lowered the operating voltages to between
3V and 5V. Switching six cells in series (6S) to attain 9V is expensive to
manufacture, and a 3.6V alternative would serve better. This imaginary new
pack would have a coding system to prevent charging primaries and select the
correct charge algorithm for secondary chemistries.
Starter batteries for vehicles also follow battery norms that are based on the
North American BCI, the European DIN and the Japanese JIS standards. These
batteries are similar in footprint to allow swapping. Deep-cycle and stationary
batteries follow no standardized norms and the replacement packs must be
sourced from the original maker. The attempt to standardize electric vehicle
batteries may not work and might follow the failed attempt to standardize laptop
batteries in the 1990s.

Cylindrical Cell
The cylindrical cell continues to be one of the most widely used packaging styles
for primary and secondary batteries. The advantages are ease of manufacture and
good mechanical stability. The tubular cylinder can withstand high internal
pressures without deforming.
Most lithium and nickel-based cylindrical cells include a positive thermal
coefficient (PTC) switch. When exposed to excessive current, the normally
conductive polymer heats up and becomes resistive, stopping current flow and
acting as short circuit protection. Once the short is removed, the PTC cools
down and returns to the conductive state.
Most cylindrical cells also feature a pressure relief mechanism, and the
simplest design utilizes a membrane seal that ruptures under high pressure.
Leakage and dry-out may occur after the membrane breaks. Re-sealable vents
with a spring-loaded valve are the preferred design. Some Li-ion cells connect
the pressure relief valve to an electrical fuse that permanently opens the cell if an
unsafe pressure builds up. Figure 3-2 shows a cross section of a cylindrical cell.
Figure 3-2: Cross section of a lithium-ion cylindrical cell.
The cylindrical cell design has good cycling ability, offers a long calendar life and is economical, but it is
heavy and has low packaging density due to space cavities.
Source: Sanyo

Typical applications for the cylindrical cell are power tools, medical
instruments, laptops and e-bikes. To allow variations within a given size,
manufacturers use partial cell lengths, such as half and three-quarter formats,
and nickel-cadmium provides the largest variety of cell choices. Some spilled
over to nickel-metal-hydride but not to lithium-ion as this chemistry established
its own formats. The 18650s illustrated in Figure 3-3 remains one of the most
popular cell packages. Typical applications for the 18650 Li-ion are power tools,
medical devices, laptops and e-bikes.
Figure 3-3: Popular 18650 lithium-ion cell.
The metallic cylinder measures 18mm in diameter and 65mm in length. The larger 26650 cell measures
26mm in diameter.
Courtesy of Cadex

In 2013, 2.55 billion 18650 cells were produced. Early Energy Cells had
2.2Ah; this was replaced with the 2.8Ah cell. The new cells are now 3.1Ah with
an increase to 3.4Ah by 2017. Cell manufacturers are preparing for the 3.9Ah
18650.
The 18650 could well be the most optimized cell; it offers one of the lowest
costs per Wh and has good reliability records. As consumers move to the flat
designs in smart phones and tablets, the demand for the 18650 is fading and
Figure 3-4 shows the over-supply that is being corrected thanks to the demand of
the Tesla electric vehicles that also uses this cell format for now.
Figure 3-4: Demand and supply of the 18650.
The demand for the 18650 would have peaked in 2011 had it not been for Tesla. The switch to a flat-design
in consumer products and larger format for the electric powertrain will eventually saturate the 18650.
Source: Avicenne Energy

The larger 26650 cell with a diameter of 26mm does not enjoy the same
popularity as the 18650. The 26650 is commonly used in load-leveling systems.
A thicker cell is said to be harder to build than a thinner one. Making the cell
longer is preferred.
Some lead acid systems also borrow the cylindrical design. Known as the
Hawker Cyclone, this cell offers improved cell stability, higher discharge
currents and better temperature stability compared to the conventional prismatic
design. The Hawker Cyclone has its own format.
Even though the cylindrical cell does not fully utilize the space by creating
air cavities on side-by-side placement, the 18650 has a higher energy density
than a prismatic/pouch Li-ion cell. The 3Ah 18650 delivers 248Ah/kg, whereas a
modern pouch cell has about 140Ah/kg. The higher energy density of the
cylindrical cell compensates for its less ideal stacking abilities and the empty
space can always be used for cooling to improve thermal management.
Cell disintegration cannot always be prevented but propagation can.
Cylindrical cells are often spaced apart to stop propagation should one cell take
off. Spacing also helps in the thermal management. In addition, a cylindrical
design does not change size. In comparison, a 5mm prismatic cell can expand to
8mm with use and allowances must be made.

Button Cell
The button cell, also known as coin cell, enabled compact design in portable
devices of the 1980s. Higher voltages were achieved by stacking the cells into a
tube. Cordless telephones, medical devices and security wands at airports used
these batteries.
Although small and inexpensive to build, the stacked button cell fell out of
favor and gave way to more conventional battery formats. A drawback of the
button cell is swelling if charged too rapidly. Button cells have no safety vent
and can only be charged at a 10- to 16-hour charge; however, newer designs
claim rapid charge capability.
Most button cells are non-rechargeable and are found in medical implants,
watches, hearing aids, car keys and memory backup. Figure 3-5 shows the
button cells with a cross section.
Figure 3-5: Button or coin cells.
Provides small size, most are primary for single-cell use.
Source: Sanyo and Panasonic

CAUTION Keep button cells to out of reach of children. Swallowing a cell can cause serious health
problems. See “Health Concerns with Batteries” on page 198.

Prismatic Cell
Introduced in the early 1990s, the modern prismatic cell satisfies the demand for
thinner sizes. Wrapped in elegant packages resembling a box of chewing gum or
a small chocolate bar, prismatic cells make optimal use of space by using the
layered approach. Other designs are wound and flattened into a pseudo-prismatic
jelly roll. These cells are predominantly found in mobile phones, tablets and
low-profile laptops ranging from 800mAh to 4,000mAh. No universal format
exists and each manufacturer designs its own.
Prismatic cells are also available in large formats. Packaged in welded
aluminum housings, the cells deliver capacities of 20–50Ah and are primarily
used for electric powertrains in hybrid and electric vehicles. Figure 3-6 shows
the prismatic cell.
Figure 3-6: Cross section of a prismatic cell.
The prismatic cell improves space utilization and allows flexible design but it can be more expensive to
manufacture, less efficient in thermal management and have a shorter cycle life than the cylindrical design.
Allow for some swelling.
Source: Polystor Energy Corporation

The prismatic cell requires a firm enclosure to achieve compression. Some

swelling due to gas buildup is normal, and growth allowance must be made; a
5mm (0.2”) cell can grow to 8mm (0.3”) after 500 cycles. Discontinue using the
battery if the distortion presses against the battery compartment. Bulging
batteries can damage equipment and compromise safety.

Pouch Cell
In 1995, the pouch cell surprised the battery world with a radical new design.
Rather than using a metallic cylinder and glass-to-metal electrical feed-through,
conductive foil-tabs were welded to the electrodes and brought to the outside in
a fully sealed way. Figure 3-7 shows a pouch cell.
 The pouch cell makes most efficient use of space and achieves 90–95
percent packaging efficiency, the highest among battery packs. Eliminating the
metal enclosure reduces weight, but the cell needs some support and allowance
to expand in the battery compartment. The pouch packs are used in consumer,
military and automotive. No standardized pouch cells exist; each manufacturer
designs its own.

Figure 3-7: The pouch cell.

The pouch cell offers a simple, flexible and lightweight solution to battery design. Some stack pressure is
recommended but allowance for swelling must be made. The pouch cells can deliver high load currents but
it performs best under light loading conditions and with moderate charging.
Source: A123

Pouch packs are commonly Li-polymer. Small cells are popular for portable
applications requiring high load currents, such as drones and hobby gadgets. The
larger cells in the 40Ah range serve in energy storage systems (ESS) because
fewer cells simplify the battery design.
Although easily stackable, provision must be made for swelling. While
smaller pouch packs can grow 8–10 percent over 500 cycles, large cells may
expand to that size in 5,000 cycles. It is best not to stack pouch cells on top of
each other but to lay them flat, side by side or allow extra space in between
them. Avoid sharp edges that can stress the pouch cells as they expand.
Extreme swelling is a concern. Users of pouch packs have reported up to 3
percent swelling incidents on a poor batch run. The pressure created can crack
the battery cover and, in some cases, break the display and electronic circuit
boards. Discontinue using an inflated battery and do not puncture the bloating
cell in close proximity to heat or fire. The escaping gases can ignite. Figure 3-8
shows a swollen pouch cell.

Figure 3-8: Swollen pouch cell.

Swelling can occur due to gassing. Improvements are being made with newer designs. Large pouch cells
designs experience less swelling.
Courtesy of Cadex

Pouch cells are manufactured by adding a temporary “gasbag” on the side.

During the first charge, gases escape into the gasbag, the gasbag is cut off and
the pack is resealed as part of the finishing process. Subsequent charges should
no longer produce gases. Ballooning most often hints to a flawed batch;
however, some growth with cycling is normal.
 The technology has matured and prismatic and pouch cells have the
potential for greater capacity than the cylindrical format. Large flat packs serve
electric powertrains and Energy Storage System (ESS) with good results. The
cost per kWh in the prismatic/pouch cell is still higher than with the 18650 cell,
but this is changing. Figure 3-9 compares the price of the cylindrical, prismatic
and pouch cells, also known as laminated. Flat-cell designs are getting price
competitive and battery experts predict a shift towards these cell formats,
especially if the same performance criteria of the cylindrical cell can be met.

Figure 3-9: Price of Li-ion ($US/Wh).

Historically, manufacturing costs of prismatic and pouch formats (laminate) were higher, but they are
converging with cellular design. Pricing involves the manufacturing of the bare cells only.
Source: Avicenne Energy

Summary
With the pouch cell, the manufacturer is attempting to simplify cell
manufacturing by replicating the packaging of food. Each format has pros and
cons as summarized below.

Cylindrical cell has high specific energy, good mechanical stability and
 lends itself to automated manufacturing. Cell design allows added safety
features that are not possible with other formats; it cycles well, offers a
long calendar life and is low cost, but it has less than ideal packaging
density. The cylindrical cell is commonly used for portable applications.
Prismatic cell is encased in aluminum or steel for stability. Jelly-rolled or
stacked, the cell is space-efficient but can be costlier to manufacture than
the cylindrical cell. The modern prismatic cell is used in the electric
powertrain and energy storage systems.
Pouch cell uses laminated architecture in a bag. It is light and cost-
effective but exposure to humidity and high temperature can shorten life.
Light stack pressure adds to longevity by preventing delamination.
Swelling of 8–10 percent over 500 cycles must be considered with some
cell designs. Large cells work best with light loading and moderate charge
times. The pouch cell is growing in popularity and serves similar
applications to the prismatic cell.

Series and Parallel Connection

Batteries achieve the desired operating voltage by connecting several cells in
series; each cell adds its voltage potential to derive at the total terminal voltage.
Parallel connection attains higher capacity by adding up the total ampere-hour
(Ah).
Some packs may consist of a combination of series and parallel
connections. Laptop batteries commonly have four 3.6V Li-ion cells in series to
achieve a nominal voltage of 14.4V and two in parallel to boost the capacity
from 2,400mAh to 4,800mAh. Such a configuration is called 4S2P, meaning four
cells in series and two in parallel. Insulating foil between the cells prevents the
conductive metallic skin from causing an electrical short.
Most battery chemistries lend themselves to series and parallel connection.
It is important to use the same battery type with equal voltage and capacity (Ah)
and never to mix different makes and sizes. A weaker cell would cause an
imbalance. This is especially critical in a series configuration because a battery
is only as strong as the weakest link in the chain. An analogy is a chain in which
the links represent the cells of a battery connected in series. (Figure 3-10).
Figure 3-10: Comparing a battery with a chain.
Chain links represent cells in series to increase voltage, doubling a link denotes parallel connection to boost
current loading.

A weak cell may not fail immediately but will get exhausted more quickly
than the strong ones when on a load. On charge, the low cell fills up before the
strong ones because there is less to fill and it remains in over-charge longer than
the others. On discharge, the weak cell empties first and gets hammered by the
stronger brothers. Cells in multi-packs must be matched, especially when used
under heavy loads (See “Cell Matching and Balancing” on page 231.)
Single Cell Applications
The single-cell configuration is the simplest battery pack; the cell does not need
matching and the protection circuit on a small Li-ion cell can be kept simple.
Typical examples are mobile phones and tablets with one 3.60V Li-ion cell.
Other uses of a single cell are wall clocks, which typically use a 1.5V alkaline
cell, wristwatches and memory backup, most of which are very low power
applications.
The nominal cell voltage for a nickel-based battery is 1.2V, alkaline is 1.5V,
silver-oxide is 1.6V and lead acid is 2.0V. Primary lithium batteries range
between 3.0V and 3.9V. Li-ion is 3.6V; Li-phosphate is 3.2V and Li-titanate is
2.4V.
Li-manganese and other lithium-based systems often use cell voltages of
3.7V and higher. This has less to do with chemistry than promoting a higher
watt-hour (Wh), which is made possible with a higher voltage. The argument
goes that a low internal cell resistance keeps the voltage high under load. For
operational purposes these cells go as 3.6V candidates.
Series Connection
Portable equipment needing higher voltages use battery packs with two or more
cells connected in series. Figure 3-11 shows a battery pack with four 3.6V Li-ion
cells in series, also known as 4S, to produce 14.4V nominal. In comparison, a
six-cell lead acid string with 2V/cell will generate 12V, and four alkaline with
1.5V/cell will give 6V.

Figure 3-11: Series connection of four cells (4S). Adding cells in a string increases the voltage; the
capacity remains the same.

If you need an odd voltage of, say, 9.50 volts, connect five lead acid, eight
NiMH or NiCd, or three Li-ion in series. The end battery voltage does not need
to be exact as long as it is higher than what the device specifies. A 12V supply
might work in lieu of 9.50V. Most battery-operated devices can tolerate some
over-voltage; the end-of-discharge voltage must be respected, however.
High voltage batteries keep the conductor size small. Cordless power tools
run on 12V and 18V batteries; high-end models use 24V and 36V. Most e-bikes
come with 36V Li-ion, some are 48V. The car industry wanted to increase the
starter battery from 12V (14V) to 36V, better known as 42V, by placing 18 lead
acid cells in series. Logistics of changing the electrical components and arcing
problems on mechanical switches derailed the move.
Some mild hybrid cars run on 48V Li-ion and use DC-DC conversion to
12V for the electrical system. Starting the engine is often done by a separate 12V
lead acid battery. Early hybrid cars ran on a 148V battery; electric vehicles are
typical 450–500V. Such a battery needs more than 100 Li-ion cells connected in
series.
High-voltage batteries require careful cell matching, especially when
drawing heavy loads or when operating at cold temperatures. With multiple cells
connected in a string, the possibility of one cell failing is real and this would
cause a failure. To prevent this from happening, a solid state switch in some
large packs bypasses the failing cell to allow continued current flow, albeit at a
lower string voltage.
Cell matching is a challenge when replacing a faulty cell in an aging pack.
A new cell has a higher capacity than the others, causing an imbalance. Welded
construction adds to the complexity of the repair, and this is why battery packs
are commonly replaced as a unit.
High-voltage batteries in electric vehicles, in which a full replacement
would be prohibitive, divide the pack into modules, each consisting of a specific
number of cells. If one cell fails, only the affected module is replaced. A slight
imbalance might occur if the new module is fitted with new cells. (See “How to
Repair a Battery Pack” on page 290.)
Cell 3 in Figure 3-12 produces only 2.8V instead of the full nominal 3.6V.
With depressed operating voltage, this battery reaches the end-of-discharge point
sooner than a normal pack. The voltage collapses and the device turns off with a
“Low Battery” message.

Figure 3-12: Series connection with a faulty cell. Faulty cell 3 lowers the voltage and cuts the equipment
off prematurely.

Batteries in drones and remote controls for hobbyist requiring high load
current often exhibit an unexpected voltage drop if one cell in a string is weak.
Drawing maximum current stresses frail cells, leading to a possible crash.
Reading the voltage after a charge does not identify this anomaly; examining the
cell-balance or checking the capacity with a battery analyzer will.
Parallel Connection
If higher currents are needed and larger cells are not available or do not fit the
design constraint, one or more cells can be connected in parallel. Most battery
chemistries allow parallel configurations with little side effect. Figure 3-13
illustrates four cells connected in parallel in a P4 arrangement. The nominal
voltage of the illustrated pack remains at 3.60V, but the capacity (Ah) and
runtime are increased fourfold.

Figure 3-13: Parallel connection of four cells (4P).

With parallel cells, capacity in Ah and runtime increases while the voltage stays the same.
Courtesy of Cadex

A cell that develops high resistance or opens is less critical in a parallel

circuit than in a series configuration, but a failing cell will reduce the total load
capability. It’s like an engine only firing on three cylinders instead of on all four.
An electrical short, on the other hand, is more serious as the faulty cell drains
energy from the other cells, causing a fire hazard. Most so-called electrical
shorts are mild and manifest themselves as elevated self-discharge.
A total short can occur through reverse polarization or dendrite growth.
Large packs often include a fuse that disconnects the failing cell from the
parallel circuit if it shorts. Figure 3-14 illustrates a parallel configuration with
one faulty cell.

Figure 3-14: Parallel connection with one faulty cell.

A weak cell will not affect the voltage but provide a low runtime due to reduced capacity. A shorted cell
could cause excessive heat and become a fire hazard. A fuse prevents on larger packs a high current rush by
isolating the cell.
Courtesy of Cadex

Series/parallel Connection
The series/parallel configuration shown in Figure 3-15 enables design flexibility
while achieving the desired voltage and current ratings with a standard cell size.
The total power is the product of voltage-times-current; four 3.6V cells
multiplied by 3,400mAh produce 12.24Wh. Four 18650 Energy Cells of
3,400mAh each can be connected in series and parallel as shown to get 7.2V and
12.24Wh. The slim cell allows flexible pack design but a protection circuit is
needed.

Figure 3-15: Series/parallel connection of four cells (2S2P).

This configuration provides maximum design flexibility. Paralleling the cells helps in voltage management.
Courtesy of Cadex

Li-ion lends itself well to series/parallel configurations but the cells need
monitoring to stay within voltage and current limits. Integrated circuits (ICs) for
various cell combinations are available to supervise up to 13 Li-ion cells. Larger
packs need custom circuits, and this also applies to the Tesla Model 85 that
devours over 7,000 18650 cells to make up the 90kWh pack.

Simple Guidelines for Using Household Primary Batteries

Keep the battery contacts clean. A four-cell configuration has eight

contacts and each contact adds resistance (cell to holder and holder to next
cell).
Never mix batteries; replace all cells when weak. The overall performance
is only as good as the weakest link in the chain.
Observe polarity. A reversed cell subtracts rather than adds to the cell
voltage.
Remove batteries from the equipment when no longer in use to prevent
leakage and corrosion. This is especially important with zinc-carbon
 primary cells.
Do not store loose cells in a metal box. Place individual cells in small
plastic bags to prevent an electrical short. Do not carry loose cells in your
pockets.
Keep batteries away from small children. In addition to being a choking
hazard, the current-flow of the battery can ulcerate the stomach wall if
swallowed. The battery can also rupture and cause poisoning. (See
“Health Concerns with Batteries” on page 198.)
Do not recharge non-rechargeable batteries; hydrogen buildup can lead to
an explosion. Perform experimental charging only under supervision.

Simple Guidelines for Using Secondary Batteries

Observe polarity when charging a secondary cell. Reversed polarity can

cause an electrical short, leading to a hazardous condition.
Remove fully charged batteries from the charger. A consumer charger may
not apply the correct trickle charge when fully charged and the cell can
overheat.
Charge only at room temperature.

Confusion with Voltages

A battery is an electrochemical device that produces a voltage potential when
placing metals of different affinities into an acid solution (electrolyte). The open
circuit voltage (OCV) that develops as part of an electrochemical reaction varies
with the metals and electrolyte used.
Applying a charge or discharge places the battery into the closed circuit
voltage (CCV) condition. Charging raises the voltage and discharging lowers it,
simulating a rubber band effect. The voltage behavior under a load and charge is
governed by the current flow and the internal battery resistance. A low resistance
produces low fluctuation under load or charge; a high resistance causes the
voltage to swing excessively. Charging and discharging agitates the battery; full
voltage stabilization takes up to 24 hours. Temperature also plays a role; a cold
temperature lowers the voltage and heat raises it.
Manufacturers rate a battery by assigning a nominal voltage, and with a few
exceptions, these voltages follow an agreed convention. Here are the nominal
voltages of the most common batteries in brief.
Lead Acid
The nominal voltage of lead acid is 2 volts per cell, however when measuring
the open circuit voltage, the OCV of a charged and rested battery should be
2.1V/cell. Keeping lead acid much below 2.1V/cell will cause the buildup of
sulfation. While on float charge, lead acid measures about 2.25V/cell, higher
during normal charge.
Nickel-based
In consumer applications, NiCd and NiMH are rated at 1.20V/cell; industrial,
aviation and military batteries may adhere to the original 1.25V rating. There is
no difference between the 1.20V and 1.25V cell; the marking is simply
preference.
Lithium-ion
The nominal voltage of lithium-ion is 3.60V/cell. Some cell manufacturers mark
their Li-ion as 3.70V/cell or higher. This offers a marketing advantage because
the higher voltage boosts the watt-hours on paper (voltage times current equals
watts). The 3.70V/cell rating also creates unfamiliar references of 11.1V and
14.8V when connecting three and four cells in series rather than the more
familiar 10.80V and 14.40V respectively. Equipment manufacturers adhere to
the nominal cell voltage of 3.60V for most Li-ion systems as a power source.
How did this higher voltage creep in? The cell manufacturer plots the
voltage of a fully charged cell that measures 4.20V, discharges it at 0.5C to 3.0V
and takes the mid-way point. For Li-cobalt the mid-way point is about 3.60V.
The same scan done on Li-manganese with a lower internal resistance gives an
average voltage of about 3.70V. It should be noted that the higher voltage is
arbitrary and does not affect the operation of portable devices or the setting of
chargers.
 The phosphate-based lithium-ion has a nominal cell voltage of 3.20 and
3.30V; lithium-titanate is 2.40V. This voltage differences make these chemistries
incompatible with regular Li-ion in terms of cell count and charging algorithm.

Protection Circuits
Batteries can release high energies and the safety requirements for nickel- and
lithium-based batteries and cells for portable applications are harmonized under
IEC 62133. The standard came into effect in 2012 to reduce the global risk in
transporting, storing and operating batteries.
The most basic safety device in a battery is a fuse that opens on high
current. Some fuses open permanently and render the battery useless; others are
more forgiving and reset. The positive thermal coefficient (PTC) is such a re-
settable device that creates high resistance on excess current and reverts back to
the low ON position when the condition normalizes.
Further layers of safeguards are solid-state switches that measure the
current and voltage and disconnect the circuit if the values are too high. The
protection circuits of Li-ion work on this on/off basis. All switching devices
have a residual resistance, which causes a slight increase in overall battery
resistance and a subsequent voltage drop.

Intrinsically Safe Batteries

Safety is vitally important when using electronic devices in hazardous areas.
Intrinsic safety (IS) ensures harmless operation in areas where an electric spark
could ignite flammable gas or dust. Hazardous areas include oil refineries,
chemical plants, grain elevators and textile mills.
All electronic devices entering a hazardous area must be intrinsically safe.
This includes two-way radios, mobile phones, laptops, cameras, flashlights, gas
detectors, test devices and medical instruments, even when powered with
primary AA and AAA cells. Intrinsically safe devices and batteries contain
protection circuits that prevent excessive currents that could lead to high heat,
sparks and explosion. The hazard levels are subdivided into these four
disciplines:
1. Types of Hazardous Materials present
Class I Flammable gases, vapors or liquids in petroleum refineries, utility
gas plants
Class II Combustible dust in grain elevators, coal preparations plants
Class III Ignitable fibers and flyings in textile mills, wood processing creating
sawdust
2. Likelihood of Hazardous Materials present
Division I Hazardous materials can exist in ignitable concentrations
Division II Hazardous materials will not likely exist in ignitable concentrations
3. Potency of Hazardous Material (Groups from A to G)
A hazardous material is given a designation of: Acetylene (A), hydrogen (B),
ethylene (C), propane, gasoline, etc. (D), metal dust (E), coal dust (F) and grain
dust (G).
4. Temperature Codes (from T1 to T6)
The explosion danger of gases or combustible dust is affected by surface
temperature. T1 is a hot 450ºC (842ºF); T6 is a moderate 85ºC (185ºF). All other
temperatures fall in between.
Intrinsic safety requirements vary from country to country. North America
has the Factory Mutual Research Corporation, Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
and Canadian Standards Association (CSA); Europe has the ATEX directive;
while other countries follow the IECEx standards. Many countries recognize the
harmonized IEC 60079.

Safety Concerns with Li-ion

Safety of lithium-based batteries has attracted much media and legal attention.
Any energy storage device carries a risk, as demonstrated in the 1800s when
steam engines exploded and people got hurt. Carrying highly flammable
gasoline in cars was a hot topic in the early 1900s. All batteries carry a safety
risk, and battery makers are obligated to meet safety requirements; less reputable
firms are known to make shortcuts and it’s “buyer be beware!”
Lithium-ion is safe but with millions of consumers using batteries, failures
are bound to happen. In 2006, a one-in-200,000 breakdown triggered a recall of
almost six million lithium-ion packs. Sony, the maker of the lithium-ion cells in
question, points out that on rare occasions microscopic metal particles may come
into contact with other parts of the battery cell, leading to a short circuit within
the cell.
Battery manufacturers strive to minimize the presence of such particles;
however, complex assembly techniques make the elimination of all metallic dust
a challenge. Cells with ultra-thin separators of 24µm or less (24-thousandth of an
mm) are more susceptible to impurities than the older designs with lower Ah
ratings. Whereas the 1,350mAh cell in the 18650 package could tolerate a nail
penetration test, the high-density 3,400mAh becomes a bomb when performing
the same test. New safety standards direct how batteries are used, and the
UL1642 Underwriters Laboratories (UL) test no longer mandates nail
penetration for safety acceptance of lithium-based batteries.
Li-ion using conventional metal oxides is nearing its theoretical limit on
specific energy. Rather than optimizing capacity, battery makers are improving
manufacturing methods to enhance safety and increase calendar life. The real
problem lies when on rare occasions an electrical short develops inside the cell.
The external protection peripherals are ineffective to stop a thermal runaway
once in progress. The batteries recalled in 2006 had passed the UL safety
requirements — yet they failed under normal use with appropriate protection
circuits.
There are two basic types of battery failures. One occurs at a predictable
interval-per-million and is connected with a design flaw involving the electrode,
separator, electrolyte or processes. These defects often involve a recall to correct
a discovered flaw. The more difficult failures are random events that do not point
to a design flaw. It may be a stress event like charging at sub-freezing
temperature, vibration, or a fluke incident that is comparable to being hit by a
meteor.
Let’s examine the inner workings of the cell more closely. A mild short will
only cause elevated self-discharge and the heat buildup is minimal because the
discharging power is very low. If enough microscopic metallic particles
converge on one spot, a sizable current begins to flow between the electrodes of
the cell, and the spot heats up and weakens. As a small water leak in a faulty
hydro dam can develop into a torrent and take a structure down, so too can heat
buildup damage the insulation layer in a cell and cause an electrical short. The
temperature can quickly reach 500°C (932°F), at which point the cell catches fire
or explodes. This thermal runaway that occurs is known as “venting with flame.”
“Rapid disassembly” is the preferred term by the battery industry.
Uneven separators can also trigger cell failure. Poor conductivity due to dry
areas increases the resistance, which can generate local heat spots that weaken
the integrity of the separator. Heat is always an enemy of the battery.
What to Do when a Battery Overheats
If a Li-ion battery overheats, hisses or bulges, immediately move the device
away from flammable materials and place it on a non-combustible surface. If at
all possible, remove the battery and put it outdoors to burn out.
A small Li-ion fire can be handled like any other combustible fire. For best
result use a foam extinguisher, CO2, ABC dry chemical, powdered graphite,
copper powder or soda (sodium carbonate). If the fire occurs in an airplane
cabin, the FAA instructs flight attendants to use water or soda pop. Water-based
products are most readily available and are appropriate since Li-ion contains
very little lithium metal that reacts with water. Water also cools the adjacent area
and prevents the fire from spreading. Research laboratories and factories also use
water to extinguish Li-ion battery fires. Halon is also used as fire suppressant,
but this agent may not be sufficient to extinguish a large Li-ion fire in the cargo
bay of an aircraft.
A large Li-ion fire, such as in an EV, may need to burn out as water is
ineffective. Water with copper material can be used, but this may not be
available and is costly for fire halls.
When encountering a fire with a lithium-metal battery, only use a Class D
fire extinguisher. Lithium-metal contains plenty of lithium that reacts with water
and makes the fire worse. As the number of EVs grows, so must the methods to
extinguish such fires.

CAUTION Do not use a Class D fire extinguisher to put out other types of fires; make certain regular
extinguishers are also available. With all battery fires, allow ample ventilation while the
battery burns itself out.

During a thermal runaway, the high heat of the failing cell inside a battery
pack may propagate to the next cells, causing them to become thermally unstable
also. A chain reaction can occur in which each cell disintegrates on its own
timetable. A pack can thus be destroyed in a few seconds or over several hours
as each cell is being consumed. To increase safety, packs should include dividers
to protect the failing cell from spreading to the neighboring one. Figure 3-16
shows a laptop that was damaged by a faulty Li-ion battery.

Figure 3-16: Li-ion battery suspected to have destroyed the laptop.

The owner says the laptop popped, hissed, sizzled and began filling the room with smoke.
Source: Shmuel De-Leon

The gas released by a venting Li-ion cell is mainly carbon dioxide (CO2).
Other gases that form through heating are vaporized electrolyte consisting of
ethylene and/or propylene. Burning gases also include combustion products of
organic solvents.
While lithium-based batteries are heavily scrutinized for safety, nickel- and
lead-based batteries also cause fires and are being recalled. The reasons are
faulty separators resulting from aging, rough handling, excessive vibration and
high-temperature. Lithium-ion batteries have become very safe and heat-related
failures occur rarely when used correctly.

Simple Guidelines for Using Lithium-ion Batteries

Lithium-ion batteries contain little lithium metal and in case of a fire they
can be dowsed with water. Only lithium-metal batteries require a Class D
fire extinguisher.
Water interacts with lithium. If a Class D extinguisher is not available to
douse a lithium-metal fire, only pour water to prevent the fire from
spreading.
For best results when dowsing a Li-ion fire, use a foam extinguisher, CO2,
ABC dry chemical, powdered graphite, copper powder or soda (sodium
carbonate) as you would extinguish other combustible fires. Reserve the
Class D extinguishers for lithium-metal fires only.
If the fire of a burning lithium-ion battery cannot be extinguished, allow
the pack to burn in a controlled and safe way.
Be aware of cell propagation as each cell might be consumed on its own
time-table when hot. Place a seemingly burned-out pack outside for a
time.

Making Lithium-ion Safe

Battery packs using Li-ion require a mandatory protection circuit to assure safety
under (almost) all circumstances. Governed by IEC 62133, the safety of Li-ion
cell or packs begins by including some or all of the following safeguards.
1. Built-in PTC (positive temperature coefficient) protects against current
surges.
2. CID (circuit interrupt device) opens the circuit at a cell pressure of
1,000kPa (145psi)
3. Safety vent releases gases on excessive pressure buildup at 3,000kPa
(450psi).
4. Separator inhibits ion-flow by melting process when exceeding a certain
temperature threshold. (See “Battery Separator” on page 114.)
In addition to internal cell safeguards, an external electronic protection
circuit prevents any cell from exceeding 4.30V on charge. In addition, a fuse cuts
the current if the skin temperature of any cell approaches 90°C (194°F). To
prevent the battery from over-discharging, a control circuit cuts off the current
path at about 2.20V/cell.
Each cell in a string needs independent voltage monitoring. The higher the
cell count, the more complex the protection circuit becomes. Four cells in series
had been the practical limit for consumer applications. Today, off-the-shelf chips
also accommodate 5–7, 7–10 and 13 cells in series. For specialty applications,
such as the hybrid or electric vehicle delivering several hundred volts, specialty
protection circuits are made. Monitoring two or more cells in parallel to get
higher current is less critical than controlling the voltage in a string
configuration.
Protection circuits can only shield abuse from the outside, such as an
electrical short or faulty charger. If, however, a defect occurs within the cell,
such as a contamination of microscopic metal particles, the external protection
circuit has little effect and cannot arrest the reaction. Reinforced and self-healing
separators are being developed for cells used in electric powertrains, but this
makes the batteries large and expensive.
Li-ion commonly discharges to 3.0V/cell. The lowest permitted “low-
voltage” power cutoff is 2.5V/cell. It is not advised to keep the battery at that
level as self-discharge could bring the cell to its cutoff voltage, causing the
battery to go into sleep mode. Most chargers ignore Li-ion packs that have gone
to sleep and a charge is no longer possible. (See “How to Awaken an Over-
discharged Li-ion” on page 253.)
In the ON position, the internal protection circuit has a resistance of 50–
100mOhm, lower on power packs. The circuit typically consists of two switches
connected in series; one is responsible for the high cutoff, and the other for the
low cutoff. Larger packs need a more careful design than a smaller battery, and
single cell packs for mobile phones and tablets get away with a voltage and
current limit in addition to some intrinsic cell protection.
Some low-cost consumer chargers may rely solely on the battery’s
protection circuit to terminate the charge. Redundancy is paramount for safety,
and unknowingly to the buyer, low-cost consumer chargers may be offered that
do not have properly functioning charge algorithms. This could be a vehicular
charger for a mobile phone or an e-cigarette.
A further concern arises if static electricity has destroyed the battery’s
protection circuit. A shorted solid-state switch is permanently fused in the ON
position without the user knowing. A battery with a faulty protection circuit
functions normally but it fails to provide protection. The cell voltage could rise
above a safe level and overcharge the battery. Heat buildup and bulging are early
signs of malfunction, but some batteries explode without warning.
Low prices make products from Asia attractive, but safety standards my not
be equal to those in branded products. A wise shopper spends a little more
money and buys recognized brands. (See “Aftermarket Batteries” on page 259.)
Manufacturers of lithium-ion batteries do not mention the word “explosion”
but refer to “venting with flame” or “rapid disassembly.” Although seen as a
slower and more controlled process than explosion, venting with flame or rapid
disassembly can nevertheless be violent and inflict injury to those in close
proximity.
Building a Lithium-ion Pack
Building a Li-ion battery pack begins by satisfying voltage and runtime
requirements, and then taking loading, environmental, size and weight
limitations into account. Portable designs for consumer products want a slim
profile and the choice is a prismatic or pouch cell. If space allows, a cylindrical
cell such as the 18650 often provides the lowest cost and best performance in
terms of specific energy, safety and durability.
Most battery packs for medical devices, power tools, e-bikes and even
powertrains for electric cars (EV) are based on the 18650. This appears
impractical but the small cell works well because it is one of the most mature Li-
ion formats available, is produced in high volume and enjoys a low cost per Wh.
The cylindrical cell is not ideal as it leaves empty spaces in a multi-cell
configuration. This disadvantage turns into an advantage when considering
flexibility and cooling. The Tesla S 85 EV uses over 7,000 cells, switched in
parallel to boost the current and in series to increase the voltage. Should one cell
in series open, the total power loss is minimal; if one in parallel shorts, fuse
protection removes this cell from the circuit. Failing cells can thus be eliminated
without bringing the battery down.
EV manufacturers are not united on the choice of cell, but there is a trend
towards larger formats to reduce supportive electronics that adds 20–25 percent
to the finished pack. With a larger cell, however, the electronic components get
dearer because of higher current handling. According to 2015 reports, the Tesla
S 85 has the lowest cost per kWh using the 18650. Other EVs have larger
prismatic cells at higher kWh costs. Table 3-17 compares the kWh cost.
Table 3-17: Price comparison of EV batteries. Mass production allows a low price using the 18650 cell.
* In 2015/16 Tesla S 85 increased the battery from 85kWh to 90kWh; Nissan Leaf from 25kWh to 30kWh.

Batteries should be designed to permit failure without a catastrophic event.

All energy sources will fail eventually and the battery is no exception. After an
unwanted event, the FAA mandated to place the Li-ion ship-battery of the
Boeing Dreamliner 787 into a metal container with venting to the outside. Tesla
reinforced the EV battery by adding a heavy-gauge steel plate on the bottom that
provides extra protection against projectiles from the road.
Large batteries for power applications are cooled. Some use a rod system to
bring the heat to the outside, others deploy forced air or use liquid cooling.
Liquid cooling is superior and although more expensive, EV batteries gravitate
towards this form of cooling.

Meeting Safety Approvals

Reputable battery manufacturers do not supply Li-ion cells to uncertified battery
assemblers. This precaution is understandable, considering that Li-ion cells
could be charged and discharged beyond safe limits with inadequate protection
circuits.
Authorizing a battery pack for the commercial market and for air transport
can cost $10,000 to $20,000. Such a high price is troubling, knowing that cell
manufacturers discontinue older cells in favor of higher capacity replacements.
A pack with the new cell, even if specified as a direct replacement, requires new
certifications.
The common question asked is, “Why are additional tests needed when the
cells are already approved?” The simple answer is that cell approvals cannot be
transferred to the pack because regulatory authorities place the safety
confirmation on a finished product and not the components. The completed
battery must be tested and registered to assure correct assembly and compliance
with safety standards.
As part of the test requirements, the finished battery must undergo electrical
and mechanical assessment to meet the Recommendations on the Transport of
Dangerous Goods on lithium-ion batteries for air shipment, rules set by the
United Nations (UN). The UN Transportation Testing (UN/DOT 38.3) works in
conjunction with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the US Department
of Transport (US DOT) and the International Air Transport Association (IATA)*.
The certification applies to primary and secondary lithium-based cells. The UN
38.3 test includes:
T1 – Altitude Simulation (Primary and Secondary Cells and Batteries)
T2 – Thermal Test (Primary and Secondary Cells and Batteries)
T3 – Vibration (Primary and Secondary Cells and Batteries)
T4 – Shock (Primary and Secondary Cells and Batteries)
T5 – External Short Circuit (Primary and Secondary Cells and Batteries)
T6 – Impact (Primary and Secondary Cells)
T7 – Overcharge (Secondary Batteries)
T8 – Forced Discharge (Primary and Secondary Cells)
The test batteries must pass the tests without causing harm, but the packs do
not need to function thereafter. The test is strictly for safety and not consumer
endurance. The authorized laboratory needs 24 battery samples consisting of 12
new packs and 12 specimens that have been cycled 50 times. IATA wants to
ensure that the batteries in question are airworthy and have field integrity;
cycling the packs 50 times before the test satisfies this requirement.
The high certification cost discourages small manufacturers from using Li-
ion for low-volume products and entrepreneurs may choose nickel-based
systems instead. These batteries do not need to be tested to the level of lithium-
based products for air transport. While reputable companies follow the
instructions, rules are being broken and the penalties are stiff.
Simple Guidelines for Using Lithium-ion Batteries

Exercise caution when handling and testing lithium-ion batteries.

Do not short circuit, overcharge, crush, drop, mutilate, penetrate with
foreign objects, apply reverse polarity, expose to high temperature or
disassemble packs and cells.
Use only lithium-ion batteries with a designated protection circuit and
approved charger.
Discontinue using a battery and/or charger if the pack temperature rises
more than 10ºC (18ºF) on a regular charge.
The electrolyte is highly flammable and battery rupture can cause physical
injury.

Battery Components
Speculators and mining companies often raise fear of pending shortages of raw
materials to produce batteries. This may boost the shares momentarily, but
concerns often evaporate with time. Materials that occasionally suffer shortages
are lead, cobalt, lithium and graphite.
Lead can easily be recycled from spent lead acid batteries and lead prices
have stabilized at time of writing. Nickel-cadmium batteries are also recycled,
but the switch to Li-ion has lowered the demand for cadmium. Cobalt remains
expensive and manufacturers of Li-ion try to minimize its use by substituting
with nickel, manganese and aluminum.
There has been talk about a shortage of lithium, but the anticipated switch
from gasoline to Li-ion as propulsion for personalized transportation has not yet
occurred. Instead, quality graphite and rare earth material are said to be in
limited supply, but this is not creating a bottleneck or undue price escalation.
Most raw materials needed to build batteries are in sufficient supply.
Battery Separator
The building blocks of a battery are the cathode and anode, and these two
electrodes are isolated by a separator. The separator is moistened with electrolyte
and forms a catalyst that promotes the movement of ions from cathode to anode
on charge and in reverse on discharge. Ions are atoms that have lost or gained
electrons and have become electrically charged. Although ions pass freely
between the electrodes, the separator is an isolator with no electrical
conductivity.
The small amount of current that may pass through the separator is self-
discharge and this is present in all batteries to varying degrees. Self-discharge
eventually depletes the charge of a battery during prolonged storage. Figure 3-18
illustrates the building block of a lithium-ion cell with the separator and ion flow
between the electrodes.

Figure 3-18. Ion flow through the separator of Li-ion.

Battery separators provide a barrier between the anode (negative) and the cathode (positive) while enabling
the exchange of lithium ions from one side to the other.
Source: CELGARD, LLC

Early batteries were flooded, and this includes lead acid and nickel-
cadmium. With the development of the sealed nickel-cadmium in 1947 and the
maintenance-free lead acid in the 1970s, the electrolyte is absorbed into a porous
separator that is compressed against the electrodes to achieve chemical reaction.
The tightly wound or stacked separator/electrode arrangement forms a solid
mechanical unit that offers similar performance to the flooded type but is smaller
and can be installed in any orientation without leakage. The gases created during
charge are absorbed and there is no water loss if venting can be prevented.
Early separators were made of rubber, glass fiber mat, cellulose and
polyethylene plastic. Wood was the original choice but it deteriorated in the
electrolyte. Nickel-based batteries use separators of porous polyolefin films,
nylon or cellophane. The absorbed glass mat (AGM) in the sealed lead acid
version uses a glass fiber mat as a separator that is soaked in sulfuric acid.
The earlier gelled lead acid developed in the 1970s converts the liquid
electrolyte into a semi-stiff paste by mixing the sulfuric acid with a silica-gelling
agent. Gel and AGM batteries have slight differences in performance; gel
batteries are commonly used in UPS and AGM in starter and deep-cycle
applications. (See “Lead-based Batteries” on page 46.)
Commercially available Li-ion cells use polyolefin as a separator. This
material has excellent mechanical properties, good chemical stability and low-
cost. A polyolefin is a class of polymer that is produced from olefin by
polymerizing olefin ethylene. Ethylene comes from a petrochemical source;
polyolefin is made from polyethylene, polypropylene or laminates of both
materials.
The Li-ion separator must be permeable and the pore size ranges from 30 to
100nm. (Nm stands for nano-meter, which is one millionth of a millimeter or
about 10 atoms thick.) The recommended porosity is 30–50 percent. This holds
enough liquid electrolyte and enables the pores to close should the cell overheat.
Separator Serves as Fuse in Li-ion
On excessive heat, a shut-down occurs by closing the pores of the Li-ion
separator through a melting process. The polyethylene (PE) separator melts
when the core reaches 130°C (266°F). This stops the transport of ions,
effectively shutting the cell down. Without this provision, heat in the failing cell
could rise to the thermal runaway threshold and vent with flame. This internal
safety fuse also helps pass the stringent UN Transportation Testing for Lithium
Batteries that includes altitude simulation, as well as thermal, vibration, shock,
external short circuit, impact, overcharge and forced discharge tests.
Most batteries for mobile phones and tablets have a single polyethylene
separator. Since ca. 2000, larger industrial batteries deploy a trilayered separator
that provides enhanced fuse protection on thermal extremes and on multi-cell
configurations. Figure 3-19 illustrates the PP/PE/PP trilayer separator consisting
of polyethylene in the middle that is sandwiched by outer polypropylene (PP)
layers. While the inner PE layer shuts down at 130°C by closing the pores, the
outer PP layers stay solid and do not melt until reaching 155°C (311°F

Figure 3-19: Side view of PP/PE/PP trilayer.

Combining separator material with different melting properties adds to safety. PE melts before PP to close
the pores and stop current flow.

Source: Dalhousie, Handbook of Batteries

In ca. 2008, further improvements were made by adding a ceramic-coated

separator. Ceramic particles do not melt and this addition provides a further
safety level. Ceramic coating is also used on lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) cells
that charge up to 4.40V/cell instead of the traditional 4.20V/cell. The ceramic
coating works in tandem with the PE and PP layers and is placed next to the
positive side to prevent electrical contact.
The separator should be as thin as possible so as to not add dead volume
and still provide sufficient tensile strength to prevent stretching during the
winding process and offer good stability throughout life. The pores must be
uniformly spread on the sheet to ensure even distribution throughout the entire
separator area. Furthermore, the separator must be compatible with the
electrolyte and allow easy wetting. Dry areas can create hot spots through
elevated resistance, leading to cell failure.
Separators are getting thinner. A thickness of 25.4μm (1.0 mil) is common
but some go down to 20μm, 16μm and now even 12μm without significantly
compromising the properties of the cell. (One micron, also known as µm, is one
millionth of a meter.) The separator with electrolyte in modern Li-ion only
makes up 3 percent of the cell content.
Ultrathin separators raise safety concerns. The massive Sony call-back
comes to mind in which a one-in-200,000 cell-breakdown triggered an almost
six million recall of Li-ion packs. On rare occasions, microscopic metal particles
came into contact with other parts of the battery cell, which led to an electrical
short circuit. The Sony cells in question had a separator thickness between 20µm
and 25µm. (A micrometer (µm) is one-thousands of a millimeter.)

Electrolyte
Electrolyte serves as catalyst to make a battery conductive by promoting the
movement of ions from the cathode to the anode on charge and in reverse on
discharge. Ions are electrically charged atoms that have lost or gained electrons.
The electrolyte of a battery consists of soluble salts, acids or other bases in
liquid, gelled and dry formats. Electrolyte also comes in a polymer, as used in
the solid-state battery, solid ceramic and molten salts, as in the sodium-sulfur
battery.
Lead Acid
Lead acid uses sulfuric acid. When charging, the acid becomes denser as lead
oxide (PbO2) forms on the positive plate, and then turns to almost water when
fully discharged. The specific gravity of the sulfuric acid is measured with a
hydrometer. Lead acid batteries come in flooded and sealed formats also known
as valve regulated lead acid (VRLA) or maintenance-free.
Sulfuric acid is colorless with a slight yellow tint, soluble in water and
highly corrosive. Lead acid batteries come with different specific gravities (SG).
Deep-cycle batteries use a dense electrolyte with an SG of up to 1.330 to achieve
high specific energy, starter batteries contain an average SG of about 1.265 and
stationary batteries come with a low SG of roughly 1.225 to moderate corrosion
and promote longevity.
Sulfuric acid serves a wide range of applications and is also found in drain
cleaners and various cleaning agents. It further serves in mineral processing,
fertilizer manufacturing, oil refining, wastewater processing and chemical
synthesis.

CAUTION Sulfuric acid can cause serious damage on skin contact and can lead to permanent
blindness if splashed in eyes. Swallowing sulfuric acid causes irreversible damage.

Nickel-cadmium (NiCd)
The electrolyte in NiCd is an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide). Most
NiCd batteries are cylindrical in which several layers of positive and negative
materials are wound into a jelly-roll. The flooded version of NiCd is used as the
ship-battery in commercial aircrafts and in UPS systems operating in hot and
cold climates requiring frequent cycling. NiCd is more expensive than lead acid
but lasts longer.
Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)
NiMH uses the same or similar electrolyte as NiCd, which is usually potassium
hydroxide. The NiMH electrodes are unique and consist of nickel, cobalt,
manganese, aluminum and rare earth metals, which are also used in Li-ion.
NiMH is available in sealed versions only.
Potassium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the formula KOH,
commonly called caustic potash. The electrolyte is colorless and has many
industrial applications, such as the ingredient in most soft and liquid soaps. KOH
is harmful if indigested.
Lithium-ion (Li-ion)
Li-ion uses liquid, gel or dry polymer electrolyte. The liquid version is a solution
of lithium salts with organic solvents similar to ethylene carbonate. Mixing the
solutions with diverse carbonates provides higher conductivity and expands the
temperature range. Other salts may be added to reduce gassing and improve high
temperature cycling.
Li-ion with gelled electrolytes receives many additives to increase
conductivity, so does the lithium-polymer battery. The true dry polymer only
becomes conductive at elevated temperatures, and this battery is no longer in
commercial use. Additives are also administered to achieve longevity and unique
characteristics. The recipe is classified and each manufacturer has its own secret
sauce. (See also “What Causes Li-ion to Age?” on page 249.)
The electrolyte should be stable, but this is not the case with Li-ion. A
passivation film forms on the anode that is called solid electrolyte interface
(SEI). This layer separates the anode from the cathode but allows ions to pass
through much like a separator. In essence, the SEI layer must form to enable the
battery to work. The film stabilizes the system and gives the Li-ion a long life
but this causes a capacity reduction. Electrolyte oxidation also occurs on the
cathode that permanently lowers the capacity. (See “How to Prime Batteries” on
page 191.)
To prevent the films from becoming too restrictive, additives are mixed
with the electrolyte that is consumed during the formation of the SEI layer. It
would be difficult, if not impossible, to trace their presence when doing a
forensic evaluation. This keeps proprietary additives a trade secret, both their
composition and the amount used.
 A well-known additive is vinylene carbonate (VC). This chemical improves
the cycle life of Li-ion, especially at higher temperatures, and keeps the internal
resistance low with use and age. VC also maintains a stable SEI film on the
anode with no adverse side effects of the electrolyte oxidation on the cathode
(Aurbach et al). It is said that academic and research communities are lagging
behind cell manufacturers in knowledge and choice of additives, hence the great
secret. (See also “Additives and the Effects on Coulombic Efficiency” on page
256.)

Availability of Lithium
The demand for Li-ion batteries is increasing, and finding sufficient supply of
lithium in raw material is gearing up mining industries for higher production. A
compact EV battery (Nissan Leaf) uses about 4kg (9 lb) of lithium, and if every
man, woman and teenager were to drive an electric car in the future, a lithium
shortage could develop. Rumor of this happening has been spreading, perhaps
prematurely.
About 70 percent of the world’s lithium comes from brine (salt lakes); the
remainder is derived from hard rock. Research institutions are developing
technology to draw lithium from seawater. China is the largest consumer of
lithium, and hoarding is suspected. They believe that future cars will run on Li-
ion and an unbridled supply of lithium is important to them.
In 2009, the total demand for lithium reached almost 92,000 metric tons, of
which batteries consume 26 percent. Figure 3-20 illustrates typical uses of
lithium, which include lubricants, glass, ceramics, pharmaceuticals and
refrigeration.
Most of the known supply of lithium is in Bolivia, Argentina, Chile,
Australia and China. The supply is ample and concerns of global shortages are
speculative. To attain at one ton of lithium, Latin America uses 750 tons of brine,
the base material for lithium, and adds 24 months of preparation. Lithium can
also be recycled an unlimited number of times, and it is said that 20 tons of spent
Li-ion batteries yield one ton of lithium. This will help the supply, but recycling
can be more expensive than harvesting a new supply through mining.

Figure 3-20: Lithium consumption (2008).

Batteries consume the largest share of lithium. With the advent of the electric vehicle, the demand could
skyrocket but for now the world has enough proven lithium reserves.
Source: Talison Minerals

Lithium is named after the Greek word “lithos” meaning “stone.” The soft,
silver-white metal belongs to the alkali metal group of chemical elements and is
marked with the symbol Li. It is the lightest of all metals.
The lithium raw material in a Li-ion battery is only a fraction of one cent
per watt, or less than 1 percent of the battery cost. A $10,000 battery for a plug-
in hybrid contains less than $100 worth of lithium. Shortages when producing
millions of large batteries for vehicles and stationary applications could increase
the price, but for now this is not the case.
 Rather than worrying about a lack of lithium, there could be shortages of
rare earth materials, should the EV replace the conventional car. One such
material is the permanent magnet for electric motors. Permanent magnets make
one of the most energy-efficient motors. China controls about 95 percent of the
global market for rare earth metals and expects to use most of these resources for
its own production. Export of rare earth materials is tightly controlled.

Graphite
In 2015, the media predicted heavy demand for graphite to satisfy the growth of
Li-ion batteries used in electric vehicles. Speculation arose that graphite could be
in short supply because a large EV battery requires about 25kg (55 lb) of
graphite for the Li-ion anode. Although price and consumption has been
lackluster, there are indications that the demand is tightening.
Producing anode-grade graphite with 99.99 percent purity is expensive and
the process creates waste. The end-cost is not so much the material but the
purification process. Recycling old Li-ion to retrieve graphite would not solve
this because of the tedious purification process.
Carbon and graphite are related substances. Graphite is an allotrope of
carbon, a structural modification that occurs by bonding the elements together in
a different manner. Graphite is the most stable form of carbon. The diamond, a
metastable allotrope of carbon known for its excellent physical qualities, is less
stable than graphite; yet graphite is soft and malleable.
Graphite comes from the Greek word “graphein.” It is heat-resistant,
electrically and thermally conductive, chemically passive (corrosion-resistant)
and lighter than aluminum. Beside Li-ion anodes, high-grade graphite is also
used in fuel cells, semiconductors, LEDs, solar cells and nuclear reactors.
A carbon fiber is a long, thin strand of about 5–10µm in diameter, one-tenth
the thickness of a human hair. The carbon atoms are bonded together in
microscopic crystals and are extremely strong. They are woven in a textile
fashion and mixed with a polymer matrix, which is a hardened form of carbon
fiber that is as strong as steel but lighter. These materials are used in golf clubs
and bicycle frames, as well as body parts for cars and airplanes to replace
aluminum. The Boeing 787 and Airbus 350X make extensive use of carbon
fiber. Graphite for batteries currently accounts to only 5 percent of the global
demand.
Graphite comes in two forms: natural graphite from mines and synthetic
graphite from petroleum coke. Both types are used for Li-ion anode material
with 55 percent gravitating towards synthetic and the balance to natural graphite.
Manufacturers preferred synthetic graphite because of its superior
consistency and purity to natural graphite. This is changing and with modern
chemical purification processes and thermal treatment, natural graphite achieves
a purity of 99.9 percent compared to 99.0 percent for the synthetic equivalent.
Purified natural flake graphite has a higher crystalline structure and offers
better electrical and thermal conductivity than synthetic material. Switching to
natural graphite will lower production cost with same or better Li-ion
performance. Synthetic graphite for Li-ion sells for around US $10,000 per ton
whereas spherical graphite made from natural flake sells for US $7,000 (2015
prices). Unprocessed natural graphite is much cheaper, and besides cost, natural
graphite is more environmentally friendly than synthetic graphite; it also forms
the base for graphene, a scientist’s dream.
Graphene
Graphene is an allotrope of carbon in the form of a two-dimensional hexagonal
lattice. Presented in a sheet of pure carbon, graphene is only one atom thick. It is
flexible, transparent, impermeable to moisture, stronger than diamonds and more
conductive than gold. Experts hint to graphene as a miracle material that will
improve many products, including the battery.
Graphene anodes are said to hold energy better than graphite anodes and
promise a charge time that is ten times faster than what is currently possible with
Li-ion. Load capabilities should also improve; better longevity is another item on
the wish-list that needs to be proven.
 With traditional graphite anodes, lithium ions accumulate around the outer
surface of the anode. Graphene has a more elegant solution by enabling lithium
ions to pass through the tiny holes of the graphene sheets measuring 10–20nm.
This promises optimal storage area and easy extraction. Once available, such a
battery is estimated to store ten times more energy than Li-ion featuring regular
graphite anodes.
Further improvements with graphene are achieved by adding vanadium
oxide to the cathode. Experimental batteries with such an enhancement are said
to recharge in 20 seconds and retain 90 percent capacity after 1,000 cycles.
Graphene is also being tested in supercapacitors to improve the specific energy
density, as well as in solar cells. Figure 3-21 illustrates the unique lattice of
graphene made visible with scanning probe microscopy (SPM).

Figure 3-21: Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) shows an image of graphene.

Graphene is a sheet of pure carbon that is one atom thick. It is flexible, transparent, impermeable to
moisture, stronger than diamonds and more conductive than gold. Each carbon atom possesses three
electrons that bind with the nearest neighbor atom electron, creating a chemical bond.

Source: U.S. Army Materiel Command

 Scientists have theorized about the wonders of graphene for decades, but no
commercial products exist yet that makes exclusive use of this apparent miracle
material. It is likely that the marvel of graphene has been utilized unknowingly
for centuries in pencils and other products. A better understanding of its
mechanism will eventually lead to improved products.
Meanwhile we take the many wonderful breakthroughs published by
academia and stock promoters with a grain of salt. We will embrace the super
battery when it arrives but pledge to honor what we currently have by taking
better care of it in the workforce.

Cobalt
Cobalt was discovered by Swedish chemist Georg Brandt in 1739. It is a hard,
lustrous, silver-gray metal that is extracted as a by-product when mining nickel
and copper. Besides serving as a cathode material of many Li-ion batteries,
cobalt is also used to make powerful magnets, high-speed cutting tools, and
high-strength alloys for jet engines and gas turbines. Cobalt compounds have
been employed for centuries to color porcelain, glass, pottery, tile and enamel; it
is also important in human nutrition as part of vitamin B12. Figure 3-22
illustrates the breakdown of cobalt uses.
Figure 3-22: Use of cobalt in industry.
Cobalt is mostly retrieved as a byproduct from copper and nickel production. High cost entices battery
manufacturers to seek alternatives, but cobalt cannot be entirely eliminated.

Source: CDI, Roskill, MMTA, Industry Sources

Being mostly a byproduct in the production of copper and nickel, the

pricing follows the demand of these primary metals. This can lead to an over-
supply of cobalt, as was the case in 2015. Cobalt prices were higher in 2010 and
they are expected to pick up as the demand for large Li-ion batteries increases.
Even at reduced prices, a ton of high grade cobalt runs at about US $28,000.
This compares to US $6,000 for a ton of lithium carbonate. Lithium carbonate is
a crystalline salt that is also used in glass and ceramic industries, as well as in
medicine.
According to the British Geological Survey (2014), the Democratic
Republic of Congo has a 50 percent share of worldwide cobalt production;
China, Canada, Australia and Russia are also major contributors. The reuse of
cobalt by recycling Li-ion batteries is only partially successful because of the
refinements needed to bring the material back to battery-grade. (See “How to
Recycle Batteries” on page 209.) There should be no shortage of cobalt as the
world has ample reserves.
 Cobalt was the first cathode material for commercial Li-ion batteries, but a
high price entices manufacturers to substitute the material. Cobalt blended with
nickel, manganese and aluminum creates powerful cathode materials that are
more economical and offer enhanced performance to pure cobalt. (See “Types of
Lithium-ion Batteries” on page 61.)

Battery Raw Materials

Batteries use diverse elements, which are harvested from the earth’s crust. It is
thought provoking that most of these materials are also shared by plants and
living beings. We are made from stardust and anything that grows and moves
comes from these resources. As with all living organisms, the substances for
batteries are chosen carefully and in the right amount to achieve a harmonious
interaction. Too much of one part could spoil a fine balance.
Aluminum Aluminum is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic metal with
symbol Al. Derived from bauxite, it is the third most abundant
element in the earth’s crust after oxygen and silicon. When
exposed to air, aluminum forms a passivation layer that protects
the metal from corrosion. Aluminum is used as cathode material
in some lithium-ion batteries.
Antimony Antimony is a brittle lustrous white metallic element with symbol
Sb. It was discovered in 3000 BC and mistaken for lead. The
main producer is China and the metal is used in lead acid
batteries to reinforce the lead plates, reduce maintenance and
enhance performance. Other applications are flame-proofing
materials, producing low friction applications, improving
material characteristics by mixing Sb with other alloys and
building semiconductors.
Cadmium Cadmium is a soft bluish-white metal with symbol Cd.
Discovered in 1817 in Germany, cadmium is a by-product of zinc
production and was used as a pigment and plating on steel to
resist corrosion. Cadmium is used as the anode material for the
 nickel-cadmium battery but the Restrictions of Hazardous
Substances Directives banned the batteries for commercial use.
Calcium Calcium is a soft gray alkaline metal with symbol Ca that was
discovered by Humphry Davy (1778–1829). It is the fifth most
abundant element by mass in the earth’s crust and plays an
essential role for living organisms to build bone, teeth and shells.
Calcium improves the mechanical strength of lead plates in lead
acid batteries and enhances performance.
Chloride Chloride is a negatively charged ion that forms when chlorine
gains an electron or when hydrogen chloride is dissolved in water
or in other solvents. Chloride salts, such as sodium chloride, are
used as table salt and to preserve food. Chloride is also present in
body fluids as well as in the electrolyte of batteries.

Iron Iron is the most common element on earth by mass The symbol
Fe comes from Latin “ferrum.” Iron metal has been used since
ancient times, although copper alloys with lower melting
temperatures came before iron. Pure iron is relatively soft and it
can be hardened with carbon. Iron compounds play an important
role in biology and are also used in the lithium iron phosphate
oxide battery.
Lead Lead is a soft, malleable heavy metal in the carbon group with
symbol Pb. It is used in lead acid batteries, bullets and weights
and as a radiation shield. Lead has the highest atomic number of
all stable elements and is toxic if ingested; it damages the nervous
system and causes brain disorders. Lead poisoning has been
documented from ancient Rome, Greece and China. (See “Health
Concerns with Batteries” on page 198.)
Manganese Manganese with symbol Mn is produced by mining iron and
other minerals. It is named after the region of “Magnesia” in
Greece where the black mineral was found. Manganese is used to
 prevent steel corrosion and serves as cathode material in Li-ion,
zinc-carbon and alkaline batteries.
Nickel Nickel with symbol Ni is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a
slight golden tinge. It can be traced back to 3500 BC. Nickel is
mostly confined to larger nickel–iron meteorites; on earth it is
found in combination with iron. Mythology links the name nickel
to Old Nick, a mischievous gnome who argued that copper-nickel
ores resisted refinement into copper. Nickel is well suited for
battery electrodes.
Silver Silver (Ag) is a soft, white, lustrous metal that has the highest
electrical and thermal conductivity of any metals. It occurs
naturally but most of it is produced as a by-product of copper,
gold, lead and zinc refining. Silver was used for monetary coins
together with the more valuable gold. In industry, silver is used in
solar panels and water filtration, as well as jewelry and high-
value silverware. Other uses are electrical contacts and
conductors, mirrors, window coatings, photographic film and X-
rays. In medicine, silver compounds serve as disinfectants that
are added to bandages and wound-dressings. Silver is also found
in the silver-zinc battery.

Sodium Sodium, with symbol Na, is a soft, silver-white, highly reactive

metal that belongs to the six elements in the periodic table with a
single electron in its outer shell. By donating the electron, the
atom becomes positively charged. Sodium is the sixth most
abundant element in the earth’s crust but is derived from
minerals. It was first isolated by Humphry Davy in 1807 by
electrolysis of sodium hydroxide. Sodium compounds are used
for soap-making and de-icing agents, and, not to forget, edible
salt on our dining room tables. It is an essential element for living
beings and plants; it is also used in sodium-sulfur and lithium-
 sulfur batteries.
Spinel Spinel is a hard glassy mineral consisting of an oxide of
magnesium and aluminum that forms a three-dimensional
chemical structure. Spinels were known as rubies, and now
belong to the most famous gemstones in shades of red, blue,
green, yellow, brown and black. Manganese-based Li-ion
batteries consist of a spinel structure in which the cathode forms a
three-dimensional framework that appears after initial formation.
Spinel batteries are known for their low resistance.
Sulfur Sulfur (or sulphur) is a bright yellow non-metal chemical element
with symbol S. It occurs naturally and is sought after by mineral
collectors for its distinct colors and shapes. Sulfur was known in
ancient India, Greece, China and Egypt; the Bible refers to it as
brimstone, meaning burning stone. Sulfur has the odor of rotting
eggs; fumes from burning sulfur were used in fumigation and as a
healing agent. Sulfur made the best gunpowder and is also used
in matches, insecticides and fungicides. The largest industrial use
is fertilizer because it is an essential element for all life. Extracted
from salt domes in the past, almost all sulfur is now a by-product
of gas and petroleum production. Sulfur compounds are also used
in the sodium-sulfur battery.

Tin Tin (Sn) is a silvery, malleable metal that does not oxidize easily
in the air. Appearing after bronze in ancient times, the first pure
metallic tin was produced in 600 BC. Today, it is combined with
many alloys, most notably tin/lead solder and corrosion-resistant
tin plating of steel. Low toxicity makes tin-plated metal suitable
for food packaging. Tin is also found in batteries.
Titanate Titanate usually refers to inorganic compounds composed of
titanium oxides. The materials are white and have a high melting
point, making them suitable for furnaces. Titanate is also used for
 anode material of some lithium-based batteries.
Vanadium Vanadium is a hard, silvery gray metal with symbol V.
Discovered in 1801 in Mexico, vanadium is found in about 65
minerals, and the metal forms a stable oxide layer once isolated.
Vanadium also occurs naturally in fossil fuel deposits; it is
produced in China and Russia from steel smelter slag and other
by-products, including uranium mining. Vanadium is used for
specialty steel alloys such as high-speed tools, including the flow
battery.
Zinc Zinc (Zn) is chemically similar to magnesium; combining zinc
with copper turns into brass, an alloy that has been used since the
10th century BC in Judea and the 7th century BC in Greece. Zinc
metal was not produced on a large scale until the 12th century in
India and the late 1500s in Europe. By 1800, Luigi Galvani and
Alessandro Volta uncovered the electrochemical properties of
zinc for batteries. Other uses are corrosion-resistant zinc plating
of iron and light metal castings. It is also an ingredient in anti-
dandruff shampoos. Zinc is an essential mineral for our
development and well-being. Zinc deficiency affects about two
billion people in the developing world. The symptoms are growth
retardation, delayed sexual maturation, vulnerability to infection
and diarrhea. Excess zinc can lead to lethargy and copper
deficiency.

Oxide
Definitions
With the exception of gold, platinum and other noble metals,
oxides form when oxygen bonds with the elements.
Oxide A chemical compound with at least one oxygen atom and another
element.
Monoxide Any oxide that contains one oxygen atom.
Dioxide An oxide containing two oxygen atoms in its molecule or
empirical formula.
Trioxide An oxide containing three atoms of oxygen in its molecule or
empirical. formula
Hydroxide An inorganic chemical compound with one hydrogen and one
oxygen atom.
Solid oxide Elements that are being oxidized by oxygen in air or in water.
Peroxide Compound containing an oxygen–oxygen single bond.
OxyhydroxideMixed oxide and hydroxide.

___________________
* IATA (International Air Transport Association) works with airlines and the air transport industry to

promote safe, reliable, secure and economical air travel.

 Chapter 4 | Charge Methods

A good battery charger provides the base for batteries that are durable and
perform well. In a price-sensitive market, chargers often receive low priority and
get the “after-thought” status. Battery and charger must go together like a horse
and carriage. Prudent planning gives the power source top priority by placing it
at the beginning of the project rather than after the hardware is completed, as is a
common practice. Engineers are often unaware of the complexity involving the
power source, especially when charging under adverse conditions.

Figure 4-1: Battery and charger must go together like a horse and carriage.
One party does not deliver without the other

All about Chargers

Chargers are commonly identified by their charging speed. Consumer products
come with a low-cost personal charger that performs well when used as directed.
The industrial charger is often made by a third party and includes special
features, such as charging at adverse temperatures. Although batteries operate
below freezing, not all chemistries can be charged when cold and most Li-ions
fall into this category. Lead- and nickel-based batteries accept charge when cold
but at a lower rate. (More on page 148.)
Some Li-ion chargers (Cadex) include a wake-up feature, or “boost,” (page
253) to allow recharging if a Li-ion battery has fallen asleep due to over-
discharge. A sleep condition can occur when storing the battery in a discharged
state in which self-discharge brings the voltage to the cutoff point. A regular
charger treats such a battery as unserviceable and the pack is often discarded.
Boost applies a small charge current to raise the voltage to between 2.2V/cell
and 2.9V/cell to activate the protection circuit, at which point a normal charge
commences. Caution is required if a Li-ion has dwelled below 1.5V/cell for a
week or longer. Dendrites may have developed that could compromise safety.
(Figure 8-12 on page 226 examines the elevated self-discharge after a Li-ion cell
had been exposed to deep discharge.)
Lead- and lithium-based chargers operate on constant current constant
voltage (CC/CV). The charge current is constant and the voltage is capped when
it reaches a set limit. Reaching the voltage limit, the battery saturates; the current
drops until the battery can no longer accept further charge and the fast charge
terminates. Each battery has its own low-current threshold.
Nickel-based batteries charge with constant current and the voltage is
allowed to rise freely. This can be compared to lifting a weight with a rubber
band where the hand advances higher than the load. Full charge detection occurs
when observing a slight voltage drop after a steady rise. To safeguard against
anomalies, such as shorted or mismatched cells, the charger should include a
plateau timer to assure a safe charge termination if no voltage delta is detected.
Temperature sensing should also be added that measures temperature rise over
time. Such a method is known as delta temperature over delta time, or dT/dt, and
works well with rapid and fast charge.
A temperature rise is normal with nickel-based batteries, especially when
reaching the 70 percent charge level. A decrease in charge efficiency causes this,
and the charge current should be lowered to limit stress. When “ready,” the
charger switches to trickle charge and the battery must cool down. If the
temperature stays above ambient, then the charger is not performing correctly
and the battery should be removed because the trickle charge could be too high.
NiCd and NiMH should not be left in the charger unattended for weeks and
months. Until required, store the batteries in a cool place and apply a charge
before use.
Lithium-based batteries should always stay cool on charge. Discontinue the
use of a battery or charger if the temperature rises more than 10ºC (18ºF) above
ambient under a normal charge. Li-ion cannot absorb over-charge and does not
receive trickle charge when full. It is not necessary to remove Li-ion from the
charger, however, if not used for a week or more, it is best to place the pack in a
cool place and recharge before use.

Types of Chargers
The most basic charger was the overnight charger, also known as a slow charger.
This goes back to the old nickel-cadmium days where a simple charger applied a
fixed charge of about 0.1C (one-tenth of the rated capacity) as long as the battery
was connected. Slow chargers have no full-charge detection; the charge stays
engaged and a full charge of an empty battery takes 14–16 hours. When fully
charged, the slow charger keeps NiCd lukewarm to the touch. Because of its
reduced ability to absorb over-charge, NiMH should not be charged on a slow
charger. Low-cost consumer chargers charging AAA, AA and C cells often use
this charge method, so do some children’s toys. Remove the batteries when
warm.
The rapid charger falls between the slow and fast charger and is used in
consumer products. The charge time of an empty pack is 3–6 hours. When full,
the charger switches to “ready.” Most rapid chargers include temperature sensing
to safely charge a faulty battery.
The fast charger offers several advantages and the obvious one is shorter
charge times. This demands tighter communication between the charger and
battery. At a charge rate of 1C, which a fast charger uses, a fully discharged or
empty NiCd and NiMH charges in a little more than an hour. (See “What Is C-
rate?” on page 131.) As the battery approaches full charge, some nickel-based
chargers reduce the current to adjust to the lower charge acceptance. The fully
charged battery switches the charger to trickle charge, also known as
maintenance charge. Most of today’s nickel-based chargers have a reduced
trickle charge to also accommodate NiMH.
Li-ion has minimal losses during charge and the coulombic efficiency is
better than 99 percent. At 1C, the battery charges to 70 percent state-of-charge
(SoC) in less than an hour; the extra time is devoted to the saturation charge. Li-
ion does not require the saturation charge as lead acid does; in fact it is better not
to fully charge Li-ion — the batteries will last longer but the runtime will be a
little less. Of all chargers, Li-ion is the simplest. No trickery applies that
promises to improve battery performance as is often claimed by makers of
chargers for lead- and nickel-based batteries. Only the rudimentary CC/CV
method works.
Lead acid cannot be fast charged and the term “fast-charge” is a misnomer.
Most lead acid chargers charge the battery in 14–16 hours; anything slower is a
compromise. Lead acid can be charged to 70 percent in about 8 hours; the all-
important saturation charge takes up the remaining time. A partial charge is fine
provided the lead acid occasionally receives a fully saturated charge to prevent
sulfation.
The standby current on a charger should be low to save energy. Energy Star
assigns five stars to mobile phone chargers and other small chargers drawing
30mW or less on standby. Four stars go to chargers with 30–150mW draw, three
stars to 150–250mW and two stars to 250–350mW. The average consumption is
300mW and these units get one star. Energy Star aims to reduce current
consumption of personal chargers that are mostly left plugged in when not in
use. There are over one billion such chargers connected to the gird globally at
any given time.
Simple Guidelines when Buying a Charger

Use the correct charger for each battery chemistry. Most serve one
chemistry only. Make sure that the battery voltage agrees with the charger.
Do not charge if different.
The Ah rating of a battery can be marginally different than specified.
Charging a larger battery will take a bit longer than a smaller pack and
vice versa. Do not charge if the Ah rating deviates too much (more than
25 percent).
A high-wattage charger shortens the charge time but there are limitations
as to how fast a battery can be charged. Ultra-fast charging causes stress.
(See following chapter.)
A lead acid charger should switch to float charge when fully saturated; a
nickel-based charger must switch to trickle charge when full. Li-ion
cannot absorb overcharge and receives no trickle charge. Trickle charge
and float charges compensate for the losses incurred by self-discharge.
Chargers should have a temperature override to end charge on a faulty
battery.
Observe charge temperature. Lead and lithium-based batteries must stay
cool; nickel-based batteries get warm towards the end of charge but must
cool down on “ready.” Li-ion should not rise more than 10ºC (18ºF) above
ambient when reaching full charge.
Check battery temperature when using a low-cost charger. Remove battery
when warm.
Charge at room temperature. Charge acceptance drops when cold. Li-ion
cannot be charged below freezing.

Ultra-fast Charging
Nowhere is ultra-fast charging in bigger demand than with the electric vehicle.
Recharging an EV in minutes replicates the convenience of filling 50 liters (13
gallons) of fuel into a tank that delivers 600kWh of energy. Such large energy
storage in an electrochemical device is not practical as a battery with such a
capacity would weigh 6 tons. Most Li-ion only produces about 150Wh per kg;
the energy from fossil fuel is roughly 100 times higher.
Charging an EV will always take longer than filling a tank, and the battery
will always deliver less energy per weight than fossil fuel. Breaking the rule of
law and forcing ultra-fast charging adds stress, even if the battery is designed for
such a purpose. We must keep in mind that a battery is sluggish in nature. Like
an aging man, its physical condition becomes less ideal with use and age. So is
the ability to fast-charge.
Whether it’s an EV, e-bike, a flying object, a portable device or a hobby
gadget, the following conditions must be respected when charging a battery
ultra-fast:

1. The battery must be designed to accept an ultra-fast charge and must be

in good condition.
2. Ultra-fast charging only applies during the first charge phase. The charge
current should be lowered after the battery reaches 70 percent state-of-
charge (SoC).
3. All cells in the pack must be balanced and have ultra-low resistance.
Aging cells often diverge in capacity and resistance, causing mismatch
and undue stress on the weaker cells.
4. Ultra-fast charging can only be done under moderate temperatures as
low temperature slows the chemical reaction. Unused energy turns into
gassing, metal-plating and heat.
An ultra-fast charger can be compared to a high-speed train (Figure 4-2)
traveling at 300km per hour (188 mph). Increasing power is relatively simple.
It’s the track that governs the permissible speed of a train and not the machinery.
In the same manner, the condition of the battery dictates the charging speed.
Figure 4-2: Ultra-fast charging can be compared to a high-speed train.
Powerful machinery is easy to build, but it’s the track that limits the speed.

A well-designed ultra-fast charger evaluates the condition of the “chemical

battery” and makes adjustments according to the ability to receive charge. The
charger should also include temperature compensations and other safety features
to lower the charge current when certain conditions exist and halt the charge if
the battery is under undue stress.
A “smart” battery running on SMBus or other protocols is responsible for
the charge current. The system observes the battery condition and lowers or
discontinues the charge if an anomaly occurs. Common irregularities are cell
imbalance or the need for calibration. Some “smart” batteries stop functioning if
the error is not corrected.
The maximum charge current a Li-ion can accept is mainly governed by
cell design. The goal is to avoid lithium-plating on the anode and to keep the
temperature under control. A thin anode with high porosity and small graphite
particles enables ultra-fast charging because of the large surface area. Power
Cells can be charged and discharged at high currents, but the energy density is
low. Energy Cells, in comparison, have a thicker anode and lower porosity and
the charge rate should be 1C or less. Some hybrid Cells in NCA (nickel-cobalt-
aluminum) can be charged above 1C with only moderate stress.
 Apply the ultra-fast charge only when necessary. A well-designed ultra-fast
charger should have charge-time selection to give the user the option to choose
the least stressful charge for the time allotted. Figure 4-3 compares the cycle life
of a typical lithium-ion battery when charged and discharged at 1C, 2C and 3C
rates. The longevity can further be prolonged by charging and discharging below
1C; 0.8C is the recommended rate.

Figure 4-3: Cycle performance of Li-ion with 1C, 2C and 3C charge and discharge.

Charging and discharging Li-ion above 1C reduces service life. Use a slower charge and discharge if
possible. This rule applies to most batteries.

Summary
All batteries perform best at room temperature and with a moderate charge and
discharge. Such a sheltered life style does not always reflect real world situations
where a compact pack must be charged quickly and deliver high currents. Such
typical applications are drones and remote control devices for the hobbyist.
Expect a short cycle life when a small pack must give all it has.
 If fast charging and high load requirements are prerequisites, use the rugged
Power Cell; however, this will increase battery size and weight. An analogy is a
heavy diesel engine to run a truck instead of a souped-up engine designed for a
sports car. The big diesel will outlive the light engine even if both have identical
horsepower. Going heavier will be more economical in the long run. Table 4-4
summarizes the charge characteristics of common rechargeable batteries.

Table 4-4: Charger characteristics. Each chemistry uses a unique charge termination.

Simple Guidelines Regarding Chargers

If possible, charge at a moderate rate. Ultra-fast charging always causes

stress.
Fast and ultra-fast charge fills the battery only partially; a slower
saturation charge completes the charge. Unlike lead acid, Li-ion does not
need the saturation charge but the capacity will be a bit lower.
Do not apply fast charge when the battery is cold or hot. Only charge at
moderate temperatures. Avoid fast charging an aged or low-performing
battery.

What Is C-rate?
Charge and discharge rates of a battery are governed by C-rates. The capacity of
a battery is commonly rated at 1C, meaning that a fully charged battery rated at
1Ah should provide 1A for one hour. The same battery discharging at 0.5C
should provide 500mA for two hours, and at 2C it delivers 2A for 30 minutes.
Losses at fast discharges reduce the discharge time and these losses also affect
charge times.

C-rate Time

5C 12 min

2C 30 min
1C 1h
0.5C or C/2 2h

0.2C or C/5 5h
0.1C or C/10 10h

0.05C or C/20 20h

Table 4-5: C-rate and service times when charging and discharging batteries

A C-rate of 1C is also known as a one-hour discharge; 0.5C or C/2 is a two-

hour discharge and 0.2C or C/5 is a 5-hour discharge. Some high-performance
batteries can be charged and discharged above 1C with moderate stress. Table 4-
5 illustrates typical times at various C-rates.
The battery capacity, or the amount of energy a battery can hold, can be
measured with a battery analyzer. (See “Battery Test Equipment” on page 288.)
The analyzer discharges the battery at a calibrated current while measuring the
time until the end-of-discharge voltage is reached. For lead acid, the end-of-
discharge is typically 1.75V/cell, for NiCd/NiMH 1.0V/cell and for Li-ion
3.0V/cell. If a 1Ah battery provides 1A for one hour, an analyzer displaying the
results in percentage of the nominal rating will show 100 percent. If the
discharge lasts 30 minutes before reaching the end-of-discharge cutoff voltage,
then the battery has a capacity of 50 percent. A new battery is sometimes
overrated and can produce more than 100 percent capacity; others are underrated
and never reach 100 percent, even after priming.
When discharging a battery with a battery analyzer capable of applying
different C-rates, a higher C-rate will produce a lower capacity reading and vice
versa. By discharging the 1Ah battery at the faster 2C-rate, or 2A, the battery
should ideally deliver the full capacity in 30 minutes. The sum should be the
same since the identical amount of energy is dispensed in a shorter time. In
reality, internal losses turn some of the energy into heat and lower the resulting
capacity to about 95 percent or less. Discharging the same battery at 0.5C, or
500mA over 2 hours, will likely increase the capacity to above 100 percent.
To obtain a reasonably good capacity reading, manufacturers commonly
rate alkaline and lead acid batteries at a very low 0.05C, or a 20-hour discharge.
Even at this slow discharge rate, lead acid seldom attains a 100 percent capacity
as the batteries are over-rated. Manufacturers provide capacity offsets to adjust
for the discrepancies if discharged at a higher C-rate than specified. (See “How
to Calculate Battery Runtime” (Peukert Law) on page 171.) Figure 4-6 illustrates
the discharge times of a lead acid battery at various loads expressed in C-rate.

Figure 4-6: Typical discharge curves of lead acid as a function of C-rate.

Smaller batteries are rated at a 1C discharge rate. Due to sluggish behavior, lead acid is rated at 0.2C (5h)
and 0.05C (20h).

While lead- and nickel-based batteries can be discharged at a high rate, the
protection circuit prevents the Li-ion Energy Cell from discharging above 1C.
The Power Cell with nickel, manganese and/or phosphate active material can
tolerate discharge rates of up to 10C and the current threshold is set higher
accordingly.

Charging Lead Acid

The lead acid battery uses the constant current constant voltage (CC/CV) charge
method. A regulated current raises the terminal voltage until the upper charge
voltage limit is reached, at which point the current drops due to saturation. The
charge time is 12–16 hours and up to 36–48 hours for large stationary batteries.
With higher charge currents and multi-stage charge methods, the charge time can
be reduced to 8–10 hours; however, without full topping charge. Lead acid is
sluggish and cannot be charged as quickly as other battery systems.
Lead acid batteries should be charged in three stages. These are [1]
constant-current charge, [2] topping charge and [3] float charge. The constant-
current charge applies the bulk of the charge and takes up roughly half of the
required charge time; the topping charge continues at a lower charge current and
provides saturation, and the float charge compensates for the loss caused by self-
discharge.
During the constant-current charge, the battery charges to about 70 percent
in 5–8 hours; the remaining 30 percent is filled with the slower topping charge
that lasts another 7–10 hours. The topping charge is essential for the well-being
of the battery and can be compared to a little rest after a good meal. If
continually deprived, the battery will eventually lose the ability to accept a full
charge and the performance will decrease due to sulfation. The float charge in
the third stage maintains the battery at full charge. Figure 4-7 illustrates these
three stages.
Figure 4-7: Charge stages of a lead acid battery.
The battery is fully charged when the current drops to a set low level. The float voltage is reduced. Float
charge compensates for self-discharge that all batteries exhibit.

Courtesy of Cadex

The switch from Stage 1 to 2 occurs seamlessly and happens when the
battery reaches the set voltage limit. The current begins to drop as the battery
starts to saturate; full charge is reached when the current decreases to 3–5
percent of the Ah rating. A battery with high leakage may never attain this low
saturation current, and a plateau timer takes over to end the charge.
The correct setting of the charge voltage limit is critical and ranges from
2.30V to 2.45V per cell. Setting the voltage threshold is a compromise and
battery experts refer to this as “dancing on the head of a needle.” On one hand,
the battery must be fully charged to get maximum capacity and avoid sulfation
on the negative plate; on the other hand, over-saturation by not switching to float
charge causes grid corrosion on the positive plate. This also leads to gassing and
water-loss.
Temperature changes the voltage and this makes “dancing on the head of a
needle” more difficult. A warmer ambient requires a slightly lower voltage
threshold and a colder temperature prefers a higher setting. Chargers exposed to
temperature fluctuations include temperature sensors to adjust the charge voltage
for optimum charge efficiency.
The charge temperature coefficient of a lead acid cell is –3mV/°C.
Establishing 25°C (77°F) as the midpoint, the charge voltage should be reduced
by 3mV per cell for every degree above 25°C and increased by 3mV per cell for
every degree below 25°C. If this is not possible, it is better to choose a lower
voltage for safety reasons. Table 4-8 compares the advantages and limitations of
various peak voltage settings.

2.30V to 2.35V/cell 2.40V to 2.45V/cell

Advantages Maximum service life; battery stays Higher and more consistent capacity
cool; charge temperature can exceed readings; less sulfation.
30°C (86°F).

Limitations Slow charge time; capacity readings Subject to corrosion and gassing. Needs
may be inconsistent and declining with water refill. Not suitable for charging at
each cycle. Sulfation may occur without high room temperatures, causing severe
equalizing charge. overcharge.

Table 4-8: Effects of charge voltage on a small lead acid battery.

Cylindrical lead acid cells have higher voltage settings than VRLA and starter batteries.

Once fully charged through saturation, the battery should not dwell at the
topping voltage for more than 48 hours and must be reduced to the float voltage
level. This is especially critical for sealed systems because they are less tolerant
to overcharge than the flooded type. Charging beyond the specified limits turns
redundant energy into heat and the battery begins to gas.
 The recommended float voltage of most flooded lead acid batteries is 2.25V
to 2.27V/cell. Large stationary batteries at 25°C (77°F) typically float at
2.25V/cell. Manufacturers recommend lowering the float charge when the
ambient temperature rises above 29°C (85°F).
Not all chargers feature float charge and very few road vehicles have this
provision. If your charger stays on topping charge and does not drop below
2.30V/cell, remove the charge after 48 hours of charging. Recharge every 6
months while in storage; AGM every 6–12 months.
These described voltage settings apply to flooded cells and batteries with a
pressure relief valve of about 34kPa (5psi). Cylindrical sealed lead acid, such as
the Hawker Cyclon cell, requires higher voltage settings and the limits should be
set to manufacturer’s specifications. Failing to apply the recommended voltage
will cause a gradual decrease in capacity due to sulfation. The Hawker Cyclon
cell has a pressure relief setting of 345kPa (50psi). This allows some
recombination of the gases generated during charge.
Aging batteries pose a challenge when setting the float charge voltage
because each cell has its own unique condition. Connected in a string, all cells
receive the same charge current and controlling individual cell voltages as each
reaches full capacity is almost impossible. Weak cells may go into overcharge
while strong cells remain in a starved state. A float current that is too high for the
faded cell might sulfate the strong neighbor due to undercharge. Cell-balancing
devices are available that compensate for the differences in voltages caused by
cell imbalance.
Ripple voltage also causes a problem with large stationary batteries. A
voltage peak constitutes an overcharge, causing hydrogen evolution, while the
valley induces a brief discharge that creates a starved state resulting in
electrolyte depletion. Manufacturers limit the ripple on the charge voltage to 5
percent.
Much has been said about pulse charging of lead acid batteries to reduce
sulfation. The results are inconclusive and manufacturers as well as service
technicians are divided on the benefit. If sulfation could be measured and the
right amount of pulsing applied, then the remedy could be beneficial; however
giving a cure without knowing the underlying side effects can be harmful to the
battery.
Most stationary batteries are kept on float charge and this works reasonably
well. Another method is the hysteresis charge that disconnects the float current
when the battery goes to standby mode. The battery is essentially put in storage
and is only “borrowed” from time to time to apply a topping-charge to replenish
lost energy due to self-discharge, or when a load is applied. This mode works
well for installations that do not draw a load when on standby.
Lead acid batteries must always be stored in a charged state. A topping
charge should be applied every 6 months to prevent the voltage from dropping
below 2.05V/cell and causing the battery to sulfate. With AGM, these
requirements can be relaxed.
Measuring the open circuit voltage (OCV) while in storage provides a
reliable indication as to the state-of-charge of the battery. A cell voltage of 2.10V
at room temperature reveals a charge of about 90 percent. This battery is in good
condition and needs only a brief full charge prior to use.
Observe the storage temperature when measuring the open circuit voltage.
A cool battery lowers the voltage slightly and a warm one increases it. Using
OCV to estimate state-of-charge works best when the battery has rested for a few
hours, because a charge or discharge agitates the battery and distorts the voltage.
Some buyers do not accept shipments of new batteries if the OCV at
incoming inspection is below 2.10V per cell. A low voltage suggests a partial
charge due to long storage or a high self-discharge caused by a micro-short.
Battery users have found that a pack arriving at a lower than specified voltage
has a higher failure rate than those with higher voltage. Although in-house
service can often bring such batteries to full performance, the time and
equipment required adds to operational costs. (Note that the 2.10V/cell
acceptance threshold does not apply to all lead acid types equally.)
Watering
Watering is the single most important step in maintaining a flooded lead acid
battery; a requirement that is all too often neglected. The frequency of watering
depends on usage, charge method and operating temperature. Over-charging also
leads to water consumption.
A new battery should be checked every few weeks to estimate the watering
requirement. This assures that the top of the plates are never exposed. A naked
plate will sustain irreversible damage through oxidation, leading to reduced
capacity and lower performance.
If low on electrolyte, immediately fill the battery with distilled or de-
ionized water. Tap water may be acceptable in some regions. Do not fill to the
correct level before charging as this could cause an overflow during charging.
Always top up to the desired level after charging. Never add electrolyte as this
would upset the specific gravity and promote corrosion. Watering systems
eliminate low electrolyte levels by automatically adding the right amount of
water.

Equalizing Charge
Stationary batteries are almost exclusively lead acid and some maintenance is
required, one of which is equalizing charge. Applying a periodic equalizing
charge brings all cells to similar levels by increasing the voltage to 2.50V/cell, or
10 percent higher than the recommended charge voltage.
An equalizing charge is nothing more than a deliberate overcharge to
remove sulfate crystals that build up on the plates over time. Left unchecked,
sulfation can reduce the overall capacity of the battery and render the battery
unserviceable in extreme cases. An equalizing charge also reverses acid
stratification, a condition where acid concentration is greater at the bottom of the
battery than at the top.
Experts recommend equalizing services once a month to once or twice a
year. A better method is to apply a fully saturated charge and then compare the
specific gravity readings (SG) on the individual cells of a flooded lead acid
battery with a hydrometer. Only apply equalization if the SG difference between
the cells is 0.030.
During equalizing charge, check the changes in the SG reading every hour
and disconnect the charge when the gravity no longer rises. This is the time
when no further improvement is possible and a continued charge would have a
negative effect on the battery.
The battery must be kept cool and under close observation for unusual heat
rise and excessive venting. Some venting is normal and the hydrogen emitted is
highly flammable. The battery room must have good ventilation as hydrogen gas
becomes explosive at a concentration of 4 percent.
Equalizing VRLA and other sealed batteries involves guesswork. Observing
the differences in cell voltage does not give a conclusive solution and good
judgment plays a pivotal role when estimating the frequency and duration of the
service. Some manufacturers recommend monthly equalizations for 2–16 hours.
Most VRLAs vent at 34kPa (5psi), and repeated venting leads to the depletion of
the electrolyte, which can lead to a dry-out condition. Not all chargers feature
equalizing charge. If not available, the service should be performed with a
dedicated device.

How to Charge with a Power Supply

Batteries can be charged manually with a power supply featuring user-adjustable
voltage and current limiting. I stress manual because charging needs the know-
how and can never be left unattended; charge termination is not automated.
Because of difficulties in detecting full charge with nickel-based batteries, I
recommend charging only lead and lithium-based batteries manually.
Lead Acid
Before connecting the battery, calculate the charge voltage according to the
number of cells in series, and then set the desired voltage and current limit. To
charge a 12-volt lead acid battery (six cells) to a voltage limit of 2.40V, set the
voltage to 14.40V (6 x 2.40). Select the charge current according to battery size.
For lead acid, this is between 10 and 30 percent of the rated capacity. A 10Ah
battery at 30 percent charges at about 3A; the percentage can be lower. An 80Ah
starter battery may charge at 8A. (A 10 percent charge rate is equal to 0.1C.)
Observe the battery temperature, voltage and current during charge. Charge
only at ambient temperatures in a well-ventilated room. Once the battery is fully
charged and the current has dropped to 3 percent of the rated Ah, the charge is
completed. Disconnect the charge. Also disconnect the charge after 16–24 hours
if the current has bottomed out and cannot go lower; high self-discharge (soft
electrical short) can prevent the battery from reaching the low saturation level. If
you need float charge for operational readiness, lower the charge voltage to
about 2.25V/cell.
You can also use the power supply to equalize a lead acid battery by setting
the charge voltage 10 percent higher than recommended. The time in overcharge
is critical and must be carefully observed.
A power supply can also reverse sulfation. Set the charge voltage above the
recommended level, adjust the current limiting to the lowest practical value and
observe the battery voltage. A totally sulfated lead acid may draw very little
current at first and as the sulfation layer dissolves, the current will gradually
increase. Elevating the temperature and placing the battery on an ultrasound
vibrator may also help in the process. If the battery does not accept a charge after
24 hours, restoration is unlikely. (See “Sulfation” of page 238.)
Lithium-ion
Lithium-ion charges similarly to lead acid and you can also use the power supply
but exercise extra caution. Check the full charge voltage, which is commonly
4.20V/cell, and set the threshold accordingly. Make certain that none of the cells
connected in series exceeds this voltage. (The protection circuit in a commercial
pack does this.) Full charge is reached when the cell(s) reach 4.20V/cell voltage
and the current drops to 3 percent of the rated current, or has bottomed out and
cannot go down further. Once fully charged, disconnect the battery. Never allow
a cell to dwell at 4.20V for more than a few hours.
Please note that not all Li-ion batteries charge to the voltage threshold of
4.20V/cell. Lithium iron phosphate typically charges to the cut-off voltage of
3.65V/cell and lithium-titanate to 2.85V/cell. Some Energy Cells may accept
4.30V/cell and higher. (See “Types of Lithium-ion Batteries” on page 61.)
NiCd and NiMH
Charging nickel-based batteries with a power supply is challenging because the
full-charge detection is rooted in a voltage signature that varies with the applied
charge current. If you must charge NiCd and NiMH with a regulated power
supply, use the temperature rise on a 0.3–1C rapid charge as an indication of full
charge. When charging at a low current, estimate the level of remaining charge
and calculate the charge time. An empty 2Ah NiMH will charge in about 3 hours
at 750–1,000mA. The trickle charge, also known as maintenance charge, must be
reduced to 0.05C. (See “Charging Nickel-cadmium” on page 139 and “Charging
Nickel-metal-hydride” on page 142.)

Battery as a Buffer
The main purpose of a stationary battery is to provide power during power
outage. Battery banks are also designed to provide extra power during high-
traffic periods when the AC power supply does not have sufficient capacity to
feed the system. In this case, the battery acts as a buffer similar to the battery in a
hybrid car that assists in acceleration.
Cellular repeater towers are an example where the backup battery serves as
a buffer. The batteries get fully charged during off-peak periods and go into
discharge mode to assist the AC power supply during the peak times.
When relying on the battery as buffer, make certain that the battery has
enough time to charge between peak periods. The net charge must always be
greater than what was drawn from the battery. Avoid deep discharges as this
would wear down the battery prematurely. Note that stationary and starter
batteries are not made for deep cycling. If periodic cycling is needed, choose a
deep-cycle battery.
Simple Guidelines for Charging Lead Acid Batteries

Charge in a well-ventilated area. Hydrogen gas generated during charging

is explosive.
Choose the appropriate charge program for flooded, gel and AGM
batteries. Check manufacturer’s specifications on recommended voltage
thresholds.
Recharge lead acid batteries after each use to prevent sulfation. Do not
store on low charge.
The plates of flooded batteries must always be fully submerged in
electrolyte. Fill the battery with distilled or de-ionized water to cover the
plates if low. Tap water may be acceptable in some regions. Never add
electrolyte.
Fill water level to designated level after charging. Overfilling when the
battery is on low charge can cause acid spillage during charging.
The formation of gas bubbles in a flooded lead acid indicates that the
battery is reaching full state-of-charge. (Hydrogen appears on negative
plate and oxygen on positive plate).
Lower the float charge voltage if the ambient temperature is higher than
29°C (85°F).
Do not allow a lead acid to freeze. An empty battery freezes sooner than
one that is fully charged. Never charge a frozen battery.
Avoid charging at temperatures above 49°C (120°F).

Charging Nickel-cadmium
Battery manufacturers recommend that new batteries be slow-charged for 16–24
hours before use. A slow charge brings all cells in a battery pack to an equal
charge level. This is important because each cell within the nickel-cadmium
battery may have self-discharged at its own rate. Furthermore, during long
storage the electrolyte tends to gravitate to the bottom of the cell and the initial
slow charge helps in the redistribution to eliminate dry spots on the separator.
 Battery manufacturers do not fully format nickel- and lead-based batteries
before shipment. The cells reach optimal performance after priming that
involves several charge/discharge cycles. This is part of normal use; it can also
be done with a battery analyzer. Quality cells are known to perform to full
specifications after only 5–7 cycles; others may take 50–100 cycles. Peak
capacity occurs between 100–300 cycles, after which the performance starts to
drop gradually.
Most rechargeable cells include a safety vent that releases excess pressure if
incorrectly charged. The vent on a NiCd cell opens at 1,000–1,400kPa (150–
200psi). Pressure released through a re-sealable vent causes no damage;
however, with each venting event some electrolyte escapes and the seal may
begin to leak. The formation of a white powder at the vent opening makes this
visible. Multiple venting eventually results in a dry-out condition. A battery
should never be stressed to the point of venting.

Full-charge Detection by Temperature

Full-charge detection of sealed nickel-based batteries is more complex than that
of lead acid and lithium-ion. Low-cost chargers often use temperature sensing to
end the fast charge, but this can be inaccurate. The core of a cell is several
degrees warmer than the skin where the temperature is measured, and the delay
that occurs causes over-charge. Charger manufacturers use 50°C (122°F) as
temperature cutoff. Although any prolonged temperature above 45°C (113°F) is
harmful to the battery, a brief overshoot is acceptable as long as the battery
temperature drops quickly when the “ready” light appears.
Advanced chargers no longer rely on a fixed temperature threshold but
sense the rate of temperature increase over time, also known as delta temperature
over delta time, or dT/dt. Rather than waiting for an absolute temperature to
occur, dT/dt uses the rapid temperature increase towards the end of charge to
trigger the “ready” light. The delta temperature method keeps the battery cooler
than a fixed temperature cutoff, but the cells need to charge reasonably fast to
trigger the temperature rise. Charge termination occurs when the temperature
rises 1°C (1.8°F) per minute. If the battery cannot achieve the needed
temperature rise, an absolute temperature cutoff set to 60°C (140°F) terminates
the charge.
Chargers relying on temperature inflict harmful overcharges when a fully
charged battery is repeatedly removed and reinserted. This is the case with
chargers in vehicles and desktop stations where a two-way radio is being
detached with each use. Reconnection initiates a new charge cycle that requires
reheating of the battery.
Li-ion systems have an advantage in that voltage governs state-of-charge.
Reinserting a fully charged Li-ion battery immediately pushes the voltage to the
full-charge threshold, the current drops and the charger turns off shortly without
needing to create a temperature signature.
Full-charge Detection by Voltage Signature
Advanced chargers terminate charge when a defined voltage signature occurs.
This provides a more precise full-charge detection of nickel-based batteries than
temperature-based methods. The charger looks for a voltage drop that occurs
when the battery has reached full charge. This method is called negative delta V
(NDV).
NDV is the recommended full-charge detection method for chargers
applying a charge rate of 0.3C and higher. It offers a quick response time and
works well with a partially or fully charged battery. When inserting a fully
charged battery, the terminal voltage rises quickly and then drops sharply to
trigger the ready state. The charge lasts only a few minutes and the cells remain
cool. NiCd chargers with NDV detection typically respond to a voltage drop of
5mV per cell.
To achieve a reliable voltage signature, the charge rate must be 0.5C and
higher. Slower charging produces a less defined voltage drop, especially if the
cells are mismatched in which case each cell reaches full charge at a different
time point. To assure reliable full-charge detection, most NDV chargers also use
a voltage plateau detector that terminates the charge when the voltage remains in
a steady state for a given time. These chargers also include delta temperature,
absolute temperature and a time-out timer.
Fast charge improves the charger efficiency. At 1C charge rate, the
efficiency of a standard NiCd is 91 percent and the charge time is about an hour
(66 minutes at 91 percent). On a slow charger, the efficiency drops to 71 percent,
prolonging the charge time to about 14 hours at 0.1C.
During the first 70 percent of charge, the efficiency of a NiCd is close to
100 percent. The battery absorbs almost all energy and the pack remains cool.
NiCd batteries designed for fast charging can be charged with currents that are
several times the C-rating without extensive heat buildup. In fact, NiCd is the
only battery that can be ultra-fast charged with minimal stress. Cells made for
ultra-fast charging can be charged to 70 percent in minutes.
Figure 4-9 shows the relationship of cell voltage, pressure and temperature
of a charging NiCd. Everything goes well up to about 70 percent charge, when
charge efficiency drops. The cells begin to generate gases, the pressure rises and
the temperature increases rapidly. To reduce battery stress, some chargers lower
the charge rate past the 70 percent mark.
Figure 4-9: Charge characteristics of a NiCd cell.
Charge efficiency is high up to 70% SoC and then charge acceptances drops. NiMH is similar to NiCd.
Charge efficiency measures the battery’s ability to accept charge and has similarities with coulombic
efficiency.

Courtesy of Cadex

Ultra-high-capacity NiCd batteries tend to heat up more than standard

NiCds when charging at 1C and higher and this is partly due to increased
internal resistance. Applying a high current at the initial charge and then tapering
off to a lower rate as the charge acceptance decreases is a recommended fast
charge method for these more fragile batteries.
Interspersing discharge pulses between charge pulses is known to improve
charge acceptance of nickel-based batteries. Commonly referred to as a “burp”
or “reverse load” charge, this method assists in the recombination of gases
generated during charge. The result is a cooler and more effective charge than
with conventional DC chargers. The method is also said to reduce the “memory”
effect as the battery is being exercised with pulses. (See “Memory: Myth or
Fact?” on page 246.) While pulse charging may be valuable for NiCd and NiMH
batteries, this method does not apply to lead- and lithium-based systems. These
batteries work best with a pure DC voltage.
After full charge, the NiCd battery receives a trickle charge of 0.05–0.1C to
compensate for self-discharge. To reduce possible overcharge, charger designers
aim for the lowest possible trickle charge current. In spite of this, it is best not to
leave nickel-based batteries in a charger for more than a few days. Remove them
and recharge before use.
Charging Flooded Nickel-cadmium Batteries
Flooded NiCd is charged with a constant voltage to about 1.55V/cell. The
current is then reduced to 0.1C and the charge continues until 1.55V/cell is
reached again. At this point, a trickle charge is applied and the voltage is allowed
to float freely. Higher charge voltages are possible but this generates excess gas
and causes rapid water depletion. NDV is not applicable as the flooded NiCd
does not absorb gases because it is not under pressure.

Charging Nickel-metal-hydride
The charge algorithm for NiMH is similar to NiCd with the exception that NiMH
is more complex. Negative Delta V to detect full charge is faint, especially when
charging at less than 0.5C. A mismatched or hot pack reduces the symptoms
further.
NDV in a NiMH charger should respond to a voltage drop of 5mV per cell
or less. This requires electronic filtering to compensate for noise and voltage
fluctuations induced by the battery and the charger. Well-designed NiMH
chargers include NDV, voltage plateau, delta temperature (dT/dt), temperature
threshold and time-out timers into the full-charge detection algorithm. These “or-
gates” utilize whatever comes first. Many chargers include a 30-minute topping
charge of 0.1C to boost the capacity by a few percentage points.
 Some advanced chargers apply an initial fast charge of 1C. When reaching
a certain voltage threshold, a rest of a few minutes is added, allowing the battery
to cool down. The charge continues at a lower current and then applies further
current reductions as the charge progresses. This scheme continues until the
battery is fully charged. Known as the “step-differential charge,” this method
works well for all nickel-based batteries.
Chargers utilizing the step-differential or other aggressive charge methods
achieve a capacity gain of about 6 percent over a more basic charger. Although a
higher capacity is desirable, filling the battery to the brim adds stress and
shortens the overall battery life. Rather than achieving the expected 350–400
service cycles, the aggressive charger might exhaust the pack after 300 cycles.
NiMH dislikes overcharge, and the trickle charge is set to around 0.05C.
NiCd is better at absorbing overcharge and the original NiCd chargers had a
trickle charge of 0.1C. The differences in trickle charge current and the need for
more sensitive full-charge detection render the original NiCd charger unsuitable
for NiMH batteries. A NiMH in a NiCd charger would overheat, but a NiCd in a
NiMH charger functions well. Modern chargers accommodate both battery
systems.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to slow charge a NiMH battery. At a C-rate
of 0.1C to 0.3C, the voltage and temperature profiles do not exhibit defined
characteristics to trigger full-charge detection, and the charger must depend on a
timer. Harmful overcharge can occur when charging partially or fully charged
batteries, even if the battery remains cold.
The same scenario occurs if the battery has lost capacity and can only hold
half the charge. In essence, this battery has shrunk to half the size while the fixed
timer is programmed to apply a 100 percent charge without regard for battery
condition.
Many battery users complain about shorter than expected service life and
the fault might lie in the charger. Low-priced consumer chargers are prone to
incorrect charging. If you want to improve battery performance with a low-cost
charger, estimate the battery state-of-charge and set the charge time accordingly.
Remove the batteries when presumed full.
If your charger charges at a high charge rate, do a temperature check.
Lukewarm indicates that the batteries may be full. It is better to remove the
batteries early and recharge before each use than to leave them in the charger for
eventual use.

Simple Guidelines for Charging Nickel-based Batteries

The charge efficiency of nickel-based is close to 100 percent up to 70

percent charge. The pack remains cool but it begins to warm up with
decreased efficiency towards full charge.
Nickel-based batteries must cool down on trickle charge. If warm, trickle
charge is too high.
Consumer chargers do not always terminate the charge correctly. Remove
the batteries when warm to the touch. Discontinue using a charger that
“cooks” batteries.
Charge at room temperature. Do not charge when hot or at freezing
temperatures.
Nickel-based batteries are best fast charged; a lingering slow charge
causes “memory.”
Nickel- and lithium-based batteries require different charge algorithms. A
NiMH charger can also charge NiCd; a NiCd charger would overcharge
NiMH.
Do not leave a nickel-based battery in the charger for more than a few
days. If possible, remove the packs and apply a brief charge before use.

Charging Lithium-ion
Charging and discharging batteries is a chemical reaction, but Li-ion is claimed
to be the exception. Battery scientists talk about energies flowing in and out of
the battery as part of ion movement between anode and cathode. This claim
carries merits but if the scientists were totally right, then the battery would live
forever. They blame capacity fade on ions getting trapped, but as with all battery
systems, internal corrosion and other degenerative effects still play a role.
The Li ion charger is a voltage-limiting device that has similarities to the
lead acid system. The differences with Li-ion lie in a higher voltage per cell,
tighter voltage tolerances and the absence of trickle or float charge at full charge.
While lead acid offers some flexibility in terms of voltage cut off, manufacturers
of Li-ion cells are very strict on the correct setting because Li-ion cannot accept
overcharge. The so-called miracle charger that promises to prolong battery life
and gain extra capacity with pulses and other gimmicks does not exist. Li-ion is
a “clean” system and only takes what it can absorb.
Charging Cobalt-blended Li-ion
Li-ion with the traditional cathode materials of cobalt, nickel, manganese and
aluminum typically charge to 4.20V/cell. The tolerance is +/–50mV/cell. Some
nickel-based varieties charge to 4.10V/cell; high capacity Li-ion may go to
4.30V/cell and higher. Boosting the voltage increases capacity, but going beyond
specification stresses the battery and compromises safety. Protection circuits
built into the pack do not allow exceeding the set voltage.
Figure 4-10 shows the voltage and current signature as lithium-ion passes
through the stages for constant current and topping charge. Full charge is
reached when the current decreases to between 3 and 5 percent of the Ah rating.
Figure 4-10: Charge stages of lithium-ion.
Li-ion is fully charged when the current drops to a set level. In lieu of trickle charge, some chargers apply a
topping charge when the voltage drops.
Courtesy of Cadex

The advised charge rate of an Energy Cell is between 0.5C and 1C; the
complete charge time is about 2–3 hours. Manufacturers of these cells
recommend charging at 0.8C or less to prolong battery life; however, most
Power Cells can take a higher charge C-rate with little stress. Charge efficiency
is about 99 percent and the cell remains cool during charge.
Some Li-ion packs may experience a temperature rise of about 5ºC (9ºF)
when reaching full charge. This could be due to the protection circuit and/or
elevated internal resistance. Discontinue using the battery or charger if the
temperature rises more than 10ºC (18ºF) under moderate charging speeds.
Full charge occurs when the battery reaches the voltage threshold and the
current drops to 3 percent of the rated current. A battery is also considered fully
charged if the current levels off and cannot go down further. Elevated self-
discharge might be the cause of this condition.
Increasing the charge current does not hasten the full-charge state by much.
Although the battery reaches the voltage peak quicker, the saturation charge will
take longer accordingly. With higher current, Stage 1 is shorter but the saturation
during Stage 2 will take longer. A high current charge will, however, quickly fill
the battery to about 70 percent.
Li-ion does not need to be fully charged as is the case with lead acid, nor is
it desirable to do so. In fact, it is better not to fully charge because a high voltage
stresses the battery. Choosing a lower voltage threshold or eliminating the
saturation charge altogether, prolongs battery life but this reduces the runtime.
Chargers for consumer products go for maximum capacity and cannot be
adjusted; extended service life is perceived less important.
Some lower-cost consumer chargers may use the simplified “charge-and-
run” method that charges a lithium-ion battery in one hour or less without going
to the Stage 2 saturation charge. “Ready” appears when the battery reaches the
voltage threshold at Stage 1. State-of-charge (SoC) at this point is about 85
percent, a level that may be sufficient for many users.
Certain industrial chargers set the charge voltage threshold lower on
purpose to prolong battery life. Table 4-11 illustrates the estimated capacities
when charged to different voltage thresholds with and without saturation charge.
Table 4-11: Typical charge characteristics of lithium-ion.
Adding full saturation boosts the capacity by about 10% but shortens life.

When the battery is first put on charge, the voltage shoots up quickly. This
behavior can be compared to lifting a weight with a rubber band, causing a lag.
The capacity will eventually catch up when the battery is almost fully charged
(Figure 4-12). This charge characteristic is typical of all batteries. The higher the
charge current is, the larger the rubber-band effect will be. Cold temperatures or
charging a cell with high internal resistance amplifies the effect.
Figure 4-12: Volts/capacity vs. time when charging Li-ion.
The capacity trails the charge voltage like lifting a heavy weight with a rubber band.

Estimating SoC by reading the voltage of a charging battery is impractical;

measuring the open circuit voltage (OCV) after the battery has rested for a few
hours is a better indicator. As with all batteries, temperature affects the OCV, so
does the active material of Li-ion. SoC of smartphones, laptops and other
devices is estimated by coulomb counting. (See “How to Measure State-of-
charge” on page 271.)
Li-ion cannot absorb overcharge. When fully charged, the charge current
must be cut off. A continuous trickle charge would cause plating of metallic
lithium and compromise safety. To minimize stress, keep the lithium-ion battery
at the peak cutoff as short as possible.
Once the charge is terminated, the battery voltage begins to drop. This eases
the voltage stress. Over time, the open circuit voltage will settle to between
3.70V and 3.90V/cell. Note that a Li-ion battery that has received a fully
saturated charge will keep the voltage elevated for a longer time than one that
has not received a saturation charge.
When lithium-ion batteries must be left in the charger for operational
readiness, some chargers apply a brief topping charge to compensate for the
small self-discharge the battery and its protective circuit consume. The charger
may kick in when the open circuit voltage drops to 4.05V/cell and turn off again
at 4.20V/cell. Chargers made for operational readiness, or standby mode, often
let the battery voltage drop to 4.0V/cell and recharge to only 4.05V/cell instead
of the full 4.20V/cell. This reduces voltage-related stress and prolongs battery
life.
Some portable devices sit in a charge cradle in the ON position. The current
drawn through the device is called the parasitic load and can distort the charge
cycle. Battery manufacturers advise against parasitic loads while charging
because they induce mini-cycles. This cannot always be avoided and a laptop
connected to the AC main is such a case. The battery might be charged to
4.20V/cell and then discharged by the device. The stress level on the battery is
high because the cycles occur at the high-voltage threshold, often also at
elevated temperature.
A portable device should be turned off during charge. This allows the
battery to reach the set voltage threshold and current saturation point unhindered.
A parasitic load confuses the charger by depressing the battery voltage and
preventing the current in the saturation stage to drop low enough by drawing a
leakage current. A battery may be fully charged, but the prevailing conditions
will prompt a continued charge, causing stress.
Charging Non-cobalt-blended Li-ion
While the traditional lithium-ion has a nominal cell voltage of 3.60V, Li-
phosphate (LiFePO) makes an exception with a nominal cell voltage of 3.20V
and charging to 3.65V. Relatively new is the Li-titanate (LTO) with a nominal
cell voltage of 2.40V and charging to 2.85V.
Chargers for these non-cobalt-based Li-ions are not compatible with regular
3.60-volt Li-ion. Provision must be made to identify the systems and provide the
correct charging voltage. A 3.60-volt lithium battery in a charger designed for
Li-phosphate would not receive sufficient charge; a Li-phosphate in a regular
charger would cause overcharge.
Overcharging Li-ion
Lithium-ion operates safely within the designated operating voltages; however,
the battery becomes unstable if inadvertently charged to a higher than specified
voltage. Prolonged charging above 4.30V on a Li-ion designed for 4.20V/cell
will plate metallic lithium on the anode. The cathode material becomes an
oxidizing agent, loses stability and produces carbon dioxide (CO2). The cell
pressure rises and if the charge is allowed to continue, the current interrupt
device (CID) responsible for cell safety disconnects at 1,000–1,380kPa (145–
200psi). Should the pressure rise further, the safety membrane on some Li-ion
bursts open at about 3,450kPa (500psi) and the cell might eventually vent with
flame. (More on page 110, “Making Lithium-ion Safe.”)
Venting with flame is connected with elevated temperature. A fully charged
battery has a lower thermal runaway temperature and vents sooner than one that
is partially charged. All lithium-based batteries are safer at a lower charge, and
this is why authorities mandate air shipment of Li-ion at 30 percent state-of-
charge rather than at full charge. (See page 204.) The thermal threshold for Li-
cobalt at full charge is 130–150°C (266–302°F); nickel-manganese-cobalt
(NMC) is 170–180°C (338–356°F) and Li-manganese is about 250°C (482°F).
Li-phosphate enjoys better temperature stabilities than manganese.
Lithium-ion is not the only battery that poses a safety hazard if
overcharged. Lead- and nickel-based batteries are also known to melt down and
cause fire if improperly handled. Properly designed charging equipment is
paramount for all battery systems and temperature sensing is a reliable
watchman.
Summary
Charging lithium-ion batteries is simpler than nickel-based systems. The charge
circuit is straight forward; voltage and current limitations are easier to
accommodate than analyzing complex voltage signatures, which change as the
battery ages. The charge process can be intermittent, and Li-ion does not need
saturation as is the case with lead acid. This offers a major advantage for
renewable energy storage such as a solar panel and wind turbine, which cannot
always fully charge the battery. The absence of trickle charge further simplifies
the charger. Equalizing charger, as is required with lead acid, is not necessary
with Li-ion.

Simple Guidelines for Charging Lithium-based Batteries

Turn off the device or disconnect the load on charge to allow the current
to drop unhindered during saturation. A parasitic load confuses the
charger.
Charge at a moderate temperature. Do not charge at freezing temperature.
Lithium-ion does not need to be fully charged; a partial charge is better.
Not all chargers apply a full topping charge and the battery may not be
fully charged when the “ready” signal appears; a 100 percent charge on a
fuel gauge may be a lie.
Discontinue using charger and/or battery if the battery gets excessively
warm.
Apply some charge to an empty battery before storing (40–50 percent SoC
is ideal). (See “How to Store Batteries” on page 195.)

Charging at High and Low Temperatures

Batteries operate over a wide temperature range, but this does not give
permission to also charge them at these conditions. The charging process is more
delicate than discharging and special care must be taken. Extreme cold and high
heat reduce charge acceptance, so the battery must be brought to a moderate
temperature before charging.
Older battery technologies, such as lead acid and NiCd, have higher
charging tolerances than newer systems. This allows them to charge below
freezing but at a reduced C-charge rate. When it comes to cold-charging NiCd is
hardier than NiMH. Table 4-13 summarizes the permissible charge and discharge
temperatures of common batteries. The table excludes batteries that are designed
to charge outside these parameters.
Low-temperature Charge
Fast charging of most batteries is limited to 5°C to 45°C (41°F to 113°F); for
best results consider narrowing the temperature bandwidth to between 10°C and
30°C (50°F and 86°F) as the ability to recombine oxygen and hydrogen
diminishes when charging nickel-based batteries below 5°C (41°F). If charged
too quickly, pressure builds up in the cell that can lead to venting. Reduce the
charge current of all nickel-based batteries to 0.1C when charging below
freezing.

Table 4-13: Permissible temperature limits for various batteries. Batteries can be discharged over a
large temperature range, but the charge temperature is limited. For best results, charge between 10°C and
30°C (50°F and 86°F). Lower the charge current when cold.

Nickel-based chargers with NDV full-charge detection offer some

protection when fast charging at low temperatures; the poor charge acceptance
when cold mimics a fully charged battery. This is in part caused by a high
pressure buildup due to the reduced ability to recombine gases at low
temperature. Pressure rise and a voltage drop at full charge appear synonymous.
To enable fast charging at all temperatures, some industrial batteries add a
thermal blanket that heats the battery to an acceptable temperature; other
chargers adjust the charge rate to prevailing temperatures. Consumer chargers do
not have these provisions and the end user is advised to only charge at room
temperature.
Lead acid is reasonably forgiving when it comes to temperature extremes,
as the starter batteries in our cars reveal. Part of this tolerance is credited to their
sluggish behavior. The recommended charge rate at low temperature is 0.3C,
which is almost identical to normal conditions. At a comfortable temperature of
20°C (68°F), gassing starts at charge voltage of 2.415V/cell. When going to –
20°C (0°F), the gassing threshold rises to 2.97V/cell.
Freezing a lead acid battery leads to permanent damage. Always keep the
batteries fully charged because in the discharged state the electrolyte becomes
more water-like and freezes earlier than when fully charged. According to BCI, a
specific gravity of 1.15 has a freezing temperature of –15°C (5°F). This
compares to –55°C (–67°F) for a specific gravity of 1.265 with a fully charged
starter battery. Flooded lead acid batteries tend to crack the case and cause
leakage if frozen; sealed lead acid packs lose potency and only deliver a few
cycles before they fade and need replacement.
Li-ion can be fast charged from 5°C to 45°C (41 to 113°F). Below 5°C, the
charge current should be reduced, and no charging is permitted at freezing
temperatures. During charge, the internal cell resistance causes a slight
temperature rise that compensates for some of the cold. The internal resistance
of all batteries rises when cold, prolonging charge times noticeably.
Many battery users are unaware that consumer-grade lithium-ion batteries
cannot be charged below 0°C (32°F). Although the pack appears to be charging
normally, plating of metallic lithium can occur on the anode during a sub-
freezing charge. This is permanent and cannot be removed with cycling.
Batteries with lithium plating are more vulnerable to failure if exposed to
vibration or other stressful conditions. Advanced chargers (Cadex) prevent
charging Li-ion below freezing.
 Advancements are being made to charge Li-ion below freezing
temperatures. Charging is indeed possible with most lithium-ion cells but only at
very low currents. According to research papers, the allowable charge rate at –
30°C (–22°F) is 0.02C. At this low current, the charge time would stretch to over
50 hours, time that is deemed impractical. There are, however, specialty Li-ions
that can charge down to –10°C (14°F) at a reduced rate.
High-temperature Charge
Heat is the worst enemy of batteries, including lead acid. Adding temperature
compensation on a lead acid charger to adjust for temperature variations is said
to prolong battery life by up to 15 percent. The recommended compensation is a
3mV drop per cell for every degree Celsius rise in temperature. If the float
voltage is set to 2.30V/cell at 25°C (77°F), the voltage should read 2.27V/cell at
35°C (95°F). Going colder, the voltage should be 2.33V/cell at 15°C (59°F).
These 10°C adjustments represent 30mV change.
Table 4-14 indicates the optimal peak voltage at various temperatures when
charging lead acid batteries. The table also includes the recommended float
voltage while in standby mode.

Table 4-14: Recommended voltage limits when charging and maintaining stationary lead acid batteries on
float charge. Voltage compensation prolongs battery life when operating at temperature extremes.

Charging nickel-based batteries when warm lowers oxygen generation,

which reduces charge acceptance. Heat fools the charger into thinking that the
battery is fully charged when it’s not. Figure 4-15 shows a strong decrease in
charge efficiency from the “100 percent efficiency line” above 30°C (86°F). At
45°C (113°F), the battery can only accept 70 percent of its full capacity; at 60°C
(140°F) the charge acceptance is reduced to 45 percent. NDV for full-charge
detection becomes unreliable at higher temperatures, and temperature sensing is
essential for backup.

Figure 4-15: NiCd charge acceptance as a function of time with temperature as parameter.
High temperature reduces charge acceptance and departs from the dotted “100% efficiency line.” At 55°C,
commercial NiMH has a charge efficiency of 35–40%; newer industrial NiMH attains 75–80%.
Courtesy of Cadex

Li-ion performs well at elevated temperatures but prolonged exposure

reduces longevity. Some lithium-based packs are momentarily heated to high
temperatures. This applies to batteries in surgical tools that are sterilized at
137°C (280°F) for up to 20 minutes as part of autoclaving. Oil and gas drilling
as part of fracking also exposes the battery to high temperatures.
Capacity loss at elevated temperature is in direct relationship with state-of-
charge (SoC). Figure 4-16 illustrates the effect of Li-cobalt (LiCoO2) that is first
cycled at room temperature (RT) and then heated to 130°C (266°F) for 90
minutes and cycled at 20, 50 and 100 percent SoC. There is no noticeable
capacity loss at room temperature. At 130°C with a 20 percent SoC, a slight
capacity loss is visible over 10 cycles. This loss is higher with a 50 percent SoC
and shows a devastating effect when cycled at full charge.

Table 4-16: Capacity loss at room temperature (RT) and 130°C for 90 minutes.
Capacity loss is highest at full SoC. Sterilization of batteries for surgical power tools should be done at low
SoC.
Test: LiCoO2/Graphite cells were exposed to 130°C for 90 min.at different SoC between each cycle.
Source: Greatbatch Medical

Charging from a USB Port

The Universal Serial Bus (USB) was introduced in 1996 and has since become
one of the most widespread and convenient interfaces for electronic devices.
Compaq, DEC, IBM, Intel, NEC and Nortel contributed to the developments
with the goal of simplifying the interconnection of peripheral devices to a PC, as
well as to allow a greater data transfer rate than was feasible with earlier
interfaces. The USB port can also be used to charge personal devices, but with a
current limit of 500mA on the original design, this might have been an
afterthought.
A typical USB network consists of a host that is often a PC and peripherals
such as a printer, smartphone or camera. Data streams in both directions but the
power is unidirectional and always flows from the host to the device. The host
cannot take power from an outside source.
With 5V and 500mA available on version USB 1.0 and 2.0, and 900mA on
USB 3.0, the USB can charge a small single-cell Li-ion pack. There is, however,
a danger of overloading a USB hub when attaching too many gadgets. Charging
a device that draws 500mA connected together with other loads will exceed the
port’s current limit, leading to a voltage drop and a possible system failure. To
prevent overload, some hosts include current-limiting circuits that shut down the
supply when overdrawn.
The original USB port can only charge a small single-cell Li-ion battery.
Charging a 3.6V pack begins by applying a constant current to a voltage peak of
4.20V/cell, at which point the voltage peaks and the current begins to taper off.
(See “Charging Lithium-ion” on page 143.) Due to the voltage drop in the cable
and connectors, which is about 350mV, as well as losses in the charging circuit,
the 5V supply may not be high enough to fully charge the battery. This is a
minor problem; the battery will only charge to about 70 percent state-of-charge
and deliver a slightly shorter runtime than with a fully saturated charge. The
advantage: Li-ion will last longer if not fully charged.
Standard A and B USB plugs, as illustrated in Figure 4-17, feature four pins
and a shield. Pin 1 delivers +5VDC and pin 4 forms the ground that also
connects to the shield. The two shorter pins, 2 and 3, are marked D- and D+ and
carry data. When charging a battery, these pins have no other function than to
negotiate current.
Figure 4-17: Pin configuration of standard A and standard B USB connectors, viewed from the
mating end of the plugs.
Pin 1 carries +5VDC (red wire) and 4 is ground (black wire). The housing connects to the ground and
provides shielding. Pin 2 (D-, white wire) and pin 3 (D+, green wire) carry data.

Besides the standard type-A and type-B configurations with 4 pins, there
are also the USB Mini-A, Mini-B, Micro-A and Micro-B that include an ID pin
to permit detection of which cable end is plugged in. The outer pin-1 is positive
and pin-4 is negative. USB cables are generally standard type-A on one end and
either type-B, Mini-B or Micro-B on the other. The new type-C connector
described later features 24 pins and runs on the USB 3.1 standard.
Power Delivery
USB 2.0 with a current of 500mA has limitations when charging a larger
smartphone or tablet battery. Keeping the smartphone running on a bright screen
during charge could result in a net discharge of the battery as the USB cannot
satisfy both. Connecting a high-speed disk drive requires more than 500mA and
this can create a power issue with the original USB port.
In 2008, USB 3.0 relieved the power shortage by upping the current to
900mA. This current ceiling was chosen to prevent the thin ground wire from
interfering with high-speed data transfer when drawing a full load.
With the need for more power, the USB Implementers Forum released the
Battery Charging Specification in 2007 that enables a faster way to charge off a
USB host. This led to the dedicated charger port (DCP) serving as a USB
charger, delivering currents of 1,500mA and higher by connecting the DCP to an
AC outlet or a vehicle. To activate the DCP, the D- and D+ pins are internally
connected by a resistor of 200 ohms or less. This distinguishes the DCP from the
original USB ports that carry data. Some Apple products limit the charge current
by connecting different resistor values to the D+ and D- pins.
To support charging and data communication when using the DCP, a Y-
shaped cable is offered that connects to the original USB port for data streaming
and to the DCP port to satisfy charging needs. This appears like a logical
solution but the USB compliance specification states that the “use of a Y-cable is
prohibited on any USB peripheral,” meaning that “if a USB peripheral requires
more power than allowed by the USB specification to which it is designed, then
it must be self-powered.” The Y-cables and the so-called accessory charging
adapters (ACA) are being used without apparent difficulties.
The question is asked: “Can I cause damage by plugging my device into a
USB charger that delivers more current than 500mA and 900mA?” The answer
is no. The device only draws what it requires and no more. An analogy is
plugging in a lamp or a toaster into an AC wall plug. The lamp requires little
current while the toaster goes to the maximum. More power from the USB
charger will shorten the charge time.
Sleep-and-charge Mode
In most cases, turning the computer off also shuts down the USB. Some PCs
feature the sleep-and-charge USB port that remains powered on and can be used
to charge electronic devices when the computer is off. Sleep-and-charge USB
ports might be colored in red or yellow, but no standard exists. Dell adds a
lightning bolt icon and calls it the “PowerShare” while Toshiba uses the term
“USB Sleep-and-Charge.” The sleep-and-charge USB ports may also be marked
with the acronym USB over the drawing of a battery.
USB 3.1 and Type-C Connector
As with most other successful technologies, USB has spawned several versions
of connectors and cables over the years. USB chargers do not always work as
advertised and charge times are slow. Incompatibilities between competitive
systems exist, willingly or by oversight.
Companies overseeing USB standards are aware of the shortcomings and
brought out the type-C connector and cable based on the USB 3.1 standard.
Rather than using four-pins as in the classic type-A and type-B, the type-C
connector has 24 pins and is reversible, meaning it can be plugged in either way.
It supports 900mA and, on command, delivers 1.5A and 3.0A over a 5V power
bus while streaming data. This results in 7.5 and 15 watt power consumption
respectively, as opposed to 2.5W using the original USB (current times voltage =
wattage). The type-C can go up to 5A at 12V or 20V, providing 60W and 100W
respectively.
New devices come with the USB-C connector and USB 3.1, but consumers
beg for two or three regular USB 3.0 ports on their gadgets to support what
worked so well in the past. USB 3.1 is backward compatible with USB 2.0 and
USB 3.0 and the classic type-A and type-B connectors. While in transition to the
type-C, adaptors are available to convert, but expect lower data transfer speeds
with adapters than what USB 3.1 offers.

Charging Without Wires

Wireless charging may one day replace plugs and wires, similar to how
Bluetooth and Wi-Fi have modernized personal communication. The concept
rests on inductive coupling using an electromagnetic field that transfers energy
from the transmitter to the receiver.
Wireless transfer of power is not new. In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered
induction by sending electromagnetic force through space. In the late 1800s and
the early 1900s, Nicola Tesla demonstrated wireless broadcasting and power
transmission. The experiments in Colorado Springs in 1899 lead to the
Wardenclyffe Tower in New York. Tesla wanted to prove that electrical power
could be transmitted without wires, but lack of funding halted the project.
 It was not until the 1920s that public broadcasting began. Europe built
massive transmitters that covered many countries. The station at Beromünster in
Switzerland could have transmitted radio signals at 600kW, but legislation on
electro-smog and protests from the local population limited the power to 180kW.
Smaller FM stations have since replaced these large national transmitters;
cellular repeaters and Wi-Fi stations transmit at a fraction of this power and
many are in single watt digits.
Wireless charging shares similarities with radio transmission. It sends
signals in a near field condition in which the primary coil produces a magnetic
field that is picked up by the secondary coil in close proximity. The radio
transmitter, on the other hand, works on the far field principle by sending waves
that travel through space. While the receiving coil of the wireless charger
captures most of the energy generated, the receiving antenna of the radio only
needs a few microvolt (one millionth of a volt) to recover a signal that becomes
intelligent when amplified.

Types of Wireless Charging

Wireless charging is classified as inductive charging, radio charging and
resonance charging. Most of today’s wireless chargers use inductive charging
with transmit and receive coils in close proximity. Electric toothbrushes were
one of the first consumer goods to adopt this method.
Radio charging serves low-power devices operating within a 10-meter (30-
foot) radius from the transmitter to charge batteries in medical implants, hearing
aids, watches, entertainment devices and RFID (radio frequency identification)
chips. The transmitter sends a low-wattage radio wave and the receiver converts
the signal to energy. Radio charging resembles radio transmission the most; it
offers high flexibility but has a low power capture and exposes people to electro-
smog. Radio charging is not in common use.
Larger batteries for the electric vehicle use resonance charging by making a
coil “ring.” The oscillating magnetic field works within a 1-meter (3-foot)
radius. To stay in the power field, the distance between transmit and receive coil
must be within a quarter wavelength (915Mhz has a wavelength of 0.328 meters
or 1 foot).
Resonance charging is not limited to high-wattage wireless chargers; it is
used at all power levels. While a 3kW system for EV charging achieves a
reported efficiency of 93–95 percent with a 20cm (8 inch) air gap, a 100W
system is better than 90 percent efficient; however the low-power 5W systems
remain in the 75–80 percent efficiency range. Resonance charging is still in the
experimental stages and is not widely used.
Wireless charging needed a global standard and the Wireless Power
Consortium (WPC) accomplished this in 2008 by introducing the Qi norm. This
opened the door for device manufacturers to offer chargers for Qi-compatible
devices with 5 watts of power.
Powermat, a Qi participant, sprung loose over a disagreement and in 2012
started PMA as a new competitive norm. PMA is similar to Qi but runs at a
different frequency. Also in 2012, A4WP announced resonance charging that
allows freedom of movement while simultaneously charging several devices.
A4WP has not yet been approved as a standard.
While the A4WP format may not be available soon in a charging station, a
war is being fought over Qi and PMA. To accommodate both systems, some
manufacturers offer chargers and mobile devices that serve both standards. This
is a repeat of when Columbia Records released the 33 rpm LP (Long Play) in
1948 and RCA Victor promoted the 45 rpm record featuring a large hole. Dual-
speed gramophones and an insert solved the problem. Table 4-18 summarizes the
three norms.
Modern wireless charging follows a complex handshake to identify the
device to be charged. When placing a device onto a charge mat, the change in
capacitance or resonance senses its presence. The mat then transmits a burst
signal; the qualified device awakens and responds by providing identification
and signal strength status. The signal quality is often also used to improve the
positioning of the receiver or enhance magnetic coupling between mat and
receiver.

Table 4-18: Recognized standards for wireless charging. Qi and PMA are in completion while A4WP has
no standard and no commercial products. Emission issues must be solved first.

The charge mat only transmits power when a valid object is recognized,
which occurs when the receiver fulfills the protocol as defined by one of the
interoperability standards. During charging, the receiver sends control error
signals to adjust the power level. Upon full charge or when removing the load,
the mat switches to standby.
Transmit and receive coils are shielded to obtain good coupling and to
reduce stray radiation. Some charge mats use a free moving transmit coil that
seeks the object placed for best coupling, others systems feature multiple
transmit coils and engage those in close proximity with the object.
WPC calls the transmitter the TX Controller, or Base Station, and the
receiver on the mobile device the RX Controller, or Power Receiver. There is a
resemblance to a transformer with a primary and secondary coil. Figure 4-19
illustrates an overview of a Qi wireless charging system.
Figure 4-19: Overview of Qi wireless charging system.
Several systems are competing that may not be compatible. The three most common are Qi, PMA, A4WP.

Qi logo, Chinese word meaning “natural energy”

Pros and Cons of Wireless Charging

Wireless charging offers the ultimate convenience for consumers and enables
safe charging in a hazardous environment where an electrical spark could cause
an explosion. It further permits charging where grease, dust or corrosion would
prevent a good electrical contact. Eliminating electrical contacts also helps
doctors in sterilizing surgical tools. Wireless charging is durable and does not
wear out the contacts on multiple insertions.
Makers of electric vehicles seek convenience in charging, and this is
elegantly solved by parking the vehicle over a transmit coil. Engineers talk about
embedding charging coils into highways for continuous charging while driving
or when waiting at a traffic light. This is technically feasible, but high cost, low
efficiency and field emission when transmitting high power remain
insurmountable challenges.
For household and business use, the California Energy Commission (CEC),
Level V, mandates that AC adapters must meet a minimum efficiency of 85
percent; Energy Star Level V requires 87 percent (European CE uses CEC as a
base). Adding the losses of the AC adapter to wireless charging brings the
overall efficiency down further as the inductive transfer efficiency of inductive
charging is only 75–80 percent. Such a loss adds up when considering that an
estimated one billion mobile phone chargers are plugged into AC outlets
worldwide. To improve efficiency and comply with the Energy Star
requirements, WPC combines the power needs into a single power conversion.
Lost energy turns into heat, and a wireless charger can get quite warm
during charging. This causes stress on the device’s battery sitting on the mat. It
should be noted that the heat buildup only occurs during charging; the charging
pad cools down once the battery is fully charged.

Figure 4-20: Pros and cons of wireless charging.

Wireless charging provides convenience but wires still offer a practical alternative, which the birds will
support.
Anonymous source

WPC was very careful when releasing Qi; the first version has a power
limit of 5 watts. A medium-power version of up to 120 watts is in the works, but
this norm must meet stringent radiation standards before release. Radiation
prompts health concerns and these are raised by folks living next to mobile
phone towers and Wi-Fi stations.
Electromagnetic energy from radio towers, mobile phones, Wi-Fi and now
wireless charging are categorized as non-ionizing radiation and are said to be
harmless. Ionizing rays from x-rays, on the other hand, can cause cancer. As the
number of non-ionizing devices grows, folks begin to question the safety of this
form of radiation as well. Regulatory authorities are observing possible health
risks and will impose restrictions if harm can be proven.
Health problems caused by electromagnetic waves are inconclusive;
however, carrying a mobile phone close to the body is a concern. In standby
mode the device is constantly seeking contact with a tower by transmitting signal
busts. The transmit power is adjusted to the proximity of the tower and is higher
in remote areas.
Going wireless demands a 25 percent cost premium on the charging station,
a burden that also affects the receiver. For consumers who don’t want to pay the
price, charging by wires remains a workable alternative and birds looking for the
missing wires appreciate this move.

Charging with Solar, Turbine

Folks concerned about the environment gravitate towards using renewable
energy. The sun provides peak power of about 1,000 watts per square meter
(93W/sq ft) and a solar panel transforms this power into roughly 130W per
square meter (12W/sq ft). This energy harvest corresponds to a clear day with
the solar panel facing the sun. Surface dust on the solar panels and high heat
reduce the overall efficiency.
Generating electricity by sunlight goes back to 1839 when Edmond
Becquerel (1820–1891) first discovered the photovoltaic effect. It took another
century before researchers understood the process on an atomic level, which
works similar to a solid-state device with n-type and p-type silicon bonded
together.
Commercial photovoltaic (PV) systems are 10 to 20 percent efficient. Of
these, the flexible panels are only in the 10 percent range and the solid panels are
about 20 percent efficient. Multi-junction cell technologies are being tested that
achieve efficiencies of 40 percent and higher.
At 25°C (77°F), a high quality monocrystalline silicon solar panel produces
about 0.60V open circuit (OCV). Like batteries, solar cells can be connected in
series and parallel to get higher voltages and currents. The surface temperature
in full sunlight will likely rise to 45°C (113°F) and higher, reducing the open
circuit voltage to 0.55 V per cell due to lower efficiency. Solar cells become
more efficient at low temperatures, but caution is necessary when charging
batteries below freezing temperatures. The internal resistance of a solar cell is
relatively high: with a commercial cell the series resistance is about 1 ohm per
square centimeter (1Ωcm2).
A solar charging system is not complete without a charge controller. The
charge controller takes the energy from the solar panels or wind turbine and
converts the voltage so it’s suitable for battery charging. The supply voltage for a
12V battery bank is about 16V. This allows charging lead acid to 14.40V (6 x
2.40V/cell) and Li-ion to 12.60 (3 x 4.20V/cell). Note that 2.40V/cell for lead
acid and 4.20V/cell for lithium-ion are the full-charge voltage thresholds.
Charge controllers are also available for lithium-ion to charge 10.8V packs
(3 cells in series). When acquiring a charge controller, observe the voltage
requirements. The standard Li-ion family has a nominal voltage of 3.6V/cell;
lithium iron phosphate is 3.30V/cell. Only connect the correct batteries for
which the charge controller is designed. Do not connect a lead acid battery to a
charge controller designed for Li-ion and vice-versa. This could compromise the
safety and longevity of the batteries as the charge algorithms and voltage settings
are different.
A lower-cost charge controller only produces an output voltage when
sufficient light is available. With a diminishing light source, the charge controller
simply turns off and resumes when sufficient levels of light are restored. Most of
these devices cannot utilize fringe power present at dawn and dusk and this
limits them to applications with ideal lighting conditions.
An advanced charge controller tracks power by measuring the voltage and
adjusting the current to get maximum power transfer with prevailing light
conditions. This is made possible with maximum power point tracking (MPPT).
Figure 4-21 illustrates the voltage and current source from a solar cell with
varying sunlight. Optimal power is available at the voltage knee where the
dropping voltage line meets the vertical power line. MPPT determines this point.

Figure 4-21: Voltage and current from a solar cell at varying sunlight levels.
MPPT finds the best power point which is at the crossing point of the vertical power line. (V x A = W). The
top horizontal line gets the most light.
Wind turbines have a lower internal resistance than PV and the MPPT differs.
 It should be noted that not all MPPT circuits function equally well. Some
are coarse and do not respond immediately to light changes, causing the output
to fall or turn off if a shadow falls on the panel. Other systems drop off too early
and do not fully utilize low light conditions.
A common MPPT method is perturb and observe (P&O). The circuit
increases the voltage by a small amount and measures power. If the power
increases by the equal amount, further voltage increases are applied until the
optimal setting is reached. P&O achieves good efficiency but it can be sluggish
and result in oscillations.
Another method is incremental conductance that computes the maximum
power point by comparing current and voltage deltas. This requires more
computation but has an improved tracking ability over P&O. Current sweep is a
method that observes the current and voltage characteristics of the PV array to
calculate the maximum power point.
Solar panels are normally connected in series, each providing about 20V on
a sunny day. The controller reads the overall string voltage but if one panel gets
shaded, the MPPT loses effectiveness. Advanced systems process each panel or
group of panels individually. This allows voltage tracking of shaded panels down
to 5V. The negative is higher system costs.
You may ask, “Why can I not simply plug a 12V solar panel directly into
my laptop or mobile phone?” This should work in principle but is not
recommended. The charge controller transforms the incoming DC voltage from
the solar panel or wind turbine to the correct voltage range. In bright sunlight,
the voltage of a 12V solar panel can go up to 40V, and this could damage your
device.
From 1998 to 2011, the price of commercial photovoltaic systems dropped
by 5–7 percent annually and analysis suggests that the price-drop will continue.
It now costs between US$4 and $5 per watt for a typical residential solar
installation capable of delivering 5kW. Larger installations cost $3 to $4 per watt
with further reductions for megawatt systems.
Maintenance Charger
A maintenance charger is usually powered by a small solar cell that provides a
trickle charge to a battery on a sunny day. These devices help prevent sulfation
of a lead acid battery when stored. Even a small float charge will keep the
battery at full charge.
Choose a maintenance charger that switches to a controlled float charge
when the battery is fully charged. A prolonged charge, even at a low current,
could overcharge the battery and promote internal corrosion. A float charge that
is correctly adjusted only replenishes what the battery loses through self-
discharge.

How to Store Renewable Energy in a Battery

Economists predict rapid growth in micro-grid technology using batteries.
Environmentally conscious Germany, Japan and other countries have made use
of solar panels for many years to reduce energy costs. In parts of Africa where
the AC grid is not sufficiently developed to support all household activities, solar
panels with battery backup are mandatory.
Personal energy production is moving to the US Sunbelt; cheaper solar
panels and longer-lasting batteries make this attractive. Batteries store energy
during peak production when output is in over-supply to bridge the gap when
free energy goes to rest at night or when the wind stops. Batteries will moderate
peak consumption when the AC grid is stressed to the breaking point.
Renewable energy makes economic sense, but it is expensive. Most of the
Western World is served with cheap and reliable electricity from the AC grid
with a per kilowatt-hour cost as low as US $0.06 in parts of Canada, to $0.15 in
many cities and up to $0.40 in some European countries. Electricity produced by
a solar panel comes in at about $0.20 per kWh. When including peripheral
expenses, solar power in most parts of the world is more expensive than buying
electricity from the utilities, and as a rough guideline, stored energy doubles the
price.
 In spite of the apparent higher cost, putting solar panels on houses is
becoming fashionable. Hardware prices are falling and so is the installation. The
most common photovoltaic solar cells are the crystalline silicon type with an
efficiency of about 20 percent. Flexible panels for portable use, in comparison,
have an efficiency of only about 10 percent. The hardware cost to generate 1
watt of electricity with solid panels is $2.00–2.50, with costs trending lower.
In solar-rich countries where electricity is expensive, energy from solar
panels is being fed back to the AC grid. This causes the electrical meter to spin
backwards, offsetting previously consumed energy, but it can also induce a
problem. The amount of power generated cannot exceed consumption. Dumping
more energy into the grid than consumed makes the system unstable, resulting in
voltage fluctuations that can overload the circuit and lead to brownouts.
Renewable energy has friends and foes in high places. On one side,
governments hand out subsidies to install renewable energy systems, while on
the other side utilities try desperately to stem the move of home electricity
generation by reducing incentives and adding fees. The utilities argue that
spurious energy production by homeowners complicates control and cuts into the
revenue stream. They see it as creating glut and famine by means of excess
supply during times of plenty and famine when demand is high but renewable
contributions are not available.
The conflict is understandable because utility companies are responsible for
providing stable energy at all times while independent producers are unable to
reduce the concern of pending failure caused by an aging grid that moans during
peak demand. Right or wrong, producing clean energy from a renewable
resource should never be curtailed, especially if the resource can be stored, and
solar companies are fighting back through regulators, lawmakers and the courts.
Storage batteries have mostly been lead acid, and users complain about
their short life span. This is in part caused by excessive cycling as the battery
charges during the day and discharges at night. Lead acid has a limited cycle
count and suffers from sulfation when not periodically fully charged. A fully
saturated charge takes 16 hours, and no solar system can deliver energy for this
long. In addition, electrical consumption tends to increase with time while the
solar panels reduce their output due to dirt buildup and aging. This often leaves
lead acid with insufficient charge.
The switch to Li-ion solves this in part. Li-ion is more resistant to cycling
than lead acid and does not need to be fully charged; in fact a partial charge is
better as it relieves stress. But Li-ion is still double or three times the cost of lead
acid in terms of system purchase.
The Tesla Powerwall offers a 7kWh and a 10kWh battery, enough energy to
keep a home lit for several hours. Both packs have the same number of cells; the
7kWh battery uses the robust NMC that is used in many industrial applications
while the 10kWh makes use of the NCA that powers the Tesla S-models. NCA
offers high energy density and short charge time, while the NMC delivers a high
cycle count at a lower capacity.
Both the NCA and NMC are Energy Cells that dislike heavy loads. The
power of the Powerwall is limited to 2kW. This is sufficient to run a fridge,
brown toast and perhaps iron a shirt, but the wattage is too low to cook a meal on
an electric stove, run an electric dryer or keep the air conditioner going; high-
energy appliances consume more than 2kW. To fill the gap, the AC grid kicks in
seamlessly during peak household activity. A 10kWh battery with 2kW peak
power cannot disconnect a household from the grid, but it reduces the electrical
bill by one third to one half.
To fully charge a 10kWh battery during 5 hours of optimal sunshine
requires a solar system that delivers 5–12kW. At an estimated cost of $2 per
watt, the 10kW solar hardware comes in at $20,000. Installation and the DC-AC
inverter to convert the solar DC to compatible AC power and synchronize it with
the grid might double the cost. The battery will be extra also.
Another hidden cost that is often overlooked is end-of-life. Solar panels
have a life span of 25 years and batteries are commonly guaranteed for 10 years.
At a cost-of-money of 5 percent and a 20 year amortization, a $25,000 system
could cost the owner $2,500 per year. The energy savings should be greater than
this or else the exercise may be misconstrued. Even larger energy savings can be
made by reducing personal transportation or scaling down on the size and power
of such a carriage.

Charger Chips
When first introduced in the 1980s, charger chips simplified the design of NiCd
and NiMH chargers as batteries with these chemistries were difficult to charge.
Li-ion is simpler and most modern charging chips also include the protection
circuits that are needed to safe charge Li-ion. These include current and voltage
regulation, FET switches and may also contain charge status indicators and cell
balancing. Added to most chips is a time-out-timer that halts charge if
predictable symptoms do not occur as expected when charging a flawed battery.
Advanced chips also feature pre-charge conditioning (boost) to wake up an
inactive battery, as well as a sleep mode that lowers the housekeeping current of
the circuit while the battery is in storage. Some chips also initiate a charge if a
parasitic load lowers the battery voltage below a preset threshold while residing
in a charger.
Although charger chips are easy and economical to use, they have
limitations. Most offer a fixed charge algorithm that does not permit fine-tuning
for specialty uses. Chips are made for a given battery and may not accommodate
different chemistries as requested by the user or read a battery code that may be
embedded in a battery holder. Nor do most chips adjust to an optimal charge
current when charging an aging battery with reduced charge acceptance.
Microcontrollers offer an alternative to charger chips. Although the design
cost is higher because of the extra programming time needed, manufacturing
costs are compatible to charger chips. It should be noted that the charge chip or
the microcontroller only form a small part of the charger circuit; the bulk of the
cost lies in the peripheral components, which include solid-state switches, signal
lights and the power supply. The parts cost is directly related to wattage.
 Factory-configured charger modules are available that are set to the correct
voltage, current and algorithm. Some have seamless DC-DC conversion to allow
charging a battery with a higher voltage than the input provides. Options include
SMBus, solar charging, discharge for calibration and display. Using soft-
programmable charger modules resembles the ready-made AC power supplies
that became popular in the 1990s as a lower-cost alternative to building one’s
own charger for each application.

How to Charge – When to Charge Table

Early batteries were reserved for commercial use only, such as
telecommunications, signaling, portable lighting and war activities. Today,
batteries have become a steady travel companion of the public at large to reach a
friend; they allow working outside the confines of four walls, provide
entertainment when time permits and enable personal transportation. Best of all,
batteries help in missions when people are in need.
Folks are eager to learn more about this wonderful energy device and one of
the most common questions asked is, “What can I do to prolong the life of my
battery?” Table 4-22 addresses how to care for your batteries to meet their needs.
Because of similarities within the different battery families, the table addresses
the needs and wants of only the most common systems by keeping in mind that
these desires extend to almost all batteries in use.

Keep a battery at a moderate temperature. As food stays fresher when

refrigerated, so also does cool temperature protect the battery by reducing
internal corrosion, also known as parasitic reactions on the electrolyte and
electrodes.
Avoid deep cycling. Each cycle wears the battery down by a small
amount and a partial discharge is better than a full discharge. When
possible, only apply a full discharge to calibrate a smart battery and to
prevent “memory” on nickel-based batteries. Li-ion is maintenance-free
and the battery lasts longest when operating between 30 and 80 percent
SoC.
Avoid abuse. Like a machine that wears down quicker under strenuous
work, so also is a battery stressed by harsh discharges and rapid charges.
Use cells that are optimized for the power and energy requirements as per
application and increase that pack size to minimize load-related stresses.
Avoid ultra-fast charge. Charge Li-ion Energy Cells at less than 1C
(below rated Ah); Power Cells are more rugged and can be charged and
discharged at a higher rate. NiCd is the only battery that can be fast
charged up to 70 percent SoC without adverse side-effects.
Store Li-ion at partial charge in a cool place. The worst combination is
high voltage and elevated temperature. Store Li-ion at approximately 50
percent SoC.
Table 4-22: Best charging methods. Strenuous demands cannot always be prevented.
 Chapter 5 | Discharge Methods

Basics About Discharging

The purpose of a battery is to store energy and release it at a desired time. This
section examines discharging under different C-rates and evaluates the depth of
discharge to which a battery can safely go. Chapter 5 also observes different
discharge signatures and explores battery life under diverse loading patterns.
The electrochemical battery has the advantage over other energy storage
devices in that the energy stays high during most of the charge and then drops
rapidly as the charge depletes. The supercapacitor has a linear discharge, and
compressed air and a flywheel storage device is the inverse of the battery by
delivering the highest power at the beginning. Figures 5-1, 5-2 and 5-3 illustrate
the simulated discharge characteristics of stored energy.

Figure 5-1: Discharge curve of battery. Energy storage stays high to the end; good utilization.
Figure 5-2: Discharge curve of supercapacitor. Linear discharge prevents the full use of energy.

Figure 5-3: Discharge curve of compressed air. Inverse. Best performance at beginning.

Most rechargeable batteries can be overloaded briefly, but this must be kept
short. Battery longevity is directly related to the level and duration of the stress
inflicted, which includes charge, discharge and temperature.
Remote control (RC) hobbyists are a special breed of battery users who
stretch tolerance of “frail” high-performance batteries to the maximum by
discharging them at a C-rate of 30C, 30 times the rated capacity. As thrilling as
an RC helicopter, race car and fast boat can be; the life expectancy of the packs
will be short. RC buffs are well aware of the compromise and are willing both to
pay the price and to encounter added safety risks.
To get maximum energy per weight, drone manufacturers gravitate to cells
with a high capacity and choose the Energy Cell. This is in contrast to industries
requiring heavy loads and long service life. These applications go for the more
robust Power Cell at a reduced capacity.

Depth of Discharge
Lead acid discharges to 1.75V/cell; nickel-based system to 1.0V/cell; and most
Li-ion to 3.0V/cell. At this level, roughly 95 percent of the energy is spent, and
the voltage would drop rapidly if the discharge were to continue. To protect the
battery from over-discharging, most devices prevent operation beyond the
specified end-of-discharge voltage.
When removing the load after discharge, the voltage of a healthy battery
gradually recovers and rises towards the nominal voltage. Differences in the
affinity of metals in the electrodes produce this voltage potential even when the
battery is empty. A parasitic load or high self-discharge prevents voltage
recovery.
A high load current, as would be the case when drilling through concrete
with a power tool, lowers the battery voltage and the end-of-discharge voltage
threshold is often set lower to prevent premature cutoff. The cutoff voltage
should also be lowered when discharging at very cold temperatures, as the
battery voltage drops and the internal battery resistance rises. Table 5-4 shows
typical end-of-discharge voltages of various battery chemistries.

Table 5-4: Nominal and recommended end-of-discharge voltages under normal and heavy load.
The lower end-of-discharge voltage on a high load compensates for the greater losses.

Over-charging a lead acid battery can produce hydrogen sulfide, a colorless,

poisonous and flammable gas that smells like rotten eggs. Hydrogen sulfide also
occurs during the breakdown of organic matter in swamps and sewers and is
present in volcanic gases and natural gas. The gas is heavier than air and
accumulates at the bottom of poorly ventilated spaces. Strong at first, the sense
of smell deadens with time, and victims are unaware of the presence of the gas.
(See “Health Concerns with Batteries” on page 198)

What Constitutes a Discharge Cycle?

A discharge/charge cycle is commonly understood as the full discharge of a
charged battery with subsequent recharge, but this is not always the case.
Batteries are seldom fully discharged, and manufacturers often use the 80
percent depth-of-discharge (DoD) formula to rate a battery. This means that only
80 percent of the available energy is delivered and 20 percent remains in reserve.
Cycling a battery at less than full discharge increases service life, and
manufacturers argue that this is closer to a field representation than a full cycle
because batteries are commonly recharged with some spare capacity left.
There is no standard definition as to what constitutes a discharge cycle.
Some cycle counters add a full count when a battery is charged. A smart battery
may require a 15 percent discharge after charge to qualify for a discharge cycle;
anything less is not counted as a cycle. A battery in a satellite has a typical DoD
of 30–40 percent before the batteries are recharged during the satellite day. A
new EV battery may only charge to 80 percent and discharge to 30 percent. This
bandwidth gradually widens as the battery fades to provide identical driving
distances. Avoiding full charges and discharges reduces battery stress.
A hybrid car only uses a fraction of the capacity during acceleration before
the battery is recharged. Cranking the motor of a vehicle draws less than 5
percent energy from the starter battery, and this is also called a cycle in the
automotive industry. Reference to cycle count must be done in context with the
respective duty.

Discharging at High and Low Temperatures

Like humans, batteries function best at room temperature. Warming a dying
battery in a mobile phone or flashlight in our jeans might provide additional
runtime due to improved electrochemical reaction. This is likely also the reason
why manufacturers prefer to specify batteries at a toasty 27°C (80°F). Operating
a battery at elevated temperatures improves performance but prolonged exposure
will shorten life.
As all drivers in cold countries know, a warm battery cranks the car engine
better than a cold one. Cold temperature increases the internal resistance and
lowers the capacity. A battery that provides 100 percent capacity at 27°C (80°F)
will typically deliver only 50 percent at –18°C (0°F). The momentary capacity-
decrease differs with battery chemistry.
The dry solid polymer battery requires a temperature of 60–100°C (140–
212°F) to promote ion flow and become conductive. This type of battery has
found a niche market for stationary power applications in hot climates where
heat serves as a catalyst rather than a disadvantage. Built-in heating elements
keep the battery operational at all times. High battery cost and safety concerns
have limited the application of this system. The more common lithium-polymer
uses gelled electrolyte to enhance conductivity.
All batteries achieve optimum service life if used at 20°C (68°F) or slightly
below. If, for example, a battery operates at 30°C (86°F) instead of a more
moderate lower room temperature, the cycle life is reduced by 20 percent. At
40°C (104°F), the loss jumps to a whopping 40 percent, and if charged and
discharged at 45°C (113°F), the cycle life is only half of what can be expected if
used at 20°C (68°F). (See “How to Prolong Lithium-based Batteries” on page
249.)
The performance of all batteries drops drastically at low temperatures;
however, the elevated internal resistance will cause some warming effect
because of efficiency loss during use. At –20°C (–4°F) most batteries stop
functioning. Although NiCd can go down to –40°C (–40°F), the permissible
discharge is only 0.2C (5-hour rate). Specialty Li-ion can operate to a
temperature of –40°C but only at a reduced discharge rate; charging at this
temperature is out of the question. With lead acid there is the danger of the
electrolyte freezing, which can crack the enclosure. Lead acid freezes quicker
with a low charge when the specific gravity is more like water than when fully
charged.
Matched cells with identical capacities play an important role when
discharging at low temperature and under heavy load. Since the cells in a battery
pack can never be perfectly matched, a negative voltage potential can occur
across a weaker cell in a multi-cell pack if the discharge is allowed to continue
beyond a safe cutoff point. Known as cell reversal, the weak cell gets stressed to
the point of developing a permanent electrical short. The larger the cell-count,
the greater is the likelihood of cell-reversal under load. Over-discharge at a low
temperature and heavy load is a large contributor to battery failure of cordless
power tools. (See “Cell Matching and Balancing” on page 231.)
The driving range of an electric vehicle between charges is calculated at
ambient temperature. EV drivers are being made aware that frigid temperature
reduces the available mileage. This loss is not only caused by heating the cabin
electrically but by the inherent slowing of the battery’s electrochemical reaction,
which reduces the capacity while cold.

Discharge Characteristics of Li-ion

The early Li-ion battery was considered fragile and unsuitable for high loads.
This has changed, and today lithium-based systems stand shoulder to shoulder
with very robust nickel and lead chemistries. Two basic types of Li-ion have
emerged: The Energy Cell and the Power Cell.
Energy Cell
The Li-ion Energy Cell is made for maximum capacity to provide long runtimes.
The Panasonic NCR18650B Energy Cell (Figure 5-5) has high capacity but is
less enduring when discharged at 2C. At the discharge cutoff of 3.0V/cell, the 2C
discharge produces only about 2.3Ah rather than the specified 3.2Ah. This cell is
ideal for portable computing and similar light duties.

Figure 5-5: Discharge characteristics of NCR18650B Energy Cell by Panasonic.

The 3,200mAh Energy Cell is discharged at 0.2C, 0.5C, 1C and 2C. The circle at the 3.0V/cell line marks
the end-of-discharge point at 2C.
Cold temperature losses:
25°C (77°F) = 100%
0°C (32°F) = ~83%
–10°C (14°F) = ~66%
–20°C (4°F) = ~53%
Source: Panasonic

Power Cell
The Panasonic UR18650RX Power Cell (Figure 5-6) has a moderate capacity
but excellent load capabilities. A 10A (5C) discharge has minimal capacity loss
at the 3.0V cutoff voltage. This cell works well for applications requiring heavy
load current, such as power tools.
Figure 5-6: Discharge characteristics of UR18650RX Power Cell by Panasonic.
The 1950mAh Power Cell is discharged at 0.2C, 0.5C, 1C and 2C and 10A. All reach the 3.0V/cell cut-off
line at about 2000mAh. The Power Cell has a moderate capacity but delivers high current.
Cold temperature losses:
25°C (77°F) = 100%
0°C (32°F) = ~92%
–10°C (14°F) = ~85%
–20°C (4°F) = ~80%
Source: Panasonic

The Power Cell permits a continuous discharge of 10C. This means that an
18650 cell rated at 2,000mAh can provide a continuous load of 20A (30A with
Li-phosphate). The superior performance is achieved in part by lowering the
internal resistance and by optimizing the surface area of active cell materials.
Low resistance enables high current flow with minimal temperature rise.
Running at the maximum permissible discharge current, the Li-ion Power Cell
heats to about 50ºC (122ºF); the temperature is limited to 60°C (140°F).
To meet the loading requirements, the pack designer can either use a Power
Cell to meet the discharge C-rate requirement or go for the Energy Cell and
oversize the pack. The Energy Cell holds about 50 percent more capacity than
the Power Cell, but the loading must be reduced. This can be done by oversizing
the pack, a method the Tesla EVs use. The battery achieves exceptional runtime
but it gets expensive and heavy.

Discharge Signature
One of the unique qualities of nickel- and lithium-based batteries is the ability to
deliver continuous high power until the battery is exhausted; a fast
electrochemical recovery makes it possible. Lead acid is slower and this can be
compared to a drying felt pen that works for short markings on paper and then
needs rest to replenish the ink. While the recovery is relatively fast on discharge,
and this can be seen when cranking the engine, the slow chemical reaction
becomes obvious when charging. This only gets worse with age.
A battery may discharge at a steady load of, say, 0.2C as in a flashlight, but
many applications demand momentary loads at double and triple the battery’s C-
rating. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) for a mobile phone is
such an example (Figure 5-7). GSM loads the battery with up to 2A at a pulse
rate of 577 micro-seconds (μs). This places a large demand on a small battery;
however, with a high frequency, the battery begins to behave more like a large
capacitor and the battery characteristics change.
Figure 5-7: GSM discharge pulses of a cellular phone.
The 577 microsecond pulses drawn from the battery adjust to field strength and can reach 2 amperes.
Courtesy of Cadex

In terms of longevity, a battery prefers moderate current at a constant

discharge rather than a pulsed or momentary high load. Figure 5-8 demonstrates
the decreasing capacity of a NiMH battery at different load conditions from a
gentle 0.2C DC discharge, an analog discharge to a pulsed discharge. Most
batteries follow a similar pattern in terms of load conditions, including Li-ion.
Figure 5-8: Cycle life of NiMH under different load conditions.
NiMH performs best with DC and analog loads; digital loads lower the cycle life. Li-ion behaves similarly.
Source: Zhang (1998)

Figure 5-9 examines the number of full cycles a Li-ion Energy Cell can
endure when discharged at different C-rates. At a 2C discharge, the battery
exhibits far higher stress than at 1C, limiting the cycle count to about 450 before
the capacity drops to half the level.
Figure 5-9: Cycle life of Li-ion Energy Cell at varying discharge levels.
The wear and tear of all batteries increases with higher loads. Power Cells are more robust than Energy
Cells.
Source: Choi et al (2002)

How to Calculate Battery Runtime

If the battery was a perfect power source and behaved linearly, charge and
discharge times could be calculated according to in-and-out flowing currents,
also known as coulombic efficiency. (See “Coulombic Efficiency” on page 255.)
What is put in should be available as output in the same amount; a 1-hour charge
at 5A should deliver a 1-hour discharge at 5A, or a 5-hour discharge at 1A. This
is not possible because of intrinsic losses and the coulombic efficiency is always
less than 100 percent. The losses escalate with increasing load, as high discharge
currents make the battery less efficient.
Peukert Law
The Peukert Law expresses the efficiency factor of a battery on discharge. W.
Peukert, a German scientist (1855–1932), was aware that the available capacity
of a battery decreases with increasing discharge rate and he devised a formula to
calculate the losses in numbers. The law is applied mostly to lead acid to help
estimate the runtime under different discharge loads.
The Peukert Law takes into account the internal resistance and recovery
rate of a battery. A value close to one (1) indicates a well-performing battery
with good efficiency and minimal loss; a higher number reflects a less efficient
battery. Peukert’s law is exponential; the readings for lead acid are between 1.3
and 1.5 and increase with age. Temperature also affects the readings. Figure 5-10
illustrates the available capacity as a function of amperes drawn with different
Peukert ratings.
As an example, a 100Ah lead acid battery discharged at 15A should
theoretically last 6.6 hours (100Ah divided by 15A) but the actual time is less.
With a Peukert number of 1.3, the discharge hours are about 4.8 hours.
The lead acid battery prefers intermittent loads to a continuous heavy
discharge. The rest periods allow the battery to recompose the chemical reaction
and prevent exhaustion. This is why lead acid performs well in a starter
application with brief 300A cranking loads and plenty of time to recharge in
between. All batteries require recovery, and most other systems provide a faster
electrochemical reaction than lead acid.
Figure 5-10: Available capacity of a lead acid battery at Peukert numbers of 1.08–1.50.
A value close to 1 has the smallest losses; higher numbers deliver lower capacities.
Peukert values change with battery type age and temperature:
AGM: 1.05–1.15
Gel: 1.10–1.25
Flooded: 1.20–1.60
Source: Von Wentzel (2008)

Ragone Plot
Lithium- and nickel-based batteries are more commonly evaluated by the
Ragone plot. The Ragone plot looks at the battery’s capacity in watt-hours (Wh)
and discharge power in watts (W). The big advantage of the Ragone plot over
the Peukert Law is the ability to read the runtime in minutes and hours presented
on the diagonal lines on the Ragone graph.
Figure 5-11 illustrates the Ragone plot of four lithium-ion systems using
18650 cells. The horizontal axis displays energy in watt-hours (Wh) and the
vertical axis is power in watts (W). The diagonal lines across the field reveal the
length of time the battery cells can deliver energy at given loading conditions.
The scale is logarithmic to allow a wide selection of battery sizes. The battery
chemistries featured in the chart include lithium-iron phosphate (LFP), lithium-
manganese oxide (LMO), and nickel manganese cobalt (NMC).
The Sanyo UR18650F [4] Energy Cell has the highest specific energy and
can run a laptop or e-bike for many hours at a moderate load. The Sanyo
UR18650W [3] Power Cell, in comparison, has a lower specific energy but can
supply a current of 20A. The A123 [1] in LFP has the lowest specific energy but
offers the highest power capability by delivering 30A of continuous current.
Specific energy defines the battery capacity in weight (Wh/kg); energy density is
given in volume (Wh/l).
The Ragone plot helps in the selection of the optimal Li-ion system to
satisfy discharge power while retaining the required runtime. If an application
calls for a very high discharge current, the 3.3 minute diagonal line on the chart
points to the A123 (Battery 1); it can deliver up to 40 watts of power for 3.3
minutes. The Sanyo F (Battery 4) is slightly lower and delivers about 36 watts.
By focusing on discharge time and following the 33 minute discharge line
further down, Battery 1 (A123) only delivers 5.8 watts for 33 minutes before the
energy is depleted. The higher capacity Battery 4 (Sanyo F) can provide roughly
17 watts for the same time; its limitation is lower power.
Figure 5-11: Ragone plot reflects Li-ion 18650 cells.
Four Li-ion systems are compared for discharge power and energy as a function of time. Not all curves are
fully drawn out.
Source: Exponent Inc.

Legend: The A123 APR18650M1 is a lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) Power Cell rated at 1,100mAh,
delivering a continuous discharge current of 30A. The Sony US18650VT and Sanyo UR18650W are
manganese based Li-ion Power Cells of 1,500mAh each, delivering a continuous discharge of 20A. The
Sanyo UR18650F is a 2,600mAh Energy Cell for a moderate 5A discharge. This cell provides the highest
discharge energy but has the lowest discharge power.

A design engineer should note that the Ragone snapshot taken by the
battery manufacturers represents a new cell, a condition that is temporary. When
calculating power and energy needs, engineers must take into account battery
fade caused by cycling and aging. Battery-operated systems must still function
with a battery that will eventually drop to 70 or 80 percent capacity. A further
consideration is low temperature as a battery momentarily loses power when
cold. The Ragone plot does not take these decreased performance conditions into
account.
 The design engineer should further develop a battery pack that is durable
and does not get stressed during regular use. Stretching load and capacity
boundaries to the limit shortens battery life. If repetitive high discharge currents
are needed, the pack should be made larger and with the correct choice of cells.
An analogy is a truck that is equipped with a large diesel engine instead of a
souped-up engine intended for a sports car.
The Ragone plot can also calculate the power requirements of capacitors,
flywheels, flow batteries and fuel cells. A conflict develops with the internal
combustion engine or the fuel cell that draws fuel from a tank as on-board re-
fueling cheats the system. Similar plots are used to find the optimal loading ratio
of renewable power sources, such as solar cells and wind turbines.

How to Verify Sufficient Battery Capacity

A battery performs well when new but the capacity soon begins to fade with use
and time. To assure reliable service during the life span of the battery, design
engineers oversize the pack to include some spare capacity. This is similar to an
airplane carrying extra fuel to enable a waiting pattern before landing or to
attempt a second landing approach when so required.
New batteries operate (should operate) at a capacity of 100 percent;
replacement occurs when the packs fade to about 80 percent. All batteries must
include a secure level of spare capacity to cover worst-case scenarios.
In addition to normal capacity fade as part of usage and aging, cold
temperature lowers the capacity, especially Li-ion. The capacity loss of a Li-ion
Energy Cell is about 17 percent at 0°C (32°F), 34 percent at –10°C (14°F) and
47 percent at –20°C (–4°F). Power Cells perform better at cold temperature; they
suffer less cold-related capacity losses than Energy Cells.
Lack of spare capacity is a common cause of system failures. This often
happens during heavier than normal traffic or in an emergency. During routine
operations, marginal batteries can hide comfortably among their peers but, they
will fail when put to the test. A battery maintenance program as part of quality
control assures that all batteries in the fleet are within the required performance
range.
Figure 5-12 illustrates the breakdown of a battery that includes capacity
fade and spare capacity. Adding 20 percent for fade and 20 percent for spare as a
safety net leaves only 60 percent for the actual capacity. Such a generous
allowance may not be practical in all cases.

Figure 5-12: Calculating spare battery capacity.

Spare capacity must be calculated for a worst-case scenario. The allowable capacity range is 80–100%; a
spare capacity of 20% is recommended for critical use. Allow more capacity reserve when operating at cold
temperature.
Courtesy of Cadex

To verify sufficient spare capacity in a battery fleet, identify batteries that

are close to retirement and spot-check their capacities after a busy day with a
battery analyzer. The Cadex battery analyzer provides this function on the
“Prime” program by applying a discharge before charge. The first reading on the
display reflects the spare capacity and the second represents the full capacity
after a charge.
If packs with fringe capacity levels come back from a full-day shift with
less than 10 percent of spare capacity, raise the pass/fail target capacity from 80
to 85 percent to gain five extra points. If, on the other hand, these old-timers
come back with 30 percent before charging, keep them longer by lowering the
target capacity to, say, 70 percent. Knowing the energy needs for each
application during a typical shift increases battery transparency. This improves
reliability and creates a sweet spot between risk management and economics.
While most batteries are replaced when the capacity fades to 80 percent,
scanners in some warehouses can be kept longer because they may not require
all available capacity during an 8-hour shift. If this is the case, the target capacity
can safely be set to 70 percent while maintaining ample spare capacity. A starter
battery in a vehicle still cranks the motor with a capacity of 40 percent. The
discharge is short and the battery recharges right away. Allowing the capacity to
drop much further might prevent the battery from turning the engine on a cold
morning, stranding the driver.

Simple Guidelines for Charging and Discharging Batteries

Heat increases battery performance but shortens life by a factor of two for
every 10°C increase above 25–30°C (18°F above 77–86°F). Always keep
the battery cool.
Operating a battery at cold temperatures does not automatically permit
charging under these conditions. Only charge at moderate temperatures.
Some batteries accept charge below freezing but this must be done at a
much-reduced charge current. Check the manufacturer’s specifications.
Use heating blankets if batteries need rapid charging and discharging at
cold temperatures.
Prevent over-discharging. Cell reversal can cause an electrical short.
On high load and repetitive full discharges, reduce stress by using a larger
battery.
A moderate DC discharge is better for a battery than pulse and heavy
momentary loads.
A battery exhibits capacitor-like characteristics when discharging at high
frequency. This allows higher peak currents than is possible with a DC
 load.
Nickel-and lithium-based batteries have a fast chemical reaction; lead acid
is sluggish and requires a few seconds to recover between heavy loads.
All batteries suffer stress when stretched to maximum permissible
tolerances.

CAUTION In case of rupture, leaking electrolyte or any other cause of exposure to the electrolyte,
flush with water immediately. If eye exposure occurs, flush with water for 15 minutes and
consult a physician immediately.
 Chapter 6 | Smart Battery

Inner Workings of a Smart Battery

A speaker at a battery conference once said, “The battery is a wild animal and
artificial intelligence domesticates it.” A battery is illusive and does not exhibit
visible changes as part of usage; it looks the same when fully charged or empty,
new or old and in need of replacement. A car tire, in comparison, distorts when
low on air and indicates end-of-life when the treads are worn.
The shortcomings of a battery can be summarized by these three concerns:
[1] The user does not know how much runtime the pack has left; [2] the host is
uncertain if the battery can satisfy the power demand; and [3] the charger must
be tailored to each battery size and chemistry. The solutions are complex and the
“smart” battery promises to lessen some of these deficiencies.
Battery users imagine a battery pack as being an energy storage device that
resembles a fuel tank dispensing liquid fuel. For simplicity reasons, a battery can
be seen as such; however, measuring stored energy from an electrochemical
device is far more complex.
While an ordinary fuel gauge measures in-and-out-flowing liquid from a
tank of a known size with minimal losses, a battery fuel gauge has unconfirmed
definitions and only reveals the open circuit voltage (OCV), which is a fickle
reflection of state-of-charge (SoC). To compound the problem, a battery is a
leaky and shrinking vessel that loses energy and takes less content with each
charge. As the capacity fades, the specified Ah (ampere-hours) rating no longer
holds true. Nor can the fuel gauge assess the capacity by itself; the reading
always shows full after recharge even if the capacity has dropped to half the
specified Ah.
The simplest method to measure state-of-charge is reading voltage, but this
can be inaccurate as load currents pull the voltage down during discharge. The
largest challenge is the flat discharge voltage curve on most lithium and nickel-
based batteries. Temperature also plays a role; heat raises the voltage and a cold
temperature lowers it. Agitation by a previous charge or discharge causes further
errors and the battery needs a few hours rest to neutralize.
Most batteries for medical, military and computing devices are “smart.”
This means that some level of communication occurs between the battery, the
equipment and the user. The definitions of “smart” vary among manufacturers
and regulatory authorities, and the most basic smart battery may contain nothing
more than a chip that sets the charger to the correct charge algorithm. In the eyes
of the Smart Battery System (SBS) forum, these batteries cannot be called smart.
The SBS forum states that a smart battery must provide SoC indications.
Safety is a key design objective and the concept behind SBS is to place
system intelligence inside the battery pack. The SBS battery thus communicates
with the charge management chip in a closed loop. In spite of this digital
supervision, most SBS chargers also rely on analog signals from the chemical
battery to terminate the charge when the battery is full. Furthermore, redundant
temperature sensing is added for safety reasons.
Benchmarq was the first company to offer fuel-gauge technology in 1990.
Today, many manufacturers offer integrated circuit (IC) chips in single-wire and
two-wire systems, also known as System Management Bus (SMBus).
State-of-charge estimations in a smart battery commonly include coulomb
counting, a theory that goes back 250 years when Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
first established the “Coulomb Rule.” Figure 6-1 illustrates the principle of
coulomb counting, measuring in-and-out flowing energy. One coulomb (1C) per
second is one ampere (1A). Discharging a battery at 1A for one hour equates to
3,600C. (Not to be confused with C-rate.)
Figure 6-1: Principle of a fuel gauge based on coulomb counting.
A circuit measures the in-and-out flowing energy; the stored energy represents state-of-charge. One
coulomb per second is one ampere (1A).
Courtesy of Cadex

Coulomb counting should be flawless but it is not perfect. If, for example, a
battery was charged for 1 hour at 1 ampere, the same amount of energy should
be available on discharge. No battery can do this. Inefficiencies in charge
acceptance, especially towards the end of charge, and particularly if fast-
charged, reduces energy efficiency. Losses also occur in storage and during
discharge. The available energy is always less than what has been fed into the
battery.

Single-wire Bus
The single-wire system, also known as 1-Wire, communicates through one wire
at low speed. Designed by Dallas Semiconductor Corp., the 1-Wire combines
data and clock into one line for transmission; the Manchester code, also known
as phase coding, separates the data at the receiving end. For safety reasons, most
batteries also run a separate wire for temperature sensing. Figure 6-2 shows the
layout of a single-wire system.
The single-wire system stores the battery code and tracks battery data that
typically includes voltage, current, temperature and state-of-charge information.
Because of the relatively low hardware cost, the single-wire system is attractive
for price-sensitive devices such as measuring instruments, mobile phones, two-
way radios, cameras and scanners.
Most single-wire systems have their own protocol and use a customized
charger. The Benchmarq single-wire solution, for example, cannot measure the
current directly; state-of-health (SoH) measurement is only possible when
“marrying” the host to a designated battery.

Figure 6-2: Single-wire system of a “smart” battery.

A single wire provides data communication. For safety reasons, most batteries also feature a separate wire
for temperature sensing.
Courtesy of Cadex

System Management Bus

The System Management Bus (SMBus) represents a concerted effort to agree on
one communications protocol and one set of data. Derived from I2C, the
Duracell/Intel smart battery system was standardized in 1995 and consists of two
separate lines for data and clock. I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit) is a multi-master,
multi-slave, single-ended, serial computer bus invented by Philips
Semiconductor. Figure 6-3 shows the layout of the two-wire SMBus system.

Figure 6-3: Two-wire SMBus system.

The SMBus works on a two-wire system using a standardized communications protocol. This system lends
itself to standardized state-of-charge and state-of-health measurements.
Courtesy of Cadex

The philosophy behind the SMBus battery was to remove charge control
from the charger and assign it to the battery. With a true SMBus system, the
battery becomes the master and the charger the slave, obeying the command of
the battery. This enables a universal charger to service present and future battery
chemistries by applying correct charge algorithms.
During the 1990s, several standardized SMBus battery packs emerged,
including the 35 and 202 (Figure 6-4). Manufactured by Sony, Hitachi, GP
Batteries and others, these interchangeable batteries were designed to power a
broad range of portable devices, such as laptops and medical instruments. The
idea was solid but standardization diverged as most manufacturers began
building their own packs.
To prevent unauthorized batteries from infiltrating the market, some
manufacturers add a code to exclude other pack vendors. A few manufacturers
go so far as to invalidate the battery when a given cycle count is reached. To
avoid surprises, most of these systems inform the user of the pending end-of-life.

Figure 6-4: 35 and 202 series batteries featuring SMBus.

Available in nickel- and lithium-based chemistries, these batteries power laptops, biomedical instruments
and survey equipment. Non-SMBus (dumb) versions with the same footprint are also available.
Courtesy of Cadex

An SMBus battery contains permanent and temporary data. The battery

makers program the permanent data into the battery, which includes battery ID,
battery type, manufacturer’s name, serial number and date of manufacture. The
temporary data is added during use and contains cycle count, usage pattern and
maintenance requirements. Some of the information is kept, while other data is
renewed throughout the life of the battery. The voltage is typically measured in
1mV increments; the current resolution is 0.5mA; temperature accuracy is about
±3ºC.
 Smart battery chargers are divided into Level 1, 2 and 3. Level 1 has been
discontinued because it did not provide chemistry-independent charging and it
only supported a single chemistry. A Level 2 charger is fully controlled by the
Smart Battery and acts as an SMBus slave, responding to voltage and current
commands from the Smart Battery. Level 2 also serves as in-circuit charging, a
practice that is common in laptops. Another use is a battery with a built-in
charging circuit. In Level 2, battery and circuit are married to each other.
A level 3 charger can interpret commands from a Smart Battery, as is done
with Level 2, and also act as master. In other words, the Level 3 charger can
request charging information from the Smart Battery but it can also impose its
own charging algorithm by responding to the “chemical” battery. Most industrial
smart chargers are based on the hybrid type Level 3.
Some lower-cost chargers have emerged that accommodate SMBus
batteries, but these may not be fully SBS compliant. Manufacturers of SMBus
batteries do not endorse this shortcut because of safety concerns. Applications
such as biomedical instruments, data collection devices and survey equipment
lean towards Level 3 chargers with full-fledged charge protocols. Table 6-5 lists
the advantages and limitations of the smart battery.

Advantages Provides state-of-charge and full charge capacity, capacity

estimations possible
Records battery history, including cycle count, usage pattern,
maintenance requirements, max error, etc.
Configures charger to the correct algorithm
Reminds user of periodic calibration
Protects battery from unauthorized use

Limitations Adds 25% to the cost of a battery (Fuel gauge ICs are in the $2-
range)
 Complicates the charger; most chargers for intelligent batteries
are hybrid and also service non-intelligent batteries
Requires periodic calibration. This is reduced with learn
programs
Most Smart Batteries only provide state-of-charge information
although some newer fuel gauges include state-of-health
estimation

Table 6-5: Advantages and limitations of the smart battery.

Simple Guidelines for Using Smart Batteries

Calibrate a smart battery by applying a full discharge and charge every 3

months or after every 40 partial cycles. Batteries with impedance tracking
provide a certain amount of self-calibration.
A fuel gauge showing 100% SoC does not assure a good battery. The
capacity may have faded to 50%, cutting the runtime in half. A fuel gauge
can give a false sense of security.
If possible, replace the battery with the same brand to avoid
incompatibility issues with the device and/or charger. Always test the
battery and the charger before use.
Exercise caution when using a smart battery that does not indicate state-
of-charge correctly. This battery may be faulty or is not fully compatible
with the equipment.

Fuel Gauge
The lifespan of a battery cannot be defined by the number of cycles or age alone
but to a large extent by its usage (or misusage). As the capacity fades, the
runtime gets shorter. The smart battery captures this capacity fade by reading the
previous energy delivered, but these vital health statistics remain mostly hidden
from the user. The battery continues to be a “black box” that conceals vital
performance records and masks when the battery should be replaced.
 One of the main tasks of the smart battery is to establish communication
between the battery, charger and user. A fuel gauge indicating state-of-charge
fulfills this in part. When pressing the TEST button on a fully charged SMBus
battery, all signal lights illuminate. On a partially discharged battery, half the
lights illuminate, and on an empty battery all lights remain dark or a red light
appears. Figure 6-6 shows a fuel gauge of a battery that is 75 percent charged
with three lights glowing.

Figure 6-6: State-of-charge readout of a “smart” battery.

Signal lights indicate the battery SoC when pressing the TEST button.
Courtesy of Cadex

While the SoC information displayed on a battery or a display screen is

helpful to the user, the readout does not guarantee the runtime. The fuel gauge
resets to 100 percent with a full recharge regardless of how much capacity the
battery can store.
A serious breach of trust occurs if an aged battery shows 100 percent SoC
while the battery’s ability to hold charge has dropped to 50 percent or less. We
ask, “100 percent of what?” If, for example, 100 percent of a good battery results
in a 4-hour runtime, a battery holding half the capacity would run for only 2
hours. Many users are unaware that the fuel gauge only shows SoC; capacity, the
leading health indicator, remains unknown.
Other than applying a controlled discharge, there is no reliable method to
measure the capacity of the “chemical battery” but there is a way to read the
“digital battery.” The term chemical battery refers to the actual capacity derived
by discharging a fully charged pack, whereas the digital battery is a peripheral
monitoring circuit that stores the estimated capacity derived by coulomb
counting when charging and discharging a battery as part of field use.
The SMBus battery stores the factory-set design capacity in Ah or 100
percent by default. With each full charge, the battery resets the full-charge flag
and during discharge, the coulomb counter measures the energy consumed. The
in-and-out-flowing coulombs can be used to estimate battery state-of-health
known as full charge capacity (FCC). As the battery fades with usage and time,
so also does the delivered energy decrease, and the FCC number will decline.
The FCC accuracy of a battery that is being deep cycled is about +/-5 percent
compared to capacity readings taken by discharging. Periodic calibration will
improve the FCC accuracy.
Capacity can also be estimated by coulomb counting during charging. This
works best with an empty battery. A battery with a 100 percent capacity will
receive the full coulomb count; one with only 50 percent capacity will only
accept half before the battery reaches full charge. Not knowing the residual SoC
when the coulomb count begins will affect the accuracy. SoC can be estimated
by measuring the battery’s open circuit voltage (OCV), but this only gives a
rough approximation as agitation after charge or discharge, as well as
temperature, affects the OCV.

Tri-state Fuel Gauge

The SoC and capacity information can be shown on a linear display (Figure 6-7)
using colored LEDs. The green lights (clear) indicate the usable capacity; the
empty part of the battery is marked with un-lit LEDs (black); and the unusable
part is shown with red LEDs (x). The results can also be a shown on a digital
display.
Figure 6-7: Tristate fuel gauge reads the “learned” battery information and displays it on a multi colored
LED bar. The illustration shows a partially discharged battery of 50% SoC with 20% empty and 30%
unusable.
Courtesy of Cadex

The tri-state fuel gauge provides state-of-function (SoF), the ultimate in

battery diagnostics. Some device manufacturers are hesitant to offer this feature
to consumers because this could lead to elevated warranty claims. A replacement
only becomes mandatory if the battery capacity drops below 80 percent; keeping
the evidence hidden is seen as the least disruptive method. SoF can always be
accessed by a service code. SoF works best for industrial uses.
Vehicles with electric propulsion do not show the charge but only the
remaining driving range, thus hiding the capacity. To accommodate capacity
fade that would shorten the driving range, the EV battery is being oversized and
does not fully charge and discharge when new. Only as the battery ages and the
capacity fades does the charge range increase. Shorter driving ranges only
become apparent once this reserve capacity has been consumed.

Calibration
When designing a fuel gauge, engineers commonly make a misjudgment by
assuming that a battery will always stay young. As with people, batteries age and
the changing characteristics must be taken into account to maintain accuracy.
Fancy fuel gauges can provide a false sense of security when users believe that
the displayed battery readings are correct. For the casual user of a mobile phone
or laptop, a fuel gauge error is only a mild irritant, but the problem escalates
with medical and military devices, as well as drones and electric drivetrains that
depend on precise range predictions.
The chemical battery representing the actual energy storage remains the
master while the digital battery provides peripheral support by relying on the
information obtained from charge and discharge cycles. But like all fine
machines, precise settings begin to shift and need adjustment. The same happens
with an SMBus battery that also requires periodic calibration. The instructions
for an Apple iPad reads: “For proper reporting of SoC, be sure to go through at
least one full charge/discharge cycle per month.”
Figure 6-8 demonstrates a digital battery that is drifting away from the
chemical battery; calibration corrects the tracking error. The accumulating error
is application related and the drift on the chart is accentuated for effect.

Figure 6-8: Tracking of the electrochemical and digital battery as a function of time.
With use and time the electro-chemical and digital battery drift apart; calibration corrects the error.
Note: The accumulating error is application related; the values on the chart are accentuated.
Courtesy of Cadex
 A smart battery self-calibrates by taking advantage of occasional full
discharges, but in real life this seldom happens. Most discharges are intermittent
and go to random depth. In addition, the load signatures often consist of high
frequency pulses that are difficult to capture. The partially discharged battery
may be partly recharged and then stored in a warm room, causing elevated self-
discharge that cannot be tracked. These anomalies add to the display error that
amplifies with use and time.
To maintain accuracy, a smart battery should periodically be calibrated by
running the pack down in the device until “Low Battery” appears and then
applying a recharge. The full discharge sets the discharge flag and the full charge
establishes the charge flag. A linear line forms between these two anchor points
that allow SoC estimation. In time, this line gets blurred again and the battery
requires recalibration. Figure 6-9 illustrates the full-discharge and full-charge
flags.

Figure 6-9: Full-discharge and full-charge flags.

Calibration occurs by applying a full charge, discharge and charge. This is done in the equipment or with a
battery analyzer as part of battery a maintenance program.
Courtesy of Cadex
 A battery charger with discharge function or a battery analyzer enables
calibration of a smart battery. The analyzer fully charges the battery and then
applies a controlled discharge that provides the all-important capacity readings
of the chemical battery. This discharge measurement is a truer reading than what
coulomb counting provides by capturing past discharge events of the digital
battery.
How often should a battery be calibrated? The answer depends on the
application. For a battery that is in continued use, a calibration should be done
once every 3 months or after 40 partial cycles. If the portable device applies a
periodic full deep discharge on its own accord, then no additional calibration
should be needed.
What happens if the battery is not calibrated regularly? Can such a battery
be used with confidence? Most smart battery chargers obey the dictates of the
chemical battery rather than the digital battery and there are no safety concerns.
The battery should function normally, but the digital readout may become
unreliable.
Some smart batteries feature impedance tracking. This is a self-learning
algorithm that reduces or eliminates the need to calibrate. If calibration is
required, however, several cycles instead of only one may be needed to achieve
the same result as with a standard system.
Max Error
The accuracy between the chemical and digital battery is measured by the Max
Error. Max Error stands for “maximum error” and is presented in percentage. A
low reading indicates good accuracy, and as the precision diminishes with partial
cycles, the Max Error number increases steadily. This supervisory watchdog can
be compared to a medical doctor who measures a medical condition by a
number.
Some manufacturers recommend calibration at a Max Error of 8 percent;
readings above 12 percent may trigger an alarm and 16 could render the battery
unserviceable. No unified standard exists to determine what Max Error level
requires service or what constitutes an error; every battery manufacturer follows
its own recommendation.
Screen Capture
The SMBus system provides a wealth of information that includes the battery
manufacturing date, battery model and serial number, capacity, temperature and
estimated runtime, as well as voltages down to the cell level. It is an engineer’s
delight to have all this data in a table, but the fine print may confuse the user
more than providing help. A busy nurse in a hospital, the policeman on duty and
the solider in combat has only one question: “Will the battery last for my
mission?” Table 6-10 illustrates a screenshot of the data stored in an SMBus
battery.
Of special interest in terms of battery state-of-health (SoH) is full charge
capacity (FCC), coulomb count that is hidden in the table among tons of other
information. FCC can be used with reasonable accuracy to estimate battery SoH
without applying a full discharge cycle to measure capacity. Best accuracies are
achieved if the battery is being cycled with full a full charge and an occasional
deep discharge. If used sporadically, a deliberate calibration involving a full
discharge/charge cycle will be needed from time-to-time to maintain accuracy.
Table 6-10: Universal screenshot of SMBus battery. Data is organized in tables to assist analysis, a
format that is less suited for the everyday battery user. Access is by a software tool.
Source: Texas Instruments

Processing Data from a Smart Battery

Even though smart batteries have been in service since the mid-1990s, they still
do not communicate well with the outside world. Device manufacturers continue
to mandate that the battery be replaced on a date stamp rather than refer to the
more relevant FCC information contained in the battery. Expensive packs are
thus discarded every 2–3 years instead of utilizing the typical full 5-year life
expectancy of Li-ion.
A new frontier is opening that provides easy access to battery information.
The Battery Parser (by Cadex) does this by establishing communications
between the user and the battery by fetching intrinsic battery data to reveal state-
of-function (SoF). The Fishbowl icon as shown in Figure 6-11 consists of the
Charge Ring indicating state-of-charge and the Status Dome with PASS,
CHARGE, CHECK, and FAIL messages. The Status Dome also illustrates the
energy-storage capability together with Battery Fade that moves towards the
Pass/Fail line with usage and age.

Figure 6-11: The Fishbowl icon displays battery state-of-function at a glance with these status
messages:
- PASS indicates sufficient capacity and SoC
- CHARGE requires charging before use as SoC slipped below the Charge Alarm.
- CHECK includes cell imbalance, high Max Error, elevated internal resistance and more.
- FAIL hints at capacity fade, exceeding calendar date or passing beyond pre-set cycle count.
Courtesy of Cadex

Battery status indicators must separate state-of-charge and capacity and

treat them as unrelated entities. While a battery with low SoC can be recharged,
capacity loss is permanent and predicts end-of-life. This condition is
demonstrated with the encroaching black ceiling bar on top of the Fishbowl.
Pressing the Status Dome on a device featuring a touchscreen reveals possible
deficiencies, as well as information relating to the battery model, specifications,
serial number and manufacturing date. The Fishbowl settings can be updated by
the user.
Storing the battery test results in the cloud-based database enables an
overview of the entire battery fleet in terms of location, application, performance
and service requirements. This is made possible with the availability of the serial
number and manufacturing date in a smart battery. To check batteries needing
replacement, the operator simply calls up packs that have dropped below the 80
percent capacity or are older than, say, 5 years.
The operator can also verify SoC by listing all batteries with less than 10
percent reserve before charging. Tight reserve can lead to failure during heavy
traffic or in an emergency. If consistently low, the pass/fail target capacity
threshold should be set higher to boost the reserve. If, on the other hand, most
batteries return with 40 percent capacity after a long mission or a full day, then
the target capacity can be lowered without affecting reliability.
The Battery Parser finds a sweet spot between reliability and economy. The
service life of each battery can be fully utilized and system reliability improved,
reducing environmental harm and lowering operating costs. In addition, fewer
devices are sent for repair because the battery becomes a controlled part.
A cost saving by using battery analysis was demonstrated in a 340-bed
hospital in the USA. When the need to replace the batteries for patient monitors
came to $56,000 on the date stamp method, the supervisor objected and
requested that the packs be checked with a battery analyzer. This revealed that
most batteries were in good condition and the budget was reduced to $11,000.
Military is another application where battery analysis will help. A modern
soldier carries radios, GPS devices, smartphones, night vision goggles, infrared
sights, flashlights and counter-IED equipment. This amounts to roughly seven
battery types, with 10 packs needed each for a 72-hour mission at a weight of
about 9kg (20 lb) per solider. Batteries have become the second highest expense
next to munitions. This can be reduced with a maintenance program, without
which soldiers are soon carrying rocks instead of batteries as Figure 6-12
demonstrates.
Figure 6-12: Soldier carries rocks instead of batteries.
Maintenance keeps deadwood out of the military arsenal. The digital state-of-health of “smart” batteries can
be verified within seconds or recorded during each charge.
Courtesy of Cadex

Other uses for the Battery Parser are drones and robots. Drones are
demanding on the battery as heavy loads result in a shorter than expected cycle
life. Battery maintenance is paramount to prevent an expensive vehicle from
crashing should a second landing approach be necessary.
Battery maintenance utilizing the Battery Parser is best placed into the
battery charger. Such a system shows the capacity with each charge.
Alternatively, a quick insertion reveals the battery status before use. Knowing
the performance of each battery enables planning a mission according to the
available energy source, reducing unscheduled events.
Wireless connectivity to the cloud permits collective battery management in
which each charge updates the information. This provides one of the most
transparent battery management systems possible without added logistics.
Battery status can be shown on a PC or smartphone with the click of a finger.
Smart batteries and chargers with performance evaluation further assist to
classify batteries into performance groups: A-grade batteries with a capacity of
90–100 percent can be reserved for critical missions, B-grade packs with 80–90
percent are for everyday use, and the C-grade with 70–80 percent may be kept as
spares or used for shorter errands. Having full control of the battery fleet
improves reliability, simplifies logistics and protects the environment as each
battery can be utilized for their full service life.
“Any intelligent fool can make things
bigger and more complex... It takes a
touch of genius – and a lot of courage –
to move in the opposite direction.”
— Albert Einstein
 Part Two

You and the Battery



Batteries have become the lifeline of

society. They are like us and deliver on
the good care given but quit on their
own terms.
 Chapter 7 | From Birth to Retirement

Caring for the Battery

In many ways, a battery behaves like a human being. It senses the kindness
given and delivers on the care given. It is as if the battery has feelings and
returns on the benevolence bestowed. But there are exceptions, as any parent
raising a family will know; and the generosity conferred may not always deliver
the anticipated returns.
To become a good custodian, you must understand the basic needs of a
battery, a subject that is not taught in school. This section teaches what to do
when the battery is new, how to feed it the right “food” and what to do when
putting the pack aside for a while. Chapter 7 also looks into restrictions when
traveling with batteries by air and how to dispose of them when their useful life
has passed.
Just as a person’s life expectancy cannot be predicted at birth, neither can
we date stamp a battery. Some packs live to a great old age while others die
young. Incorrect charging, harsh discharge loads and exposure to heat are the
battery’s worst enemies. Although there are ways to protect a battery, the ideal
situation is not always attainable. This chapter discusses how to get the most
from our batteries.

How to Prime Batteries

Not all rechargeable batteries deliver the rated capacity when new, and they
require formatting. While this applies to most battery systems, manufacturers of
lithium-ion batteries disagree. They say that Li-ion is ready at birth and does not
need priming. Although this may be true, users have reported some capacity
gains by cycling after a long storage.
“What’s the difference between formatting and priming?” people ask. Both
address capacities that are not optimized and can be improved with cycling.
Formatting completes the fabrication process that occurs naturally during use
when the battery is being cycled. Typical examples are lead- and nickel-based
batteries that improve with usage until fully formatted. Priming, on the other
hand, is a conditioning cycle that is applied as a service to improve battery
performance during usage or after prolonged storage. Priming relates mainly to
nickel-based batteries.
Lead Acid
Formatting a lead acid battery occurs by applying a charge, followed by a
discharge and recharge. This is done at the factory and is completed in the field
as part of regular use. Experts advise not to strain a new battery by giving it
heavy duty discharges at first but gradually working it in with moderate
discharges, like an athlete trains for weight lifting or long-distance running. This,
however, may not be possible with a starter battery in a vehicle and other uses.
Lead acid typically reaches the full capacity potential after 50 to 100 cycles.
Deep-cycle batteries are at about 85 percent when new and will increase to
100 percent, or close to full capacity, when fully formatted. There are some
outliers that are as low as 65 percent when tested with a battery analyzer. The
question is asked, “Will these low-performers recover and stand up to their
stronger brothers when formatted?” A seasoned battery expert said that “these
batteries will improve somewhat but they are the first to fail.”
The function of a starter battery lies in delivering high load currents to
crank the engine, and this attribute is present from the beginning without the
need to format and prime. To the surprise of many motorists, the capacity of a
starter battery can fade to 30 percent and still crank the engine; however, a
further drop may get the driver stranded one morning. (See “How to Measure
Capacity” on page 275.)
Nickel-based
Manufacturers advise to trickle charge a nickel-based battery for 16–24 hours
when new and after a long storage. This allows the cells to adjust to each other
and to bring them to an equal charge level. A slow charge also helps to
redistribute the electrolyte to eliminate dry spots on the separator that might have
developed by gravitation.
Nickel-based batteries are not always fully formatted when leaving the
factory. Applying several charge/discharge cycles through normal use or with a
battery analyzer completes the formatting process. The number of cycles
required to attain full capacity differs between cell manufacturers. Quality cells
perform to specification after 5–7 cycles, while lower-cost alternatives may need
50 or more cycles to reach acceptable capacity levels.
Lack of formatting causes a problem when the user expects a new battery to
work at full capacity out of the box. Organizations using batteries for mission-
critical applications should verify the performance through a discharge/charge
cycle as part of quality control. The “prime” program of automated battery
analyzers (Cadex) applies as many cycles as needed to attain full capacity.
Cycling also restores lost capacity when a nickel-based battery has been
stored for a few months. Storage time, state-of-charge and temperature under
which the battery is stored govern the ease of recovery. The longer the storage
and the warmer the temperature, the more cycles will be required to regain full
capacity. Battery analyzers help in the priming functions and assure that the
desired capacity has been achieved.
Lithium-ion
Some battery users insist that a passivation layer develops on the cathode of a
lithium-ion cell after storage. Also known as interfacial protective film (IPF),
this layer is said to restrict ion flow, cause an increase in internal resistance and
in the worst case, lead to lithium plating. Charging, and more effectively cycling,
is known to dissolve the layer and some battery users claim to have gained extra
runtime after the second or third cycle on a smartphone, albeit by a small
amount.
Scientists do not fully understand the nature of this layer, and the few
published resources on this subject only speculate that performance restoration
with cycling is connected to the removal of the passivation layer. Some scientists
outright deny the existence of the IPF, saying that the idea is highly speculative
and inconsistent with existing studies. Whatever the outcome on the passivation
of Li-ion may be, there is no parallel to the “memory” effect with NiCd batteries
that require periodic cycling to prevent capacity loss. The symptoms may appear
similar but the mechanics are different. Nor can the effect be compared to
sulfation of lead acid batteries.
A well-known layer that builds up on the anode is the solid electrolyte
interface (SEI). SEI is an electrical insulation but has sufficient ionic
conductivity to allow the battery to function normally. While the SEI layer
lowers the capacity, it also protects the battery. Without SEI, Li-ion would not
get the longevity that it has. (See “Electrolyte” on page 116.)
The SEI layer develops as part of a formation process and manufacturers
take great care to do this right, as a batched job can cause permanent capacity
loss and a rise in internal resistance. The process includes several cycles, float
charges at elevated temperatures and rest periods that can take many weeks to
complete. This formation period also provides quality control and assists in cell
matching, as well as observing self-discharge by measuring the cell voltage after
a rest. High self-discharge hints to impurity as part of a potential manufacturing
defect.
Electrolyte oxidation (EO) also occurs on the cathode. This causes a
permanent capacity loss and increases the internal resistance. No remedy exists
to remove the layer once formed but electrolyte additives lessen the impact.
Keeping Li-ion at a voltage above 4.10V/cell while at an elevated temperature
promotes electrolyte oxidation. Field observation shows that the combination of
heat and high voltage can stress Li-ion more than harsh cycling.
Lithium-ion is a very clean system that does not need additional priming
once it leaves the factory, nor does it require the level of maintenance that
nickel-based batteries do. Additional formatting makes little difference because
the maximum capacity is available right from the beginning, (the exception may
be a small capacity gain after a long storage). A full discharge does not improve
the capacity once the battery has faded — a low capacity signals the end of life.
A discharge/charge may calibrate a “smart” battery but this does little to improve
the chemical battery. Instructions recommending charging a new Li-ion for 8
hours are written off as “old school,” a left-over from the old nickel battery days.
Non-rechargeable Lithium
Primary lithium batteries, such as lithium-thionyl chloride (LTC), benefit from
passivation in storage. Passivation is a thin layer that forms as part of a reaction
between the electrolyte, the lithium anode and the carbon-based cathode. (Note
that the anode of a primary lithium battery is lithium and the cathode is graphite,
the reverse of Li-ion.)
Without this layer, most lithium batteries could not function because the
lithium would cause a rapid self-discharge and degrade the battery quickly.
Battery scientists even say that the battery would explode without the formation
of lithium chloride layers and that the passivation layer is responsible for the
battery’s existence and the ability to store for 10 years.
Temperature and state-of-charge promote the buildup of the passivation
layer. A fully charged LTC is harder to depassivate after long storage than one
that was kept at a low charge. While LTC should be stored at cool temperatures,
depassivation works better when warm as the increased thermal conductivity and
mobility of the ions helps in the process.

CAUTION Do not apply physical tension or excessive heat to the battery. Explosions due to careless
handling have caused serious injuries to workers.

The passivation layer causes a voltage delay when first applying a load to
the battery, and Figure 7-1 illustrates the drop and recovery with batteries
affected by different passivation levels. Battery A demonstrates a minimal
voltage drop while Battery C needs time to recover.

Figure 7-1: Voltage behavior when applying a load to a passivated battery.

Battery A has mild passivation, B takes longer to restore, and C is affected the most.
Source: EE Times

LTC in devices drawing very low current, such as a sensor for a road toll or
metering, may develop a passivation layer that can lead to malfunction, and heat
promotes such growth. This can often be solved by adding a large capacitor in
parallel with the battery. The battery that has developed a high internal resistance
is still capable of charging the capacitor to deliver the occasional high pulses; the
standby time in between is devoted to recharging the capacitor.
To assist in sulfation prevention during storage, some lithium batteries are
shipped with a 36kΩ resistor to serve as a parasitic load. The steady low
discharge current prevents the layer from growing too thick, but this will reduce
the storage life. After 2-year storage with the 36kΩ resistor, the batteries are said
to still have 90 percent capacity. Another remedy is attaching a device that
applies periodic discharge pulses during storage.
Not all primary lithium batteries recover when installed in a device and
when a load is applied. The current may be too low to reverse the passivation. It
is also possible that the equipment rejects a passivated battery as being low state-
of-charge or defective. Many of these batteries can be prepared with a battery
analyzer (Cadex) by applying a controlled load. The analyzer then verifies
proper function before engaging the battery in the field.
The required discharge current for depassivation is a C-rate of 1C to 3C (1
to 3 times of the rated capacity). The cell voltage must recover to 3.2V when
applying the load; the service time is typically 20 seconds. The process can be
repeated but it should take no longer than 5 minutes. With a load of 1C, the
voltage of a correctly functioning cell should stay above 3.0V. A drop to below
2.7V means end-of-life. (See “Primary Batteries” on page 36.)
These lithium-metal batteries have high lithium content and must follow
more stringent shipping requirements than Li-ion of the same Ah. (See
“Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by Air” on page 204.) Because of the high
specific energy, special care must be taken in handling these cells.

CAUTION When charging an SLA with over-voltage, current limiting must be applied to protect the
battery. Always set the current limit to the lowest practical setting and observe the battery
voltage and temperature during charge.
In case of rupture, leaking electrolyte or any other cause of exposure to the electrolyte,
flush with water immediately. If eye exposure occurs, flush with water for 15 minutes and
consult a physician immediately.
Wear approved gloves when touching the electrolyte, lead and cadmium. On exposure to
the skin, flush with water immediately.

How to Store Batteries

The recommended storage temperature for most batteries is 15°C (59°F); the
extreme allowable temperature is –40°C to 50°C (–40°C to 122°F) for most
chemistries. While lead acid must always be kept at full charge during storage,
nickel- and lithium-based chemistries should be stored at around a 40 percent
state-of-charge (SoC). This minimizes age-related capacity loss while keeping
the battery operational and allowing for some self-discharge.
While nickel-based batteries can be stored in a fully discharged state with
no apparent side effect, Li-ion cannot dip below 2V/cell for any length of time.
Copper shunts form inside the cells that can lead to elevated self-discharge or a
partial electrical short. (See “Elevated Self-discharge” on page 224.) If
recharged, the cells might become unstable, causing excessive heat or showing
other anomalies. Li-ion batteries that have been under stress may function
normally but are more sensitive to mechanical abuse. The liability for a failed
battery goes to the manufacturer when a fault could have been caused by
improper use and handling.
Finding the exact 40–50 percent SoC level to store Li-ion is not all that
important. At 40 percent charge, most Li-ion has an OCV of 3.82V/cell
measured at room temperature. To get the correct reading after a charge or
discharge, rest the battery for 90 minutes before taking the reading. If this is not
practical, overshoot the discharge voltage by 50mV or go 50mV higher on
charge. This means discharging to 3.77V/cell or charging to 3.87V/cell at a C-
rate of 1C or less. The rubber band effect will settle the voltage at roughly 3.82V.
Figure 7-2 shows the typical discharge voltage of a Li-ion battery.
Figure 7-2: Discharge voltage as a function of state-of-charge.
Battery SoC is reflected in OCV. Lithium manganese oxide reads 3.82V at 40% SoC (25°C), and about
3.70V at 30% (shipping requirement). Temperature and previous charge and discharge activities affect the
reading. Allow the battery to rest for 90 minutes before taking the reading.

Measuring SoC is especially difficult on nickel-based batteries. A flat

discharge curve, agitation after charge and discharge and temperature affects the
voltage. The charge level for storage is not critical for this chemistry, so simply
apply some charge if the battery is empty and store it in a cool and dry place.
With some charge, priming should be quicker than if stored in a totally
discharged state.
Storage induces two forms of losses: Self-discharge that can be refilled with
charging before use, and non-recoverable losses that permanently lower the
capacity. Table 7-3 illustrates the remaining capacities of lithium- and nickel-
based batteries after one year of storage at various temperatures. Li-ion has
higher losses if stored fully charged rather than at a SoC of 40 percent.
Table 7-3: Estimated capacity when storing batteries for one year at various temperatures. Li-ion
deteriorates faster when stored at high charge rather than partial charge.

Batteries are often exposed to unfavorable temperatures, and leaving a

mobile phone or camera on the dashboard of a car or in the hot sun are such
examples. Laptops get warm when in use and this increases the battery
temperature. Sitting at full charge while being plugged into the mains contributes
to a relatively short battery life. Elevated temperature also stresses lead- and
nickel-based batteries.
Nickel-metal-hydride can be stored for 3–5 years. The capacity drop that
occurs during storage is partially reversible with priming. Nickel-cadmium
stores well. The US Air Force was able to deploy NiCd batteries that had been in
storage for 5 years with good recovered capacities after priming. It is believed
that priming becomes necessary if the voltage drops below 1V/cell. Primary
alkaline and lithium batteries can be stored for up to 10 years with only moderate
capacity loss.
You can store a sealed lead acid battery for up to 2 years. Since all batteries
gradually self-discharge over time, it is important to check the voltage and/or
specific gravity, and then apply a charge when the battery falls to 70 percent
state-of-charge, which reflects 2.07V/cell open circuit or 12.42V for a 12V pack.
(The specific gravity at 70 percent charge is roughly 1.218.) Some lead acid
batteries may have different readings, and it is best to check the manufacturer’s
instruction manual. Low charge induces sulfation, an oxidation layer on the
negative plate that inhibits current flow. Topping charge and/or cycling may
restore some of the capacity losses in the early stages of sulfation. (See
“Sulfation” on page 238.)
Sulfation may prevent charging small sealed lead acid cells, such as the
Cyclone by Hawker, after prolonged storage. These batteries can often be
reactivated by applying an elevated voltage. At first, the cell voltage under
charge may go up to 5V and draw very little current. Within 2 hours or so, the
charging current converts the large sulfate crystals into active material, the cell
resistance drops and the charge voltage gradually normalizes. At between 2.10V
and 2.40V the cell is able to accept a normal charge. To prevent damage, set the
current limit to a very low level. Do not attempt to perform this service if the
power supply does not have current limiting. (See “How to Charge with a Power
Supply” on page 137.)
Alkaline batteries are easy to store. For best results, keep the cells at cool
room temperature and at a relative humidity of about 50 percent. Do not freeze
alkaline cells, or any battery, as this may change the molecular structure.
Simple Guidelines for Storing Batteries

Primary batteries store well. Alkaline and primary lithium batteries can be
stored for 10 years with moderate loss capacity.
When storing, remove the battery from the equipment and place in a dry
and cool place.
Avoid freezing. Batteries freeze more easily if kept in discharged state.
Charge lead acid before storing and monitor the voltage or specific gravity
frequently; apply a charge if below 2.07V/cell or if SG is below 1.225
(most starter batteries).
Nickel-based batteries can be stored for five years, even at zero voltage;
prime before use.
Lithium-ion must be stored in a charged state, ideally at 40 percent. This
prevents the battery from dropping below 2.50V/cell, triggering sleep
mode.
Discard Li-ion if kept below 2.0/V/cell for more than a week. Also discard
if the voltage does not recover normally after storage.
Health Concerns with Batteries
Batteries are safe, but caution is necessary when touching damaged cells and
when handling lead acid systems that have access to lead and sulfuric acid.
Several countries label lead acid as hazardous material, and rightly so. Lead can
be a health hazards if not properly handled.
Lead
Lead is a toxic metal that can enter the body by inhalation of lead dust or
ingestion when touching the mouth with lead-contaminated hands. If leaked onto
the ground, the acid and lead particles contaminate the soil and become airborne
when dry. Children and fetuses of pregnant women are most vulnerable to lead
exposure because their bodies are developing. Excessive levels of lead can affect
a child’s growth, cause brain damage, harm kidneys, impair hearing and induce
behavioral problems. In adults, lead can cause memory loss and lower the ability
to concentrate, as well as harm the reproductive system. Lead is also known to
cause high blood pressure, nerve disorders, and muscle and joint pain.
Researchers speculate that Ludwig van Beethoven became ill and died because
of lead poisoning.
By 2017, members of the International Lead Association (ILA) want to
keep the lead blood level of workers in mining, smelting, refining and recycling
below 30 micrograms per deciliter (30µg/dl). In 2014, the average participating
employee checked in at 15.6µg/dl, but 4.8 percent were above 30µg/dl. (Source
Batteries & Energy Storage Technology, Summer 2015.)
Sulfuric Acid
The sulfuric acid in a lead acid battery is highly corrosive and is more harmful
than acids used in most other battery systems. Contact with eyes can cause
permanent blindness; swallowing damages internal organs that can lead to death.
First aid treatment calls for flushing the skin for 10–15 minutes with large
amounts of water to cool the affected tissue and to prevent secondary damage.
Immediately remove contaminated clothing and thoroughly wash the underlying
skin. Always wear protective equipment when handling sulfuric acid.
Cadmium
Cadmium, which is used in nickel-cadmium batteries, is considered more
harmful than lead if ingested. Workers at NiCd manufacturing plants in Japan
have been experiencing health problems from prolonged exposure to the metal,
and governments have banned disposal of nickel-cadmium batteries in landfills.
The soft, whitish metal that occurs naturally in the soil can damage kidneys.
Cadmium can be absorbed through the skin by touching a spilled battery. Since
most NiCd batteries are sealed, there are no health risks in handling intact cells;
caution is required when working with an open battery.
Nickel-metal-hydride is considered non-toxic and the only concern is the
electrolyte. Although toxic to plants, nickel is not harmful to humans.
Lithium-ion is also benign — the battery contains little toxic material.
Nevertheless, caution is required when working with a damaged battery. When
handling a spilled battery, do not touch your mouth, nose or eyes. Wash your
hands thoroughly.
Keep small batteries out of children’s reach. Children younger than four are
the most likely to swallow batteries, and the most common types that are
ingested are button cells. Each year in the United States alone, more than 2,800
children are treated in emergency rooms for swallowing button batteries.
According to a 2015 report, serious injuries and deaths from swallowing
batteries have increased nine-fold in the last decade.
The battery often gets stuck in the esophagus (the tube that passes food).
Water or saliva creates an electrical current that can trigger a chemical reaction
producing hydroxide, a caustic ion that causes serious burns to the surrounding
tissue. Doctors often misdiagnose the symptoms, which can reveal themselves as
fever, vomiting, poor appetite and weariness. Batteries that make it through the
esophagus often move through the digestive tract with little or no lasting
damage. The advice to a parent is to choose safe toys and to keep small batteries
away from young children.
Safety Tips
 Keep button batteries out of children’s reach. Remote controls, singing
greeting cards, watches, hearing aids, thermometers, toys and electric keys
may contain these batteries.
Similar to pharmaceutical products, keep small batteries locked away
from small children.
Communicate the danger of swallowing button batteries with your
children, as well as caregivers, friends, family members and babysitters.
If you suspect your child has ingested a battery, go to the hospital
immediately. Wait for a medical assessment before allowing the child to
eat and drink.
Ventilation
Charging batteries in living quarters should be safe, and this also applies to lead
acid. Ventilate the area regularly as you would a kitchen when cooking. Lead
acid produces some hydrogen gas but the amount is minimal when charged
correctly. Hydrogen gas becomes explosive at a concentration of 4 percent. This
would only be achieved if large lead acid batteries were charged in a sealed
room.
Over-charging a lead acid battery can produce hydrogen sulfide. The gas is
colorless, very poisonous, flammable and has the odor of rotten eggs. Hydrogen
sulfide also occurs naturally during the breakdown of organic matter in swamps
and sewers; it is present in volcanic gases, natural gas and some well waters.
Being heavier than air, the gas accumulates at the bottom of poorly ventilated
spaces. Although noticeable at first, the sense of smell deadens the sensation
with time and potential victims may be unaware of its presence. As a simple
guideline, hydrogen sulfide becomes harmful to human life if the odor is
noticeable.

CAUTION Under no circumstances should batteries be incinerated, as fire can cause an explosion.
Wear approved gloves when touching electrolyte. On exposure to skin, flush with water
immediately. If eye exposure occurs, flush with water for 15 minutes and consult a
physician immediately.
How to Transport Batteries
Incidents in transit prompted authorities to tighten the rules for all battery
shipments. The largest change involves transporting lithium-based batteries by
air governed by UN 38.3. This is done to assure safety of those handling
batteries and the passengers traveling with them aboard a common carrier.
Data compiled by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) from 1991 to
2007 states that 27 percent of all incidents occurred with lithium-based batteries,
of which 68 percent failed due to short circuits, 15 percent during charging and
discharging and 7 percent by unintentional activation of devices. The remaining
had other malfunctions.
In another study from 1991 to 2012, the FAA recorded 132 air incidents
involving batteries leading to smoke, extreme heat, fire or explosion. Examining
the mishaps further puts most of the blame on inappropriate packaging or
handling, of which most occurred at airports or in cargo hubs. Although lithium-
ion gets the most attention regarding safety risk in transport, the FAA reports that
other battery systems are experiencing a larger number of incidents. Problem
batteries include primary lithium (lithium-metal), lead acid, NiMH, NiCd and
alkaline. Please note that the rechargeable Li-ion and primary lithium-metal
batteries are handled separately.
Lead Acid
Most countries set strict rules for transporting lead acid batteries. Failure to
comply with the regulations is a civil or criminal offense that can result in stiff
penalties for the carrier and/or the shipper. The rules are simple, well established
and make common sense.

The vehicle transporting batteries can carry only one type of hazardous
material. Brace the batteries securely to prevent damage and short circuits
in transit. Non-hazardous goods on the same vehicle must be secured to
prevent damaging the batteries.
Batteries must be stacked upright, pole side outwards, and placed on a
wooden pallet. Place honeycomb cardboard between the layers and limit
 the stack to three layers on a single pallet. Wrap the package several times
with shrink-wrap.
Identify hazardous material with labels marked “Corrosive” using the
appropriate symbols and colors. Stickers must conform to regulatory
specifications.
Mark all packages, e.g., batteries, wet, filled with acid, identification
number (UN 2794).
Provide a bill of lading document that includes the name of the company
and shipper, contents of package, description of hazardous material and
shipper’s certification.
When shipping by air, restrict the weight per package to 25kg gross (55lb)
on passenger air carriers. There is no limit on the number of packages per
flight.
Different rules apply when shipping damaged batteries. A lead acid battery
is considered damaged if there is a possibility of leakage due to a crack or if one
or more caps are missing. Transportation companies and air carriers may require
that the batteries be drained of all acid prior to transport. Place damaged batteries
in an acid-resistant container and add soda ash to neutralize any acid that might
spill. Separate damaged from intact batteries.
Nickel-based Batteries
Nickel-based batteries have no transport limitations; however, some of the same
precautions apply as for lead acid in terms of packaging to prevent electrical
shorts and safeguard against fire. Regulations prohibit storing and transporting
smaller battery packs in a metal box. If there is a danger of an electrical short,
wrap each battery individually in a plastic bag. Do not mix batteries with coins
and house keys in your pocket.
Lithium-based Batteries
The largest changes in shipping rules occurred around lithium-based batteries,
and with good reasons. Li-ion is the fastest growing battery chemistry and in
2009, 3.3 billion Li-ion batteries were transported by air. This is an ongoing
concern, and an airline-pilot union has asked the FAA to ban lithium-based
batteries on passenger aircraft.
The Portable Rechargeable Battery Association (PRBA) is aware of
possible hazards but opposes any revisions to transportation rules, arguing that
the restrictions would cost shippers and manufacturers billions of dollars. PRBA
is made up of major battery manufacturers, including Energizer, Panasonic,
SAFT America, Sanyo and Varta Batteries. These manufacturers do not want to
disrupt air shipments, especially batteries for critical medical and military
applications. They argue that the batteries causing problems do not meet US
hazardous material handling regulations and ask the FAA to enforce stricter
manufacturing rule.
Battery manufacturers tell the aviation industry that, as a result of the well-
publicized 2006 recall, a safer generation of Li-ion batteries has emerged.
According to the US Census Bureau (2010), airfreight transports roughly 364
million cell phones, 142 million cameras and 47 million laptops as part of just-
in-time delivery to stores. No deaths and only 26 injuries are attributed to
shipping billions of lithium batteries every year.
The estimated failure rate of Li-ion is 1 per 10 million, or less, and newer
consumer products have few surprise failures. But in spite of improved battery
safety, there are restrictions with lithium-ion batteries on airplanes. Travelers are
reminded how many batteries they can carry on board in portable devices and as
spare packs.
Since January 2008, people can no longer pack spare lithium batteries in
checked baggage, but airlines allow them as carry-on. A cabin event involving a
burning battery will allow quick access to a fire extinguisher, an exercise that is
not possible in the cargo bay. In one incident, a coffee pot served as the fire
extinguishing device for a flaming laptop battery on board a plane. Luckily, the
battery was in the passenger department rather than in the sealed cargo bay
below.
In terms of transportation, lithium-based batteries are divided into non-
rechargeable lithium-metal batteries and rechargeable lithium-ion batteries found
in mobile phones and laptops. Airlines allow both types as carry-on, either
installed or carried as spare packs, as long as they don’t exceed the following
limitation of lithium or equivalent content of:

2 grams for primary lithium batteries, also known as lithium-metal.

8 grams for a secondary lithium-ion. This amounts to a 100Wh battery.
25 grams for all Li-ion combined. This amounts to 300Wh worth of Li-ion
batteries.
The lithium content of the lithium-metal battery is often printed on the
label. Li-ion, on the other hand, has no metallic lithium and uses the equivalent
lithium content (ELC) instead. To calculate the ELC, multiply the rated capacity
(Ah) times 0.3. As an example, a 1Ah cell has 0.3 grams of lithium. The 8-gram
ELC places the upper limit with a 100Wh battery pack.
A laptop battery commonly uses 2Ah cells containing 0.6 grams of ELC
each. The battery pack may have 8 cells (4 in series; 2 in parallel), which brings
the ELC to 4.8 grams, well below the 8-gram limit allowed in a single pack. To
derive the watt-hour, multiply the battery voltage by the ampere-hours (Ah). The
battery in question has a voltage of 14.40V (4 x 3.6V) and a rating of 4Ah (2 x
2Ah). In summary, 14.4V x 4Ah = 57.6Wh, or roughly 60Wh.
While regulations limit the Li-ion battery to no larger than 100Wh, each
passenger and travel companion is allowed to carry spare packs of up to 25
grams of ELC, or 300Wh. The airlines recommend placing each battery in a
clear plastic bag or covering the contacts with tape to prevent an electric short.
Although current rules forbid passengers from carrying lithium-ion batteries in
checked luggage, devices with non-removable batteries, such as the iPhone, iPad
and certain brand of laptops, are exempt from the rules. Out of sight — out of
mind.
Anyone shipping lithium-ion batteries in bulk must meet transportation
regulations, and this applies to domestic and international shipments by land, sea
and air. Lithium-ion cells whose equivalent lithium content exceeds 1.5 grams or
8 grams per battery pack (100Wh) must be shipped as “Class 9 miscellaneous
hazardous material.”
Film crews often carry larger batteries for professional video cameras, and
these are handled as Class 9 hazardous material. If a shipment in the US contains
more than 24 lithium cells or 12 lithium-ion packs, special markings and
appropriate shipping documents are required. Each package must be clearly
marked to inform the airline that lithium batteries are involved. Open cells and
packs must be separated to prevent electrical shorts. The packages must be
strong to allow stacking.
Frequently Asked Questions about Transporting Lithium-ion Batteries by Air
Must consumer-type lithium-ion batteries always be shipped as Class 9
dangerous goods?
No. Almost all small Li-ion (less than 100Wh) in consumer products are
exempt from dangerous goods regulations and do not require Class 9
labeling, marking or packaging.
In what quantities can lithium-ion batteries be shipped?
Class 9 shipment applies when exceeding a limited volume. (See Table 7-6
on page 205.)
Why do some packages of Li-ion batteries contain a “Caution” marking and
include shipping papers when most consumer lithium-ion batteries are
exempt from regulation?
In the US, the marking is mandatory for packages of more than 24 Li-ion
cells or 12 Li-ion packs. The documents identify the goods and tell what to
do if the package is damaged.
Must lithium-ion batteries be tested according to the UN Manual of Tests
and Criteria?
Yes, all Li-ion cells and packs shipped internationally must be tested. In the
US, UN testing also includes small, consumer-size lithium-ion cells and
packs.
Be mindful when traveling by air Travelers often put the safety of passengers
and aircraft at risk by checking in or bringing on board undeclared items. The
Civil Aviation and Safety Authority (CASA) remind travelers to declare
potentially dangerous goods. Check dangerous goods under CASA or other
websites if uncertain what’s allowed.

Figure 7-4: Banned items on an aircraft.

Source: Daily Telegraph

Mishaps remind travelers of the importance to observe safety bylaws. In

2014, the captain of a Boeing 737 aircraft declared “Mayday” after observing
heavy white smoke billowing from the cargo hold of the plane during an external
pre-flight inspection. Emergency crew uncovered 28 batteries in a checked
transit case, 6–8 of which had been destroyed by fire. The report said that an
electrical short in a battery started the fire after the passenger declared that no
batteries were in the transit case. Under civil aviation laws, passengers failing to
declare dangerous goods face penalties of up to 7 years in prison. Figure 7-5
illustrates the remains of the charred content.

Figure 7-5: Exploded transit case.

CASA examines the remains of checked luggage after a battery caught fire before take-off. The dangerous
goods were not declared. Shipping of lithium-based batteries is regulated under UN 38.3.
Source: Daily Telegraph; Sydney 23C-34C

Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by Air

Concerned with the safety of shipping lithium-based batteries by air, the Air
Line Pilots Association (ALPA) promoted tighter restrictions and requested that
lithium batteries be declared regulated dangerous goods that are shipped by
cargo aircraft only. PRBA, on the other hand, supports the current International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) requirement that has been in effect since
2009 but was never applied in the US. ICAO is the United Nations agency that
sets international aviation standards. It’s up to each country to decide whether to
follow the standards, but most do.
The shipment of nearly all lithium-based batteries must pass section 38.3 of
the UN Manual of Tests and Criteria. The International Air Transport
Association (IATA) assists by publishing the IATA Dangerous Goods
Regulations (DGR) that helps classify, mark, pack, label and document
dangerous shipments. DGR is recognized by all major airlines and the guidelines
are based on international and national air regulations as well as on airline-
specific requirements.
The quantity of batteries permitted in a shipment is based on watt-hours
(Wh). Wh reveals the equivalent lithium content (ELC) by multiplying voltage
by ampere-hours (Ah), in which 1Ah has 0.3 grams of lithium. For example,
14.40V x 5Ah battery = 72Wh (5Ah x 0.3g = 1.5g x 4 cells in series = 6g).
Under DGR, the packaging instructions (PI) are organized into PI 965 to PI
970. PI 965 covers Li-ion cells and battery packs only, while PI 966 includes Li-
ion installed in equipment, and PI 967 combines Li-ion with equipment. Because
of higher lithium content, lithium-metal batteries are handled separately under PI
968 to 970. (Most lithium-metal are non-rechargeable.) The section also
describes what a traveler can take on an aircraft.
To accommodate the traveler and the need to ship batteries, transporting
lithium-based battery products is divided into two categories:

1. Non-Class 9 hazardous material shipment involves small batteries in

limited quantities.
2. Class 9 hazardous material enables shipment of larger battery sizes and
higher volumes.
To make the rulings more palatable, the following tables list the less
stringent requirement first, followed by the shipments of larger quantities of
lithium-based batteries; the established numbering system suggests the reverse.
Sections IA, IB and II are in Roman numerals and mean Section 1A, 1B and 2 in
Latin numbers. When shipping regulated dangerous goods there must be an
inherent level of trust as rules can be evaded. Shippers must sign and self-certify
that a shipment complies with the applicable regulations.
Shipping rules are changing and effective April 2016, Li-ion cells and
packs must be offered for transport at a state-of-charge (SoC) not exceeding 30%
of their rated capacity. The SoC limit does not apply to Li-ion that are packed
with or installed in products. Li-ion with low charge pose less danger than when
fully charged.
At 30% SoC, the cell voltage of most Li-ion is ~3.70V. Discharge the
battery to 3.65V/cell. The 50mV overshoot compensates for the rubber band
effect. (See Figure 7-2 on page 196.)

Packaging Instruction 965 — includes loose Li-ion cells and battery packs (UN 3480)
Table 7-6 divides the transport of Li-ion products into four groups: Carry-on
defines the quantity of Li-ion cells and battery packs a passenger can take on an
aircraft; Section II specifies shipment of small Li-ion products in low numbers;
Section IB advises on the shipment of small Li-ion products in larger numbers;
and Section IA governs larger Li-ion products. Only Carry-on and Section II are
exempt from Class 9 hazardous material designation. IATA mandates that cells
and battery packs cannot be combined in the same shipping box. Use separate
boxes.

Table 7-6: Packaging Instruction 965 covering Sections II, IB and IA. Shipment of loose Li-ion cells
and battery packs.
1 Effective April 2016

Passenger Aircraft Ban: Under Sections II, IA and IB, Li-ion is forbidden on passenger aircraft as
cargo. All packages must bear the “Cargo Aircraft Only” label in addition to other required marks and
labels. This limitation does not affect lithium ion batteries packed with or contained in equipment.
State-of-charge Limits: Li-ion must be shipped at a state-of-charge of no more than 30% of the rated
 capacity. This does not apply to batteries packed with or contained in equipment.
Other Restrictions: Shipper can only offer one Section II package (batteries only) per consignment.
Lithium battery shipments must be separated from other cargo.

General Transport Requirements

Travel Passengers must carry batteries on board the aircraft. Check-in is
not permitted. Non-removable batteries enjoy exemption (out of
sight, out of mind).
Safeguard Batteries must be protected against short circuit. Use individual
plastic bags.

Approval A battery pack must be approved even if the cells in the pack
have already been approved. Modified battery packs must also
be reapproved.
Labels Each package must include the CAUTION label and the Lithium
Battery Handling label with the words “Lithium-ion batteries in
compliance with Section II of PI 965” (or other applicable PI
numbers). Add a contact phone number.
Overpack Under the new rule effective April 2016, the overpack cannot
contain more than one (1) package in accordance with Section II
of PI 965. The overpack can, however, contain other non-
dangerous goods or compatible dangerous good items. Add the
overpack label on the shipping box together with the other
required labels with respect to multiple packages of regulated
batteries.
Damage Defective batteries in danger of failing in transport are
forbidden.
Old batteries Lithium-based batteries for disposal are forbidden from air
transport unless approved by the appropriate authorities.
Packing: Each shipping package must withstand a 1.2 meter (4 feet) drop
in any orientation without damaging the batteries, causing them
to shift or releasing the contents.
Figure 7-7: Labeling for Packaging Instruction 965 covering Sections II, IB and IA. Section II is
classified “Dangerous Goods” and is Class 9 exempt. Shipments must include Lithium Battery Handling
Label and CAUTION label. Sections IB and IA are Class 9.

Class 9 Shipping Qualifications

Training Personnel handling lithium-based batteries for transport must be
trained. (See www/iata/org/training)
Approval All Li-ion batteries shipped under Class 9 hazardous material
designation must meet the UN Manual of Tests and Criteria, Part III,
subsection 38.3.
Labels Class 9 packages must include

1. Class 9 hazard material label

2. UN designation (UN 3400, 3481, 3090 or 3091)

3. Marking “Lithium Battery” with packing information (PI

965, 1B, 1A, other)

4. Name and address of the shipper and consignee

5. Number of packages and gross weight per package

Figure 7-8: Class 9 hazard material label. Shipment falls under Class 9 hazardous material designation.
The Class 9 label must be attached in addition to the Lithium Battery Handling and CAUTION labels.
Packaging Instructions 966 and 967
PI 966 governs Li-ion cells and battery packs with equipment under UN 3481,
and PI 967 oversees Li-ion cells and battery packs in equipment under UN3481
(Table 7-9). These rules are similar to PI 965 with the exception that Li-ion cells
and battery packs can be shipped with, or in the equipment. Equipment means an
apparatus requiring Li-ion products to operate.

Table 7-9: Packaging Instruction 966 and 967. Shipment of Li-ion batteries with, and in equipment.

Additional Requirements
Limitation The maximum number of batteries in each package must be limited
to those required to operate the equipment. Extras must be shipped
separately or in an overpack. (Observe new rules effective 1 April
2016.)
Activation Equipment must be turned OFF and activation in transport must be
prevented. Exceptions are devices such as watches and temperature
loggers that do not pose a danger in transport may be left in the ON
position.

Packaging Instruction 968 — permits lithium-metal cells and battery packs (UN3090)
Lithium-metal batteries have tighter shipping requirements than lithium-ion
batteries. Most Li-metal is non-rechargeable, and it is used in watches, medical
instruments, pacemakers, sensors memory retention, etc. There are also
consumer-grade lithium-metal in AAA, AA, 9V and other formats. Table 7-10
lists the restrictions in the shipment of these batteries.
Table 7-10: Packaging Instruction 968. Shipment of lithium-metal cells and battery packs.

Additional Requirements for Lithium-metal Batteries

Packaging Cells and battery packs must be packed in a rigid outer packaging.
Padding Batteries must be surrounded by non-conductive, non-combustible
cushioning material.
Label When package cannot meet above requirements, mark “Cargo
Aircraft Only.”
Limitation Lithium-metal in any equipment must not exceed 12g/cell and
500g/battery.
Exceptions Button cell in equipment and on circuit boards do not add to the
battery count.

Table 7-11: Package labeling for cargo aircraft only. The “Cargo Aircraft Only” label only applies to
select large shipments of lithium-metal batteries. Colored label identifies package.

Note: Effective 1 January 2015, lithium-metal batteries will be restricted to cargo aircraft only. This
 only applies when shipping lithium-metal batteries by themselves. Batteries packed with or
contained in equipment can continue to be shipped on passenger aircraft.

Packaging Instruction 969 and 970

PI 969 includes lithium-metal with the equipment under UN 3091, while PI 970
rules include lithium-metal in the equipment under UN 3091 (Table 7-12).

Table 7-12: Packaging Instruction 969 and 970. Shipment of lithium-metal with and in equipment.

Dangerous goods shipping regulations can be circumvented by deliberately

mislabeling batteries. There are reported cases where Li-ion was marked as
benign NiCd and the stricter lithium-metal as Li-ion. Battery chemistries are
difficult to identify, and such an offense may go undetected. Tightening rules
only makes sense if the system can be made bullet-poof; imposing rules that are
too stringent invites lawbreakers.

How to Recycle Batteries

Lead- and cadmium-based batteries pose the largest environmental concerns, so
much so that nickel-cadmium was banned in Europe in 2009. Attempts are being
made to also ban the lead-based battery, but no suitable replacement is available
as was the case by substituting nickel-cadmium with nickel-metal-hydride. For
the first time, lithium-ion has been added to the list of pollutants. This chemistry
was classified as only mildly toxic, but their sheer volume requires tighter
scrutiny.
Lead acid paved the way to the success of recycling, and today more than
97 percent of these batteries are recycled in the USA. The automotive industry
should be given credit for having organized recycling early; however, business
reasons rather than environmental concerns may have been the driving force.
The recycling process is simple and 70 percent of the battery’s weight is reusable
lead.
Over 50 percent of the lead supply comes from recycled batteries. Other
battery types are not as economical to recycle and are not being returned as
readily as lead acid. Several organizations are working on programs to make the
collection of all batteries convenient. Only 20 to 40 percent of batteries in
mobile phones and other consumer products are currently recycled. The goal of
recycling is to prevent hazardous materials from entering landfills and to utilize
the retrieved materials in the fabrication of new products.
Spent batteries should be removed from the household. Old primary cells
are known to leak and cause damage to the surrounding area. Do not store old
lead acid batteries where children play. Simply touching the lead poles can be
harmful. Also, keep button cells hidden from small children as they can swallow
these batteries.
Even though environmentally unfriendly, lead acid batteries continue to
hold a strong market niche, especially as a starter battery. Wheeled mobility and
UPS systems could not run as economically if it were not for this reliable battery.
NiCd also continues to hold a critical position among rechargeable batteries as
large flooded NiCds start jet airplanes and propel sightseeing boats in rivers of
larger cities. Although pollution-free, these batteries are in decline.
Batteries with toxic substances will continue to be with us, and there is
nothing wrong in using them as long as they are being disposed of properly.
Each battery chemistry has its own recycling procedure and the process begins
by sorting the batteries into the correct categories.
Lead Acid: Recycling of lead acid began with the introduction of the starter
battery in 1912. The process is simple and cost-effective as lead is easy to extract
and can be reused multiple times. This led to many profitable businesses and the
recycling of other batteries.
 In late 2013, smelters started to report an increased number of Li-ion
batteries being mixed in with lead acid, especially in starter batteries. This can
cause fires, leading to explosion and personal injury. The physical appearance of
lead acid and Li-ion packs are similar and sorting at high volume poses a
challenge. For consumers, a battery is a battery and folks are enticed to recycle
all batteries, never mind the chemistry. As more lead acid are being replaced
with Li-ion, the problem will only escalate. From 2010–2013, there has been a
10-fold increase in reported incidents of infiltration of Li-ion with lead acid.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) initiate action through increased awareness,
employee training, battery identification and labeling. X-ray technologies to
separate batteries are being explored and “who carries the liability?” is being
asked. Battery manufacturers put the responsibility on the recyclers who in turn
argue that the burden and sustainability of a product must be borne by the
manufacturer. The courts may become the arbitrators.
Nickel-cadmium: When NiCd batteries are disposed of carelessly, the metallic
cell cylinder eventually corrode in the landfill. Cadmium dissolves and seeps
into the water supply. Once contamination begins, authorities are helpless to stop
the carnage. Our oceans already show traces of cadmium (along with aspirin,
penicillin and antidepressants) but scientists are not certain of its origin.
Nickel-metal-hydride: Nickel and the electrolyte in NiMH are semi-toxic. If no
disposal service is available in an area, individual NiMH batteries can be
discarded with other household waste in small quantities; however, with 10 or
more batteries, the user should consider disposal them in a secure waste landfill.
The better alternative is taking the spent batteries to a neighborhood drop-off bin
for recycling.
Primary Lithium: These batteries contain metallic lithium that reacts violently
when in contact with moisture and must be disposed of appropriately. If thrown
in a landfill in a charged state, heavy equipment operating on top could crush the
cases and the exposed lithium could ignite a fire. Landfill fires are difficult to
extinguish and can burn for years underground. Before recycling, apply a full
discharge to consume the lithium content. Primary lithium batteries (lithium-
metal) are used in military combat, as well as in watches, sensors, hearing aids
and memory backup. A lithium-metal variety also serves as alkaline replacement
in AAA, AA and 9V formats. (Li-ion for mobile phones and laptops do not
contain metallic lithium.)
Lithium-ion: Li-ion is reasonably harmless but spent packs should be disposed
of properly, especially with the growing volume used in consumer products. This
is done less to retrieve valuable metals, as is the case with lead acid, than for
environmental reasons. Li-ion contains harmful elements that are at the toxicity
level of electronic devices.
Alkaline: After lowering the mercury content in alkaline batteries in 1996, many
territories now allow disposing these batteries as regular domestic trash;
however, California and Europe consider all batteries as hazardous waste. Most
stores selling batteries are also required to take back spent batteries. Alkaline
batteries contain the reusable materials of zinc and manganese but the retrieval
process is a liability. Efforts are made to increase the recycling of alkaline cells
from the low 4 percent in 2015 to 40 percent in 2025.
In North America, Retriev Technologies, formerly Toxco, and the
Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC) collect spent batteries for
recycling. While Retriev has its own recycling facilities, RBRC collects batteries
for various recycling organizations. Retriev in Trail, BC, Canada, claims to be
the only company in the world that recycles large lithium batteries from oil
drilling rigs in Nigeria, Indonesia and other places. They also take retired lithium
batteries from the Minuteman missile silos and Li-ion from different war efforts.
Other Retriev divisions recycle nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal-hydride, lead,
mercury, alkaline and more.
Europe and Asia are also active in recycling spent batteries. Among other
recycling companies, Sony and Sumitomo Metal in Japan and Umicore in
Belgium have developed technology to retrieve cobalt and other precious metals
from spent lithium-ion batteries.

Recycling Process
Recycling starts by sorting batteries into chemistries. Collection centers place
lead acid, nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal-hydride and lithium-ion into designated
drums, sacks or boxes. Battery recyclers claim that recycling can be made
profitable if a steady stream of batteries, sorted by chemistry, is made available.
The combustible material such as plastics and insulation are burned and
polluting particles are scrubbed before release into the atmosphere. This leaves
the clean and naked cells with metal content.
The cells are then chopped into small pieces and heated until the metal
liquefies. A slag arm removes non-metallic substances that float on top. The
alloys settle according to weight and are skimmed off like cream from raw milk
while still in liquid form. Cadmium is relatively light and vaporizes at high
temperatures. In a process that appears like a pan of water boiling over, a fan
blows the cadmium vapor into a large tube that is cooled with water mist. The
vapors condense to produce cadmium that is 99.95 percent pure.
Some recyclers do not separate the metals on site but pour the liquid metals
directly into what the industry refers to as “pigs” (65 pounds, 24kg) or “hogs”
(2,000 pounds, 746kg). Other battery recyclers use nuggets (7 pounds, 3.17kg).
The pigs, hogs and nuggets are shipped to metal recovery plants where they are
used to produce nickel, chromium and iron for stainless steel and other high-end
products.
To reduce the possibility of a reactive event during crushing, some recyclers
use a liquid solution or freeze lithium-based batteries with liquid nitrogen;
however, mixing Li-ion starter batteries with the common lead acid type still
remains a problem as a charged Li-ion is far more explosive than lead acid.
Battery recycling is energy intensive. Reports reveal that it takes 6 to 10
times more energy to reclaim metals from some recycled batteries than from
mining. The exception is the lead acid battery from which lead can be extracted
easily and reused without elaborate processes. To some extent, nickel from
NiMH can also be recovered economically if available in large quantities.
New recycling methods are being developed that retrieve the metals by
electrolysis. The process is said to be more cost effective and produce higher
yields with less pollutants than traditional smelting. Plants using the
hydrometallurgical method are not yet in full operation.
Each country sets its own rules and adds tariffs to the purchase price of a
new battery to make recycling feasible. In North America, some recycling plants
invoice by weight and the rates vary according to chemistry. While NiMH yields
a fairly good return with nickel, the spent NiCd battery is less in demand
because of soft cadmium prices. Due to poor metal retrieval value, Li-ion
commands a higher recycling fee than most other battery types.
The flat cost to recycle a ton of batteries is $1,000 to $2,000; Europe hopes
to achieve a cost per ton of $300. Ideally, this would include transportation, but
moving and handling the goods is expected to double the overall cost. To
simplify transportation, Europe is setting up several smaller processing plants in
strategic geographic locations. This, in part, is due to the Basel Convention that
prohibits the export of complete but spent lead acid batteries. As the volume of
discarded batteries increases, new technologies are being tried to make recycling
profitable without the support of agencies and governments.

Battery Recycling as a Business

Batteries are expensive and have a relatively short life span. As discarded
batteries grow by the tonnage, entrepreneurs are enticed to start a business in
recycling. With an annual world market of $33 billion, lead acid is the most
common battery in use. This is followed by Li-ion at $16.6 billion, NiMH at $2
billion and NiCd at $1 billion. All other chemistries only make up $1 billion.
Table 7-13 lists the material cost per ton to build these batteries.

Battery chemistry Metal value (per ton) Recycling

Lithium cobalt oxide $25,000 Subsidy needed

 Lithium cobalt oxide $400 Subsidy needed

Lead acid $1,500 Profitable

Nickel $10,000-17,000 Subsidy needed

Cadmium $2,200 Subsidy needed

Table 7-13: Metal value per ton of battery.

Lead acid remains the most suitable battery to recycle; 70% of its weight contains reusable lead.

Lithium-ion batteries are expensive to manufacture and this is in part due to

the high material cost and complex preparation processes. The most expensive
metal of most Li-ion is cobalt, a hard lustrous gray material that is also used to
manufacture magnets and high-strength alloys.
Knowing that billions of Li-ion batteries are discarded every year and given
the high cost of lithium cobalt oxide, salvaging precious metals should make
economic sense and one wonders why so few companies recycle these batteries.
The reason becomes clear when examining the complexity and low yield of
recycling. The retrieved raw material barely pays for labor, which includes
collection, transport, sorting into batteries chemistries, shredding, separation of
metallic and non-metallic materials, neutralizing hazardous substances, smelting,
and purification of the recovered metals.
Recycling programs for lead acid are believed to have started soon after
Cadillac introduced the cranking motor in 1912 as a for-profit business rather
than protecting the environment. Recycling can be harmful, especially with lead
acid batteries. Lead can enter the body by inhaling or ingestion when touching
the mouth with lead-contaminated hands. This puts workers and residents of the
surrounding areas at risk of lead poisoning.
The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) has imposed strict guidelines
in recycling of lead acid batteries in the USA. The recycling plants must be
sealed and the smokestacks fitted with scrubbers. To check for possible escape of
lead particles, the plant perimeter must be surrounded with lead-monitoring
devices. Rules are bound to be broken and batteries soon end up in Mexico and
other developing countries with relaxed regulations. China, a leader in lead acid
battery production, also took action to protect the environment by introducing
strict guidelines that only reputable companies can meet.
Nickel-based batteries can also be recycled and the retrieved materials are
iron and nickel, which are used in stainless steel production. Nickel-metal-
hydride (NiMH) yields the highest return in nickel, and with ample supply
recycling is said to make money. Low demand for cadmium has reduced the
profitability from recycling NiCd batteries. The growth in batteries is with Li-ion
but valuable materials are difficult to retrieve. This makes Li-ion less attractive
for recycling and a financial breakeven may not be possible without subsidies.
The true cost to manufacture Li-ion is not so much in the raw materials, as
is the case with lead acid and NiMH, but in lengthy processing and purification
processes of the raw materials to reach battery grade. Recycling brings the metal
to ground zero, from which costly preparations begin anew. It is often cheaper to
mine raw material than to retrieve it from recycling. Lithium from recycled
batteries is commonly used for non-battery applications, such as lubricating
greases that are found in WD-40 and other products, rather than batteries.
Although alkaline and zinc-carbon account for over 90 percent of batteries
consumed in the United States, they contain few precious metals and the toxicity
is low. Organizations are seeking ways to recycle these batteries as well for the
basic metal content and with high volume such a venture should become viable.
Table 7-14 lists the typical metal content of commonly recycled batteries.
Table 7-14: Metals in commonly recycled batteries as a percentage of the overall content. The metal
content may vary with battery type. With the exception of lead acid, most recycling requires a subsidy.

Summary
The primary objective of building a good battery is long life, safety and low
price. Recycling is an afterthought and manufacturers do little to simplify the
retrieving of precious metals. The recycling business is small compared to the
vast battery industry, and to this day, only lead acid can be recycled profitably.
Nickel-based batteries might make money with good logistics, but Li-ion
and most other chemistries yield too little in precious metals to make recycling a
viable business without subsidies. The major expense with modern batteries is
not so much the raw materials, as with lead acid, but lengthy preparations,
purifications and processing down to micro- and nano-levels. Nevertheless,
batteries contain valuable material that can be re-used for new products.
To make recycling feasible in the meantime, subsidies are created by adding
a tax to each pack sold. The goal goes beyond retrieving metals for re-use to
preventing toxic batteries from entering landfills. Combining the environmental
benefit with making a profit is the ultimate goal, and this might become feasible
with innovative new recycling processes in development.
Another model is to sort batteries into functional and non-functional groups
and give those with capacities above 80 percent a second life. (See “Can
Batteries Be Restored?” on page 228.)

Summary Table of Battery Do’s and Don’ts

“What can I do to keep my batteries longer?” many people ask. As folks stay fit
by refraining from smoking, lowering sugar intake and exercising, so also can
battery life be extended. There are no hard numbers as to how effective good
care is, but the proof is in examples where packs were issued as personal goods
as opposed to stock items. Personal care almost always wins.
Table 7-17 summarizes how to prolong battery life through proper attention.
Because of similarities within systems, the chemistries are limited to lead, nickel
and lithium.

Table 7-15: Do’s and don’ts summary of how to use, maintain and dispose of batteries.
 Chapter 8 | How to Extend Battery Life

A battery is a corrosive device that begins to fade the moment it comes off the
assembly line. The stubborn behavior of batteries has left many users in
awkward situations. The British Army could have lost the Falklands War in 1982
on account of uncooperative batteries. The officers assumed that a battery would
always follow the rigid dictate of the military. Not so. When order was given to
launch the missiles, nothing happened and no missiles flew that day. Battery-
induced failures are common; some are a nuisance but others have serious
consequences.

Setting Performance Standards

Even with the best of care, a battery only lives for a defined number of cycles
and time. It shares similarity with a living organism that develops an illness and
dies early. Although the manufacturer may specify a number of discharge/charge
cycles, a battery has no distinct life span; the health rests much on environmental
conditions and usage patterns.
Lead acid reaches the end of life when the active material has been
consumed on the positive grids; nickel-based batteries lose performance because
of corrosion. Lithium-ion fades over time when the transfer of ions slows down
due to the buildup of layers on the electrodes. Only the supercapacitor should
achieve an unlimited number of cycles, but this is not a real battery.
Battery manufacturers are aware of performance loss over time, and there is
a deliberate silence on battery aging caused by capacity fade. Runtimes are
always estimated with a perfect battery delivering 100 percent capacity. This is a
momentary condition that only applies when the battery is new. While a dropped
call because of a dying mobile phone battery only causes mild inconvenience, a
power loss in a medical or military device can be devastating.
Consumers have learned to take advertised battery runtimes in their stride.
Performance data means little and no other specification is as loosely given as
that of the battery, especially in consumer products. The manufacturer knows
this and gets away with it, in part due to the difficulty of verification. Very
seldom does a user challenge the battery manufacturer for failing to deliver the
specified battery performance, even when human lives are at stake. Less critical
failures have been challenged in court and dealt with in a harsh way.
The battery is an elusive scapegoat that evades inspections; it’s as if it holds
special immunity and privileges. Should the battery quit during a critical
mission, then this is seen as beyond control; some may call it an act of God, as if
it were triggered by a natural cause that could not have been prevented.
Batteries should receive the same treatment as a critical part in an aircraft,
medical device or industrial machine where the wear and tear falls under strict
maintenance guidelines. Authorities struggle to implement such guidelines and
for good reasons. Generally accepted test procedures have not yet been
established for batteries, and even auditors doing quality control shy away from
such ruling and only examine the outer appearance; state-of-health is mostly
ignored. This allows faded batteries to hide comfortably among their stronger
peers. The omission is in part connected with a lack of battery test devices that
can reliably assess a battery on the fly.

How to Rate Battery Runtime

The consumer market follows set standards in specifying battery runtime, but
these are loose and some associations develop their own rules by using the
lightest load patterns possible to achieve good numbers. This results in
specifications that carry little resemblance to reality. Under pressure from
consumer associations, manufacturers have finally agreed to standardize testing
procedures on key consumer products.
 The Camera and Imaging Products Association (CIPA) set up in Japan in
2002 succeeded in developing a standardized battery-life test for digital cameras.
Under the test scheme, the camera takes a photo every 30 seconds, half of them
with flash and the other without. The test zooms the lens in and out all the way
before a shot is taken and leaves the screen on. After every 10 shots, the camera
is turned off for a while and the cycle is repeated. CIPA ratings replicate a
realistic way a consumer would use a camera and most new cameras adopt the
CIPA protocol to rate the runtime.
The runtime on laptops is more complex to estimate than a digital camera
as programs, type of activity, wireless features and screen brightness affect the
energy consumption. To take these conditions into account, the computer
industry developed a standard called MobileMark 2014, an application-based
benchmark that reflects usage patterns for business users. MobileMark is built on
the 20-year history of BAPCo (Business Applications Performance Corporation)
in building benchmarks to evaluate platform technologies.
Not everyone agrees with the established norm and opponents say that the
convention trims the applications down and ignores real-world practices. The
setting of brightness is one example. The display is one of the most power-
hungry components of a modern laptop or tablet, and at full brightness the screen
delivers 250 to 300 nits. (A nit is a unit of brightness equal to one Candela per
square meter. Candela is a unit of luminous intensity.) MobileMark is said to use
a setting that is less than half of this. Nor does MobileMark include Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth; it leaves these peripherals up to the manufacturers to investigate.
Mobile phone manufacturers face similar challenges when estimating
runtimes. Standby and talk time are field-strength dependent and the closer you
are to a repeater tower, the lower the transmit power will get and the longer the
battery will last. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) takes slightly more
power than GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications); however, the
more critical power guzzlers are touch screen displays, video presentations, web
surfing, as well as the use of GPS, camera, voice dialing and Bluetooth. Web-
browsing and video-watching typically cut the runtime in half compared to mere
talking on the phone.
Although battery capacity has increased and the circuits have become more
efficient, these improvements do not compensate for the added features of a
smartphone that also sees longer and more frequent usages between charges than
mere talking. A new energy crisis is emerging.
Figure 8-1 illustrates battery improvement against the lack of energy with
the early analog cell phones during the 1990s, the sudden excess energy with the
digital phones, and the lack of energy in modern smartphones and tablets.
Improvements in battery capacity cannot keep pace with added consumption.

Figure 8-1: Power needs of past, present and future.

The capacity of Li-ion has doubled in 12 years and the circuits draw less power; however, these
improvements do not compensate for the power demand of the new features.
Courtesy of Cadex
 Smartphones and tablets operate on a single Li-ion cell, and this has a
decisive advantage over a laptop battery. Cell-matching is not required as with
the laptop packs running at 14.40V in a typical 4S2P configuration. This
simplifies cell manufacturing and increases the yields by opening the flood-gates
for broader performance acceptance.
Most users would not notice if a battery came with the specified 100
percent capacity or only 90 percent. Manufacturers know that consumer batteries
vary in capacity and that the user will not test them, especially those that are
non-replaceable. No rules exist as to what constitutes an acceptable battery other
than meeting the obligatory 80 percent within the warranty period.

How to Define Battery Life

Folks have been using rechargeable batteries for over 100 years but this
marvelous power source is still poorly understood. The battery is a silent worker
that delivers energy until it quits of exhaustion and old age. It is more prone to
failure than most other parts in a system. Much is expected but little is given in
return. With a shorter life span than the host device, battery replacement
becomes an issue, and the “when” and “what if” are not well defined by the
device manufacturer. Some batteries are replaced too soon but most stay too
long.
A portable system works well when the batteries are new but confidence
drops after the first packs need replacing due to capacity fade. In time, the
battery fleet becomes a jumble of good and bad batteries, and that’s when the
headache begins. Battery management mandates that all batteries in a fleet are
kept at an acceptable capacity level. Packs that fall below a set threshold must be
replaced to keep system integrity. Battery failure occurs most often on a heavy
traffic day or in an emergency when more than normal service is demanded.
Batteries exhibit human-like qualities and need good nutrition. Care begins
by operating at room temperature and discharging them at a moderate current.
There is some truth as to why batteries cared for by an individual user
outperform those in a fleet; studies can back this up.
 Charging is generally well understood, but the “ready” light is
misconstrued. Ready does not mean “able.” There is no link to battery
performance, nor does the green light promise full runtime. All batteries charge
fully, even if weak; “ready” simply means that the battery is full.
The capacity a battery can hold diminishes with age and the charge time
shortens. A short charging time propels faded batteries to the top, disguised as
combat ready. System collapse is imminent when workers scramble for freshly
charged batteries in an emergency; those that are lit-up may be deadwood. (Note
that the charge time of a partially charged battery is also shorter.) Figure 8-2
shows the “ready” light that is known to lie.

Figure 8-2: The “ready” light lies.

The READY light indicates that the battery is fully charged. This does not mean “able” as there is no link
between “ready” and battery performance.
Courtesy of Cadex

The amount of energy a battery can hold is measured in capacity. Capacity

is the leading health indicator that determines runtime and predicts end of battery
life when low. A new battery is rated at 100 percent, but few packs in service
deliver the full amount: a workable capacity bandwidth is 80–100 percent. As a
simple guideline, a battery on a two-way radio having a capacity of 100 percent
would typically provide a runtime of 10 hours, 80 percent is 8 hours and 70
percent, 7 hours.
The service life of a battery is specified in number of cycles. Lithium- and
nickel-based batteries deliver between 300 and 500 full discharge/charge cycles
before the capacity drops below 80 percent.
Cycling is not the only cause of capacity loss; keeping a battery at elevated
temperatures also induces stress. A fully charged Li-ion kept at 40°C (104°F)
loses about 35 percent of its capacity in a year without being used. (See “How to
Prolong Lithium-based Batteries” on page 249.) Ultra-fast chargers and harsh
discharging is also harmful. This cuts battery life to half, and hobbyists can attest
to this.

Four Renegades of Battery Failure

Declining Capacity
The energy storage of a battery can be divided into three sections known as the
available energy that can instantly be retrieved, the empty zone that can be
refilled, and the unusable part, or rock content, that has become inactive as part
of use and aging. Figure 8-3 illustrates these three sections.

Figure 8-3: Aging battery.

Batteries begin fading from the day they are manufactured. A new battery should deliver 100 percent
capacity; most packs in use operate at less.
Courtesy of Cadex

As the available energy portion of the battery shrinks, the charge time
shortens because there is less to fill. In most cases, the decrease is linear and
capacity fade is mostly a function of cycle count and age. A deep discharge
stresses the battery more than a partial discharge. It is therefore better not to
discharge the battery fully but charge it more often. A periodic full discharge is
only recommended on nickel-based batteries to control “memory” and on smart
batteries as part of calibration. Lithium- and nickel-based batteries deliver
between 300 and 500 full discharge/charge cycles before the capacity drops
below 80 percent.
Specifications of a device are always based on a new battery. This is only a
snapshot, which cannot be maintained over any length of time. As with any
shiny new machine, the battery will fade and if left unchecked, the reduced
runtime can lead to battery-related breakdowns.
A pack should be replaced when the capacity drops to 80 percent; however,
the end-of-life threshold can vary according to application, user preference and
company policy. Capacity measurement, a service that remains the best indicator
for replacement, should be done every 3 months with active fleet batteries.
Besides age-related losses, sulfation and grid corrosion are the main killers
of lead acid batteries. Sulfation is a thin layer that forms on the negative cell
plate if the battery is allowed to dwell in a low state-of-charge. If caught in time,
an equalizing charge can reverse the condition. Grid corrosion can be reduced
with careful charging and optimization of the float charge.
With nickel-based batteries, rock content is often the result of crystalline
formation, also known as “memory.” A full discharge/charge cycle often restores
the battery to full service. A periodic full discharge while the battery is in service
keeps the crystallization under control and prevents damage to the separator. The
aging process of lithium-ion is cell oxidation, a process that occurs naturally as
part of usage and aging, and cannot be reversed.
Rising Internal Resistance
Capacity alone is of limited use if the pack cannot deliver the stored energy
effectively; a battery also needs low internal resistance. Measured in milliohms
(mΩ), resistance is the gatekeeper of the battery; the lower the resistance, the
less restriction the pack encounters. This is especially important in batteries for
power tools and electric powertrains. High resistance causes the battery to heat
up and the voltage to drop under load, triggering an early shutdown. Figure 8-4
illustrates a battery with low internal resistance in the form of a free-flowing tap
against a battery with elevated resistance in which the tap is restricted.

Figure 8-4: Effects of internal battery resistance.

A battery with low internal resistance delivers high current on demand. High resistance causes the battery to
heat up and the voltage to drop. The equipment cuts off, leaving energy behind.
Courtesy of Cadex

Lead acid has a very low internal resistance and the battery responds well to
high current bursts that last for a few seconds. Due to inherent sluggishness,
however, lead acid does not perform well on a sustained high current discharge;
the battery soon gets tired and needs a rest to recover. Some sluggishness is
apparent in all batteries at different degrees but it is especially pronounced with
lead acid. This hints that power delivery is not based on internal resistance alone
but also on the responsiveness of the chemistry, as well as temperature. In this
respect, nickel- and lithium-based technologies are more responsive than lead
acid.
Sulfation and grid corrosion are the main contributors to the rise of the
internal resistance with lead acid. Temperature also affects the resistance; heat
lowers it and cold raises it. Heating the battery will momentarily lower the
internal resistance to provide extra runtime. This, however, does not restore the
battery and will add momentary stress.
Crystalline formation, also known as “memory,” contributes to the internal
resistance in nickel-based batteries. This can often be reversed with deep-
cycling. The internal resistance of Li-ion also increases with use and aging, but
improvements have been made with electrolyte additives to keep the buildup of
films on the electrodes under control.
Alkaline, zinc-carbon and most primary batteries have a relatively high
internal resistance, and this limits their use to low-current applications such as
flashlights, remote controls, portable entertainment devices and kitchen clocks.
As these batteries deplete, the resistance increases further. This explains the
relative short runtime when using ordinary alkaline cells in digital cameras.
Two methods are used to read the internal resistance of a battery: Direct
current (DC) by measuring the voltage drop at a given current, and alternating
current (AC), which takes reactance into account. When measuring a reactive
device such as a battery, the resistance values vary greatly between the DC and
AC test methods, but neither reading is right or wrong. The DC reading looks at
pure resistance (R) and provides true results for a DC load such as a heating
element. The AC reading includes reactive components and provides impedance
(Z). Impedance provides realistic results on a digital load such as a mobile phone
or an inductive motor. (See “How to Measure Internal Resistance” on page 265.)
The internal resistance of a battery does not consist of the cells alone but
also includes the interconnection, fuses, protection circuits and wiring. In most
cases these peripherals more than double the internal resistance and can falsify
rapid-test methods. Typical readings of a single cell pack for a mobile phone and
a multi-cell battery for a power tool are shown below.

Internal Resistance of a Mobile Phone Battery

Cell, single, high capacity 50mΩ subject to increase with age
prismatic
Connection, welded 1mΩ
PTC, welded to cable, cell 25mΩ 18–30 mΩ according to
spec
Protection circuit, PCB 50mΩ
Total internal resistance ca. 130mΩ
Internal Resistance of a Power Pack for Power Tools
Cells 2P4S at 2Ah/cell, 18mΩ subject to increase with age
Connection, welded, each 0.1mΩ
Protection circuit, PCB 10mΩ
Total internal resistance ca. 80mΩ
Source: Siemens AG (2015, München)

Figures 8-5, 8-6 and 8-7 reflect the runtime of three batteries with similar
Ah and capacities but different internal resistance when discharged at 1C, 2C
and 3C. The graphs demonstrate the importance of maintaining low internal
resistance, especially at higher discharge currents. The NiCd test battery comes
in at 155mΩ, NiMH has 778mΩ and Li-ion has 320mΩ. These are typical
resistive readings on aged but still functional batteries.
Figure 8-5: GSM discharge pulses at 1, 2, and 3C with resulting talk-time.
The capacity of the NiCd battery is 113%; the internal resistance is 155mΩ. 7.2V pack.
Figure 8-6: GSM discharge pulses at 1, 2, and 3C with resulting talk-time.
The capacity of the NiMH battery is 94%, the internal resistance is. 778mΩ, 7.2V pack.

Figure 8-7: GSM discharge pulses at 1, 2, and 3C with resulting talk-time.

The capacity of the Li-ion battery is 107%; the internal resistance is 320mΩ, 3.6V pack.
All figures courtesy of Cadex

Notes: The tests were done when early mobile phones were powered by NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion. Li-
ion and NiMH have since improved.
- GSM draws up to 2.5A, representing 3C from an 800mAh pack, or three times the rated current.

Elevated Self-discharge
All batteries are affected by self-discharge. Self-discharge is not a manufacturing
defect but a battery characteristic; although poor fabrication practices and
improper handling can increase the problem. Self-discharge is permanent and
cannot be reversed. Figure 8-8 illustrates self-discharge in the form of leaking
fluid.
Figure 8-8: Effects of high self-discharge.
Self-discharge increases with age, cycling and elevated temperature. Discard a battery if the self-discharge
reaches 30 percent in 24 hours.
Courtesy of Cadex

The amount of electrical self-discharge varies with battery type and

chemistry. Primary cells such as lithium-metal and alkaline retain the stored
energy best, and the batteries can be kept in storage for several years. Among
rechargeable batteries, lead acid has one of the lowest self-discharge rates and
loses only about 5 percent per month. With usage and age, however, the flooded
lead acid builds up sludge in the sediment trap, which causes a soft short when
this semi-conductive substance reaches the plates.
The energy loss is asymptotical, meaning that the self-discharge is highest
right after charge and then tapers off. Nickel-based batteries lose 10–15 percent
of their capacity in the first 24 hours after charge, then 10–15 percent per month.
Figure 8-9 shows the typical loss of a nickel-based battery while in storage.
Figure 8-9: Self-discharge as a function of time.
The discharge is highest right after charge and tapers off. The graph shows self-discharge of a nickel-based
battery. Lead- and lithium-based systems have a lower self-discharge.
Courtesy of Cadex

NiMH and NiCd belong to rechargeable batteries that have the highest self-
discharge; they need recharging before use when placed on a shelf for a few
weeks. High-performance NiCd has a higher self-discharge than the standard
versions. Furthermore, the self-discharge increases with use and age, of which
crystalline formation (memory) is a contributing factor. Regular full discharge
cycles keeps memory under control.
Li-ion self-discharges about 5 percent in the first 24 hours and then loses 1–
2 percent per month; the protection circuit adds another 3 percent per month. A
faulty separator can lead to elevated self-discharge that could develop into a
current path, generating heat and, in an extreme case, initiate a thermal
breakdown. In terms of self-discharge, lead acid is similar to Li-ion. Table 8-10
summarizes the expected self-discharge of different battery systems.
 Battery system Estimated self-discharge

Primary lithium-metal 10% in 5 years

Alkaline 2–3% per year (7-10 years shelf life)

Lead-acid 5% per month

Nickel-based 10–15% in 24h, then 10-15% per month
Lithium-ion 5% in 24h, then 1–2% per month (plus 3% for safety circuit)

Table 8-10: Percentage of self-discharge in years and months.

Primary batteries have considerably less self-discharge than secondary (rechargeable) batteries.

The self-discharge of all battery chemistries increases at higher

temperature, and the rate typically doubles with every 10°C (18°F). A noticeable
energy loss occurs if a battery is left in a hot vehicle. High cycle count and aging
also increase self-discharge of all systems Nickel-metal-hydride is good for 300–
400 cycles, whereas the standard nickel-cadmium lasts for over 1,000 cycles
before elevated self-discharge starts interfering with the performance. The self-
discharge on an older nickel-based battery can get so high that the pack goes flat
from leakage rather than normal use.
Under normal circumstances the self-discharge of Li-ion is reasonably
steady throughout its service life; however, full state-of-charge and elevated
temperature cause an increase. These same factors also affect longevity.
Furthermore, a fully charged Li-ion is more prone to failure than one that is
partially charged. Table 8-11 shows the self-discharge per month of Li-ion at
various temperatures and state-of-charge. The high self-discharge at full state-of-
charge and high temperatures comes as a surprise.

Table 8-11: Self-discharge of Li-ion per month.

Self-discharge rises with higher temperature and higher SoC.

Lithium-ion should not be discharged below 2.50V/cell. The protection

circuit turns off and most chargers will not charge the battery in that state. A
“boost” program applying a gentle charge current to wake up the protection
circuit often restores the battery to full capacity. (See “How to Awaken an Over-
discharged Li-ion” on page 253.)
There are reasons why Li-ion is put to sleep when discharging below
2.50V/cell. Copper dendrites grow if the cell is allowed to dwell in a low-voltage
state for longer than a week. This results in elevated self-discharge, which could
compromise safety.
Figure 8-12 compares the self-discharge of a new Li-ion cell with a cell that
underwent forced deep discharges and one that was fully discharged, shorted for
14 days and then recharged. The cell that was exposed to deep discharges
beyond 2.50V/cell shows a slightly higher self-discharge than a new cell. The
largest self-discharge is visible with the cell that was stored at zero volts.

Figure 8-12: Self-discharge of new and stressed Li-ion cells.

Cells that had been stressed with deep discharges and kept at 0V show a higher self-discharge than a new
cell.
Source: TU München

End-of-discharge Voltage
Not all battery energy can or should be used on discharge; some reserve is
almost always left behind on purpose after the equipment cuts off. There are
several reasons for this.
Most mobile phones, laptops and other portable devices turn off when the
lithium-ion battery reaches 3.0V/cell on discharge. At this point the battery has
about 5 percent capacity left. Manufacturers choose this voltage threshold to
preserve some energy for housekeeping, as well as to reduce battery stress and
allow for some self-discharge if the battery is not immediately recharged. This
grace period in the empty state can last several months until self-discharge
lowers the voltage of Li-ion to about 2.50V/cell, at which point the protection
circuit opens and most packs become unserviceable with a regular charger.
Power tools and medical devices drawing high current tend to push the
battery voltage to an early cutoff prematurely. This is especially apparent at cold
temperatures and in cells with high internal resistance. These batteries may still
have ample capacity left after the cutoff; discharging them with a battery
analyzer at a moderate load will often give a residual capacity of 30 percent.
Figure 8-13 illustrates the cutoff voltage graphically.
Figure 8-13: Illustration of equipment with high cutoff voltage.
Portable devices do not utilize all available battery power and leave some energy behind.
Courtesy of Cadex

To prevent triggering premature cutoff at a high load or cold temperature,

some device manufacturers may lower the end-of-discharge voltage. Li-ion in a
power tool may discharge the battery to 2.70V/cell instead of 3.0C/cell; Li-
phosphate may go to 2.45V/cell instead of 2.70V/cell, lead acid to 1.40V/cell
instead of the customary 1.75V/cell, and NiCd/NiMH to 0.90V/cell instead of
1.0V/cell. (See Table 5-4 on page 166.)
Industrial applications aim to attain maximum service life rather than
optimize runtime, as it is done with consumer products. This also applies to the
electric powertrain; batteries in hybrid cars and electric vehicles are seldom fully
discharged or charged; most operate between 30 and 80 percent state-of-charge
when new. This is the most effective working bandwidth; it also delivers the
longest service life. A deep discharge to empty followed by a full charge would
cause undue stress for the Li-ion. Similarly, satellites use only the mid-band of a
battery called the “sweet zone.” Figure 8-14 illustrates the “sweet zone” of a
battery.

Figure 8-14: Sweet zone of a Lithium-ion battery to extend life.

Operating Li-ion in the “sweet zone” prolongs battery life because a partial cycle is less stressful than a full
cycle. As the capacity fades with use, the battery management system (BMS) may engage the full working
range of the battery.
Courtesy of Cadex

Elevated internal resistance makes alkaline and other primary batteries

unsuitable for high load applications. The resistance rises further as the cell
depletes. This causes an early cutoff with the device drawing some current, and
much energy is left behind. Primary batteries have high capacities and perform
well when new, but they soon lose power like a deflating balloon.

Can Batteries Be Restored?

Battery users and entrepreneurs often ask, “Can batteries be restored?” The
answer is: “It depends.” A battery failure does not always mean end of battery
life. Rather than discarding a pack, ingenious entrepreneurs are discovering
business models to grant retired batteries a second life. Considering the growing
number of batteries that are being discarded, such business opportunities can
only grow.
The three main battery defects are low capacity, high internal resistance and
elevated self-discharge. (See also “Fundamentals in Battery Testing” on page
261.) Capacity fade occurs naturally with use and time; resistance increase is
common with nickel-based batteries; and elevated self-discharge reflects
possible stresses endured in the field. Capacity loss can often be reversed with
NiCd and NiMH; lead acid with sulfation can sometimes also be improved.
Batteries can be classified into portable, wheeled mobility, starter and
stationary systems. Not all batteries are worth servicing but there are jewels
among the rubbish. To turn a profit, some basic battery knowledge will be
needed, such as familiarity with chemistries and understanding voltage, Ah,
charge methods and C-rate. Above all, you must have a knack to spot what to
touch and what to pass. Knowing the former life and how the end of battery life
is determined will play a large role in how well these discarded batteries can be
redeployed.
Portable Batteries
Store clerks replace mobile phone batteries on the slightest customer complaint
without testing the pack. Installing a new battery satisfies the customer but this
often does not solve the perceived problem of short runtime and the customer
may return. There are also batteries that go to sleep due to over-discharge. These
seemingly dead lithium-ion packs cannot be recharged with a regular charger but
there is a way to boost them back to life. (See “How to Awaken an Over-
discharged Li-ion” on page 253.)
Many mobile phone batteries are discarded. They fill large boxes under
service counters with nowhere to go. Meanwhile, service providers have
discovered that nine out of ten replaced packs are good and can be restored. A
recent study estimates the cost of frivolous battery replacement to be over $650
million per year in the USA alone.
Ingenious entrepreneurs have discovered an opportunity to recirculate these
abandoned batteries. Service centers have sprung up in the USA, UK and Israel
that purchase surplus batteries by the ton and check them with battery analyzers
capable of performing rapid-testing. (See “Testing Lithium-based Batteries” on
page 281.) Some service centers handle as many as 400,000 batteries per month
and the refurbished packs are redistributed as B-grade to stores. Studies show
that these B-grade batteries perform as well as a new pack as there is no reported
difference in the failure rate.
Not all smartphones allow battery replacement, but this does not eliminate
the need to test them. Not being able to replace the batteries has affected the
business model as there are fewer available packs to test and recirculate.
Healthcare is a large user of portable batteries. In the absence of battery
maintenance, device manufacturers recommend replacing the packs according to
a date stamp. This helps rotate inventory, but it adds an unnecessary time
restriction as battery-wear is mostly attributed to usage and not idle time. A
heavily used battery could fail within the allotted date stamp period and to
compensate for this eventuality, device manufacturers mandate a tight
replacement policy of 2–3 years. Fabrication-to-destination can cause delays and
a battery could be 1 year old when it enters service.
Batteries have improved and live longer; they also carry a higher price tag.
Lead- and nickel-based batteries are good for about 3 years of service; Li-ion
typically lasts for 5 years.
 Under-usage is more common in healthcare than over-usage, and this leads
to discarding a large pool of good batteries. A manager of the Energy Storage
Research Program at DOE visited a recycling plant in the USA and discovered
that “every year roughly one million usable lithium-ion batteries are sent in for
recycling with most having a capacity of up to 80 percent.” A medical technician
in a large USA hospital in Michigan reuses spent batteries from patient heart
pumps to cut the grass at home with his electric lawn mower. This makes green
energy even greener.
Biomedical technicians are aware of frivolous battery replacements and a
whistle-blower at a mid-sized US hospital said: “Batteries are the most abused
components in hospitals. Staff care little about them and only do the bare
minimum. Recommendations for battery maintenance are vague and hidden deep
inside service manuals.”
Restoring spent batteries lends itself to several business models. One is
collecting and testing batteries from organizations that would otherwise discard
them. The in-house analysis includes checking the capacity by applying a full
discharge/charge cycle with suitable battery test equipment. Capacity is the
leading health indicator and should read between 80 and 100 percent. Lower
thresholds may be acceptable for less critical applications.
When testing a battery pack, also observe the internal resistance. The
resistance of lead- and lithium-based batteries stays low until the end of life.
Although an ohmic reading cannot predict the capacity, a high measurement
could indicate anomalies such as corrosion, also known as parasitic reactions on
the electrolyte and electrodes.
Battery validation should also include a self-discharge test by observing the
voltage loss of a fully charged battery over 24 hours or longer. A stable voltage
assures that the cell or pack had not been unduly stressed. A voltage difference
of +/-5mV per cell after 24 hours is a go. If all requirements are met, the battery
can be recertified and sold at reduced cost.
A smart battery may also fail by the manufacturer deliberately
programming the end-of-life based on battery usage or age. This can be a fixed
cycle count, a calendar date or exceeding the Max Error level on an SMBus
pack. A further cause of failure is the inability to communicate due to a digital
fault. Such errors cannot be corrected digitally but the cells may still be good.
Salvage involves cracking the pack open and utilizing the naked cells.
The cells can be checked individually or left intact as a family by observing
capacity, internal resistance and self-discharge. When building a pack, pay
attention to cell matching. Only use cells of the same model number and equal
performance to build a pack. It is not recommended to utilize cells that were
designated for single-cell use for multi-cell packs as the performance may vary.
(See also “How to Repair a Battery Pack” on page 290.)
Wheeled Mobility
Batteries made for the electric powertrain are designed to last longer than those
in consumer products. Experts predict that these rugged industrial batteries
should still have up to 70 percent capacity after 10 years of service or
160,000km (100,000 miles) of driving on electric propulsion. If such a long life
can be expected, then it makes sense to test and re-purpose the batteries for a less
demanding application. Several companies, including GM and ABB, are taking
advantage of this business opportunity.
Large-scale batteries are divided into smaller modules that are connected in
series and parallel. These units do not need cell-level checking but must meet
state-of-health requirements as a module that includes capacity, internal
resistance and self-discharge. Modules with similar performance levels can then
be grouped together and used for solar and other systems.
Starter Batteries
Also known as starter, lighting, ignition (SLI), these batteries are commonly
checked with a load test or a device that reads CCA (cold cranking amp). A
battery that cranks can be sold for money, but a CCA measurement alone does
not reveal the capacity, the leading health indicator. CCA refers to the internal
resistance that stays low through most of the battery’s life while capacity
gradually fades with use and time. A battery that is only tested with CCA is a
gamble; adding capacity measurement commands a higher resale value.
Stationary batteries
Stationary batteries are mostly lead acid. There is no easy way to test the
capacity other than applying a full discharge/charge. These batteries are
commonly replaced after 5–10 years of service; more frequently in hot climates.
Battery failures tend to be permanent, but sulfation-related failures can be
corrected if caught in time. Sulfation often occurs on a solar system when the
battery never receives a fully saturated charge. This is also common on electric
wheelchairs that may only get an 8-hour charge overnight.
Adding additives to fix a faded lead acid battery is often not worth the
effort. The active materials of an old battery are exhausted and the plates are
corroded. Guys who claim success in restoring these old-timers echo what
Thomas Edison said: “Just as soon as a man gets working on the secondary
battery, it brings out his latent capacity for lying.” As with all products, the
importance of reducing waste is in respecting the battery, caring for them, and
only discarding them after their useful life has been spent and no salvage is
possible.

Cell Matching and Balancing

A manufacturer cannot predict the exact capacity when the cell comes off the
production line, and this is especially true with lead acid and other batteries that
involve manual assembly. Even fully automated cell production in clean rooms
causes performance differences. As part of quality control, each cell is measured
and segregated into categories according to their capacity levels. The high-
capacity NiMH and other cells may be reserved for special applications and sold
at premium prices; the large mid-range will go to commercial and industrial
markets; and the low-grade cells might end up in a consumer product or in a
department store. Cycling will not significantly improve the capacity of the low-
end cell, and the buyer should be aware of differences in capacity and quality,
which often translate into life expectancy.
Cell matching according to capacity is important, especially for industrial
batteries, and no perfect match is possible. If slightly off, nickel-based cells
adapt to each other after a few charge/discharge cycles similar to the players on a
winning sports team. High-quality cells continue to perform longer than the
lower-quality counterparts, and fading is more even and controlled. Lower-grade
cells, on the other hand, diverge more quickly with use and time, and failures
due to cell mismatch are more widespread. Cell mismatch is a common cause of
failure in industrial batteries. Manufacturers of professional power tools and
medical equipment are careful with the choice of cells to attain good battery
reliability and long life.
Let’s look at what happens to a weak cell strung together with stronger cells
in a pack. The weak cell holds less capacity and is discharged more quickly than
their strong brothers. Going empty first causes their strong brothers to overrun
their feeble sibling to the point where a high load can push the weak cell into
reverse polarity. Nickel-cadmium can tolerate a reverse voltage of minus 0.2V at
a few milliamps, but exceeding this will cause a permanent electrical short. On
charge, the weak cell reaches full charge first, and then goes into heat-generating
overcharge, while the strong brothers still accept charge and stay cool. The weak
cell experiences a disadvantage on both charge and discharge; it continues to
weaken until giving up the struggle.
The capacity tolerance between cells in an industrial battery should be +/-
2.5 percent. High-voltage packs designed for heavy loads and a wide
temperature range should reduce the capacity tolerance further. There is a strong
correlation between cell balance and longevity.
Figure 8-15 illustrates the cycling performance of five aged Li-ion packs as
a function of cell match. The cells are connected in a 2P4S arrangement with a
center tap, forming two battery sections that in our example are poorly matched.
The capacity differences between the two sections are 5, 6, 7 and 12 percent.
When cycled, all batteries show large capacity losses over 18 cycles, but the
greatest decrease occurs with the pack exhibiting 12 percent capacity mismatch.
Figure 8-15: Cycling performance as a function of cell match.
Battery packs with well-matched cells perform better than those in which the cell or group of cells differ in
series connection.
Configuration: 5Ah prismatic Li-ion connected in 2P4S (14.8V, 10Ah) with center tap.
Courtesy of Cadex

Quality Li-ion cells have uniform capacity and low self-discharge when
new. Adding cell balancing is beneficial especially as the pack ages and the
performance of each cell decreases at its own pace. A problem arises when a cell
in a string loses capacity or develops elevated self-discharge. This can be
attributed to high-temperature spots in a large battery. Low-quality cells may
also be prone to unequal aging. Li-phosphate has higher self-discharge that other
Li-ion, and this complicates cell balancing.
A battery expert once said: “I have not seen a cell balancing circuit that
works.” For multi-cell packs, he suggested using quality Li-ion cells that have
been factory-sorted on capacity and voltage. This works well for Li-ion packs up
to 24V; packs above 24V should have balancing. Most balancing is passive;
active balancing is more complex and is only used in very large systems.
Passive balancing bleeds high-voltage cells on a resistor during charge in
the 70–80 percent SoC curve; active balancing shuttles the extra charge from
higher-voltage cells during discharge to those with a lower voltage. Active
balancing is the preferred method for EV batteries, but it requires DC-DC
converters. The corrected currents are in the mA range only. Applying a heavy
load during acceleration, followed by rapid-charging with regenerative braking
requires well-tuned cells in a high-voltage battery to attain the anticipated life.
EV batteries in the Tesla, BMW i3 and other EVs employ active balancing to
minimize cell stress.
Single-cell applications in mobile phones and tablets do not need cell
balancing. The capacity between cells can vary and each cell is allowed to age
on its own terms without causing harm, other than delivering shorter runtimes.
The consumer accepts this decrease; it’s part of planned obsolescence in
consumer products.
 All Li-ion cells require a protection circuit that assures that serially
connected cells do not exceed 4.25V/cell (most Li-ion) on charge and that
disconnect when the weakest cell drops to 2.80V/cell or lower. The discharge
disconnect prevents the stronger cells from pushing the depleted cell into reverse
polarity. The protection circuit acts like a guardian angel that shields the weaker
siblings from being bullied by the stronger peers. This may explain why Li-ion
packs for power tools last longer than nickel-based batteries without a protection
circuit. The protection circuit also safeguards the battery from excessive load
current. (See “Protection Circuits” on page 106.)
With use and time, battery cells become mismatched, and this also applies
to lead acid. Cells that develop high self-discharge will lead to imbalance and
subsequent failure. Manufacturers of golf cars, aerial work platforms, floor
scrubbers and other battery-powered vehicles recommend an equalizing charge if
the voltage difference between the cells is greater than +/– 0.10V, or if the
specific gravity varies more than 10 points (0.010 on the SG scale).
An equalizing charge is a charge on top of a charge that brings all cells to
full-charge saturation. This service must be administered with care because
excessive charging can harm the battery. (See “Equalizing Charge” on page
136.) A difference in specific gravity of 40 points poses a performance problem
and the cell is considered defective. (A 40-point difference means one cell has an
SG of 1.200 and another 1.240.) A charge may temporarily cover the deficiency,
but the flaw will likely resurface again after a few hours due to the high self-
discharge of the faulty cell.

Shorted Cells
Manufacturers are at a loss to explain why some cells develop high electrical
leakage or a short while still new. The culprit might be foreign particles that
contaminate the cells during fabrication, or rough-spots on the plates that
damage the delicate separator. Clean rooms, improved quality control at the raw
material level and minimal human handling during the manufacturing process
have reduced the “mortality rate.”
 Applying momentary high-current bursts to evaporate a short in a NiCd or
NiMH cell has been tried, but this offers limited success. The short may
temporarily vanish, but the damage in the separator remains. The repaired cell
may begin to charge normally and reach the correct voltage, but high self-
discharge will likely drain the battery quickly and the short will return.
It is not advised to replace a shorted cell in an aging pack as the new cells
will always be stronger than the others. Consider the biblical verse, “No one
sews a patch of unshrunk cloth on an old garment. If he does, the new piece will
pull away from the old, making the tear worse.” (Mark 2:21) Replacing faulty
cells often leads to battery failures within 6 months. It’s better not to disturb the
cells and allow them to age naturally as an intact family. The exception is
replacing a defective cell to salvage a well-functioning pack. (See “Series and
Parallel Connection” on page 100 and “How to Repair a Battery Pack” on page
290.)
Cobalt-based Li-ion cells develop fewer leak and electrical shorts than
nickel- and lead-based batteries but they can occur, especially with Li-phosphate.
For unknown reasons, the cell at the positive end in a string is most likely to
short first. Perhaps it gets the most stress while the middle cells enjoy some
protection by being buffered.
The mandatory protection circuit for Li-ion packs can only shield the cell
from over-voltage, excessive loading and reverse polarity. An electrical short
caused by internal cell damage lies outside the safeguard of the protection
circuit. Most cell failures occur when the battery has been damaged by shock
and vibration, or has been overcharged or overheated. Charging at freezing
temperatures can also damage Li-ion without indication of stress to the user. The
Sony recall in 2006, when microscopic metal particles came into contact with
other parts and the Boeing 787 Dreamliner that called for a redesign of the
battery system are examples of when an internal short could not be prevented by
a protection circuit. These were certified Li-ion batteries that developed an
electrical short during service.
 To reduce the risk of an electrical short, Li-ion cells for electric powertrains
and demanding industrial applications use a heavy-duty separator. These
batteries are larger than those used in consumer products and have a lower
specific energy. Saying that Li-ion has twice the energy density of NiMH can be
inaccurate. Long-lasting Li-ion cells can have a specific energy as low as
60Wh/kg, which is similar to NiCd, while some consumer Li-ion can go up to
250Wh/kg.

CAUTION Applying a high current burst works best with nickel-based batteries. Do not use this
method for lithium-ion cells.

Loss of Electrolyte
The loss of electrolyte in a flooded lead acid battery occurs through gassing as
hydrogen escapes during charging and discharging. Venting causes the
electrolyte to become more concentrated, and the balance must be restored by
adding clean water. Do not add electrolyte as this upsets the specific gravity and
shortens battery life by promoting corrosion.
Loss of electrolyte in sealed lead acid batteries is a recurring problem that is
often caused by overcharging. Careful adjustment of charging and float voltages,
as well as operating at moderate temperatures, reduces this failure. In flooded
batteries, lost water can be replenished by refilling, but in sealed batteries water
loss can lead to dry-out and decline of performance. Replenishing lost liquid in
VRLA batteries by adding water has been tried with limited success. Although
the lost capacity can often be regained with a catalyst, tampering with the cells
turns the stack into a high-maintenance project that needs constant supervision.
Nickel-based batteries can lose electrolyte through repeated venting due to
excessive pressure during extreme charge or discharge, as well as from
overcharge. Inaccurate full-charge detection and elevated trickle charge can lead
to overcharge. This is especially true with aging and faded packs. After recurring
venting, the spring-loaded seal of the cells may not seal properly again and the
deposit of white powder around the seal opening is evidence of leakage. Sloppy
manufacturing can also lead to electrolyte loss. Dry-up conditions result in a
“soft” cell, a defect that cannot be corrected. On charge, the voltage of a “dry”
cell goes high because the battery has no clamping ability. It is no longer
chemically active and does not draw current.
A properly designed and correctly charged lithium-ion cell should not
generate gases, nor should it lose electrolyte through venting. In spite of what
advocates say, lithium-based cells can build up an internal pressure under certain
conditions, and a bloated pouch cell is proof of this. Some cells include an
electrical switch that opens if the cell pressure reaches a critical level. Others
feature a membrane that releases gases. Many of these safety features are one
way only, meaning that once activated, the cell becomes inoperable. This is done
for safety reasons.
Why does a battery gas?
When overcharged, a battery gases, splitting water in the electrolyte into
hydrogen and oxygen. A battery becomes a “water-splitting device” by
electrolysis. A parallel is the fuel cell, but it does the opposite; it turns oxygen
and hydrogen into electricity by producing water. Producing oxygen and
hydrogen needs energy and the battery gets it through an overcharge.

How to Prolong Lead Acid Batteries

A lead acid battery goes through three life phases: formatting, peak and decline
(Figure 8-16). In the formatting phase, the plates are in a sponge-like condition
surrounded by liquid electrolyte. Exercising the plates allows the absorption of
electrolyte, much like squeezing and releasing a hardened sponge. As the
electrodes activate, the capacity gradually increases.
Figure 8-16: Cycle life of a battery.
The three phases of a battery are formatting, peak and decline.
Courtesy of Cadex

Formatting is most important for deep-cycle batteries. They require 20–50

full cycles to reach peak capacity and field usage does this. During breaking-in,
manufacturers recommend going easy on the battery. Starter batteries are less
critical and do not need priming. The full cranking power is available from the
beginning, although CCA will go up slightly with formatting in early use.
A deep-cycle battery delivers 100–200 cycles before a gradual decline
begins. Replacement should occur when the capacity drops to 70 or 80 percent.
Some applications allow lower capacity thresholds but the time for retirement
should never fall below 50 percent as aging may hasten once past the prime.
To keep lead acid in good condition, apply a fully saturated charge lasting
14 to 16 hours. If the charge cycle does not allow this, give the battery a fully
saturated charge once every few weeks. If at all possible, operate at moderate
temperature and avoid deep discharges; charge as often as you can.
The primary reason for the relatively short cycle life of a lead acid battery is
depletion of the active material. According to the 2010 BCI Failure Modes
Study, plate/grid-related breakdown has increased from 30 percent 5 years ago to
39 percent today. The report does not provide reasons for the greater wear and
tear other than to assume that higher demands on the starter battery in modern
cars induce added stress. The organization conducts a study every 5 years to
determine the failure modes of batteries that have been removed from service.
(BCI stands for Battery Council International.)
While the depletion of the active material is well understood and can be
calculated, a lead acid battery suffers from other infirmities long before plate-
and grid-deterioration sound the death knell. These conditions are corrosion,
shedding, sulfation, water loss, acid stratification and surface charge. Most of
these can be reduced by proper handling.

Corrosion, Shedding and Internal Short

Corrosion occurs primarily on the grid, and it is known as a “softening and
shedding” of the lead off the plates. This reaction cannot be avoided because the
electrodes in a lead acid environment are always reactive. Lead shedding is a
natural phenomenon that can be reduced but not eliminated. A battery that
reaches the end of life through this failure mode has met or exceeded the
anticipated life span. Limiting the depth of discharge, reducing the cycle count,
operating at a moderate temperature and controlling overcharge are preventive
measures to keep corrosion in check.
To reduce corrosion on long-life batteries, manufacturers keep the specific
gravity at a moderate 1.200 level when fully charged, compared to 1.265 and
greater for high-performance lead acid batteries. A lower specific gravity
decreases the specific battery energy.
Applying prolonged overcharge is another contributor to grid corrosion.
This is especially damaging to sealed lead acid systems. While the flooded lead
acid has some resiliency to overcharge, sealed units must operate at the
recommended float charge.
Chargers with variable float voltages adjust the charge voltage to the
prevailing temperature. Reducing the float charge when the ambient temperature
reaches 29°C (85°F) and increasing it when colder lowers corrosion. Most
chargers for stationary batteries feature temperature control, but this not common
in vehicles. A fully charged starter battery is kept at 14.40V (2.40V/cell) while
driving and this can lead to overcharge. The recommended float voltage is
13.60V (2.27V/cell).
As lead acid batteries are being replaced with Li-phosphate (LiFePO),
precise charging is paramount. While the automotive charging system provides
the correct end-of-charge voltage for LiFePO, Li-ion should receive no further
charge when the battery is fully charged. With the LiFePO replacement, this
does not happen and the starter battery receives continuous charge while
cruising. Although LiFePO is more tolerant to overcharge than cobalt-based Li-
ion, overcharge can shorten the life of the Li-phosphate battery.
To attain maximum surface area, the lead on a starter battery is applied in a
sponge-like form. With time and use, chunks of lead fall off and reduce the
performance. Figure 8-17 illustrates the innards of a corroded lead acid battery.

Figure 8-17: Innards of a corroded lead acid battery.

Grid corrosion is unavoidable because the electrodes in a lead acid environment are always reactive. Lead
shedding is a natural phenomenon that can only be slowed and not eliminated.
Source: Journal of Power Sources (2009)
 The terminals of a battery can also corrode. This is often visible with the
formation of white powder as a result of oxidation between two different metals
connecting the poles. Terminal corrosion can eventually lead to an open
electrical connection. Changing the connecting terminals to lead, the same
material as the battery pole of a starter battery, will solve most corrosion
problems.
The lead within a battery is mechanically active. On discharge, the lead
sulfate causes the plates to expand, a movement that reverses during charge
when the plates contract again. Over time, sulfite crystals form that cause
shedding of lead material. The shedding in a starter battery is manageable
because the battery does not go through a deep discharge, but this is a larger
problem with a deep-cycle battery.
Electrical short is another failure mode, especially with starter batteries in
trucks. As the battery sheds its lead to the bottom of the container, a conductive
layer forms that gradually fills the allotted space in the sediment trap. In time,
the now conductive liquid may reach the plates, creating a shorting effect. The
term “short” is a misnomer and elevated self-discharge or soft short would be
better terms to describe this condition.
Soft shorts are difficult to detect because the battery functions normally
immediately after charge and everything seems fine. In essence, a charge wipes
out all evidence of a soft short condition, except perhaps an elevated temperature
during charge that can be noticed when touching the battery housing. However,
once rested for 6–12 hours, the battery begins to show anomalies such as a lower
open circuit voltage and reduced specific gravity.
The measured capacity will also be low because self-discharge has
consumed some of the stored energy. According to the 2010 BCI Failure Mode
Study, shorted batteries accounted for 18 percent of battery failures, a drop from
31 percent 5years earlier. Improved manufacturing methods may account for this
reduction.
Another form of soft short is mossing. This occurs when the separators and
plates are slightly misaligned as a result of poor manufacturing practices and
they cause parts of the plates to become naked. Such exposure promotes the
formation of conductive crystal moss around the edges, which leads to elevated
self-discharge.
Lead drop is another cause of short in which chunks of lead break loose
from the welded bars connecting the plates. Unlike a soft short that develops
with wear and tear, a lead drop often occurs early in battery life due to a
manufacturing defect. This can lead to a serious electrical short with a
permanent voltage drop that could result in thermal runaway.
The most radical and serious form of short is a mechanical failure in which
the suspended plates become loose and touch each other. This results in a sudden
high discharge current that can lead to excessive heat buildup and thermal
runaway. Sloppy manufacturing as well as excessive shock and vibration are the
most common contributors to this failure.

Sulfation
Sulfation occurs when a lead acid battery is deprived of a full charge. This is
common with starter batteries in cars driven in the city with load-hungry
accessories. A motor in idle or at low speed cannot charge the battery
sufficiently.
Electric wheelchairs have a similar problem in that the users might not
charge the battery long enough. An 8-hour charge during the night when the
chair is not being used is not enough. Lead acid must periodically be charged
14–16 hours to attain full saturation. This may be the reason why wheelchair
batteries last only 2 years, whereas golf cars with the identical battery deliver
twice the service life. Long leisure time allows golf car batteries to get a full
charge overnight.
Solar cells and wind turbines do not always provide sufficient charge for
lead acid banks, which can lead to sulfation. This happens in remote parts of the
world where villagers draw generous amounts of electricity with insufficient
renewable resources to charge the batteries. The result is a short battery life.
Only a periodic fully saturated charge can solve the problem. But without an
electrical grid at their disposal, this is almost impossible.
An alternative solution is using lithium-ion, a battery that prefers a partial
charge to a full charge. However, Li-ion is more than double the cost of lead
acid. Although more expensive to purchase, the longer service life of Li-ion
lowers the price per cycle in deep-cycle applications compared to lead acid.
What is sulfation? During use, small sulfate crystals form, but these are
normal and are not harmful. During prolonged charge deprivation, however, the
amorphous lead sulfate converts to a stable crystalline and deposits on the
negative plates. This leads to the development of large crystals that reduce the
battery’s active material, which is responsible for the performance.
There are two types of sulfation: reversible (or soft sulfation), and
permanent (or hard sulfation). If a battery is serviced early, reversible sulfation
can often be corrected by applying an overcharge to an already fully charged
battery in the form of a regulated current of about 200mA. The battery terminal
voltage is allowed to rise to between 2.50 and 2.66V/cell (15 and 16V on a 12V
mono block) for about 24 hours. Increasing the battery temperature to 50–60°C
(122–140°F) during the corrective service further helps in dissolving the
crystals.
Permanent sulfation sets in when the battery has been in a low state-of-
charge for weeks or months. At this stage, no form of restoration seems possible;
however, the recovery yield is not fully understood. To everyone’s amazement,
new lead acid batteries can often be fully restored after dwelling in a low-voltage
condition for many weeks. Other factors may play a role.
A subtle indication whether lead acid can be recovered or not is visible on
the voltage discharge curve. If a fully charged battery retains a stable voltage
profile on discharge, chances of reactivation are better than if the voltage drops
rapidly with load.
Several companies offer anti-sulfation devices that apply pulses to the
battery terminals to prevent and reverse sulfation. Such technologies will lower
the sulfation on a healthy battery, but they cannot effectively reverse the
condition once present. It’s a “one size fits all” approach and the method is
unscientific. Applying random pulses or blindly inducing an overcharge can
harm the battery by promoting grid corrosion. There are no simple methods to
measure sulfation, nor are commercial chargers available that apply a calculated
overcharge to dissolve the crystals. As with medicine, the most effective remedy
is to apply a corrective service for the time needed and not longer.

Acid Stratification
The electrolyte of a stratified battery concentrates on the bottom, starving the
upper half of the cell. Acid stratification occurs if the battery dwells at low
charge (below 80 percent), never receives a full charge and has shallow
discharges. Driving a car for short distances with power-robbing accessories
engaged contributes to acid stratification because the alternator cannot always
apply a saturated charge under such conditions. Large luxury cars are especially
prone to this. Acid stratification is not a battery defect per se but is application
related.
Figures 8-18 illustrates a normal battery in which the acid is equally
distributed from top to bottom. Figure 8-19 shows a stratified battery in which
the acid concentration is light on top and heavy on the bottom. The light acid on
top limits plate activation, promotes corrosion and reduces the performance,
while the high acid concentration on the bottom makes the battery appear more
charged than it is and artificially raises the open circuit voltage. The unequal
charge across the plates reduces CCA (cold cranking amps), and starting the
engine is sluggish.
Figure 8-18: Normal battery. The acid is equally distributed from the top to the bottom of the battery,
providing good overall performance.
Courtesy of Cadex

Figure 8-19: Stratified battery. The acid concentration is light on top and heavy on the bottom. This raises
the open circuit voltage and the battery appears fully charged. Excessive acid concentration induces
sulfation on the lower half of the plates.

Allowing the battery to rest for a few days, doing a shaking motion or
tipping the battery on its side helps correct the problem. Applying an equalizing
charge by raising the voltage of a 12-volt battery to 16 volts for 1–2 hours also
helps by mixing the electrolyte through electrolysis. Avoid extending the topping
charge beyond its recommended time.
Acid stratification cannot always be avoided. During cold winter months,
starter batteries of most passenger cars dwell at a 75 percent charge level.
Knowing that motor idling and driving in gridlocked traffic does not sufficiently
charge the battery; charge the battery occasionally with an external charger. If
this is not practical, switch to an AGM battery. AGM does not suffer from acid
stratification and is less sensitive to sulfation if undercharged than the flooded
version. AGM is a bit more expensive than the flooded version but the battery
should last longer.

Surface Charge
Lead acid batteries are sluggish and cannot convert lead sulfate to lead and lead
dioxide quickly during charge. This delayed action causes most of the charge
activities to occur on the plate surfaces, resulting in an elevated state-of-charge
(SoC) on the outside.
A battery with surface charge has a slightly elevated voltage and gives a
false voltage-based SoC reading. To normalize the condition, switch on electrical
loads to remove about 1 percent of the battery’s capacity or allow the battery to
rest for a few hours. Turning on the headlights for a few minutes will do this.
Surface charge is not a battery defect but a reversible condition.

Additives
Adding chemicals to the electrolyte of flooded lead acid batteries can dissolve
the buildup of lead sulfate on the plates and improve the overall battery
performance. This treatment has been in use since the 1950s (and perhaps
longer) and provides a temporary performance boost for aging batteries. It’s a
stopgap measure because in most cases the plates are already worn out through
shedding. Chemical additives cannot replace the active material, nor can cracked
plates, corroded connectors or damaged separators be restored with an outside
remedy.
Extending the service life of an aging battery can be useful as additives are
cheap, readily available and worth the experiment for a handyman. These salts
may reduce the internal resistance to give a sulfated battery a few extra months
of life. Suitable additives are magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt), caustic soda and
EDTA (EDTA is a crystalline acid used in industry).
When using Epsom salt, follow these easy steps to treat most starter
batteries. Heat about 250ml (8 fl oz or a cup) of distilled water to about 66°C
(150°F), mix in as much Epson salt as the water can absorb (a few tablespoons)
and stir until dissolved. Avoid using too much salt because heavy concentration
increases corrosion of the lead plates and the internal connectors.
When pouring the warm solution into the battery, the electrolyte level will
raise. Do not remove electrolyte, and only add as much additive as the battery
can take. Be careful not to overfill. Do not place un-dissolved Epsom salt
directly into the battery because the substance does not dissolve well. In place of
Epsom salt, try adding a pinch of caustic soda. Charge the battery after service.
The results are not instantaneous and it may take a month for the treatment to
work. The outcome is not guaranteed.
Batteries have improved, and additive treatments may be most effective
with older battery models, expanding their life by a few months until a
replacement is on hand. Modern batteries already include additives that reduce
sulfation and corrosion. Industrial users seldom rely on remedial additives to
prolong battery life as the system becomes maintenance prone.

How Age Affects Capacity and Resistance

All batteries age and the effects manifest themselves in diminished capacity,
increased internal resistance and elevated self-discharge. A new battery (Figure
8-20) delivers (or should deliver) 100 percent capacity; an aged unit (Figure 8-
21) may hold only 20 percent. In our example, the capacity loss is illustrated by
placing rocks in the container.
Figure 8-20: New battery has 100% capacity.
Capacity is represented by a liquid with no obstruction. The battery delivers full runtime.

Figure 8-21: Faded battery.

Capacity loss is illustrated as “rock-content.” The battery behaves normally but it has a short runtime, even
if fully charged.
Courtesy of Cadex

Automotive technicians are most familiar with CCA in relation to the

ability to turn the engine. CCA relates to the internal battery resistance and the
ability to deliver high load current. Figure 8-22 illustrates a starter battery with
high CCA and an open tap that symbolizes delivering full power; Figure 8-23
has elevated internal resistance that limits the current delivery to a trickle.
Figure 8-22: Low internal resistance enables high current.
Cranking the engine draws about 300A; a golf car draws 56A

Figure 8-23: Battery with low CCA.

Rising internal resistance inhibits power delivery. This deficiency is less common; capacity fade comes first
Courtesy of Cadex

Rechargeable batteries have improved and maintain low internal resistance

during most of the service life; an increase in internal resistance may only occur
towards the very end. Starter batteries keep a high CCA and provide healthy
cranking to the end, but the capacity gradually drops without sign. An analogy is
a galloping horse that keeps its spirited performance until its eventual collapse
from exhaustion. Figure 8-24 demonstrates the relationship of capacity and CCA
of 20 aging starter batteries, sorted according to capacity.
Figure 8-24: Capacity and CCA readings of 20 aging batteries. Batteries 1–9 have good CCA and high
capacity; the CCA of batteries 10–20 still enables good cranking, but the batteries have large capacity loss.
CCA tends to remain high while the capacity drops with aging.
Test method:
CCA was estimated with the Spectro CA-12 and the capacity was measured with an Agilent load bank by
applying full discharges according to SAE J537.
Courtesy of Cadex

Batteries 1–9 perform well on capacity and CCA, but batteries 10–20 show
notable capacity loss while keeping acceptable CCA readings. Capacity
depletion eventually disables the cranking. This is mostly evident during cold
spells, which further reduce the capacity.
Car manufacturers often use 65 percent as the pass/fail threshold for
warranty replacement while service garages take 40 percent as an end-of-life
indication. (See “How to Measure Capacity” on page 275.) Forty percent should
give another 6–12 months of service, but below this is cause for concern and the
battery should be replaced even though the cranking is still good. Thrifty drivers
(including the author), prefer to wait but invariably get caught with a dead
battery at the worst possible moment.
To study the correlation between capacity and internal resistance, Cadex
tested 175 aging starter batteries by measuring the CCA and capacity according
to SAE J537. In this lengthy test, Cadex found that the correlation between
capacity and CCA is only 0.55 (1 would be a perfect match). This led to the
development of capacity estimation technology, as relying on the internal
resistance, or CCA on a starter battery is unreliable. Figure 8-25 demonstrates
the aging trend of starter batteries as a function of capacity and CCA. (See SAE
J537 on page 337.)

Figure 8-25: Relationship between CCA and capacity of 175 starter batteries.
Batteries in the green PASS field are functional; the red FAIL field denotes breakdown. Most batteries exit
life through the 40% capacity line at the left field; few slip through the 50% CCA line.
Test method: Capacity and CCA were tested according to SAE J537.
Courtesy of Cadex

The horizontal X-axis represents capacity; the vertical Y-axis shows CCA;
the stars are the 175 batteries tested. The arrow shows the typical aging trend of
batteries passing through the “Capacity Line” on the left PASS field. Very few
batteries slip through the “CCA Line.”
 This demonstrates that starter batteries fail mainly due to capacity fade
rather than low CCA or elevated internal resistance. This characteristic is visible
with most lead- and lithium-based batteries. A capacity measurement is more
meaningful than measuring the internal resistance, but estimating capacity on the
fly involves higher complexities than simply taking an ohmic reading.

How Heat and Loading Affect Battery Life

Heat is a killer of all batteries, but high temperatures cannot always be avoided.
This is the case with a battery inside a laptop, a starter battery under the hood of
a car and stationary batteries in a tin shelter under the hot sun. As a guideline,
each 8°C (15°F) raise in temperature cuts the life of a sealed lead acid battery in
half. This means that a VRLA battery for stationary applications specified to last
for 10 years at 25°C (77°F) would only live 5 years if continuously exposed to
33°C (92°F) and 30 months if kept at a constant desert temperature of 41°C
(106°F). Once the battery is damaged by heat, the capacity cannot be restored.
According to the 2010 BCI Failure Mode Study, starter batteries have
become more heat-resistant. In the 2000 study, a rise in temperature of 7°C
(12°F) affected battery life by roughly one year; in 2010 the heat tolerance has
been widened to 12°C (22°F). Other statistics reveal that in 1962, a starter
battery lasted 34 months; technical improvements increased the life expectancy
in 2000 to 41 months. In 2010, BCI reported an average age of 55 months for
starter batteries, with the cooler North attaining 59 months and the warmer South
47 months. Colloquial evidence in 2015 revealed that a battery kept in the trunk
of a car lasted one year longer than if positioned in the engine compartment.
The life of a battery also depends on the activity, and the service life is
shortened if the battery is stressed with frequent discharge. Cranking the engine
a few times a day poses little stress on a starter battery, but this changes in the
start-stop operation of a micro-hybrid. The micro-hybrid turns the internal
combustion engine (ICE) off at red traffic lights and restarts it when the traffic
flows again, resulting in about 2,000 micro-cycles per year. Data obtained from
car manufacturers shows a capacity drop to about 60 percent after 2 years of use.
To increase cycle life, automakers use specialty AGM and other systems.
Figure 8-25 shows a capacity drop from 100 percent to about 50 percent
after the battery had been exposed to 700 micro cycles. The simulated start-stop
test was performed in Cadex laboratories. CCA remains high and only shows a
decline after about 2,000 cycles.

Figure 8-25: Capacity-drop of starter battery in start-stop configuration.

The capacity drops to about 50% after 2 years of simulated use. AGM battery is more robust.
Test Method: The battery was fully charged and then discharged to 70% to resemble SoC of a micro hybrid
in real life. The battery was then discharged at 25A for 40 seconds to simulate the engine off with the
headlights on. To simulate cranking and driving, the battery was briefly discharged at 400A and recharged.
CCA was taken with the Spectro CA-12.
Courtesy of Cadex, 2010

When connected in series, the voltage of each cell must be uniform, and
this is especially important in large stationary battery systems. With time,
individual cells fall out of line but applying an equalizing charge every 6 months
or so should bring the cells back to similar voltage levels. (See “Equalizing
Charge” on page 136.) What makes this service so difficult is providing the right
remedy to each cell. While equalizing will boost the needy cells, the healthy cell
gets stressed if the equalizing charge is applied carelessly. Gel and AGM
batteries have lower overcharge acceptance than the flooded version and
different equalizing conditions apply.
Flooded lead acid batteries are one of the most reliable systems and are well
suited for hot climates. With good maintenance these batteries last up to 20
years. The disadvantages are the need for watering and good ventilation.
When VRLA was introduced in the 1980s, manufacturers claimed similar
life expectancy to the flooded systems, and the telecom industry was enticed to
switch to these maintenance-free batteries. By mid-1990 it became apparent that
the life of VRLA did not live up to the flooded type; the typical service life of
the VRLA is 5–10 years, less than half of the flooded equivalent. It was
furthermore noticed that exposing VRLA batteries to temperatures above 40°C
(104°F) could cause a thermal runaway due to dry-out.
Simple Guidelines for Extending Battery Life

Allow a fully saturated charge of 14–16 hours. Charge in a well-ventilated

area.
Always keep lead acid charged. Avoid storage below 2.07V/cell or at a
specific gravity level below 1.190.
Avoid deep discharges. The deeper the discharge, the shorter the battery
life will be. A brief charge on a 1–2 hour break during heavy use prolongs
battery life.
Never allow the electrolyte to drop below the tops of the plates. Exposed
plates sulfate and become inactive. When low, add only enough water to
cover the exposed plates before charging. Always fill to the correct level
after charge.
Never add acid. This would raise the specific gravity and cause excessive
corrosion.
Use distilled or de-ionized water. Tap water may be usable in some
 regions.
When new, a deep-cycle battery may have a capacity of 70 percent or less.
Formatting as part of field use will gradually increase performance. Apply
a gentle load for the first five cycles to allow a new battery to format.
New batteries with low capacity many not perform as well as those that
begin life with a high capacity. Low performers are known to have a short
life. A capacity check as part of acceptance is advisable.
A start-stop battery typically has 25 percent more lead than a standard
starter battery to attain a high cycle count. This is reflected in the
corresponding price premium.

How to Restore Nickel-based Batteries

Memory: Myth or Fact?
During the nickel-cadmium years of the 1970s and 1980s, battery ills were
blamed on “memory.” Today, the word memory is still being used to advertise
newer batteries as being “memory-free.” Memory comes from “cyclic memory,”
meaning that a nickel-cadmium battery could remember how much energy was
drawn on previous discharges and it would deliver the same amount on repeat
discharges. If more was demanded, the voltage would abruptly drop as if to
protest against imposed overtime.
Memory occurs when a NiCd is being overcharged. The effect can be
reversed with a pulse charge, but it is more effective to apply a full discharge
cycle. Figure 8-26 illustrates the anode of a normal NiCd, memory that formed,
and a restored anode.
Figure 8-26: Crystalline formation on nickel-cadmium cell. Crystalline formation occurs over a few
months if a battery is overcharged and not maintained with periodic deep discharges.

The modern nickel-cadmium battery no longer has cyclic memory, but it

suffers from crystalline formation. The active cadmium material is applied on
the negative plate and with time, a crystalline formation develops that reduces
the surface area and lowers the battery performance. In advanced stages, the
sharp edges of the forming crystals can penetrate the separator, causing high
self-discharge that can lead to an electrical short.
When introduced in the early 1990s, nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) was
hailed as being memory-free, but this claim is only partially true. NiMH is
subject to memory but to a lesser degree than NiCd. While NiMH has only the
nickel plate to worry about, NiCd also includes the memory-prone cadmium
negative electrode. This is a simple explanation of why NiMH is less susceptible
to memory than NiCd.
Crystalline formation occurs if a nickel-based battery is left in the charger
for days or repeatedly recharged without a periodic full discharge. Since most
applications fall into this usage pattern, NiCd requires a periodic discharge to 1
volt per cell to prolong service life. A discharge/charge cycle as part of
maintenance, known as exercise, should be done every 1–3 months. Avoid over-
exercising as this wears down the battery unnecessarily.
If regular exercise is omitted for 6 months or longer, the crystals ingrain
themselves and a full restoration with a discharge to 1 volt per cell may no
longer be sufficient. Restoration is often possible by applying a secondary
discharge called recondition. Recondition is a slow discharge that drains the
battery to about 0.4V/cell and lower.
Tests by the US Army indicate that a NiCd cell needs to be discharged to at
least 0.6V to effectively break up the more resistant crystalline formations.
During this corrective discharge, the current must be kept low to minimize cell
reversal as NiCd can only tolerate a small amount of cell reversal. (See “Basics
About Discharging” on page 165.) Figure 8-27 illustrates the battery voltage
during a discharge to 1V/cell, followed by the secondary discharge to 0.4V/cell.

Figure 8-27: Exercise and recondition cycles of a battery analyzer (Cadex).

Recondition restores NiCd batteries with hard-to-remove memory. Recondition is a slow, deep discharge to
0.4V/cell.
Courtesy of Cadex

Recondition is most effective in rejuvenating batteries that have not been

exercised. Battery analyzers (Cadex) automatically apply the recondition cycle if
the user-set target capacity cannot be reached with a discharge to 1V/cell alone.
Although low performing batteries can often be fully restored, high self-
discharge makes some old-timers unusable for service.
Most ship batteries in large aircraft are NiCd. Resembling an oversized
starter battery in a vehicle, these batteries are serviced by applying a full
discharge and keeping each cell at zero volts for 24 hours before recharge. Each
cell is then checked for correct voltage, and capacity verification is taken with a
full discharge/charge cycle before installing them again in the airplane. Aviation
batteries follow strict maintenance schedules.

Effect of Zapping
Remote control (RC) enthusiasts are experimenting with all imaginable methods
to maximize battery performance. The electric motor of a model race car draws
30A for about 4 minutes delivered by a 7.2V battery. This is over 200W, a large
amount for a small battery. NiCd batteries often energize these devices, and a
technique that seems to enhance the power is zapping the cells with a very high
pulse current. This is said to increase the cell voltage slightly and generate more
power.
According to experts, zapping works best with standard NiCd cells. NiMHs
have been tried but they do not produce consistent results. Nor can zapping be
applied to Li-ion. Companies specializing in zapping use a very high quality
NiCd cell from Japan, and the sub-C is the most popular size. The factory
handpicks the cells, and they come with a unique label in a fully discharged
state. When measuring the empty cell, the open circuit voltage should read
between 1.11 and 1.12V. If the voltage is lower than 1.06V, then the cell is
suspect and zapping does not enhance the performance.
 To zap a NiCd battery, charge a 47,000μF capacitor to 90V and apply the
raw power directly across a single NiCd cell of 1.2V. After the shock treatment,
cycle the cell and zap it once more. Experts say that once a cell is treated and
used in service, further zapping will no longer improve performance, nor will it
regenerate a weak cell.
The voltage increase on a successfully zapped battery is between 20 and
40mV when loaded with 30A. According to experts, the voltage gain is
permanent, but there is a small drop of the gained voltage with usage and time.
There are no apparent side effects from zapping, however, battery
manufacturers remain silent about this treatment. No scientific explanations are
available as to why zapping improves battery performance other than the gained
voltage and the apparent lower internal resistance. There is little information
available regarding the longevity of the cells after the treatment.
Another method to improve NiCd batteries is through a recondition
program. Tests at the Cadex laboratories reveal a permanent capacity gain of
about 7 percent when servicing new NiCd with recondition, a program that
lowers the battery voltage to 0.4V/cell on a secondary discharge. This capacity
gain is not fully understood other than to assume that the battery improves
through additional formatting. Another explanation is the removal of early
memory. Since new batteries are stored with some charge, the self-discharge that
occurs during storage may contribute to the buildup of crystalline formation,
which recondition reverses.
The interest for RC enthusiasts is shifting to high-performance Li-ion. The
question is asked: “Does Li-ion perform as well as NiCd?” Some experts say no,
even when choosing the highest-performing Li-ion. NiCd remains the most
rugged rechargeable battery; it is also the only battery that can be ultra-fast
charged with minimal stress. When the German car manufacturers switched from
NiCd to Li-ion for their high precision power tools, the battery specifications
needed to be relaxed because Li-ion could not meet the NiCd requirements.
How to Prolong Lithium-based Batteries
Battery research is focusing on lithium chemistries so much that one could
imagine that the battery future lies solely in lithium. There are good reasons to
be optimistic as lithium-ion is, in many ways, superior to other chemistries.
Applications are growing and are encroaching into markets that previously were
solidly held by lead acid, such as standby and load leveling. Many satellites are
also powered by Li-ion.
Lithium-ion has not yet fully matured and is still improving. Notable
advancements have been made in longevity and safety while the capacity is
increasing incrementally. Today, Li-ion meets the expectations of most consumer
devices but applications for the EV need further development before this power
source will become the accepted norm.

What Causes Lithium-ion to Age?

The lithium-ion battery works on ion movement between the positive and
negative electrodes. In theory such a mechanism should work forever, but
cycling, elevated temperature and aging decrease the performance over time.
Manufacturers take a conservative approach and specify the life of Li-ion in
most consumer products as being between 300 and 500 discharge/charge cycles.
Evaluating battery life on counting cycles is not conclusive because a
discharge may vary in depth and there are no clearly defined standards of what
constitutes a cycle. (See “What Constitutes a Discharge Cycle?” on page 166.) In
lieu of cycle count, some manufacturers suggest battery replacement on a date
stamp, but this method does not take usage into account. A battery may fail
within the allotted time due to heavy use or unfavorable temperature conditions;
however, most packs last considerably longer than what the stamp indicates.
The performance of a battery is measured in capacity, a leading health
indicator. Internal resistance and self-discharge also play roles, but these are less
significant in predicting the end of battery life with modern Li-ion.
Figure 8-28 illustrates the capacity drop of 11 Li-polymer batteries that
have been cycled at a Cadex laboratory. The 1,500mAh pouch cells for mobile
phones were first charged at a current of 1,500mA (1C) to 4.20V/cell and then
allowed to saturate to 0.05C (75mA) as part of the full charge saturation. The
batteries were then discharged at 1,500mA to 3.0V/cell, and the cycle was
repeated. The expected capacity loss of Li-ion batteries was uniform over the
250 delivered cycles and the batteries performed as expected.

Figure 8-28: Capacity drop as part of cycling.

Eleven new Li-ion were tested on a Cadex C7400 battery analyzer. All packs started at a capacity of 88–
94% and decreased to 73–84% after 250 full discharge cycles. The 1500mAh pouch packs are used in
mobile phones.
Courtesy of Cadex

Although a battery should deliver 100 percent capacity during the first year
of service, it is common to see lower than specified capacities, and shelf life may
contribute to this loss. In addition, manufacturers tend to overrate their batteries,
knowing that very few users will do spot-checks and complain if low. Not
having to match single cells in mobile phones and tablets, as is required in multi-
cell packs, opens the floodgates for a much broader performance acceptance.
Cells with lower capacities may slip through cracks without the consumer
knowing.
Similar to a mechanical device that wears out faster with heavy use, the
depth of discharge (DoD) determines the cycle count of the battery. The smaller
the discharge (low DoD), the longer the battery will last. If at all possible, avoid
full discharges and charge the battery more often between uses. Partial discharge
on Li-ion is fine. There is no memory and the battery does not need periodic full
discharge cycles to prolong life. The exception may be a periodic calibration of
the fuel gauge on a smart battery or intelligent device.
Table 8-29 compares the number of discharge/charge cycles Li-ion can
deliver at various DoD levels before the battery capacity drops to 70 percent. All
other variables such as charge voltage, temperature and load currents are set to
average default settings.

Depth of discharge Discharge cycles

100% DoD 300–500

50% DoD 1,200–1,500

25% DoD 2,000–2,500

10% DoD 3,750–4,700

Table 8-29: Cycle life as a function of depth of discharge.

A partial discharge reduces stress and prolongs battery life. Elevated temperature and high currents also
affect cycle life.
Courtesy of Cadex

Lithium-ion suffers from stress when exposed to heat, so does keeping a

cell at a high charge voltage. A battery dwelling above 30°C (86°F) is considered
elevated temperature and for most Li-ion, a voltage above 4.10V/cell is deemed
as high voltage. Exposing the battery to high temperature and dwelling in a full
state-of-charge for an extended time can be more stressful than cycling. Table 8-
30 demonstrates capacity loss as a function of temperature and SoC.

Temperature 40% charge 100% charge

0°C 98% 94%

25° 96%C 80%

40° 85%C 65%

60° 75%C 60%
(after 3 months)

Table 8-30: Estimated recoverable capacity when storing Li-ion for one year at various temperatures.
Elevated temperature hastens permanent capacity loss. Not all Li-ion systems behave the same.
Courtesy of Cadex

Most Li-ions charge to 4.20V/cell, and every reduction in peak charge

voltage of 0.10V/cell is said to double the cycle life. For example, a lithium-ion
cell charged to 4.20V/cell typically delivers 300–500 cycles. If charged to only
4.1V/cell, the life can be prolonged to 600–1,000 cycles; 4.0V/cell should
deliver 1,200–2,000 and 3.9V/cell should provide 2,400–4,000 cycles.
On the negative side, a lower peak charge voltage reduces the capacity the
battery stores. As a simple guideline, every 70mV reduction in charge voltage
lowers the overall capacity by 10 percent. Applying the peak charge voltage on a
subsequent charge will restore the full capacity.
In terms of longevity, the optimal charge voltage is 3.92V/cell. Battery
experts believe that this threshold eliminates all voltage-related stresses; going
lower may not gain further benefits but induce other symptoms. Table 8-31
summarizes the capacity as a function of charge levels. (All values are estimated;
Energy Cells with higher voltage thresholds may deviate.)

Charge level (V/cell) Discharge cycles Capacity at full charge

[4.3] [150 – 250] [~114%]

4.2 300 – 500 100%

 4.1 600 – 1,000 ~86%
4.0 1,200 – 2,000 ~72%

3.9 2,400 – 4,000 ~58%

Table 8-31: Discharge cycles and capacity as a function of charge voltage limit.
Every 0.10V drop below 4.20V/cell doubles the cycle but holds less capacity. Raising the voltage above
4.20V/cell would shorten the life.
Guideline: Every 70mV drop in charge voltage lowers the usable capacity by 10%.

Most chargers for mobile phones, laptops, tablets and digital cameras
charge Li-ion to 4.20V/cell. This allows maximum capacity, because the
consumer wants nothing less than optimal runtime. Industry, on the other hand,
is more concerned about longevity and may choose lower voltage thresholds.
Satellites and electric vehicles are such examples.
For safety reasons, many lithium-ions cannot exceed 4.20V/cell. (Some
NMC are the exception.) While a higher voltage boosts capacity, exceeding the
voltage shortens service life and compromises safety. Figure 8-32 demonstrates
cycle count as a function of charge voltage. At 4.35V, the cycle count of a
regular Li-ion is cut in half.
Figure 8-32: Effects on cycle life at elevated charge voltages.
A higher charge voltage boosts capacity but lowers cycle life and compromises safety.
Source: Choi et al. (2002)

Besides selecting the best-suited voltage thresholds for a given application,

a regular Li-ion should not remain at the high-voltage ceiling of 4.20V/cell for
an extended time. The Li-ion charger turns off the charge current and the battery
voltage reverts to a more natural level. This is like relaxing the muscles after a
strenuous exercise.

What the User Can Do

Environmental conditions, not cycling alone, govern the longevity of lithium-ion
batteries. The worst situation is keeping a fully charged battery at elevated
temperatures. Battery packs do not die suddenly, but the runtime gradually
shortens as the capacity fades.
Lower charge voltages prolong battery life and electric vehicles and
satellites take advantage of this. Similar provisions could also be made for
consumer devices, but these are seldom offered; planned obsolescence takes care
of this.
A laptop battery could be prolonged by lowering the charge voltage when
connected to the AC grid. To make this feature user-friendly, a device should
feature a “Long Life” mode that keeps the battery at 4.05V/cell and offers a
capacity of about 80 percent. One hour before traveling, the user requests the
“Full Capacity” mode to bring the charge to 4.20V/cell.
The question is asked, “Should I disconnect my laptop from the power grid
when not in use?” Under normal circumstances this should not be necessary
because charging stops when the Li-ion battery is full. A topping charge is only
applied when the battery voltage drops to a certain level. Most users do not
remove the AC power, and this practice is safe.
Modern laptops run cooler than older models and reported fires are fewer.
Always keep the airflow unobstructed when running electric devices with air-
cooling on a bed or pillow. A cool laptop extends battery life and safeguards the
internal components. Energy Cells, which most consumer products have, should
be charged at 1C or less. Avoid ultra-fast chargers that claim to fully charge Li-
ion in less than 1 hour. Use other options when possible.

How to Awaken an Over-discharged Li-ion

Li-ion batteries contain a protection circuit that shields the battery against abuse.
This important safeguard also turns the battery off and makes it unusable if over-
discharged. Slipping into sleep mode can happen when storing a Li-ion pack in a
discharged state for any length of time as self-discharge would gradually deplete
the remaining charge. Depending on the manufacturer, the protection circuit of a
Li-ion cuts off between 2.2 and 2.9V/cell.
Some battery chargers and analyzers (including Cadex), feature a wake-up
feature or “boost” to reactivate and recharge batteries that have fallen asleep.
Without this provision, a charger renders these batteries unserviceable and the
packs would be discarded. Boost applies a small charge current to activate the
protection circuit and if a correct cell voltage can be reached, the charger starts a
normal charge. Figure 8-33 illustrates the “boost” function graphically.

Figure 8-33: Sleep mode of a lithium-ion battery.

Some over-discharged batteries can be “boosted” to life again. Discard the pack if the voltage does not rise
to a normal level within a minute while on boost.
Courtesy of Cadex

Do not boost lithium-based batteries back to life that have dwelled below
1.5V/cell for a week or longer. Copper shunts may have formed inside the cells
that can lead to a partial electrical short. Such a cell might become unstable,
cause excessive heat or show other anomalies. The Cadex “boost” function halts
the charge if the voltage does not rise normally.
When boosting a battery, assure correct polarity. Advanced chargers and
battery analyzers will not service a battery if placed in reverse polarity. A
sleeping Li-ion does not reveal the voltage, and boosting must be done with
awareness. Li-ion is more delicate than other systems and a voltage applied in
reverse may cause permanent damage.
Storing Li-ion batteries presents uncertainty. On one end, manufacturers
advise to keep the packs at a state-of-charge of 40–50 percent, and on the other
end there is the worry of over-discharge. There is ample bandwidth between
these criteria and if in doubt, keep the battery at a higher charge in a cool place.
Cadex examined 294 mobile phones batteries that were returned under
warranty. The Cadex analyzer restored 91 percent to a capacity of 80 percent and
higher; 30 percent were inactive and needed a boost, and 9 percent were non-
serviceable. All restored packs were returned to service and performed
flawlessly. This study shows the large number of mobile phone batteries that fail
due to over-discharging and can be salvaged.

What Causes Li-ion to Die?

The ultimate focus of maximizing the energy density of Li-ion shifted in 2006
when Li-ion unexpectedly disassembled in consumer products and millions of
packs were recalled. Safety gained attention and batteries became safer. With the
advent of the electric vehicle (EV), longevity is moving to the forefront and
experts have begun exploring why batteries fail.
While a 3-year battery life with 500 cycles is acceptable for laptops and
mobile phones, the mandated 8-year life of an EV battery seems long at first.
However, it still makes an EV buyer cringe when learning that a replacement
battery carries the price of a compact car with an internal combustion engine. If
the life of the battery could be extended to say, 20 years, then driving an EV
would be justified even if the initial investment is high.
Manufacturers of electric vehicles choose battery systems that are
optimized for longevity rather than high specific energy. These batteries are
normally larger and heavier than those used in consumer goods.
Batteries chosen for an electric powertrain go through strenuous life cycle
testing and Nissan selected a manganese-based Li-ion for the Leaf EV because
of solid performance. To beat the clock, the test protocol mandated a rapid
charge of 1.5C (less than 1 hour) and a discharge of 2.5C (20 minutes) under a
temperature of 60°C (140°F). Under these harsh conditions, a heavy-duty battery
is expected to lose 10 percent after 500 cycles, which represents 1–2 years of
driving. This emulates driving an EV through the heat of a biblical hell, leaving
rubber marks from aggressive driving, and still coming out with a battery that
boasts 90 percent capacity.
In spite of the careful selection and extensive testing, the owners of the
Nissan Leaf realized a capacity loss of 27.5 percent after 1–2 years of
ownership, and this without aggressive driving. Why then would the Leaf under
sheltered conditions drop the capacity by so much?
To get a better understanding of what causes irreversible capacity loss in Li-
ion batteries, the Center for Automotive Research at the Ohio State University in
collaboration with Oak Ridge National Laboratory and the National Institute of
Standards and Technology performed forensic tests by dissecting failed batteries
to find suspected problem areas on the electrodes.
Unrolling a 1.5-meter-long (5 feet) strip of metal tape representing the
anode and cathode coated with oxide revealed that the finely structured
nanomaterials had coarsened. Further studies revealed that the lithium ions
responsible for shuttling electric charge between the electrodes had diminished
on the cathode and had permanently lodged on the anode. This resulted in the
cathode having a lower lithium concentration than a new cell, a phenomenon
that is irreversible.

Coulombic Efficiency
Professor Jeff Dahn and his team at Dalhousie University in Halifax studied the
longevity of Li-ion by examining coulombic efficiency (CE). CE defines the
completeness by which electrons are transferred in an electrochemical system
during charge and discharge. The higher the efficiency, the less stress there is on
the battery and the longer it should live.
During charge, lithium gravitates to the graphite anode (negative electrode),
and the voltage potential changes. Removing the lithium again during discharge
does not reset the battery fully. A film called solid electrolyte interface (SEI)
consisting of lithium atoms forms on the surface of the anode. Composed of
lithium oxide and lithium carbonate, the SEI layer grows as the battery cycles.
The film gets thicker and eventually forms a barrier that obstructs interaction
with graphite. (See “How to Prime Batteries” on page 191.)
The cathode (positive electrode) develops a similar restrictive layer known
as electrolyte oxidation. Dr. Dahn stresses that a voltage above 4.10V/cell at
elevated temperature causes this, a demise that can be more harmful than cycling
a battery. The longer the battery stays in a high voltage, the faster the
degradation occurs.
The buildup can result in a sudden capacity loss that is difficult to predict
by testing the duration of a battery through cycling alone. This phenomenon had
been known for some years and measuring the coulombic efficiency can verify
these effects in a more scientific and systematic manner than mere cycling.
Similar to an EV, Li-ion in satellites must also endure a lifespan of 8 years
and more. To achieve this, the cells are charged to only 3.90V/cell and lower. An
interesting discovery was made by NASA in that Li-ion dwelling above
4.10V/cell tend to decompose due to electrolyte oxidation on the cathode, while
those charged to lower voltages lose capacity due to the SEI buildup on the
anode.
NASA reports that once Li-ion passes the 8 year mark after having
delivered about 40,000 cycles in a satellite, cell deterioration caused by this
phenomenon progresses quickly. Charging to 3.92V/cell appears to provide the
best compromise in term of maximum longevity, but this reduces the capacity to
only about 60 percent.
Coulombic efficiency is capable of measuring both changes: the lithium lost
due to SEI growth on the anode and electrolyte oxidation at the cathode. The
results can be used to rank the life expectancy of a battery by quantifying the
parasitic reaction.
The CE of a perfect battery would be 1.000,000. If this were the case, Dr.
Dahn says, the Li-ion battery would last for ever. An excellent coulombic
efficiency is 0.9999, a level that some lithium cobalt oxides (LCO) reach. By far
the best Li-ion in terms of CE is lithium titanate (LTO); it has a potential to
deliver 10,000 cycles. The negatives are high cost and relatively low specific
energy. (See “Types of Lithium-ion Batteries” on page 61.)
The coulombic efficiency readings vary with temperature and charge rate,
also known as C-rate. As the cycle time gets longer, self-discharge comes into
play and CE drops (gets worse). Electrolyte oxidation at the cathode, in part,
causes this self-discharge. Li-ion loses about 2 percent per month at 0°C (32°F)
with a state-of-charge of 50 percent and up to 35 percent at 60°C (140°F) when
fully charged.
Table 8-34 provides data for the most common Li-ion systems. For
simplicity reasons, CE is described as excellent, good, moderate and poor taken
at 30°C (86°F).

Table 8-34: Most commonly used Li-ion with coulombic efficiency rated as excellent, good, moderate
and poor. Battery manufacturers may one day specify CE in a number.
1 Taken at C/20 (0.05C) and 30°C (86°F); 2 Cathode material; 3 Anode material

Additives and the Effects on Coulombic Efficiency

Lithium-ion has improved and much credit goes to electrolyte additives. Each
cell has several additives and manufacturers keep the combinations a secret.
Additives lower internal resistance by reducing corrosion, decreasing gassing,
speeding up manufacturing by fine-tuning the wetting process and improving
low and high temperature performance. Adding 1–2 percent vinylene carbonate
improves SEI on the anode, limits electrolyte oxidation at the cathode and
enhances the CE readings. (See “Electrolyte” on page 116.)
Additives make up less than 10 percent of the electrolyte and the chemicals
are consumed in the formation of the SEI layer. Folks ask, “Can additives
interact with each other?” The answer is, “Absolutely.” A battery behaves like a
living organism and, as a patient taking multiple medications must inform the
doctor before additional pills can be prescribed, similar conditions exist with a
battery. Using coulombic efficiency allows the discovery of possible
interferences in weeks rather than having to wait for years for symptoms to
develop.
To examine the correlation between CE and longevity, Dalhousie
University worked with battery manufacturers, including E-One Moli. While a
university can carefully document ingredients, cell manufacturers keep these as
top secret. The test bed consisted of 160 cells, four of each type. E-One Moli
provided 80 cells with their own secret sauce; Dalhousie specified the other 80
electrolyte samples.
Dalhousie identified five batteries of interest, each with its own architecture
and additives. Figure 8-35 shows the coulombic efficiency of these five samples
with values ranging from 0.9960 to 0.9995. Figure 8-36 demonstrates the test
results when cycled to death. To Dalhousie’s anticipation and satisfaction, CE
harmonized well with the cycle count. Batteries with high CE lasted the longest;
those with low CE values were the first to die.
Figure 8-35: Coulombic efficiency.
Five experimental batteries were tested for coulombic efficiency. A higher CE provides a longer life.
Figure 8-36: Relationship of coulombic efficiency and cycle life.
High CE values live the longest; low values die first.
Source: Dalhousie University (2x)

Battery wear and tear also includes structural degradation that can be
captured with traditional cycle testing. Dr. Dahn calls this type of testing the
“sausage machine.” While measuring coulombic efficiency assists in battery
development by giving a snapshot assessment of additives; the old sausage
machine does the verification thereafter.
Capacity Degradation in electric Powertrains
When choosing batteries for the powertrains, manufacturers of electric vehicles
come to different conclusions. Tesla cars use the 18650 cell because the cell is
readily available and has a low price. This was a strange choice for the Tesla
Roadster, the first EV by Tesla, as the cell was designed for portable devices
such as laptops and medical and military devices. Perhaps unknown to Elon
Musk, the founder of Tesla Motors, cobalt-based lithium-ion has a high CE
reading that adds to longevity in the way the battery is being used in that
application.
The newer Tesla models use the same concept and to reduce stress, Tesla
“super-sizes” the pack. The battery is so large that it operates at a C-rate of only
0.25C (C/4), even at highway speed. This allows Tesla to focus on high energy
density for maximum runtime; power density becomes less important. The
negative of super-sizing is increased energy consumption due to a heavier
vehicle and a higher battery price. (See also “Electric Vehicle” on page 312.)
Summary
The manganese-based Li-ion batteries chosen for the Nissan Leaf and other EVs
have excellent lab results. What may have been overlooked in the Nissan Leaf
test is the damage that is done when the battery is kept at high voltage and
elevated temperature. As the CE tests reveal, these two conditions can cause
more damage than cycling.
The four suspected renegades responsible for capacity loss and end-of-life in Li-
ion are:

1. Mechanical degradation of electrodes or loss of stack pressure in pouch-

type cells. Careful cell design and correct electrolyte additives minimize
this cause. (See Figure 4-3 on page 130.)
2. Growth of solid electrolyte interface (SEI) on the anode. A barrier forms
that obstructs the interaction with graphite, resulting in an increase of
internal resistance. SEI is seen as a cause for capacity loss in most
graphite-based Li-ion when keeping the charge voltage below
3.92V/cell. Electrolyte additives reduce some of the effect.
3. Formation of electrolyte oxidation at the cathode that may lead to a
sudden capacity loss. Keeping the cells at a voltage above 4.10V/cell and
at an elevated temperature promotes this phenomenon.
 Figure 8-37: A 3.92V, Li-ion appears neutral; lower voltages add to SEI, higher to EO.

4. Lithium-plating on the surface of the anode caused by high charging

rates.

How to Maximize Runtime of Mobile Phones

As the author of BatteryUniversity.com, I get many interesting enquiries from
battery users. One battery user writes, “Hi, I am looking for an answer to a
perplexing question. A co-worker and I have identical mobile phones from the
same provider. Moving into a new house, she complained that her battery life
has shortened. I told her she was out of her mind, but then I noticed my pack
behaving differently when I travel. Is there some mysterious force that’s draining
the battery?”
Yes, there is a hidden force that drains the battery, but it’s not mystical. In
standby mode, a mobile phone is in constant communication with the tower,
transmitting small bursts of power every second or so to check for incoming
calls. To save energy, the transmit power adjusts according to signal strength.
Being close to a repeater tower lowers the power; moving away or entering an
area with high electrical noise, such as a shopping mall, hospital or factory,
boosts the power. An analogy is having to raise your voice when talking in a
noisy restaurant.
Living in sight of a tower has advantages and your battery will run longer
between charges. Where you park your mobile phone in the house also affects
runtime. A manager of a large cellular provider in the UK said that his son
experienced shorter standby times after moving from the upstairs bedroom to the
basement. If possible, leave your mobile phone in an upstairs room facing a
tower. When traveling by car, place the phone near a window rather than on the
floor, but avoid direct exposure to the sun.
Similar rules apply to TETRA and P25 radio systems, cordless telephones,
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth devices. A wireless headset communicating with the mobile
phone from belt to ear provides longer runtimes than when placing the handset
on the dining-room table while cooking in the kitchen. Although the quality of
communication does not change, the Bluetooth headset needs to work harder
when placed farther away from the user.
When the mobile phone is “off,” the load on the battery is very low and
only provides power for housekeeping to maintain the clock and monitor low-
level commands. These consumptions, including self-discharge, amount to 5–10
percent of the available battery energy per month.
Laptop batteries fare badly in terms of life span. Laptops are demanding
bosses that request a steady stream of power under poor working conditions,
toiling in a warm climate. In addition, the battery is exposed to a high charge
voltage when connected to the AC main. Warm temperature and full state-of-
charge are the cause of short battery life in laptops, not cycling.

Aftermarket Batteries
In the search for low-cost batteries, consumers may inadvertently purchase
counterfeit batteries that are unsafe. The battery label appears bona fide and the
buyer often cannot distinguish between an original and a forged product. Mobile
phone manufacturers are concerned about these products flooding the market
and advise customers to only use approved brands; defiance could void the
warranty. Manufacturers do not object to third-party suppliers as long as the
aftermarket batteries are well built, safe and approved by a safety agency.
Consumers are not the only buyers leaning towards aftermarket batteries.
Public safety, healthcare and other organizations also take advantage of
economically priced replacement batteries. Industrial aftermarket batteries are
normally prequalified and many perform well, but the quality can be less
consistent than the brand-name product, and some packs are said to
underperform. For liability reason, aftermarket batteries in industry are mostly
used for non-critical applications.
Caution also applies when purchasing aftermarket chargers. Some low-end
units may not terminate the battery correctly and rely on the battery’s internal
protection circuit to terminate the charge when the battery is full. Redundancy in
charging is important as the protection circuit of a bona fide battery can be
damaged. (See also “Making Lithium-ion Safe” on page 110.)
Aftermarket batteries may have insufficient safety provisions and rely on
the charger to terminate the charge. Marrying the two aftermarket partners could
turn battery charging into an unwanted event. Accidents are bound to happen
when connecting a mobile phone or e-cigarette to the 12-volt system of a vehicle
with a faulty inverter. Personal injury and damage can be the results.
Some manufacturers of laptops, medical devices, e-bikes and others
disallow aftermarket batteries by digitally locking the pack with a tamper-proof
security code. This is done in part for safety reasons; it also secures for the
manufacturer a future demand for batteries with good margins.

Simple Guidelines to Prolong Lithium-ion Batteries

Do not discharge Li-ion too low; charge more often. A random or partial
charge is fine. Li-ion does not need to be fully charged as with lead acid.
Heat the battery to room temperature before charging. Do not charge
below freezing.
Limit the time the battery resides at 4.2V/cell (full charge), especially
when warm.
Moderate the charge current to between 0.5C and 0.8C for cobalt-based
lithium-ion. Avoid ultra-fast charging and harsh loading.
When possible, lower the charge voltage limit to prolong battery life.
Keep the battery cool. Move it away from heat-generating environments.
Avoid hot cars and windowsills that are exposed to the sun.
It is not necessary to unplug the laptop from the power grid when not in
use. The charger stops charging when the battery is fully charged.
When the SoC fuel gauge becomes inaccurate, calibrate smart batteries by
applying a deliberate full discharge and charge.
Add some charge before a long storage. The charge level is not as critical
as cool storage.
 Chapter 9 | Testing and Monitoring

Fundamentals of Battery Testing

No practical method exists to quantify all conditions of a battery in a short,
comprehensive test. State-of-health (SoH) cannot be measured per se, it can only
be estimated to various degrees of accuracy based on available symptoms. If the
symptoms are vague or not present, a reliable measurement is not possible.
When testing a battery, three SoH indicators must be evaluated:

1. Capacity, the ability to store energy

2. Internal resistance, the capability to deliver current, and
3. Self-discharge, reflecting mechanical integrity and stress-related
conditions
Batteries come in many conditions and a charge can easily mask a symptom
allowing a weak battery to perform well. Likewise, a strong battery with low
charge shares similarities with a pack that exhibits capacity loss. Battery
characteristics are also swayed by a recent charge, discharge or long storage.
These mood swings must be clearly identified when testing batteries.
Figure 9-1 demonstrates the usable battery capacity in volume that can be
filled with a liquid, permanent capacity loss in the form of “rock content” that
reduces the volume, and internal resistance in tap size symbolizing current flow.
Figure 9-1: Conceptual battery symbolizing the usable capacity, the empty portion that can be refilled,
permanent capacity loss as “rock content” and the tap symbolizing power delivery as part of internal
resistance.
Courtesy of Cadex

The leading health indicator of a battery is capacity, a measurement that

represents energy storage. A new battery should deliver 100 percent of the rated
capacity. This means a 5Ah pack should deliver five amperes for 1 hour. If the
battery quits after 30 minutes, then the capacity is only 50 percent. Capacity also
supports warranty obligations with a replacement due when falling below 80
percent. Most importantly, capacity defines end of battery life.
Lead acid starts at about 85 percent and increases in capacity through use
before the long and gradual decrease begins. Li-ion starts at peak and begins its
decline immediately, albeit slowly. Nickel-based batteries need priming to reach
full capacity when new or after a long storage.
Manufacturers base device specifications on a new battery. This state is
temporary and does not represent a battery in real-life situations because fading
begins from the day it is made. The decrease in performance only becomes
visible once the shine of a new device has worn off and daily routines are being
taken for granted. An analogy is an aging man whose endurance begins to wear
off after the most productive years (Figure 9-2).
Figure 9-2: Battery aging can be likened to a man growing old.
Few people know when to replace a battery; some are replaced too early but most are kept too long.

Knowing when to replace a battery is a blur for many battery users. When
asked, “At what capacity do you replace the battery?” most reply in confusion,
“I beg your pardon?” Few are familiar with the term capacity as a measurement
of runtime, and fewer know that the capacity level should be used as threshold
for battery retirement. In many organizations, capacity fade goes unnoticed and
battery problems only become apparent with higher repeats of breakdowns.
Battery retirement depends on the application. Organizations using battery
analyzers typically set the replacement threshold at 80 percent. (See “Battery
Test Equipment” on page 287.) Some industries can keep the battery longer than
others and a toss arises between “what if” and economics. Scanning devices in
warehouses may go as low as 60 percent and still provide a full day’s work. A
starter battery in a car still cranks well at 40 percent, but that is cutting it thin.
Any battery-operated mission must plan for a worst-case scenario.
Although manufacturers include some reserve when specifying runtime, the
amount is seldom clearly defined. Critical missions demand tighter tolerances
and the battery must be replaced sooner than when a sudden failure can be
tolerated. (See “How to Verify Sufficient Battery Capacity” on page 174.)
Medical and military devices are considered critical and batteries are often
replaced too soon. Rather than testing them, device manufacturers prefer to use a
cycle count or a date stamp to mandate retirement. To cover all eventualities, the
service duration on a date stamp is often limited to 2 or 3 years.
 Medical technicians have discovered that many batteries for defibrillators
have more than 90 percent capacity left when the mandatory 2-year date stamp
expires, replacing perfectly good medical batteries prematurely. In spite of this
apparent waste, a US FDA survey says that “up to 50 percent of service calls in
hospitals surveyed relate to battery issues.” Healthcare professionals at AAMI
(Association for the Advancement of Medical Instruments) say further that
“battery management emerged as a top 10 medical device challenge.” (See “Can
Batteries Be Restored?” on page 228.)
Another application where battery capacity is important is in a drone. With
a good battery, the device may be specified to fly for 60 minutes, but if unknown
to mission control, the capacity has dropped from 100 to 75 percent, the flying
time is reduced to 45 minutes. This could crash the $25,000 vehicle when
required to negotiate a second landing approach. By marking the capacity on
each pack as part of battery maintenance, batteries delivering close to 100
percent capacity can be assigned for long hauls while older packs may be sent
for shorter errands. This allows the full use of each battery and establishes a
sound retirement policy.
Many batteries and portable devices include a fuel gauge that shows the
remaining energy. A full charge always shows 100 percent, whether the battery is
new or faded. This creates a false sense of security by anticipating that a faded
battery showing fully charge will deliver the same runtime as a new one.
Batteries with fuel gauges only indicate SoC, not the capacity.
Battery failure is not only limited to portable devices. Starter batteries in
vehicles have also become failure-prone. In 2008, ADAC (Allgemeiner
Deutscher Automobil-Club e.V.) stated that 40 percent of all roadside
automotive failures are battery-related. A 2013 ADAC report says that battery
problems have quadrupled between 1996 and 2010.
ADAC, Europe’s largest automotive club, says further that each third
breakdown involves either a discharged or defective battery. The report,
published by German Motorwelt in May 2013, also mentions that only a few
starter batteries reach the average age of 5 years, and this applies to all cars. The
statistic was derived from the more than four million breakdowns that the ADAC
car club typically receives in a year. The study only included newer cars;
service-prone vehicles more than 6 years old were excluded.
BCI (Battery Council International) reports similar results. A 2010 study by
the BCI technical subcommittee revealed that grid-related failures had increased
by 9 percent from 5 years earlier. Experts suspect that higher electrical demands
in modern vehicles lead to higher failure rates.
Battery failure in Japan is the largest single complaint among new car
owners. The average car is driven 13km (8 miles) per day and mostly in
congested cities. The most common reason for battery failure is undercharge,
developing sulfation. Battery performance is key; problems during the warranty
period are recorded as component failure and tarnish customer satisfaction.
A German manufacturer of luxury cars reported that one in two starter
batteries returned under warranty had no problem. A German manufacturer of
high-quality starter batteries stated that factory defects account for only 5 to 7
percent of all warranty claims. Battery failure during the warranty period is
seldom a factory defect; driving habits are the main culprits. A careful
assessment with advanced battery test instruments capable of looking at various
failure symptoms can greatly reduce warranty claims.
The mobile phone industry experiences similar battery warranty issues.
Nine out of ten batteries returned are said to have no problems. Rather than
trouble-shooting a customer complaint because of lower than expected runtime,
the clerk simply replaces the battery. This burdens the vendor without solving
the problem; it may also lead to repeat complaints.

Dilemma of Battery Testing

Part of the problem lies in the difficulty of testing batteries, and this applies to
storefronts, hospitals, combat fields and service garages. Battery rapid-test
methods seem to dwell in medieval times, and this is especially evident when
comparing advancements on other fronts. We don’t even have a reliable method
to estimate state-of-charge, which is based mostly on voltage and coulomb
counting. Assessing capacity, the leading health indicator of a battery, dwells
further behind. Measuring the open circuit voltage and checking the internal
resistance do not provide conclusive evidence of battery state-of-health.
The battery user may ask, “Why is the industry lagging so far behind?” The
answer is simple: “Battery diagnostics are complex.” As there is no single
analytical device to assess the health of a person, nor are instruments available
that can quickly and reliably check the state-of-health of a battery. Like the
human body, batteries can have multiple hidden deficiencies that no singular test
method can identify with certainly.
A dead battery is easy to check and all testers are 100 percent accurate. The
challenge comes in evaluating a battery in the 80–100 percent performance
range while on duty. Regulators struggle to introduce battery test procedures.
This is mostly due to the unavailability of suitable technology that can assess a
battery on the fly. The battery is labeled “uncontrollable” for good reason; this
gives it immunity it currently enjoys.
The battery world devotes much effort on the super battery, but this
improved battery is incomplete without being able to check performance while
in service. Improving performance and reliability does not rest in a better battery
alone, but in tracking the performance as it ages.
Professor Mark Orazem compares the complexity of testing batteries with
the Indian tale in which blind men touch an elephant to learn what it is (Figure 9-
3). Because each man only feels a part of the body, disagreements arise among
them. Battery testing is complex even for the sighted man but progress is being
made. Better technologies will eventually immerge.
Figure 9-3: Indian tale reflecting the complexity of estimating battery state-of-health.
Blind men are trying to figure out an elephant through touch. The tale provides insight into the relativism
and opaqueness of a subject matter, such as a battery.

How to Measure Internal Resistance

The internal resistance provides valuable information about a battery as an
elevated reading hints at end-of-life. This is especially true with nickel-based
systems. Resistance measurement is not the only performance indicator as the
value between batches of lead acid batteries can vary by 5–10 percent, especially
with stationary units. Because of this wide tolerance, the resistance method
works best when comparing the readings of a given battery from birth to
retirement. Service crews are asked to take a snapshot of each cell or monoblock
at time of installation and then measure the subtle changes as the cells age.
There is a notion that internal resistance is related to capacity, but this is
false. The resistance of modern lead acid and lithium-ion batteries stays flat
through most of the service life. Better electrolyte additives have reduced
internal corrosion issues that affect the resistance. Figure 9-4 shows capacity
fade with cycling in relation to the internal resistance of Li-ion cells.

Figure 9-4: Relationship between capacity and resistance as part of cycling.

Resistance does not reveal the state-of-health of a battery and often stays flat with use and aging.
Cycle test on Li-ion batteries at 1C:
Charge: 1,500mA to 4.2V, 25°C
Discharge: 1,500 to 2.75V, 25°C
Courtesy of Cadex

What Is Impedance?
Before exploring the different methods of measuring the internal resistance of a
battery, let’s examine what electrical resistance means and understand the
difference between pure resistance (R) and impedance (Z). R is pure resistance
and Z includes reactive elements such as coils and capacitors. Both readings are
obtained in ohms (Ω), a measurement that goes back to the German physicist
Georg Simon Ohm, who lived from 1798 to 1854. (One ohm produces a voltage
drop of 1V with a current of 1A.) The electric conductivity is also measured in
siemens (s) that is reciprocal to ohmic values.
The electrical resistance of a pure load, such as a heating element, has no
reactance. Voltage and current flow in unison and there is no advancing or
trailing phase. The ohmic resistance is the same with direct current (DC) and
alternating current (AC). The power factor (pf) is 1, providing the most accurate
metering of the power consumed.
Most electrical loads are reactive and consist of capacitive reactance
(capacitor) and inductive reactance (coil). The capacitive reactance decreases
with higher frequency while the inductive reactance increases. An analogy of
inductive reactance is an oil damper that stiffens when applying a fast back-and-
forth action.
A battery has resistance, capacitance and inductance, and the term
impedance includes all three in one model. Impedance can best be illustrated
with the Randles model (Figure 9-5) that comprises resistors R1 and R2 as well
as capacitor C. The inductive reactance is commonly omitted because it plays a
negligible role in a battery, especially at a low frequency.

Figure 9-5: Randles model of a lead acid battery.

The overall battery resistance consists of ohmic resistance, as well as inductive and capacitive reactance.
The diagram and electrical values differ for every battery.
R1 = Internal resistant; R2 = Charge transfer;
C1 = Double layer capacitor
 Measuring the battery by resistance is almost as old as the battery itself and
several methods have developed over time, all of which are still in use.

DC Load Method
The ohmic measurement is one of the oldest and most reliable test methods. The
battery receives a brief discharge for a second or longer. The load current for a
small battery is 1A or less; for a starter battery it might be 50A or more. A
voltmeter measures the open circuit voltage (OCV) with no load, followed by
the second reading with a load; Ohm’s law calculates the resistance value
(voltage difference divided by current equals resistance).
DC load measurements work well to check large stationary batteries, and
the ohmic readings of the device are very accurate and repeatable. High-end test
instruments claim resistance readings in the 10 micro-ohm range. Many garages
use the carbon pile to measure starter batteries and an experienced mechanic gets
a reasonably good assessment of the battery.
The DC load method has limitations in that it blends R1 and R2 of the
Randles model into one combined resistor and ignores the capacitor (see Figure
9-6). “C” is an important component of a battery that represents 1.5 farads per
100Ah capacity.

Figure 9-6: DC load method.

The true integrity of the Randles model cannot be seen. R1 and R2 appear as one ohmic value.
Courtesy of Cadex

In addition, the DC load method gets similar readings from a good battery
that is partially charged and a marginal battery that is fully charged. State-of-
charge and capacity estimations are not possible.
The two-tier DC load method offers an alternative method by applying two
sequential discharge loads of different currents and time durations. The battery
first discharges at a low current for 10 seconds, followed by a higher current for
3 seconds (see Figure 9-7); Ohm’s law calculates the resistance values.
Evaluating the voltage signature under the two load conditions offers additional
information about the battery, but the values are strictly resistive and do not
reveal SoC or capacity estimations. The load test is the preferred method for
batteries that power DC loads.

Figure 9-7: Two-tier DC load.

The two-tier DC load follows the IEC 61951-1:2005 standards and provides lifelike test conditions for
many DC battery applications.
Courtesy of Cadex

AC Conductance
Conductance measurement to evaluate starter batteries was first reported by
Keith Champlin in 1975 by demonstrating a linear correlation between load test
and conductance. When injecting a frequency of about 90 hertz, capacitive and
inductive reactance converge with a 70–90Ah lead acid battery, resulting in a
negligible voltage lag that minimizes the reactance. (This frequency rises with a
smaller battery and drops with a large pack.) AC conductance meters are
commonly used in car garages to measure CCA. The single-frequency method
(Figure 9-8) sees the components of the Randles model as one complex
impedance called the modulus of Z.

Figure 9-8: AC conductance method.

The individual components of the Randles model are molten together and cannot be distinguished.
Courtesy of Cadex

The 1,000-hertz (Hz) ohm test is another common method. A 1,000Hz

signal excites the battery and Ohm’s law calculates the resistance. Note that the
AC method shows different values to the DC method when measuring a reactive
resistance, and both readings are correct.
For example, Li-ion in an 18650 cell produces about 36mOhm with a
1,000Hz AC signal and roughly 110mOhm with a DC load. Since both readings
are valid, yet far apart, the user must consider the application. The pulse DC load
method provides valuable readings for a DC application such as a heating
element or an incandescent light, while the 1,000Hz method better reflects the
performance requirements of a digital load, such as portable computing and
mobile phones that rely to a large extent on the capacitive characteristics of a
battery. Figure 9-9 illustrates the 1,000Hz-method.
Figure 9-9: 1000-hertz method
The 1000-hertz provides reactive resistance readings. This has been the preferred method for taking
impedance snapshots of batteries powering digital devices.
Courtesy of Cadex

Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)

Research laboratories have been using EIS for many years to evaluate battery
characteristics. High equipment cost, slow test times and the need for trained
professionals to decipher the large volume of data have limited this technology
to laboratory environments. EIS reads R1, R2 and C values in the Randles model
(Figure 9-10); however correlating the data into CCA and capacity estimations
requires complex modeling.
Figure 9-10: Spectro™ method.
R1, R2 and C are measured separately, which enables state-of-charge and capacity measurements.
Courtesy of Cadex

How to Measure CCA

Ever since Cadillac invented the starter motor in 1912, car mechanics have
explored ways to measure cold cranking amps (CCA). CCA measurements
assure that the battery has sufficient power to crank the engine, especially when
cold. Typical CCA readings for a car range from 350 to 600A and higher for
trucks. SAE J537 specifies that a battery with a CCA reading of 500A can
deliver 500A at –18°C (0°F) for 30 seconds without dropping below 7.2 volts.
CCA cannot be “measured,” but it can be “estimated” and the process can
take a week per battery. A full CCA test is tedious and is seldom done. To test
CCA, apply different discharge currents to see which amperage keeps the battery
above a set voltage while cold. Table 9-11 illustrates the test procedures
according to SAE J537, IEC and DIN. The methods are similar and only differ in
the length of discharge and the cutoff voltages.

Table 9-11: CCA test methods of SAE, IEC and DIN. The methods differ in the length of discharge and
the cutoff voltages. (See SAE J537 in Glossary on page 337.)

A variety of battery testers have emerged that read CCA. Since current flow
relates to ohmic value, most CCA testers measure the internal battery resistance.
To test the CCA with a carbon pile, a battery must have an SoC of 70 to 100
percent. It is then loaded with half the rated CCA for 15 seconds at a temperature
of 10º C (50º F) and higher. As an example, a 500 CCA battery will discharge at
250A for 15s, and the battery passes if the voltage stays above 9.6V. Colder
temperatures will cause the voltage to drop further. The carbon pile simulates
real-life cranking conditions while observing the voltage, but this method cannot
estimate capacity.
Mechanics prefer small sizes and device manufacturers have developed
handheld testers, which induce a momentary high-current pulse that corresponds
to the entered CCA value. Ohm’s law calculates the internal resistance on hand
of the induced voltage drop, and the device provides a CCA-equivalent reading.
This test method is fast and convenient, but it does not estimate capacity.
The AC conductance method reads CCA by injecting a single frequency of
80–90 hertz to the battery. These non-invasive units are small and stay cool
during the test, but the battery should have a SoC of 70 percent and higher. As
with other resistance-based test methods, AC conductance cannot read capacity.
Battery scientists predict that future battery diagnostics lie in EIS by
combining the test results of the Randles model with complex modeling to
estimate CCA and capacity. Called multi-model electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy, the Spectro™-series battery rapid-testers (by Cadex) are the first
to utilize the EIS technology.
Accuracy has always been in question and CCA is especially difficult to
verify as the readings are affected by SoC, temperature and other factors. Figure
9-12 compares CCA readings taken with AC conductance and the Spectro™
technology at different SoC. Both measurements decline with lower SoC;
however Spectro™ is affected less than AC conductance. Since many batteries
hover at about 70 percent when the car is brought in for service, the CCA
readings between the two methods will appear similar.
Figure 9-12: CCA accuracy on state-of-charge.
Spectro CA-12 provides stable CCA readings between 100 and 40% SoC (square); AC Conductance drops
rapidly (triangle).
Courtesy of Cadex

Figure 9-13 illustrates CCA readings as a function of SoC and battery

performance. The CCA of Battery A, with a capacity of 100 percent, stays steady
down to an SoC of 10 percent; Battery B, with 37 percent capacity, starts to show
instabilities at an SoC of about 40 percent; and Battery C, with only 22 percent
capacity, provides uncertain results. The test clearly demonstrates that battery
state-of-health affects the readings. A good battery provides strong symptoms
with good accuracy; the readings from a weak battery are muddled and the
results are less consistent.
Figure 9-13: CCA accuracy in relation to battery condition and SoC.
The battery condition governs accuracy.
Battery A (100%) is accurate to 10% SoC; Battery B (37%) to 40% SoC. Battery C (22%) delivers unstable
results.
Test condition: Batteries are discharged at 20A. CCA is measured every 10 min with Spectro™
Courtesy of Cadex

No single instrument can evaluate all battery anomalies and rapid-testing

only provides rough estimations. A micro-short in a cell, for example, can only
be identified by measuring the open circuit voltage (OCV) after a rest or
checking the specific gravity of the electrolyte. Rapid-testing might pass the
battery as good because a charge covers up the anomaly.
All test methods encounter outliers. Reliable results are only possible if
robust symptoms are present. This is not always possible with unformatted
batteries and those in storage. No ideal battery test method exists but EIS has the
potential of surpassing other technologies.

How to Measure State-of-charge

Voltage Method
Measuring state-of-charge by voltage is simple, but it can be inaccurate because
cell materials and temperature affect the voltage. The most blatant error of the
voltage-based SoC occurs when disturbing a battery with a charge or discharge.
The resulting agitation distorts the voltage and it no longer represents a correct
SoC reference. To get accurate readings, the battery needs to rest in the open
circuit state for at least 4 hours; battery manufacturers recommend 24 hours for
lead acid. This makes the voltage-based SoC method impractical for a battery in
active duty.
Each battery chemistry delivers its own unique discharge signature. While
voltage-based SoC works reasonably well for a lead acid battery that has rested,
the flat discharge curve of nickel- and lithium-based batteries renders the voltage
method impracticable.
The discharge voltage curves of Li-manganese, Li-phosphate and NMC are
very flat, and 80 percent of the stored energy remains in the flat voltage profile.
While this characteristic is desirable as an energy source, it presents a challenge
for voltage-based fuel gauging as it only indicates full charge and low charge;
the important middle section cannot be estimated accurately. Figure 9-14 reveals
the flat voltage profile of Li-phosphate (LiFePO) batteries.
Figure 9-14: Discharge voltage of lithium iron phosphate.
Li-phosphate has a very flat discharge profile, making voltage estimations for SoC estimation difficult.

Lead acid comes with different plate compositions that must be considered
when measuring SoC by voltage. Calcium, an additive that makes the battery
maintenance-free, raises the voltage by 5–8 percent. In addition, heat raises the
voltage while cold causes a decrease. Surface charge further fools SoC
estimations by showing an elevated voltage immediately after charge; a brief
discharge before measurement counteracts the error. Finally, AGM batteries
produce a slightly higher voltage than the flooded equivalent.
When measuring SoC by open circuit voltage (OCV), the battery voltage
must be “floating” with no load attached. This is not the case with modern
vehicles. Parasitic loads for housekeeping functions puts the battery into a quasi-
closed circuit voltage (CCV) condition. In spite of inaccuracies, most SoC
measurements rely in part or completely on voltage because of simplicity.
Voltage-based SoC is popular in wheelchairs, scooters and golf cars.

Hydrometer
The hydrometer offers an alternative to measuring the SoC of flooded lead acid
batteries. Here is how it works: When the lead acid battery accepts charge, the
sulfuric acid gets heavier, causing the specific gravity (SG) to increase. As the
SoC decreases through discharge, the sulfuric acid removes itself from the
electrolyte and binds to the plate, forming lead sulfate. The density of the
electrolyte becomes lighter and more water-like, and the specific gravity gets
lower. Table 9-15 provides the BCI readings of starter batteries.

Table 9-15: BCI standard for SoC estimation of a starter battery with antimony.
Readings are taken at 26°C (78°F) after a 24h rest.

While BCI specifies the specific gravity of a fully charged starter battery at
1.265, battery manufacturers may go for 1.280 and higher. Increasing the
specific gravity will move the SoC readings upwards on the look-up table. A
higher SG will improve battery performance but shorten battery life because of
increased corrosion activity.
Besides charge level and acid density, a low fluid level will also change the
SG. When water evaporates, the SG reading rises because of higher
concentration. The battery can also be overfilled, which lowers the number.
When adding water, allow time for mixing before taking the SG measurement.
Specific gravity varies with battery applications. Deep-cycle batteries use a
dense electrolyte with an SG of up to 1.330 to get maximum specific energy;
aviation batteries have an SG of about 1.285; traction batteries for forklifts are
typically at 1.280; starter batteries come in at 1.265; and stationary batteries have
a low specific gravity of 1.225. This reduces corrosion and prolongs life but it
decreases the specific energy, or capacity.
 Nothing in the battery world is absolute. The specific gravity of fully
charged deep-cycle batteries of the same model can range from 1.270 to 1.305;
fully discharged, these batteries may vary between 1.097 and 1.201. Temperature
is another variable that alters the specific gravity reading. The colder the
temperature drops, the higher (more dense) the SG value becomes. Table 9-16
illustrates the SG gravity of a deep-cycle battery at various temperatures.

Electrolyte temperature Gravity at full charge

40°C 104°F 1.266

30°C 86°F 1.273

20°C 68°F 1.280

10°C 50°F 1.287

0°C 32°F 1.294

Table 9-16: Relationship of specific gravity and temperature of deep-cycle battery.

Colder temperatures provide higher specific gravity readings.
Courtesy of Cadex

Inaccuracies in SG readings also occur if a battery has stratified, meaning

the concentration is light on top and heavy on the bottom. High acid
concentration artificially raises the open circuit voltage, which can fool SoC
estimations through false SG and voltage indication. The electrolyte needs to
stabilize after charge and discharge before taking the SG reading.

Coulomb Counting
Laptops, medical equipment and other professional portable devices use
coulomb counting to estimate SoC by measuring the in-and-out-flowing current.
One coulomb per second is one ampere (1A), a term that is used for both charge
and discharge. The name “coulomb” was given in honor of Charles-Augustin de
Coulomb (1736–1806) who is best known for developing Coulomb’s law. (See
“Inner Workings of a Smart Battery” on page 176.)
While this is an elegant solution to a challenging issue, losses reduce the
total energy delivered, and what’s available at the end is always less than what
had been put in. In spite of this, coulomb counting works well, especially with
Li-ion that offer high coulombic efficiency and low self-discharge.
Improvements have been made by also taking aging and temperature-based self-
discharge into consideration but periodic calibration is still recommended to
bring the “digital battery” in harmony with the “chemical battery.”
To overcome calibration, modern fuel gauges use a “learn” function that
estimates how much energy the battery delivered on the previous discharge.
Some systems also observe the charge time because a faded battery charges more
quickly than a good one.
Makers of advanced BMS claim high accuracies, but real life often shows
otherwise. Much of the make-believe is hidden behind a fancy readout.
Smartphones may show a 100 percent charge when the battery is only 90 percent
charged. Design engineers say that the SoC readings on new EV batteries can be
off by 15 percent. There are reported cases where EV drivers ran out of charge
with a 25 percent SoC reading still on the fuel gauge.

Impedance Spectroscopy
Battery state-of-charge can also be estimated with impedance spectroscopy using
the Spectro™ complex modeling method. This allows taking SoC readings with
a steady parasitic load of 30A. Voltage polarization and surface charge do not
affect the reading as SoC is measured independently of voltage. This opens
applications in automotive manufacturing where some batteries are discharged
longer than others during testing and debugging and need charging before
transit. Measuring SoC by impedance spectroscopy can also be used for load
leveling systems where a battery is continuously under charge and discharge.
Measuring SoC independently of voltage also supports dock arrivals and
showrooms. Opening the car door applies a parasitic load of about 20A that
agitates the battery and falsifies voltage-based SoC measurement. The Spectro™
method helps to identify a low-charge battery from one with a genuine defect.
 SoC measurement by impedance spectroscopy is restricted to a new battery
with a known good capacity; capacity must be nailed down and have a non-
varying value. While SoC readings are possible with a steady load, the battery
cannot be on charge during the test.
Figure 9-17 demonstrates the test results of impedance spectroscopy after a
parasitic load of 50A is removed from the battery. As expected, the open
terminal voltage rises as part of recovery but the Spectro™ readings remains
stable. Steady SoC results are also observed after removing charge when the
voltage normalizes as part of polarization.

Figure 9-17: Relationship of voltage and measurements taken by impedance spectroscopy after
removing a load.
Battery is recovering after removing a load. Spectro-SoC readings remain stable as the voltage rises.
Courtesy of Cadex

How to Measure Capacity

Capacity is the leading health indicator of a battery, but estimating it on the fly is
complex. The traditional charge/discharge/charge cycle is still the most
dependable method to measure battery capacity. While portable batteries can be
cycled relatively quickly, a full cycle on large lead acid batteries is not practical
for capacity measurement.
SAE specifies the capacity of a starter battery by Reserve Capacity (RC).
RC reflects the runtime in minutes at a steady discharge of 25A to the end of
discharge voltage. DIN and IEC mark the battery in Ah at a typical discharge of
0.2C-rate (5h rate) for starter batteries. A 60Ah battery would discharge at 12A.
No accurate RC to Ah conversion exists but the most common formula is RC
divided by 2 plus 16. A short method is dividing RC by 1.9. (See pages 337,
344.)

Discharge Method
One would assume that capacity measurement by discharge is the most accurate
method, but this is not always the case, especially with lead acid batteries. Even
when using highly accurate equipment in a temperature controlled environment
and following established charge and discharge standards, variations between
identical tests occur. This is not fully understood except to realize that batteries
are electrochemical devices that have human-like qualities. Our IQ level also
varies depending on the time of day and other conditions. Lithium- and nickel-
based chemistries provide more consistent discharge results than lead acid.
Cadex labs checked 91 starter batteries with diverse performance levels,
and the results have been plotted in Figure 9-18. The horizontal x-axis presents
batteries from weak to strong, and the vertical y-axis reflects the capacity. The
tests followed SAE J537 standards by applying a full charge and a 24-hour rest,
followed by a regulated 25A discharge to 10.50V (1.75V/cell). The results in
diamonds represent Test 1. The test was repeated under identical conditions, and
the capacities shown in squares characterize Test 2. Only done within days of
each other, Test 1 and 2 differ much as +/-15 percent in capacity. Other
laboratories observe similar discrepancies.
Figure 9-18: Capacity fluctuations on two identical charge/ discharge tests of 91 starter batteries.
The capacities differ +/–15% between Test 1 and Test 2. Tests were done according to SAE J537
Courtesy of Cadex (2005)

When evaluating battery test results, the question is asked: “Against what
standard are the readings compared?” If done with the classic charge/discharge
cycle that has large inaccuracies, then modern test technologies have no
benchmark and scientists may ask: “Which method is more accurate, the
discharge/charge method or other evolving technologies?” This is a valid
question as non-intrusive technologies are emerging that only take seconds to
test a battery.
Non-invasive Method
Spectro™ (by Cadex) uses multi-model electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy (EIS) that checks battery health in seconds with a scanning
process. The non-invasive technology combines EIS with complex modeling to
estimate capacity, CCA and SoC with the help of matrices, also known as look-
up tables. Here is how it works:
 A sinusoidal signal of multiple frequencies is injected into the battery at a
few millivolts. After digital filtering, the extracted signal forms a Nyquist plot
onto which various electro-chemical models are superimposed. Spectro™ selects
the best matching models; non-fitting replicas are rejected. Data fusion then
correlates the values of the key parameters to derive capacity and CCA
estimations. Figure 9-19 illustrates the patented process in a simplified way.

Figure 9-19 Spectro™ combines EIS with complex modeling to estimate battery capacity and improve
CCA measurements.
A sinusoidal signal produces a Nyquist plot; data fusion correlates the values of the key parameters to
estimate capacity and CCA.
US patent 7,072,871; Courtesy of Cadex

The Nyquist plot was invented by Harry Nyquist (1889–1976) while at Bell
Laboratories in the USA. It presents the frequency response of a linear system
displaying both amplitude and phase angle on a single plot using frequency as
parameter. The horizontal x-axis of a Nyquist plot reveals the real ohm
impedance while the vertical y-axis represents the imaginary impedance. (See
Figure 9-24 on page 282.)

Capacity vs. CCA

Starter batteries have two distinct values, CCA and capacity. These two readings
are different; one cannot predict the other and correlation between the two is
almost non-existent, except perhaps towards the end of battery life.
 Most rapid-testers look at the internal resistance and do a CCA
approximation. Reading battery resistance is relatively simple, but this alone
cannot predict capacity, nor can it tell when to replace a battery as the end-of-life
characteristic is primarily capacity related. Most starter batteries crank the
engine with very little capacity; a sudden failure might occur when the capacity
drops below 30 percent.
Some battery testers, including Spectro™, display “Resistance High” when
the ohmic reading is elevated, a failure that commonly relates to heat damage. A
working starter battery reflects a single-digit mOhm value that is represented by
R1 in the Randles model. Batteries developing high resistance move to double-
digit readings caused by these conditions:

1. Low electrolyte level

2. Stratification of electrolyte
3. Sulfation of electrodes
4. Bad weld connections of the collector plates or posts
5. Collector plate cracking corroded
6. Poor battery connection at the clamps or internal to the battery

R1 represents the electrolyte resistance, which is affected by items 1 and 2

above. Items 3 to 6 relate to contact resistance from the battery posts to the
electrodes, or the electrodes to the electrolyte that adds to the resistance R1. R2
represent the charge transfer resistance, or the speed at which electrons are
transferred from the electrodes to ions in the electrolyte. R2 is immune to the
outer mechanical conditions and should have a lower resistive value than R1.
The ability to separate individual components in the Randles model, as
Spectro™ does, enables improved battery assessment that reduces battery
replacement, especially during the warranty period. “Resistance High”
distinguishes a battery with low charge from one that has a genuine defect. The
test can be done with a partial charge.
“How accurate are the readings?” car mechanics ask. This depends on the
battery. A fault can only be diagnosed with confidence if clear symptoms are
present. A new battery or one that has been in storage can become an outlier on
capacity estimation. Best results are achieved with a “working” battery that is
pulled from service. Accuracy is also based on the quality of the matrix (see
page 279).
Although capacity and CCA readings are clearly marked on the battery,
these values are not always correct. The CCA of some starter batteries are found
to be higher or lower than shown; only the manufacturer would know. Because
of high cost, CCA tests are seldom done once the battery is sold. In addition,
deep-cycle batteries show low capacity readings when new and this could lead to
warranty returns. The values will increase as the battery is being formatted with
use.

Testing Lead Acid

There are no shortages of battery testers, but most lack accuracy. Capacity, the
leading health indicator of a battery, is difficult to obtain on the fly. Stating that a
battery tester measuring internal resistance will also provide capacity estimation
is misleading. Advertising features that are outside the equipment’s capabilities
confuses the industry into believing that complex tests can be done with basic
methods. Resistance-based instruments can identify a dying or dead battery —
so does the user. Vendors often overstate the ability of battery testers knowingly.
This is similar to promoting a shampoo that promises to grow lush hair on a
man’s bald head.
 Without reliable test devices on hand, battery testing becomes guesswork,
resulting in good packs being replaced too soon and passing weak ones, only to
have them fail on the road soon after checking. Lack of accurate battery testing
also causes unnecessary replacements under the battery warranty program.
Examining warranty returns reveals that less than 10 percent of these batteries
have a manufacturing fault. Most faults are user-inflicted.
The challenge arises when assessing a battery as part of routine service
before performance degradations are noticeable. Such a test is only effective
when including capacity measurement. Capacity oversees the energy storage,
governs the runtime and predicts the end-of-life. Internal resistance, on the other
hand, is responsible for the power to crank the engine and deliver high current
under load on demand. A snapshot taken with a CCA tester on a starter battery
refers to the resistive battery condition only. Better electrolytes and corrosion-
resistant electrode materials are keeping the resistance on modern batteries low
through most of their life. Failure due to elevated resistance has become rare and
may only develop at the end-of-life.
Unlike voltage, current and ohmic measurements, no universal instrument
exists that can read the capacity of every battery that comes along. There are
three common testing concepts: Scalar, vector and EIS with complex modeling
(Spectro™).
Scalar is the simplest of the three. It takes a battery reading and compares it
with a reference that is often a resistive value. Most single-frequency AC
conductance testers measuring CCA are based on the scalar concept.
The vector method applies signals of different currents, or it excites the
battery with varied frequencies, and then evaluates the results against preset
vector points to study the battery under various stress conditions. This adds
complexity and the added benefits are marginal.
Spectro™ scans the battery with a frequency spectrum, as if to capture the
topography of a landscape, and compares the imprint with a matrix to estimate
battery capacity, CCA and SoC. Spectro™ promises the most in-depth battery
analysis, but it is also the most complex. Table 9-20 summarizes the three battery
test methods.

Table 9-20: Methods of data collection for battery rapid-testing. The table compares scalar, vector and
Spectro™ which combines electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) with complex modeling.

Matrix
A matrix is a multi-dimensional look-up table against which readings are
compared. Text recognition, fingerprint identification and visual imaging operate
on a similar principle. In battery analysis, matrices are primarily used to estimate
capacity; however, CCA and state-of-charge also benefit from using a matrix.
Spectro™ correctly predicts 8 out of 10 batteries on capacity and 9 out of
10 on CCA. Combining these two classifications provides significant
improvement in test accuracies over units measuring only CCA. Most resistance-
based testers deliver state-of-health predictions that are not much better than 5
correct in 10, results that can be compared with tossing a coin. Many service
technicians are unaware of the low prediction rate as lab verifications are seldom
done.
There is a desire for higher accuracies, but a battery can only be diagnosed
if measurable symptoms are present. While packs pulled from the field give the
most reliable results, outliers often lack formatting or had been in prolonged
storage. To also test these batteries with certainty, matrices can be developed that
include the said anomalies.
State-of-charge also plays an important role, and the tester must distinguish
between low charge and low capacity. Both conditions lower battery
performance and are difficult to identify. Most battery testers work down to 70
percent SoC; Spectro™ goes down to 60 percent.
Creating a matrix involves scanning many batteries at different state-of-
health levels. The more batteries that can be included in the testing pool, which
are of the same model but have different capacity losses, the stronger the matrix
will become. A well-developed matrix should include naturally-aged battery
samples with capacities ranging from 50 to 100 percent. An analogy is a bridge
with many pillars to eliminate weak spots.
The population should also include batteries from hot and cold climates and
different uses. For example, an aging starter battery in a Las Vegas taxi will
show different symptoms than a battery in grandma’s car in northern Germany
used only to take her grandchildren for a ride.
Obtaining faded batteries is difficult. Forced aging by cycling in an
environmental chamber is of some help, but age-related stresses are not
presented accurately and the learned symptoms can fool the system. This is
especially visible with Li-ion batteries. Although the capacity is down, the
Nyquist plot does not follow the signature of natural aging as part of daily usage.
A generic matrix is most practical as it serves a group of batteries. Generic
matrices for the Spectro™ system are available for most car batteries; the user
simply enters the capacity and CCA ratings. Instead of a numeric readout, the
generic matrix provides pass/fail classification based on a capacity threshold.
This solution is acceptable for most service personnel as the instrument makes
the decision, eliminating uncertainties and customer interference.

Summary
A battery must undergo multiple checks, the way a medical doctor examines a
patient with several tests to find the diagnosis. A serious illness could escape the
doctor’s watchful eyes if only blood pressure or temperature were taken. While
medical staffs is well trained to evaluate the data points taken, most battery
personnel do not have the same knowledge and only want to know if the battery
is dead or alive. Nor are battery test devices capable of providing a detailed
diagnosis of all battery ills. The battery user must be reminded that a battery
tester is not a universal test tool but an estimation device that works for a
designated battery population.

Testing Nickel-based Batteries

Capacity-fade of nickel-based batteries correlates, in part, with a rise in internal
resistance. NiCd and NiMH share similarities with lead- and lithium-based
batteries in that the internal resistance remains low at first and then rapidly
increases towards the end of life. (Figure 2-30 shows NiMH on page 73.)
Measuring resistance could serve as a simple rapid-test method to detect end-of-
life but this would not provide dependable state-of-health (SoH) information.
QuickTest™ (by Cadex) goes deeper than mere resistance measurements
and fuses data from six variables. These are capacity, internal resistance, self-
discharge, charge acceptance, discharge capabilities and mobility of electrolyte.
A trend-learning algorithm combines the data to provide a dependable state-of-
health (SoH) reading in percentage. The system uses battery-specific matrices
that are stored in the test device. Figure 9-21 illustrates a simplified structure of
the algorithm.
Figure 9-21: QuickTest™ structure.
Multiple variables are fed to the micro controller, “‘fuzzified” and processed by parallel logic. The data is
averaged and weighted according to battery application.
US patent 6,778,913.
Courtesy of Cadex

As QuickTest™ includes the internal resistance of a battery pack, the

welding joints between the cells must be taken into consideration, especially
with packs of 10 cells or more. Although seemingly insignificant in terms of
added resistance, the mechanical linkage behaves differently to the chemical
cell, and this causes an unwanted error. The linkage error is not seen on a
conventional discharge test or when doing only a resistance check, but it
interferes with higher end rapid-test methods involving excitation signals that
look at many variables.
In addition to the resistance of interlinking cells, each cell in a multi-cell
pack responds differently to the excitation signals. As the pack ages, these
characteristics begin to diverge; QuickTest™ looks at the average of all cells
combined. QuickTest™ only works effectively with nickel-based batteries, Li-
ion and lead acid systems uses different rapid-test technologies.

Testing Lithium-based Batteries

With the large number of lithium-ion batteries in use and the applications
growing, a functional rapid-testing method is becoming a necessity. Several
attempts have been tried, including measuring internal resistance, and the results
have been mixed. Additives keep the internal resistance of modern Li-ion low
throughout most of the life, making ohmic tests unreliable.
Electrochemical dynamic response, the method QuickSort™ uses, measures
the mobility of ion flow between the electrodes. Based on time domain analysis
by applying brief load pulses, the response time on attack and recovery is
measured; an algorithm computes the results and compares them against a set of
parameters. As seen in Figure 9-22, a good battery resists the attack and recovers
quickly whereas the impact of a weaker battery is larger and the recovery is
slower.

Figure 9-22: Electrochemical dynamic response.

The electrochemical dynamic response measures the ion flow between the positive and negative plates. A
strong battery recovers quickly from an attack whereas a weaker pack behaves more sluggishly.
U.S. Patent 7,622,929; courtesy of Cadex

Lithium-ion batteries have different diffusion rates. In terms of

electrochemical dynamic response, Li-ion polymer with gelled electrolyte is
found to be faster than standard Li-ion and needs modified parameters to achieve
accuracy. Unique active materials and additives that are kept top secret by
battery manufacturers complicate the test procedure.
Cadex devoted much effort to testing small single Li-ion cell in mobile
phones. The objective is to also test larger Li-ion in multi-cell configuration over
a broad range of state-of-charge, which involves combining a time domain test
with a frequency domain.
When scanning a battery from kilohertz down to millihertz in frequency
domain mode, the high frequency range called migration reveals the resistive
qualities of a battery that present a bird’s-eye view of the landscape. However,
the unique characteristics of Li-ion lie in the mid-frequency range called charge
transfer and the low range dubbed diffusion. Batteries with faded capacity suffer
from low charge transfer and slow active Li-ion diffusion.
Evaluating batteries at sub one-hertz frequency would require prolonged
test times. At one millihertz, for example, one cycle takes 1,000 seconds, or 16
minutes, and several data points are required to complete the analysis. Rapid-
tests should only last a few seconds and not longer than 5 minutes. With clever
software simulation, the duration can be shortened to fall within the desired short
test time.
In Figure 9-23, a good battery and a faded battery are scanned from 0.1Hz
to 1kHz. The difference in impedance (-Im -Z) is strongest between 1Hz and
10Hz. It should be noted that capturing resistive readings alone has limited value
as state-of-charge (SoC) and temperature also affect the signature and muddle
SoH references. Furthermore, different Li-ion architectures and how the battery
has aged also affect the results. Natural aging produces a different signature than
artificial aging and the reason for this discrepancy is not fully understood.
Figure 9-23: Frequency scan of good and weak mobile phone batteries.
Impedance variances are most visible below 10Hz. The horizontal scale is logarithmic to condense the
frequency range.
Courtesy of Cadex

Figure 9-24 divides the scanned battery results as delivered by the Nyquist
plot into migration, charge transfer and diffusion. Migration derived at high
frequency on the left provides the resistive characteristics of a battery; the all-
important charge transfer in the middle forms a semi-circle that represents the
kinetics of the battery; and the low frequency part on the right represents
diffusion.
Figure 9-24: The Nyquist plot is divided into high, mid and low frequency sections.
The mid-frequency semi-circle signifies battery best. Larger batteries require lower frequencies.
Courtesy of Cadex

Li-ion shares similarities with lead acid; the Spectro™ technology that is
used to measure the capacity of lead acid batteries will also be able to service Li-
ion.

Summary
No rapid-test can evaluate all battery symptoms; there are always outliers that
defy the test protocol. Correct prediction should be 9 out of 10. QuickSort™
exceeds this requirement with most Li-ion packs used in mobile phones, but the
technology only tests single-cell packs up to 1,500mAh. New technologies in
development promise to test larger Li-ion packs, but this may extend the test to a
few minutes to accommodate low frequency sampling.
Capacity is the gate keeper to battery health, and rapid-test technologies
with capacity estimation also enhance battery management systems (BMS). Such
rapid-test technologies can be included in chargers to evaluate the integrity of
the battery with each charge by giving the green ready light only if the set target
capacity is met; low capacity batteries are shown the backdoor. This provides
quality control without adding an extra layer of overhead.
Battery Management System
Many batteries are equipped with a state-of-charge (SoC) gauge that shows the
remaining charge. While this is helpful, the readout is incomplete without also
tracking the capacity as the battery fades. The user may be accustomed to a
battery that delivers full capacity, but this condition is temporary and cannot be
maintained. Capacity is the primary indicator of battery state-of-health (SoH)
and should be part of the battery management system (BMS). Knowing SoC and
SoH provides state-of-function (SoF), the ultimate confidence of readiness, but
technology to provide this information in an effective way is still being
improved.
Building a better BMS is a challenge when considering that we still lack a
dependable method to read state-of-charge, the most basic measure of a battery.
Folks are familiar with dispensing and measuring liquid fuel, but reading the
remaining energy in a battery is more complex. While a fuel tank has a fixed
dimension and delivers fuel that can be measured with great accuracy, an
electrochemical storage system reduces its size and the energy units of in- and
out-flowing coulombs cannot be assessed with great accuracy as the battery
ages.
The BMS also provides protection when charging and discharging; it
disconnects the battery if set limits are exceeded or if a failure occurs.
Established BMS standards are the SMBus (System Management Bus) used for
mostly portable applications, as well as the CAN Bus (Controller Area Network)
and the simpler LIN Bus (Local Interconnect Network) for automotive use.
Stationary batteries were among the first to include supervisory systems,
and the most basic is monitoring of individual cells. Some systems also include
cell temperature and current measurement. Recording a slight difference in cell
temperature hints to a problem, and measuring the voltage drop of each cell at a
given load reveals cell resistance. Dry-out, corrosion, plate separation, and other
malfunctions can thus be identified.
Although the BMS is effective in detecting anomalies, capacity fade, the
most predictable health indicator, is difficult to estimate because voltage and
internal resistance are commonly not affected. The ability to read capacity fade
from 100 to 70 percent would be valuable, but most BMS cannot do this
effectively, and the battery might be given a clean bill of health even if the
capacity has dropped to 50 percent. Most BMS only respond to anomalies that
lie outside capacity estimation, such as voltage differences among cells caused
by cell imbalances and a change in internal resistance.
Some industrial and medical device manufacturers use a date stamp to
determine the end of battery life, others observe the cycle count. While counting
cycles may be simplistic, no convention exists that defines a cycle, and some
systems simply call it a cycle when the battery is charged. Date stamping has
similar shortcomings in that it promotes premature replacement of batteries that
are seldom used, while the heavy hitters may stay in service too long. To reduce
risk of failure, authorities mandate early replacement, and a 2-year service life is
common. Prolonged storage will give the batteries a very short working life.
Biomedical engineers are aware that most batteries are replaced too soon.
iPhone owners have complained that their smartphones show 100 percent charge
when the battery is only 90 percent charged. Even military leaders say that their
battery arsenal for combat is so poor that many soldiers carry rocks instead of
batteries. Effective battery management is either missing or is inadequate. Over-
expectations with BMS are common, and the user is stunned when stranded
without battery power.
Let’s look at how a BMS works, note the shortcomings and examine up-
and-coming technologies that could change the way batteries are monitored.
A BMS takes the imprint of the “chemical battery” during charge and
discharge and establishes the “digital battery” that communicates with the user.
Figure 9-25 illustrates the battery components consisting of stored energy, the
empty portion that can be refilled and the inactive part that is permanently lost.
Rated capacity refers to the manufacturer’s specified capacity in Ah (ampere-
hours) that is only valid when the battery is new; available capacity designates
the true energy storage capability derived by deducting the inactive part. State-
of-charge (SoC) refers to the stored energy, which also includes the inactive part.

Figure 9-25: Three parts of a battery.

A battery consists of stored energy, the empty portion that can be recharged and the inactive portion that is
permanently lost due to aging.
Courtesy of Cadex

A BMS is programmed to a rated capacity, and it measures the in-and-out

flowing coulombs that relate to the available capacity. As the capacity drops, the
coulomb count decreases, and this discrepancy enables capacity estimation. The
most accurate readings are possible when counting the coulombs from a fully
discharged battery during a complete charge or when discharging a fully charged
battery to the cutoff point. Such clean starts are seldom possible, and real-life
capacity estimations get muddled over time.
A BMS sets flags when receiving a full discharge and charge. During a rest
period, an advanced BMS may also calculate SoC on hand of the stable open
circuit voltage and begin counting the coulombs during charge and discharge
from that vantage point. Some BMS also look at voltage recovery after removing
a load to estimate SoC and/or SoH.

Battery Sensing by Voltage, Current, Temperature

The old Volkswagen Beetle had minimal battery problems. Its battery
management system applied charge to the battery and burned the overcharge
energy while cruising on a resistor through a relay-operated regulator. The car
had no parasitic loads when parked.
Since then, modern vehicles have been inundated with on-board electronics
to enhance safety, convenience, comfort and pleasure; features no one knew
were needed. For the accessories to function reliably, the state-of-charge of the
battery must be known at all times. This is especially critical with start-stop
technology that is being adopted worldwide.
When the engine of a start-stop car is off at a red light, the battery draws
25–50 amperes to feed the lights, ventilators, windshield wipers and other
accessories. The battery must have enough charge to crank the engine, which
requires an additional 350A for a brief moment. When the engine runs again and
the car accelerates to the posted speed limit, the battery only begins charging
after a 10-second delay. The deferral allows all energy to channel to vehicle
acceleration. When back in charge mode, the lead acid battery is notoriously
slow in charging.
To provide vital battery information, luxury cars are fitted with a battery
sensor that measures voltage, current and temperature. Figure 9-26 illustrates the
electronic battery monitor (EBM) packaged in a small housing that forms part of
the positive battery clamp.
Figure 9-26: Battery sensor for starter battery.
The sensor reads voltage, current and temperature to estimate state- of-charge and detect anomalies;
capacity assessment is not possible.

The EBM works well when the battery is new but most sensors do not
adjust correctly to aging. The SoC accuracy of a new battery is about +/-10
percent. With aging, the EBM begins to drift and the accuracy can drop to 20
percent and higher. This is in part connected to capacity fade, a value most BMS
cannot estimate effectively. It is not an oversight by engineers; they fully
understand the complexities and shortcomings involved.
A typical start-stop vehicle goes through about 2,000 micro cycles per year.
Such a strain would reduce the capacity of a standard starter battery to about 60
percent and carmakers use different battery systems that include AGM and the
advanced lead-carbon. (See “New Lead Acid Systems” on page 51 and “How
Heat and Loading Affect Battery Life” on page 244.)
Automakers want to ensure that no driver gets stranded in traffic with a
dead battery. To conserve energy, modern cars turn off unnecessary accessories
when the battery is low on charge and the motor stays on at stoplights. Even with
this measure, the state-of-charge can remain low if commuting in gridlock traffic
because an idling motor does not provide much charge to the battery. With lights,
windshield wipers and electric heating elements engaged, there could be a net
discharge.
Battery monitoring is also important on hybrid vehicles to optimize charge
levels. Intelligent charge management prevents overcharge and avoids deep
discharge. When the charge level is low, the internal combustion engine (ICE)
engages earlier than normal and is left running longer for additional charge. On a
fully charged battery the ICE turns off and the car moves on electric energy in
slow traffic.
An EV driver expects similar accuracies in energy reserve to what is
possible with a fuel-powered vehicle but current technology does not allow this.
To compensate, the EV battery is overrated and the fuel gauge is adjusted to
preserve extra energy when the charge drops low, covering for inaccuracies. The
EV driver is advised not to let the charge go too low but to charge more often. A
mid-charger range is best for the battery.
The EV driver also anticipates the same driving range as the car ages. This
is not possible and the drivable distance gets shorter with each passing year, but
the BMS makes allowances. A new battery may only charge to about 80 percent
and discharge to 30 percent. As the capacity fades, the bandwidth gradually
increases, providing similar driving ranges as a new battery would. The
distances traveled will be noticeably shorter when driving in cold temperatures
because of reduced battery performance and once the battery has aged beyond
the energy compensation band of the BMS. (See also “Electric Vehicle” on page
312.)

Adding Capacity Estimations to the BMS

The EBM has limitations in that it cannot estimate capacity effectively. This can
be overcome by adding capacity estimations. (See “How to Measure Capacity”
on page 275.) Figure 9-27 shows a BMS with common sensing points to which
the ability to measure capacity has been added. Spectro™ stands for
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) with complex modeling. This
converts a simple battery sensor to the state-of-function (SoF) level.
Figure 9-27: Spectro-BMS™ adds capacity as key element to estimate battery state-of-health.
Courtesy of Cadex

Knowing SoF improves battery validation, but some device manufacturers

refuse to reveal capacity readings to a consumer that are less than 100 percent,
especially during the warranty period. To conceal unwanted information, the
data can be made code-accessible for service personnel use only. (See also “Fuel
Gauge” on page 180.)
Consumer concerns put aside, SoF signifies a momentous improvement to
BMS in terms of battery reliability as it tracks capacity fade and calculates the
true runtime on the available energy. Capacity-based BMS will also predict
eventual replacement, an issue that cannot be fully satisfied with current BMS
technologies. Future BMS will combine the information of the “digital battery”
with that of the “chemical battery” to provide reliable SoF data through
advanced learn algorithms.

Battery Test Equipment

The energy a battery holds can be measured with a battery analyzer by applying
a full discharge. The battery is first charged and then discharged at a controlled
current while measuring the time to reach the end-of-discharge point. A capacity
of 100 percent delivers the specified Ah; 50 percent is shown if the discharge
time is cut in half.
Measuring capacity by discharge gives the most reliable assessment, a
method that is most effective with portable batteries. A periodic analysis ensures
that the batteries are kept within an acceptable performance range and prompts
replacement if the capacity is below a required target threshold and can no
longer be raised. Larger batteries are normally not cycled as this is time-
consuming and stresses the battery. That’s where non-invasive test methods
come in.
Progress is being made with rapid-testing, but this only provides estimated
state-of-health results and the accuracies vary with the technology used. While
older rapid-test methods measured the internal battery resistance, advanced
rapid-test methods look at diffusion, charge transfer and migration that are
present in Li-ion and lead acid batteries
Technicians are most comfortable testing a battery with a voltmeter;
anything further goes beyond the routine for many. Chemistry, voltage and Ah
markings on the battery are often not well understood, nor are maintenance folks
sure what to look for in a battery. Many portable packs have multiple
connections with unclear markings. Hesitation is understandable as batteries
come in many chemistries and vary in size from a coin to installations filling an
entire building. A voltage reading gives instant results by showing that
something is alive and a brief loading verifies power, but this does not assure
sustained delivery that is so critical in a battery.

Battery Analyzer
Battery analyzers became popular in the 1980s and 1990s to restore nickel-
cadmium batteries that were affected by “memory.” Today these workhorses are
used to analyze a broad range of batteries as part of fleet management and
assuring system integrity. Periodic battery analysis is needed because batteries
tend to have a shorter life than the host it powers. Battery analyzers act as
gatekeepers to retire packs when they fall below a set performance criteria.
Figure 9-28 illustrates a Cadex C7000 Series battery analyzer that
accommodates lead-, nickel- and lithium-based batteries. The instrument
features automated service programs and operates in stand-alone mode or with
PC software.
Figure 9-28: Cadex C7400ER battery analyzer.
Four-station analyzers service batteries from 1.2 to 36V and 6A charge and discharge currents. The batteries
interface with custom battery adapters that configure the analyzer to the correct setting.
Courtesy of Cadex

The most common program is Auto that charges a battery, applies a

discharge to measure capacity and completes the program with a final charge.
Other programs include Custom to put the battery through a unique choice of
charge, discharge, wait and repeat. The Lifecycle program cycles the battery
until the capacity has dropped to the preset target capacity while counting the
cycles. This program is used to evaluate battery durability. OhmTest™ measures
the internal battery resistance and Runtime discharges a battery at three different
current levels to simulate unique usage patterns. QuickSort™ sorts lithium-ion
batteries into Good, Low and Poor in 30 seconds, and Boost reactivates packs
that have fallen asleep due to over-discharge. Further programs include Self-
Discharge to test losses and Prime, which cycles a battery until the maximum
capacity is reached. Prime also verifies the spare capacity before charge.
Connecting various shapes of batteries to an analyzer has always been a
challenge, and folks have designed fancy contraptions with springs and levers so
complicated that only the inventor can operate. There are no simple ways to
connect a battery, especially when servicing small packs with tiny surface
contacts or smart batteries with numerous blade contacts.
Cadex solved the battery interface with SnapLock™ adapters. These
custom-made adapters are easy to use as they are designed for a given battery
type; they only go in one way. Each adapter stores up to 10 codes (C-codes) that
configures the analyzer to the correct setting. The user can edit the parameters
with the analyzer’s menu function or with the PC-BatteryShop™ software. The
universal adapters interface to specialty packs, such as mobile phone batteries;
larger batteries connect by the user-programmable Smart Cable.

PC Software
A battery analyzer would not be complete without intuitive software. PC-
BatteryShop™ provides a simple yet powerful PC interface to control and
monitor Cadex C7000 Series battery analyzers. With software, the PC becomes
the command center and displays charge and discharge characteristics in real
time. Clicking the mouse on any of the 3,000 batteries listed in the database or
swiping the bar code on the battery label configures the analyzer. Figure 9-29
demonstrates such a system.

Figure 9-29: PC-BatteryShop™ software takes over the control of the battery analyzers. Programming is
by clicking on a listed battery in the database or by scanning the battery label.
Courtesy of Cadex
 Smart batteries enable a new level of battery analysis by reading the battery
serial number, model, type and age, as well as the digital equivalent of the
capacity, which reflects battery state-of-health without applying a full discharge.
A full discharge will still be needed occasionally to verify and calibrate the
battery. (See also “Processing Data from a Smart Battery” on page 185.)

Battery Test Systems

While battery analyzers check batteries in service and predict replacement,
battery test systems provide multi-purpose test functions for research
laboratories. Typical applications are life-cycle testing to simulate battery
loading and verifying durability in the field, as well as checking cell balance of a
multi-cell pack in field simulation. These tests can be fully automated with a
custom program that the user composes.
Figure 9-30 illustrates the Cadex C8000, a battery test system that captures
load signatures of mobile phones, laptops and power tools, and then applies the
simulated loads to verify battery runtime as if used in real-life situations. The
device is capable of monitoring individual cells with the help of floating analog
inputs. The Dual Power Port Cable extends the discharge current from 10A per
station to 20A by parallel function. Higher wattage is possible by connecting the
C8000 to an external load bank. The system also manages environmental
chambers and reads SMBus batteries while being in full control of all functions
from one central point.
Figure 9-30: Cadex C8000 Battery Test System.
Four independent channels provide up to 10A each and 36V. Maximum charge power is 400W; discharge is
320W.
Courtesy of Cadex

Being digital provides advantages over analog by offering a large test range
in compact housing. This eliminates the need to buy extra modules to perform
low and high voltage and current measurements. Another advantage is ultimate
immunity from neighboring channels. The limitation is the inability to measure
extremely low voltage and current that would be possible on specialty modules.
The C8000 works as a stand-alone or with PC-BatteryLab™ operating up to
eight C8000 analyzers, servicing 32 batteries independently (with most PCs).
A battery test system, such as the Cadex C8000, includes many redundant
safety algorithms that identify a faulty battery and terminate a service before an
unwanted event could occur. Such security may not be available when using a
programmable power supply and a programmable load to test batteries.
Although an open platform offers great flexibility, it requires careful
programming to prevent stress to the battery, inflicting possible damage or fire if
an anomaly occurs. For destructive tests, the safeguards of the C8000 can be
overridden.

How to Repair a Battery Pack

Batteries for power tools and other commercial devices can often be repaired by
replacing one or all cells. Finding a replacement cell in NiMH is relatively easy;
locating an appropriate Li-ion cell to repair a pack is more difficult. Brand-name
Li-ion cells are not readily available because a reputable battery manufacturer
will only sell to certified pack assemblers in higher volume. (See “Building a
Lithium-ion Pack” on page 111.)
When repairing a Li-ion pack, make certain that each cell is properly
reconnected to a protection circuit. All Li-ion batteries must have a protection
circuit. Some single-cell and power-tool packs may have simplified circuits;
lead- and nickel-based batteries are exempt.
While the classic lead- and nickel-based batteries share similarities in terms
of cell voltage, the lithium-ion family diverges and some have different voltages.
The typical Li-ion has a nominal cell voltage of 3.6V and charges to 4.2V, some
specialty Li-ion charge to 4.1V and newer Energy Cells top at 4.35V/cell and
higher. Li-phosphate is an exception with a nominal cell voltage of 3.2V and a
charge limit of 3.65V/cell. Also unique is Li-titanate with a nominal cell voltage
of 2.4V and a charge limit of 2.85V.
Besides diversity in chemistry, cobalt-based Li-ion comes in the high-
capacity Energy Cell for moderate loads and the Power Cell for high currents
with less capacity. When replacing the cells of a power tool battery, use Power
Cells with identical specifications; laptops, e-bikes, etc. use the Energy Cell.
There are also hybrid cells that satisfy both applications.
Do not go cheap on the cells by sourcing them from an unrecognized
manufacturer. Failing pack performances are often traced to inferior cells, and
this also applies to the popular 18650 Li-ion format. One hears repeatedly of
companies that took advantage of marked-down prices from a clearing house,
only to have the packs fail after 2–3 years because of high cell failure.
If a relatively new pack has only one defective cell and a suitable
replacement cell on hand, then exchanging the affected cell makes sense. With
an aged battery, however, it’s best to replace all cells. Mixing new with old
causes a cell mismatch that will lead to a short life. In a well-matched battery
pack, all cells have similar capacities and the weakest link in a chain determines
the performance. (See “Series and Parallel Connection” on page 100.)
Cells designed for a multi-cell pack require tighter tolerances than those for
single-cell use, such as a mobile phone. Cell manufacturers cannot fully control
the process, and some cells will have higher capacities than others. Such a
discrepancy won’t be noticed by the user in a single-cell device but uniformity is
important in a multi-cell pack.
A battery shop may salvage good cells from a failed pack for reuse but the
recovered cell must be checked for capacity, internal resistance and self-
discharge; the three key health indicators of a battery. When checking a cell with
a battery analyzer, mark the capacity so the value can be matched with a pack
that might need a cell of similar capacity. Also, make certain that the internal
resistance is on par with a good cell and then verify self-discharge. Elevated self-
discharge points to a cell with high electro-mechanical stress. To check self-
discharge, the open circuit voltage of a fully charged Li-ion cells should be
within +/-5mV after 24-hours.
Visitors of BatteryUniversity.com frequently ask: “Can NiCd can be
replaced with NiMH?” In theory, this should be possible as both chemistries
have the same cell voltage, but full-charge detection and trickle charge have
different demands. NiMH uses a more refined charge algorithm than NiCd. A
modern NiMH charger can charge both NiMH and NiCd; the old NiCd charger
could overcharge NiMH by not properly detecting full charge and applying a
trickle charge that is too high. Unless otherwise marked, each chemistry requires
its own charger.
Spot-welding a cell is the only reliable way to get dependable connection.
Limit the heat transfer to the cells during welding to prevent damage. Insulate
each cell electrically as the skin carries a voltage and is conductive. If the new
cell is at a different charge level than the existing cell, apply a slow charge to
bring them all to the same level. Observe the temperature during charging.
Nickel-based cells will warm up towards the end of charge but must cool down
after switching to ready; Li-ion should stay cool during charge. The rise in
temperature should be equal for all cells; unevenness hints at an anomaly.
Measure the voltage of a repaired pack and check it after 24 hours and then
again after a few days, if possible. If an OCV drops lower than observed in
another pack of the same model, then there is fear of elevated self-discharge.
(See “Elevated Self-discharge” on page 224.)

How to Repair a Laptop Battery

Most laptop batteries are smart and consist of a “chemical battery” that is
managed by a “digital battery.” A common protocol is the System Management
Bus, better known as SMBus.
The typical SMBus battery has five or more battery connections consisting
of positive and negative battery terminals, thermistor, clock and data. The
connections are often unmarked; however, the positive and negative are
commonly located at the outer edges of the connector and the inner contacts
accommodate the clock and data. (The one-wire system combines clock and
data.) For safety reasons, a separate thermistor wire is brought to the outside.
Figure 9-31 illustrates a battery with six connections.
Figure 9-31: Terminal connection of a typical laptop battery.
The positive and negative terminals are usually placed on the outside; no norm exists on the arrangement of
the other contacts.
Courtesy of Cadex

Some batteries are equipped with a solid-state switch that is normally in the
OFF position and no voltage is present at the battery terminals. Connecting the
switch terminal to ground or pulling it up often turns the battery on. If this does
not work, the pack may need a code for activation. Battery manufacturers keep
these proprietary codes a well-guarded secret to which even service personnel
have no access.
Use a voltmeter to locate the positive and negative battery terminals and
establish the polarity. If no voltage is present, a solid-state switch may be in the
OFF position and need activating. Connect the voltmeter to the outer terminals,
take a 100-ohm resistor (other values may also work), tie one end to ground and
with the other end touch each terminal while observing the voltmeter. Repeat by
tying the resistor to the positive voltage potential. If there is no response, then it
is possible that the battery is dead or locked by a code. The 100-ohm resistor is
low enough to engage a digital circuit and high enough to protect the battery
against a possible electrical short.
Establishing the connection to the battery terminals should now enable
charging. If the charge current stops after 30 seconds, an activation code may be
required. Some battery manufacturers add an end of battery life switch that turns
the battery off when reaching a certain age or cycle count. They argue that
customer satisfaction and safety can only be guaranteed by regularly replacing
the battery. Mind you, such a policy also rotates inventory.
If at all possible, connect the thermistor during charging and discharging to
protect the battery against possible overheating. Use an ohmmeter to locate the
internal thermistor. The most common thermistors are 10 Kilo Ohm NTC, which
reads 10kΩ at 20°C (68°F). NTC stands for negative temperature coefficient,
meaning that the resistance decreases with rising temperature. In comparison, a
positive temperature coefficient (PTC) causes the resistance to increase.
Warming the battery with your hand is sufficient to detect a small change in
resistor value when looking for the correct terminal on the battery.
After repair, the fuel gauge might not work, may be inaccurate, or may
provide wrong information. The battery may need some sort of an
initialization/calibration process by fully charging and discharging the pack to
reset the flags. A “flag” is a measuring point to mark and record an event. (See
“Calibration” on page 182.)
The circuits of some smart batteries must be kept “alive” during the
replacement of the cells. Disconnecting the voltage for only a fraction of a
second can erase vital data in the memory. An analogy is open-heart surgery
where doctors must keep all organs of the patient alive. The lost data could
contain the resistor value of the digitized shunt that is responsible for the
coulomb counter and other data.
To assure continued operation when changing the cells, supply a secondary
voltage of same voltage level through a 100-ohm resistor to the circuit before
disconnection. Remove the outside supply only after the circuit receives voltage
again from the new cells. Furthermore, some fuel gauge chips run wires to each
cell. These must be reassembled in the correct sequence beginning with cell one,
then two, then three and so forth.
You will also need to be aware of compliance issues. Unlike other regulated
standards, the SMBus allows variations, and this can cause problems. The
repaired SMBus battery should be checked for compatibility with the charger.
Batteries for critical uses, such as healthcare, are typically replaced and not
repaired. (See also www.sbs-forum.org and www.acpi.info.)

Simple Guidelines when Repairing Battery Packs

1. Only connect cells that are matched in capacity. Do not mix cells of
different chemistries.
2. Never charge or discharge Li-ion batteries unattended without a working
protection circuit. Each cell must be monitored individually with a
protection circuit.
3. Include a temperature sensor that disrupts the charge current on high
heat.
4. Apply a slow charge to a repaired pack to bring all cells to parity.
5. Pay attention when using an unknown brand. Elevated temperature hints
at an anomaly.
6. Li-ion is sensitive to reverse polarization. Observe correct polarity.
7. Do not charge a Li-ion battery that has physical damage, has bulged or
has dwelled at a voltage of less than 1.5V/cell for some time.
8. Check a repaired pack for self-discharge. Intrinsic defects often have
high self-discharge.

How to Service Mobile Phone Batteries

Smartphones draw more power than a cell phone, and the runtime can be shorter
even with a larger battery because transmitting data uses roughly twice the
energy of talking. The battery in many handsets is the only replaceable part and
it gets the blame when the expected runtime cannot be met. In the absence of
point-of-sale battery testing, the packs are often replaced, only to have the
problem recur.
Storefront battery testers check the battery in about 5 minutes with rapid-
test methods. Most are compact single-bay units that are simple to operate
(Figure 9-32). With PC, advanced analyzers print service reports, store customer
information and connect to the Internet.

Figure 9-32: Cadex C5100 evaluates state-of-health of lithium-ion batteries.

The analyzer rapid-tests, charges and cycles batteries. The RigidArm™ adapter allows easy interface to
cellular batteries. QuickSort™ tests batteries in 5 minutes.
Courtesy of Cadex

Storefront testing gives a customer a clear assessment of the battery

performance. Short runtimes could be caused by the device drawing excess
current due to location or an intrinsic fault. Knowing the limitations of the
battery satisfies the user and ends the suspicion that the pack might be at fault.
Testing also saves money as only faded packs are replaced.
 Figure 9-33 illustrates a storefront service model that tests a battery while
the customer waits. If the battery is low on charge, a store clerk may ask the
customer to browse in the store while giving the battery a quick charge, but if the
pack has a genuine fault, an alternate pack can be given from a pool of
previously tested batteries. These pre-tested packs have proven to be as reliable
as new ones.

Figure 9-33: Storefront service.

Batteries are serviced while the customer waits. A faulty pack is replaced from a pool of previously serviced
batteries. Storefront testing reduces handling, lessens disposal and improves customer satisfaction.
Courtesy of Cadex

Hooking up the battery needs some skill as mobile phone batteries have
typically three or four contacts. The battery’s positive [+] terminal is normally at
the outer edge and the negative [–] is towards the inside. The third contact is the
thermistor, which monitors battery temperature. For a quick test, the thermistor
does not need to be hooked up. The fourth contact, if available, provides a code
for battery identification. Figure 9-34 illustrates typical contact positioning.

Figure 9-34: Typical contacts on a cellular battery.

The positive [+] is normally at the outer right and the negative [–] is on the inside. Most batteries have a
thermistor; some also offer a code.
Courtesy of Cadex

To allow quick and easy testing of batteries, Cadex developed the

RigidArm™ (Figure 9-35) that is compatible with most Cadex battery analyzers.
This universal adapter features spring-loaded arms that meet the battery contacts
from the top down and apply the correct pressure to the electrical contacts.
Lockable mechanisms allow quick and repetitive testing of the same type of
batteries. The retractable floor holds the battery in a vertical position, and
magnetic guides keep the battery in place if laid horizontally. A temperature
sensor monitors the battery during the test for added safety.
Some smartphones no longer provide access to the battery. In the fast
evolving consumer market, device manufacturers reckon that a battery lasts as
long as the device and glass breakage is likely the most common failure of a
smartphone. However, service centers still need to check the batteries and
adapters are available to test mobile phone batteries for Apple, Samsung and
other similar products at the service level.
Figure 9-35: RigidArm™ for cellular batteries.
The universal adapter simplifies the interface with small batteries. The adapter holds 10 of the most
commonly used mAh ratings and is compatible with Cadex battery analyzers.
Courtesy of Cadex

How to Maintain Fleet Batteries

Battery maintenance keeps batteries within a given performance standard and
schedules replacement when the capacity drops below a set target. This utilizes
each pack for its fully intended life without fear of unexpected downtime; it also
enacts a solid replacement procedure. Device manufacturers support battery
maintenance because it eliminates under-performing batteries and reduces the
number of devices being sent for repair. Well-performing batteries reflect
positively on the equipment; a win-win situation for all parties.
Rechargeable batteries do not die suddenly but gradually get weaker with
time. A service every 3 months or so offers plenty of assurance that all batteries
meet the required capacity and last through the shift with extra energy to spare.
One of the simplest systems of battery maintenance is attaching a label that
displays the last service, the due date, the capacity and the internal resistance.
Figure 9-36 illustrates such a label. The system is self-governing in that a
prudent user only picks a battery that has been serviced and meets the capacity
requirements. Expired packs are analyzed, and when meeting the capacity
requirements, they are relabeled and returned to service. Batteries that have
slipped below the target capacity threshold are replaced or assigned to a less
demanding use.

Figure 9-36: Sample of removable battery label.

The label shows battery information at a glance with service and service due dates.

Figures 9-37 to 9-39 illustrate the battery label system involving [1]
identifying batteries that are due for service, [2] analyzing and recertifying them
upon meeting the requirements and [3] returning the qualified batteries to service
while replacing the faded packs with new units.

Figure 9-37: Sorting batteries for servicing.

When taking a battery from the charger, the user checks the service date, and if expired, the battery is
placed in the “To be serviced” box.

Figure 9-38: Servicing expired batteries.

The analyzers service the batteries and recondition them if low in capacity (only nickel-based batteries
receive recondition). Passing batteries are relabeled showing capacity and the next service date.
Figure 9-39: Reinstating batteries.
The failed batteries are removed from service and replaced with new packs. The new and serviced batteries
go back into service by being charged.
All figures courtesy of Cadex

Setting up a battery maintenance system requires a battery analyzer that can

print battery stick-on labels. The analyzer should also offer a program that
automatically applies a corrective service if certain parameter thresholds cannot
be met. Cadex analyzers satisfy these requirements and offer target capacity
selection to establish the minimum performance criteria.
Most fleet operations use a capacity threshold of 80 percent as the battery
pass/fail criterion. Increasing the threshold to 85 percent tightens the
performance tolerance but passes fewer batteries; lowering the settings extends
service life but relaxes the performance standards. When choosing the target
capacity setting, the organization must ensure that the lowest performing battery
is still able to fulfill its assigned duty. This can be done by examining the spare
capacity after a busy day. (See “How to Verify Sufficient Battery Capacity” on
page 174.)
Another maintenance method is labeling each battery with a permanent ID
number. The printer that is part of PC-BatteryShop™ (Cadex) generates these
labels in bar code format. To service a battery, the user scans the label, which
configures the analyzer to the service parameters and retrieves historic
performance data for review. Besides service dates and capacity readings,
purchasing date, vendor information and pricing can also be entered. Figure 9-40
illustrates the battery scan, service and data examination.
Figure 9-40: Fleet battery management.
Labeling each battery with a unique number simplifies battery service. Swiping the barcode label reveals
the history of the battery.
Courtesy of Cadex

Smart batteries have the ability to store delivered performance taken by

coulomb counting during discharge and charge. This data can be utilized with
reasonable accuracy to estimate battery capacity without applying a full
discharge cycle. (See “Processing Data from a Smart Battery” on page 185.)
Occasional full discharges will still be needed to calibrate the battery.
Maintenance for critical systems can be shared on the cloud. Such a system
oversees the performance of fleet batteries and assists in the budgeting to replace
packs that have fallen below the target capacity. This enables a fully transparent
battery maintenance system, virtually eliminating failures caused by
underperforming batteries.
 Part Three

Battery as Power Source



Fossil fuel produces 12,000Wh of

energy per kilogram; a battery holds
120Wh per kilogram. Even with the
low efficiency of a combustion engine,
fossil fuel delivers 30 times more
energy than lithium-ion.
 Chapter 10 | Amazing Value of the Battery

Batteries in Industry
Consumers are the first to hear about an apparent battery breakthrough. To get
top media attention, the new super battery promises to also satisfy the need for
electric vehicle (EV). Personal mobility is an emotional issue that cannot be
suppressed, even if it harms the environment. The industrial space, on the other
hand, is more conservative and it appears to lag behind. Not so. Industry is
rational and understands the many constraints of the battery by focusing on
reliability, economy, longevity and safety.

Batteries for Traction

Wheelchairs, scooters and golf cars mostly use lead acid batteries. Even though
heavy, lead acid works reasonably well and only moderate attempts are made to
switch to other systems. Li-ion will be a natural alternative in many applications.
Although Li-ion is more expensive than lead acid, the cycle cost can be
lower because of the longer life. A further advantage of Li-ion over lead- and
nickel-based batteries is the low maintenance. Li-ion can be left at any state-of-
charge without adverse side effects. In contrast, NiCd and NiMH need an
occasional full discharge to prevent memory and lead acid requires a saturated
charge to prevent sulfation.
Most wheelchairs and golf cars are still powered with lead acid, so are
forklifts. With forklifts, the heavy weight is less of an issue, but the long
charging time is a disadvantage for warehouses operating 24 hours a day. Some
forklifts are fitted with fuel cells that charge the battery while the vehicle is in
use. The battery can be made smaller but not eliminated because the fuel cell has
poor power delivery and has a sluggish ramp-up on demand; the battery remains
the primary power source.
The heavier the wheeled application is, the less suitable the battery
becomes. This does not prevent engineers from looking into large battery
systems to replace the polluting internal combustion engine (ICE). One such
application is the Automatic Guided Vehicle (AGV) system at ship ports. AGVs
run 24 hours a day, so the vehicles cannot be tied up for lengthy charging
intervals. Li-ion solves this in part by replacing the very large 10-ton, 300kWh
lead acid with a battery that is lighter and can be charged more quickly.
No economical battery solution exists yet for large traction systems and
burning fossil fuel cannot be fully avoided. While a modern Li-ion battery
delivers about 150Wh/kg of energy, the net calorific value (NCV) of fossil fuel is
over 12,000Wh/kg. Even at the low 25-percent efficiency of an ICE engine, the
energy from a battery is fractional compared to fossil fuel. Furthermore, the ICE
can operate in extreme cold and heat, a task the battery struggles to meet.

Batteries for Aviation

The duty of batteries on board an aircraft is to feed navigation and emergency
systems when the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) is off or during an emergency in
flight. The battery provides power for braking, ground operation and starting the
APU. In the event of engine failure, the batteries must supply energy from 30
minutes to 3 hours. Each aircraft must also have enough battery power to
facilitate a safe landing. During flight, the electrical power is supplied by
generators and, similar to a car, the on-board battery could be disconnected if so
required.
Most commercial jetliners use flooded nickel-cadmium. Starting a large
aircraft begins by spooling the APU, a small turbine engine located at the tail
section of an airplane. This takes significantly longer and requires more energy
than cranking a reciprocating engine of similar size. The spooling speed of the
APU must be sufficiently high to attain compression for self-sustained ignition.
Starting takes about 15 seconds and consumes 15kW of energy. Once running,
an air compressor or hydraulic pump jumpstarts the large jet engines one-by-one.
Smaller aircraft often have sealed lead-acid. Although heavier than NiCd,
lead acid requires less maintenance. The 12 and 24V aviation batteries are rated
in IPP (current peak power)* and IPR (current power rating)** rather than CCA
(cold cranking amps) as is common in the automotive industry. IPP and IPR are
the International Electrotechnical Commission standard for aircraft batteries that
allow a battery to spool an engine for 25–40 seconds at high current.
Modern jet fighters spool the jet engines with Li-ion, so does the Boeing
787 Dreamliner. The Airbus 350 offers the option of either chemistry. As the on-
board functions of an airliner move from hydraulic to electrical, larger batteries
are required. The higher energy-dense Li-ion satisfies this demand better than
NiCd and lead acid. However, unexpected Li-ion failure may move airplane
makers back to NiCd. All batteries are subject to breakdowns; there are also
reported heat failures with NiCd, but these can be better managed than Li-ion.
NiCd provides durability and reliable service, but it needs high maintenance
that includes exercising the battery to eliminate memory. The service of the
main-ship battery consists of a total discharge and shorting each cell for 24 hours
with a strap. The battery is also checked for capacity with a battery analyzer.
Smaller NiCd batteries have different service requirements.
Although aircraft carry many different batteries aboard, their sole purpose is
to start the engine and provide backup power when the engines are off. Large
aircraft will continue to fly on fossil fuel as batteries are not yet practical for
propulsion. Small battery-powered airplanes are being tried for pilot training and
to fly short hops but these are experimental only. Weight and reliability on an
aging battery remain major concerns.

Batteries for Aerospace

Early satellites used NiCd batteries, and this led to the discovery of the
“memory” phenomenon. The battery followed a routine discharge schedule but
when more energy was demanded, the battery could remember. The voltage
would drop as if to protest against unwanted overtime.
NiCd was replaced by nickel-hydrogen as a battery with an exceptional
long service life. Entrepreneurs tried to introduce this amazing battery for
commercial use but high price and large size spoiled market acceptance. Each
cell costs around $1,000 and has the appearance of a small steam engine with a
steel pressure tank.
Li-ion is the battery of choice for satellites. It is light-weight, easy to
charge, durable and cycles well. Li-ion can dwell in any SoC for an extended
length of time without adverse side effects; it has low self-discharge and is
virtually maintenance free.
The Mars Curiosity Rover uses specially designed lithium nickel oxide cells
(LiNiCo) in 8S2P formation (eight cells in series and two in parallel) that is only
partially charged and discharged to stretch longevity. Under this regime, the life
span is 4 years and roughly 700 sol. (The term sol is used by planetary
astronomers to refer to the duration of a solar day on Mars.) The 43Ah cells, of
which two are in parallel, have a maximum discharge C-rate of 0.55C.
NASA wants Li-ion batteries to last for 7 years and 37,000 cycles with a
DoD of 40–60 percent. NASA labs reveal the end-of-life is connected with the
growth of the SEI layer on the anode, loss of cathode material, loss of
conductive path, plating of metallic lithium and electrolyte oxidation. Large
140Ah Li-ion cells in development should last up to 18 years.

Stationary Batteries
With a growing choice of batteries for energy storage systems (ESS), the
selection should not be based on price alone. Cost per kWh says little without
also examining the total cost of ownership that includes cost per cycle, longevity
and eventual replacement.
Lead acid is well suited for duties that need only occasional discharges. The
flow battery and the sodium-sulfur battery work well for large systems requiring
regimented discharges, while lithium-ion is recommended for small to medium
systems delivering short discharging with fast charging ability multiple times a
day.
Traditionally, stationary batteries have been lead acid. Size and weight is of
lesser concern, and the limited cycle count does not pose a problem when the
batteries are seldom discharged. Large stationary batteries are mostly flooded
and require regular checking of the electrolyte level. This maintenance can be
reduced with an automatic watering system.
Valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA) is the low-maintenance version of the
flooded lead acid. It is said that VRLA can be installed and forgotten, but this is
often taken to the extreme in that the batteries get neglected. Maintenance
includes checking the voltage, internal resistance and sometimes capacity levels.
Applications that are exposed to hot and cold temperatures as well as those
requiring deep cycling are often served by flooded nickel-cadmium. These
batteries are more rugged than lead acid but are roughly four times the cost.
Flooded nickel-cadmium batteries are non-sintered and are less subject to
memory that the sintered versions, which are sealed, but some maintenance is
still required. NiCd is the only battery that can be rapidly charged with minimal
stress.
Many stationary batteries are also served by Li-ion. Li-ion comes with
many advantages, but the battery does not perform as well as NiCd and lead acid
at low temperature. Another battery that is making a comeback for stationary use
is nickel-iron. Inventor Thomas Edison promoted NiFe for the electric vehicle,
but it eventually lost out to lead acid due to high cost and high self-discharge.
Improvements have eliminated some of the failings, and the superior durability
of this battery is gaining renewed interest.

Grid Storage Batteries

Renewable energy sources such as wind and sun do not provide a steady stream
of energy, nor do they always harmonize with user demand. Large energy
storage batteries called load leveling or grid storage batteries are needed to
provide a seamless service.
Storing energy to supply peak shaving power is not new. Hydroelectric
power stations use excess electricity to pump water back up to the reservoir at
night for use the next day. With an efficiency factor of 70–85 percent, pumped
hydro is easier to manage than adjusting the generators to the exact power need.
Pumping compressed air into large underground cavities and underwater
balloons are also being used to store energy.
Flywheels also serve as energy storage. Large electric motors rev up one-
ton flywheels when excess energy is available to supply brief energy
deficiencies. High-speed flywheels spin at over 30,000 rpm on magnetic
bearings in a vacuum chamber. Electric motors/generators with permanent
magnets charge and discharge the kinetic energy on demand.
Modern flywheels replace steel with carbon fibers to withstand higher
rotations of up to 60,000 rpm. Energy increases by the square of speed,
providing four times the power at a reduced weight. Should the flywheel fail, the
housing prevents shrapnel from escaping.
Using flywheels to store kinetic energy is not new. In the 1940s and 1950s,
city busses in Switzerland were powered by flywheels. An electric motor would
spin a 3-ton flywheel to 3,000 rpm in 3 minutes. Turning into a generator, the
motor would then transform the energy back into electricity. Each charge would
yield for 6km (3.75mi) on a flat road. The bus was pollution-free but the
gyroscope action resisted changing direction on a windy road.
Load leveling is gravitating towards Li-ion because of small footprint, low
maintenance and long life. Li-ion does not suffer from sulfation as lead acid does
when not fully charged periodically. This can be a major drawback with
installations when demand exceeds supply. Li-ion also has the benefit of being
light-weight and semi-portable for installations in remote locations. The
negatives of Li-ion are its high price and low performance at cold temperature. A
further drawback is the inability to charge below freezing.
 Li-ion has come down in price and Table 10-1 provides a cost comparison
with lead acid for grid storage applications. Although the initial price of Li-ion is
higher than lead acid, the cost per cycle is lower in deep-cycle applications. Li-
ion is said to gain in market share but lead acid will keep its stronghold.

Lead acid Li-ion

Battery cost $20,000 $52,000

Lifespan 500 cycles at 50% DoD 1,900 cycles at 90% DoD

Cost per cycle $40 $28

Table 10-1: Cost comparison of lead acid and Li-ion for renewable energy.
Li-ion has a higher initial cost but is lower per cycle.

The energy output of a large industrial wind turbine is 1 megawatt (MW)

and more; the biggest units have grown 10MW. Several turbines form a wind
farm that produces 30–300MW. To fathom a megawatt, 1MW feeds 50 houses or
a Walmart superstore.
Not all renewable energy systems include load leveling batteries. The
batteries simply get too large and the investment cannot always be justified. If
supported by batteries, a 30MW wind farm uses a storage battery of about
15MW. This is the equivalent of 20,000 starter batteries or 176 Tesla S 85 EVs
with a 90kWh battery each (increased from 85kWh). The cost to store energy in
a battery is high, and some say it doubles the cost compared to a direct supply.
The battery management system (BMS) keeps the battery at about 50
percent charge to allow absorbing energy on wind gusts and delivering on high
load demands. Modern BMS can switch from charge to discharge in less than a
second. This helps stabilize the voltage on transmission lines, also known as
frequency regulation.

Electric Powertrain
Propulsion by an electric powertrain is not new — Ferdinand Porsche designed a
hybrid vehicle in 1898. Called the Lohner-Porsche carriage, the hybrid function
served as an electrical transmission; its purpose was not to lower fuel
consumption as the focus is today. With Mr. Porsche in the driver’s seat, the car
broke several speed records in Austria in 1901.
Another early hybrid was the Woods Motor Vehicle built in Chicago in
1915. It deployed a four-cylinder internal combustion engine (ICE) in
conjunction with an electric motor. Below 25km/h (15mph), the electric motor
propelled the vehicle; at higher speeds the gasoline engine kicked in to take the
vehicle up to 55km/h (35mph).
In early 1900, a car buyer had three choices of propulsion systems: electric,
steam, and ICE, of which the ICE was the least common. The electric cars (EVs)
appealed to the upper class and they were finished with fancy interiors and
expensive materials. Although higher in price than the steam and gasoline-
powered vehicles, the EV served the wealthy with its quiet and comfortable ride
over the vibrating, smelly and maintenance-prone gasoline-powered counterpart.
Best of all, the EV did not require changing gears. Back then, the knuckle-
busting chore of shifting gears was the most dreaded task when driving a
gasoline-powered car. Nor did the EV need manual cranking to start the engine,
a task the upper class did not want to be seen doing. Since the only good roads
were in town, the limited EV range posed no problem; most driving was local
commuting.
The Detroit Electric, one of the most popular EVs then, was said to get
130km (80 miles) between battery charges. Its top speed was 32km/h (20mph), a
pace considered adequate for driving. Physicians and women were the main
buyers. Thomas Edison, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. and Clara Ford, the wife of
Henry Ford, drove Detroit Electrics. Figure 10-2 shows Thomas Edison with his
1914 Detroit Electric model.
Figure 10-2: Thomas Edison with a 1914 Detroit Electric, model 47.
Thomas Edison felt that nickel-iron was superior to lead acid for the EV and promoted his more expensive
batteries.
Source: National Museum of American History

The battery of choice for the EV was lead acid. At a higher price point, the
buyer could fit the Detroit Electric with a nickel-iron (NiFe), a battery Thomas
Edison promoted for its superior cycle life and good performance at subfreezing
and hot temperatures. The NiFe had a cell voltage of 1.2V, was robust and could
endure overcharging and repeated full discharging, but it was only marginally
better than lead acid. The battery was expensive to make and had a high self-
discharge of 20–40 percent per month, greater than the 5 percent with lead acid.
In 1914 a devastating fire destroyed the Edison factory, and the popularity
of nickel-iron waned. Production of the EV peaked in 1912 and continued until
the 1920s. Batteries already posed limitations in the electric powertrain a
hundred years ago. Thomas Edison knew this and commented, “Just as soon as a
man gets working on the secondary battery, it brings out his latent capacity for
lying.”
Henry Ford’s mass-production and cost-cutting measures in 1912 of the
Model T were not the only reason for the shift towards gasoline-powered cars.
The invention of the starter motor in 1912, the need to travel long distances and
the discovery of Texas crude oil made the ICE more attractive and affordable to
the general public.
The EV became a thing of the past until the early 1990s when the California
Air Resources Board (CARB) mandated more fuel-efficient and lower-emission
vehicles. It was the CARB zero-emission policy that prompted General Motors
to produce the EV1. Available for lease between 1996 and 1999, the EV1
initially ran on an 18kWh lead acid battery that was later replaced with a 26kWh
NiMH.
Although the NiMH had an impressive driving range of 260km (160 miles),
the EV1 was not without problems. Manufacturing costs rose to three times that
of a regular gasoline-powered car. In 2001, politicians changed the CARB
requirements, which prompted General Motors to withdraw the EV1, to the
dismay of many owners. In the 2006 documentary film Who Killed the Electric
Car? governments give a mixed message regarding cleaner transportation.
Low cost and high current capabilities make lead acid a good candidate for
starter applications. It has about 720Wh, is forgiving if abused and cranks the
engine even if the capacity has dropped to 30 percent. Batteries for the hybrid
electric vehicle (HEV) are about twice this size, and the plug-in has about
12.5kWh; EVs go from 15kWh to 90kWh. Figure 10-3 compares the battery
sizes.
Figure 10-3: Typical battery wattages in vehicles.
While starter and hybrid batteries are tolerant to capacity fade, a weak EV battery travels shorter distances.
Courtesy of Cadex

Batteries and cost per kWh vary greatly according to chemistry. Table 10-4
estimates the price of the most common batteries in use today. At $120 per kWh,
a deep-cycle-battery for golf cars and wheelchairs is most economical, followed
by the starter, forklift and stationary batteries. Complex fabrication, electronic
safety circuits and battery management systems (BMS) make newer
technologies more expensive than older systems, even with volume production.
Table 10-4: Battery sizes of wheeled mobility. Estimated cost/kWh is lowest with lead acid and most
expensive with lithium-ion.

Hybrid Electric Vehicle

Governments urge the public to reduce fuel consumption and lower pollution.
They do this without imposing a change in driving habits and the hybrid electric
vehicle (HEV) fits the bill. Japan is leading in adapting the HEV because of high
fuel costs and environmental concerns.
The purpose of the HEV is to conserve fuel without sacrificing
performance, and the HEV achieves this by using one or several electric motors
to assist the ICE during acceleration and to harness kinetic energy when braking.
The ICE turns off at traffic lights and the electric motor propels the car through
slow-moving traffic. On full power, both the ICE and electric motor engage for
optimal acceleration.
The HEV uses a mechanical powertrain to transfer power from the ICE to
the wheels. In this respect, the HEV resembles an ordinary vehicle with a
crankshaft and a clutch, also known as parallel configuration. Fuel savings are
achieved by the use of a smaller ICE that is tuned for maximum fuel efficiency
rather than high torque. Toyota claims a thermal efficiency of 40 percent for the
new Prius. Peppy driving is accredited to the electric motor that delivers a far
better torque than a sluggish ICE of the same horsepower.
Most batteries for HEVs are guaranteed for 8 years. To meet this long
service life, the cells are optimized for longevity rather than high specific energy
as with consumer products. The battery maker achieves this in part by using a
thicker and more durable separator. To reduce stress, the battery operates at 30–
80 percent state-of-charge (SoC), or roughly 3.5–4.0V/cell for Li-ion, rather than
exploiting 3.0–4.20V/cell representing a full cycle.
The HEV battery operates momentarily and shares similarity with a starter
battery by applying short power bursts for acceleration rather than long,
continuous discharges as with the EV. Rarely will an HEV battery discharge to a
low 20 percent state-of-charge. Under normal use, a parallel HEV consumes less
than 2 percent of the available battery capacity per mile (1.6km). Capacity fade
goes unnoticed, and an HEV battery still works well with less than half the
original capacity.
Figure 10-5 shows the battery capacity of six hybrid cars at a 256,000km
(160,000 miles). The test was done by the US Department of Energy’s
FreedomCAR and Vehicle Technologies Program (FCVT) in 2006 according to
SAE J1634 practices and it included the Honda Civic, Honda Insight and Toyota
Prius.
Figure 10-5: End-of-life battery capacity of HEVs.
At 256,000km (160,000 miles), the two Honda Civic vehicles had 68% capacity, the Insight had 85% and
the Prius had 39%. The capacity fade did not affect the fuel efficiency by much.
Source: FreedomCAR and Vehicle Technologies Program

The hybrid battery of the two Honda Civic vehicles had 68 percent
remaining capacity; the Insight had 85 percent and the Prius 39 percent. Even
with low capacity at the end of life, the fuel efficiency was not severely affected.
The Insight showed a 1.2mpg (0.12L/km) decrease in fuel economy during the
test, while the Prius reduced the fuel efficiency by 3.2mpg (0.33L/km). Air-
conditioning was off in all cases.
Stringent battery demands are needed for hybrid trucks with a gross vehicle
weight of 33 tons (73,000 lb). The battery must be able to continuously charge
and discharge at 4C, deliver 10kW (200hp) for up to 10 minutes, operate at –
20°C to 40°C (–4°F to 104°F) and deliver 5 years of service. Supercapacitors
would provide the required durability but high cost and low energy density are
against this choice. Lead acid has good discharge characteristics but it is slow to
charge. Li-ion, especially LTO, would be a good choice but high power draw
requires active cooling. Second generation NiMH is being tested; the rugged
NiCd may also be tried.
Paradox of the Hybrid Vehicle
As good as a hybrid may be, the car is not without ironies. At a conference
addressing advanced automotive batteries, an HEV opponent argued with an
HEV maker that a diesel car offers better fuel economy than a hybrid. Being a
good salesman, the HEV maker flatly denied the claim. Perhaps both are right.
In city driving, the HEV clearly delivers better fuel-efficiency while diesel
consumes less on the highway. Combining both would provide the best solution,
but the high cost of a diesel-hybrid solution might not pay back with low fuel
prices, although such vehicles are available in Europe.
High-end HEVs come with a full-sized ICE of 250hp and an electrical
motor of 150–400hp in total. Such vehicles will surely find buyers, especially if
the government assists with grants for being “green.” It’s unfortunate that
consumers who walk, cycle or take public transportation won’t get such
handouts. Common sense reminds us to conserve energy by driving less, or
using smaller vehicles when driving is necessary.
Wolfgang Hatz, the then head of powertrain for Volkswagen Group, said
that hybrid technology is a very expensive way to save a small amount of fuel
and states that Volkswagen only makes hybrids because of political pressure. He
supports diesel as the most energy-efficient motor, especially on highways.
Volkswagen may have a solution — the 1-Liter Car (Figure 10-6). It is
called is the 1-Liter Car because the concept vehicle burns only one liter of fuel
per 100km. To prove the concept, the then VW chairman Dr. Ferdinand Piëch
drove the car from their headquarters in Wolfsburg to Hamburg for a
shareholders meeting, consuming 0.89 liters per 100km (317mpg).

Figure 10-6: Volkswagen’s 1-Liter Car.

The 1-Liter Car is said to be the most economical car in the world but it never made it into production.
Source: Volkswagen AG

Aerodynamics and weight help to achieve the low fuel consumption. While
a typical car has a drag coefficient of 0.30, the 1-Liter Car is only 0.16. Carbon
fiber and a magnesium frame reduce the weight to 290kg (640 lb). The one-
cylinder diesel engine generates 8.5hp (6.3kW), and the 6.5-litre (1.43-gallon)
fuel tank has a range of 650 kilometers (400 miles). The average fuel
consumption is 0.99 liter per 100km (238mpg).
Although the 1-Liter Car did not go into production, VW demonstrated that
fossil fuel could be stretched should the cost rise or should frivolous
consumption create unsustainably high pollution levels. Point-to-point personal
transportation could be made possible with a light carrier that weighs only
290kg, a weight that is less than the 540kg Tesla S battery. Rather than
consuming 150–250Wh per kilometer, as with an electric vehicle, the 1-Liter Car
would only use about 40Wh/km. Even though it burns fossil fuel, the
environmental impact would be less than an EV propelled with electricity, which
is mainly produced by fossil fuel.

Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle

Most PHEVs use a fully electrified powertrain in a series configuration with no
mechanical linkage from ICE to wheels. The system runs solely on the electric
motor for propulsion, and the ICE only engages when the batteries get low to
supply electricity for the electric motor and to charge the battery. The driving
range of a fully charged battery is about 50km (30 miles).
The PHEV is ideal for commuting and doing errands. No gasoline is
consumed when driving on batteries and the highways are tax-free. However,
there will be an increase in the electrical utility bill to charge the batteries at
home.
Unlike the parallel HEV that relies on the battery for only brief moments,
the PHEV battery is in charge depletion mode, meaning that the battery must
work harder than on an HEV. This adds to battery stress and reduces longevity.
While a capacity drop to 39 percent will affect the performance of the Toyota
Prius HEV only marginally, such a loss would reduce the electric driving range
of a PHEV from 50km to 20km (30 to 12 miles).
 The Chevy Volt carries a 16kWh Li-ion battery that weighs 181kg (400 lb)
and powers a 149hp (111kW) electric motor. The temperature of the prismatic
cells is kept at 20–25°C (68–77°F) during charging and while driving. An
115VAC outlet fills the battery in 8 hours; a 230VAC supply reduces the
charging time to 3 hours. The driving range is 64km (40 miles) before the 1.4-
liter four-cylinder ICE kicks in to activate the 53kW AC generator that powers
the electric motors.
Economics
As good as the PHEV sounds, the long-term savings may be smaller than
expected, especially if a battery replacement is needed during the life of the car.
Battery aging is an issue that car makers avoid mentioning in fear of turning
buyers away. A motorist driving an ICE car expects ample power at hot and cold
temperatures and minimal performance degradation with age. The battery cannot
match this fully, and the owner will need to tolerate a decrease in driving range
during the winter, as well as accept a small reduction in delivered mileage with
each advancing year due to battery aging.
Modern cars do more than provide transportation; they also include
amenities for safety, comfort and pleasure. The most basic of these are the
headlights and windshield wipers. Buyers also want cabin heat and air-
conditioning, services that are taken for granted in a vehicle that burns fossil
fuel. Heat is a by-product in the ICE that must be generated with battery power
in a PHEV, but the larger concern is air-conditioning, which draws 3–5kW of
power. Comforts might need to be provided more sparingly when running on a
battery.
Many PHEV buyers value the environmental benefit and the pleasure of
driving a quiet vehicle powered by electricity. This has a large buyer appeal
because electric propulsion is more natural than that of an ICE. Drivers must
adapt to the new discipline of charging the vehicle at night when electricity is
cheap and then driving measured distances. The owners also appreciate new
charging stations at workplaces and shopping malls.
Electric Vehicle
In the early 1900s, the electric vehicle was reserved for dignitaries the likes of
Thomas Edison, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. and Clara Ford, the wife of Henry Ford.
They chose this transportation for its quiet ride over the vibrating and polluting
internal combustion engine. Environmentally conscious drivers are rediscovering
the EV with a choice of many attractive products.
The EV culture is developing distinct philosophies, each satisfying a unique
user group. This is visible with vehicle sizes and the associated batteries. The
subcompact EV comes with a battery that has 12–18kWh, the mid-sized family
sedan has a 22–32kWh pack, and the luxury models by Tesla stand alone with an
oversized battery boasting 60–90kWh to provide extended driving range and
achieve high performance. Table 10-7 lists the most common EVs.

Table 10-7: Electric vehicles with battery type, range and charge time.
* In 2015/16 Tesla S 85 increased the battery from 85kWh to 90kWh; Nissan Leaf from 25kWh to 30kWh.

The makers of Nissan Leaf, BMW i3 and other EVs use the proven lithium-
manganese (LMO) battery with a NMC blend, packaged in a prismatic cell.
(NMC stands for nickel, manganese, cobalt.) Tesla uses NCA (nickel, cobalt,
aluminum) in the 18650 cell that delivers an impressive specific energy of 3.4Ah
per cell or 248Wh/kg. To protect the delicate Li-ion from over-loading at
highway speed, Tesla over-sizes the pack by a magnitude of three to four fold
compared to other EVs.
The large 90kWh battery of the Tesla S Model (2015) provides an
unparalleled driving range of 424km (265 miles), but the battery weighs 540kg
(1,200 lb), and this increases the energy consumption to 238Wh/km
(380Wh/mile), one of the highest among EVs.
In comparison, the BMW i3 is one of the lightest EVs and has a low energy
consumption of 160Wh/km (260Wh/mile). The car uses an LMO/NMC battery
that offers a moderate specific energy of 120Wh/kg but is very rugged. The mid-
sized 22kWh pack provides a driving range of 130–160km (80–100 miles). To
compensate for the shorter range, the i3 offers REX, an optional gasoline engine
that is fitted on the back. Table 10-8 compares the battery size and energy
consumption of common EVs. The range is under normal non-optimized driving
conditions.

Table 10-8: Estimated energy consumption and cost per km/mile of common EVs.
Energy cost includes the consumed electricity at $0.20/kWh; service items are excluded.
* Driving range limited to 28kWh; manual switch to 31.5kWh gives extra 16km (10 mile) spare.
Clarification: The driving ranges in Tables 1 and 2 differ. This is less of an error than applying different
driving conditions. Discrepancies also occur in topping charge, depth of discharge and fuel-
gauging.

The cost of an EV battery has come down to about $350/kWh, but Tesla
managed to lower the price to $250/kWh using the 18650, a popular cell of
which 2.5 billion were made in 2013. The 18650 in the current Tesla models is
an unlikely choice as the cell was designed for portable devices such as laptops.
Available since the early 1990s, the 18650 cell is readily available at a low cost.
The cylindrical cell-design further offers superior stability over the prismatic and
pouch cell, but the advantage may not hold forever as prismatic and pouch cells
are improving. Large Li-ion cells are relatively new and have the potential for
higher capacities and lower pack-cost as fewer cells are needed.
All EV makers must provide an 8-year warranty or a mileage limit on their
batteries. Tesla believes in their battery and offers 8 years with unlimited
mileage. Figure 10-9 illustrates the battery that forms the chassis of the Tesla S
Model. The Model S 85 contains 7,616 type 18650 cells in parallel and series
configuration. The smaller S-60 has 5,376 cells.

Figure 10-9: Battery in Tesla S Model.

90kWh battery includes 7,616 18650 cells. At $260/kWh, the cost is lower than other Li-ion.
Source: Tesla Motors

EV manufacturers calculate the driving range under the best conditions and
according to reports, the distances traveled in the real-world can be 30–37
percent less than advertised. This may be due to the extra electrical loads such as
headlights, windshield wipers, as well as cabin heating and cooling. Aggressive
driving in a hilly countryside lowers the driving range further.
Cold temperature also reduces the driving range. What battery users may
also overlook is the difficulty of charging when cold. Most Li-ion cannot be
charged below freezing. To protect EV batteries, some packs include a heating
blanket to warm the battery during cold temperature charging. A BMS may also
administer a lower charge current when the battery is cold. Fast charging when
cold promotes dendrite growth in Li-ion that can compromise battery safety.
(See “Charging at High and Low Temperatures” on page 148.)
EV owners want ultra-fast charging and technologies are available but these
should be used sparingly as fast charging stresses the battery. If at all possible,
do not exceed a charge rate of 1C. Avoid full charges that take less than 90
minutes. Ultra-fast charging is ideal for EV drivers on the run and this is fine for
occasional use. Some EVs keep a record of stressful battery events and this data
could be used to challenge a warranty claim.
Estimating SoC has always been a challenge, and the SoC accuracy of a
battery is not at the same level as dispensing liquid fuel. EV engineers at an SAE
meeting in Detroit were surprised to learn that the SoC on some new BMS were
off by 15 percent. This is hidden to the user; spare capacity makes up for a
shortfall.
EV makers must further account for capacity fade in a clever and non-
alarming way to the motorist. This is solved by oversizing the battery and only
showing the available driving range. A new battery is typically charged to 80
percent and discharged to 30 percent. As the battery fades, the bandwidth may
expand to keep the same driving range. Once the full capacity range is needed,
the entire cycle is applied. This will cause stress to the aging battery and shorten
the driving ranges visibly. Figure 10-10 illustrates three SoH ranges of an EV
fuel gauge.
Figure 10-10: Driving range as a function of battery performance.
A new EV battery charges to ~80% and discharges to 30%. Aging expands the bandwidth.

Economics
On the surface, driving on electricity is cheaper than burning fossil fuel;
however, low fuel prices, uncertainty about battery longevity, unfamiliarity with
battery abuse tolerances and high replacement costs are factors that reduce buyer
incentives to switch from a proven propulsion system to the electric drivetrain.
The EV will always have shorter driving ranges than vehicles with ICE because
oversizing the battery has a diminishing return. When the size is increased,
batteries simply get too heavy, negatively affecting travel economics and driving
range.
Technology Roadmaps as part of the International Energy Agency (IEA)
compares energy consumption and cost of gasoline versus electric propulsion:
An EV requires between 150Wh and 250Wh per kilometer depending on
vehicle weight, speed and terrain. At an assumed consumption of 200Wh/km
and electricity price of $0.20 per kWh, the energy cost to drive an EV translates
to $0.04 per km. This compares to $0.06 per km for a similar-size gasoline-
powered car and $0.05 per km for diesel. Price estimations exclude equipment
costs, service and the eventual replacement of the product.
Battery endurance and cost will govern the success of the EV. A consumer
market will likely develop for a light EV with a battery providing 160km (100
miles) driving range or less. This will be a subcompact commuter car owned by
a driver who adheres to a tightly regimented driving routine and follows a
disciplined recharging regime. According to research, 90 percent of commuting
involves less than 30km. The EV market will also include high-end models for
the ecology-minded wealthy wanting to reduce greenhouse gases.
Driving an EV only delivers optimal environmental benefit when charging
with renewable resources. Burning coal and fossil fuel to generate electricity, as
is done in many countries, does not reduce greenhouse gases. In the US, 50
percent of electricity is generated by burning coal, 20 percent by natural gas and
20 percent by nuclear energy. Renewable energy by hydro is 8 percent and
solar/wind energy is only 2 percent.
Going electric also begs the question, “Who will pay for the roads in the
absence of fuel tax?” Governments spend billions on road maintenance and
expansions; the EV, and in part the PHEV, can use the infrastructure for free.
This is unfair for folks using public transport as they pay double: first paying
income tax to support the road infrastructures and second in purchasing the train
fare.
The high cost of the EV against the lure of cheap and readily available
fossil fuel will slow the transition to clean driving. Government subsidies may
be needed to make “green” cars affordable to the masses, but many argue that
such handouts should be directed towards better public transportation, systems
that had been ignored in North America since the 1950s.

Charging an Electric Vehicle

If you own an EV, you want to pamper the battery and charge the car at home
and at the office. The power requirements to charge a mid-sized EV is similar to
that of an electric stove connected to a 40A, 240VAC circuit developing up to
9.6kW. Most mid-sized EVs carry a 6.6kW on-board charger designed for a 4- to
5-hour charge. (6.6kW is derived by multiplying 220V by 30A.)
On-board chargers are limited by cost, size and thermal issues. With the
availability of three-phase AC power in most European residences, on-board
chargers can be made smaller than with a two-phase system. Renault offers
compact on-board chargers that range from 3–43kW.
The hookup to charge an EV is called the Electric Vehicle Service
Equipment (EVSE) and must be installed by an electrician. There are three
categories of charging.
Level 1 Cord-set connects to a regular household outlet of 115VAC, 15A
(230VAC, ~6A in Europe). This singe-phase hookup produces about
1.5kW, and the charge time is 7 to 30 hours depending on battery size.
Level 1 meets overnight charging requirements for e-bikes, scooters,
electric wheelchairs and PHEVs not exceeding 12kWh.
Level 2 Wall-mount; 230VAC, 30A two pole, charges a mid-sized EV in 4 to 5
hours. This is the most common home and public charging station for
EVs. It produces about 7kW to feed the 6.6kW on-board EV charger.
The cost to install a Level 2 EVSE is about $750 in materials and
labor. Households with a 100A service should charge the EV after
cooking and clothes-drying to prevent exceeding the allotted household
power.
Level 3 DC Fast Charger; 400–600VDC, up to 300A; serves as ultra-fast
charging by bypassing the on-board charger and feeding the power
directly to the battery. Level 3 chargers deliver up to 120kW to fill a
Li-ion battery to 80 percent in about 30 minutes. The power demand is
equal to five households.
In the 1990s and 2000s, EV makers made a concerted effort to develop a
universal charging port for EVs and this resulted in the SAE J1772, a 5-pin
connector carrying AC and data. The drawback is a charge time pursuant to
Level 2 that takes several hours.
EV makers agree that the future of the EV lies in fast charging. While Level
2 only gains about 40km (25 miles) per hour charge, DC Fast Charging fills the
battery to 80 percent in 30 minutes. This changes the EV from a commuter car
into a touring vehicle, and EV marketing has started to push the concept.
Japan was first to introduce DC Fast Charging by developing the
CHAdeMO connector for the Nissan Leaf and Mitsubishi MiEV. JEVS (Japan
Electric Vehicle Standard) specified the connector that includes two large DC
pins with communications pins for the CAN-BUS. The CHAdeMO standard was
formed by TEPCO (The Tokyo Electric Power Company), Nissan, Mitsubishi,
Fuji Heavy Industries (manufacturer of Subaru vehicles) and Toyota in 2008. It
charges a battery at 500VDC and 125A with up to 62.5kW charging power.
CHAdeMO stands for “CHArge on the Move;” Figure 10-11 illustrates the plug.

Figure 10-11: Japanese CHAdeMO DC Fast Charge plug developed in 2008.

Nissan and Mitsubishi lead DC fast charging and developed CHAdeMO. It fast-charges at 500VDC and
125A, developing up to 62.5kW of power.

While the CHAdeMO connector performs well, the West lobbied against it,
citing “technical issues.” The reason for this may be the “not invented in my
backyard” syndrome as well as a standard that favors certain brands of cars. SAE
rejected CHAdeMO in favor of their version.
After much delay, the SAE International J1772 Committee released the
SAE DC Fast Charging standard in 2012, a system that is also known as the
Combo Charging System (CCS). The delay caused a setback in building the
CHAdeMO infrastructure and some argue that the postponement was deliberate.
To keep compatibility with Level 2 charging, CCS is based on the existing
J1772 connector by adding two DC pins. When charging on AC, the circular
connector provides AC power and communications to govern voltage, charge
rate and end-of-charge. DC Fast Charging uses the same communications
protocol but adds the DC pins. Figure 10-12 illustrates the charging connectors
for AC and DC charging with the vehicle inlet.

Figure 10-12: SAE J1772 Combo Charging System (CCS).

CCS allows Level 2 charging by connecting to the upper circular receptacle only, and Level 3 charging with
a plug that includes the DC terminals.
SAE J1772 divides charging into four levels:
- AC level 1: 120VAC, 12–16A, up to 1.92kW
- AC level 2: 240VAC, 80A 19.2kW
- DC level 1: 200-500VDC, up to 80A (40kW)
- DC level 2: 200-500VDC, up to 200A (100kW)

The SAE Combo or CCS is the de facto global standard for Level 2 and 3
charging and Audi, BMW, Daimler, Ford, General Motors, Porsche and
Volkswagen jointly announced their support in 2011. There is now talk to
discontinue the CHAdeMO. To maintain compatibility with EVs featuring
CHAdeMO, newer Nissan Leafs include an SAE J1772 port to allow Level 2
charging. Some charger makers, including ABB, offer both charging plugs at
their “pumps.”
Tesla Motors does not follow standards easily, and they came up with their
own system. Their exclusive Supercharger fills a depleted battery to 80 percent
in 40 minutes and gives a driving range of 270km. (Charging from 80–100
percent doubles the time.) While Tesla was criticized by some for introducing
their own Superchargers, others say that Tesla is way ahead of the game and did
not want to wait for the world to get its standards right. Tesla is in discussions
with Nissan and BMW to offer their Supercharger standard to these EV makers
as well. They are also working on an inter-protocol charging adapter that can
support the CHAdeMO and SAE J1772 systems.
Charging the Tesla S 85 on a Supercharger begins at a voltage of about
375V and 240A, consuming 90kW. As the battery fills, the voltage rises to about
390VDC and the current drops to roughly 120A. The initial 90kW into the
90kWh battery has a 1C charge rate and after a brief moment, the C-rate falls to
a comfortable 0.8C, and then goes down further, avoiding harmful battery stress
that is related to ultra-fast charging.
Battling three incompatible charging systems was not the plan for EV
makers, but it occurred in part by not accepting available technologies and
delaying their own standards. Tesla jumped ahead with their own technology and
is investing heavily into building Superchargers and offering free charging; other
EV makers have followed by also making charging free, at least for now. The
resulting incompatibility has similarities with the railroads industry in the 1800s,
when railway companies ran their trains on different track gauges. LP vs. 45
RPM, as well as Sony Beta vs. VHS are other examples of similar situations.
BMW with its SAE Combo Charging system chose 24kW rather than the
more common 50kW for the DC Fast Charger. They reckon that 24 kW is
cheaper, lighter and easier to install than a 50kW system. While 50kW would
charge faster, the benefit is for a brief moment only before the charge acceptance
degrades. Scaling down is especially apparent with the smaller i3 battery, as well
as packs that cannot take the ultra-fast charge due to advanced age and other
anomalies. Tests show that the 50 kW charger fills a battery to 80 percent in
about 20 minutes; the 24 kW charger does it in roughly 30 minutes.
Doubling the power does not cut the charge time in half and moving up in
the pyramid has diminishing returns. The main reason for powerful chargers
relates to battery size. The BMW i3 carries a 22kW battery compared to the
monster 85kW in the Tesla S 85. Both charging systems keep the charge C-rate
at about 1C during DC fast charging to moderate battery stress levels.
DC fast charging is more complex in that it must evaluate the condition of
the battery and apply a charge level that the battery can safely absorb. A cold
battery must be charged slower than a warm one; the charge current must also be
reduced when cells develop high internal resistance and when the balancing
circuit can no longer compensate for cell mismatch.
DC Fast Charging is not designed to fill the battery completely but to allow
the vehicle to reach the next charging station. Using Level 2 is the preferred
routine for everyday charging.
Table 10-13 summarizes the charge levels and times with Levels 1, 2 and 3.
The charge times may not fully agree with advertised rates as the calculations are
based on charging an empty battery to fully SoC; some EV makers consider the
battery charged when it reaches 80 percent. The charge time also shortens as the
battery fades because there is less to fill.
Table 10-13: Estimated charging times on Electric Vehicle Service Equipment (EVSE). EVs carry the
charging circuit on board and the most common is the 6.6kW system, Tesla has 10kW charger.
* Tesla EVs come with 10kW and 20kW chargers; Renault uses 3–43kW 3-phase on-board chargers
** A 30-amp EVSE needs a 40A circuit breaker; some EVs come with lager on-board chargers

Guidelines for EV Batteries

1. Life span. Most EV batteries are guaranteed for 8 years or 160,000km

(100,000 miles). Hot climates accelerate capacity loss; insufficient
information is available about how batteries age under different climates
and usage patterns.
2. Safety. Concerns arise if the battery is misused and is kept beyond its
designated age. Similar fears occurred 150 years ago when steam boilers
exploded and gasoline tanks burst. A carefully designed BMS assures
that the battery operates within a safe working range.
3. Cost. This presents a major drawback as the battery carries the cost of a
small car powered by an ICE. BMS, battery cooling, heating and the
eight-year warranty add to the cost.
4. Performance. Unlike an ICE that works over a wide temperature range,
batteries are sensitive to heat and cold and require climate control. Heat
reduces the life, and cold lowers the performance temporarily. The
battery also heats and cools the cabin.
5. Specific energy. In terms of calorific value per weight, a battery
generates only 1 percent of what fossil fuel produces. One kilogram (1.4
 liter, 0.37 gallons) of gasoline yields roughly 12kWh of energy, whereas
a 1kg battery delivers about 150Wh. However, the electric motor is 90
percent efficient while a modern ICE comes in at about 25 percent.
6. Specific power. The electric propulsion system has better torque with
the same horsepower than the ICE. This is reflected in excellent
acceleration.

Fuel Cell Vehicles

The fuel cell as a propulsion system is in many ways superior to a battery; it
carries less energy storage by weight and volume compared to a vehicle
propelled by batteries only. Figure 10-14 illustrates the practical travel range of a
vehicle powered by a fuel cell (FC) compared to lead acid, NiMH and Li-ion
batteries. (Also see “Fuel Cell” on page 79.)

Figure 10-14: Energy storage (L) as a function of range for various technologies.
Larger batteries pose severe range limitations.
Note: 35MPa hydrogen tank refers to 5,000psi pressure; 70MPa is 10,000psi.
Source: International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 34, 6005-6020 (2009)
 One can clearly see that batteries simply get too heavy when increasing the
size to enable greater distances. In this respect, the fuel cell enjoys similar
qualities to the internal combustion engine (ICE) in that it can conquer great
distances with only the addition of extra fuel.
The weight of fuel is most critical in air transport. Airlines only carry
sufficient fuel to safely reach their designation, knowing that the airplane
becomes more fuel efficient towards the end of the journey as the weight eases.
A study group calculated that if the kerosene in an aircraft were replaced with
batteries, the flight would last less than 10 minutes.
Although the fuel cell assumes the duty of the ICE in a vehicle, poor
response time and a weak power band make on-board batteries necessary. In this
respect, the FC car resembles an electric vehicle with an on-board charger that
keeps the batteries charged. This results in short cycles that reduces battery stress
over the EV; a propulsion system that bears a resemblance to the HEV.
The FC of a mid-sized car generates around 85kW (114hp) to charge the
18kWh on-board battery and drive the electric motor. On start-up, the vehicle
relies fully on the battery; the fuel cell only contributes after reaching a steady
state in 5–30 seconds. During the warm-up period, the battery must also deliver
power to activate the air compressor and pumps. Once warm, the FC provides
enough power for cruising; however, during acceleration, passing and hill-
climbing both the FC and battery provide throttle power. Braking delivers kinetic
energy to the battery.
Hydrogen costs about twice as much as gasoline, but the higher efficiency
of the FC compared to the ICE in converting fuel to energy bring both systems
on par. The FC has the added benefit of producing less greenhouse gas than the
ICE.
Hydrogen is commonly derived from natural gas. Folks might ask, “Why
not burn natural gas directly in the ICE instead of converting it to hydrogen
through a reformer and then transforming it to electricity in a fuel cell to feed the
electric motors?” The answer is efficiency. Burning natural gas in a combustion
turbine to produce electricity has an efficiency factor of only 26–32 percent
while a fuel cell is 35–50 percent efficient. That said, the machinery required to
support the FC is costlier and requires more maintenance than a simple burning
process.
To complicate matters further, building a hydrogen infrastructure is
expensive. A refueling station capable of reforming natural gas to hydrogen to
support 2,300 vehicles costs over $2 million, or $870 per vehicle. In comparison,
a Level 2 charging outlet to charge EVs can easily be installed by connecting to
the existing electric grid. The benefit with FC is a quick refill similar to filling a
tank with liquid fuel.
Durability and cost are further deterrents for the FC, but improvements are
being made. The service life of an FC-powered car has doubled from 1,000
hours to 2,000 hours. The target for 2015 is 5,000 hours, or a vehicle life of
240,000km (150,000 miles).
A further challenge is vehicle cost as the fuel cell is more expensive to build
than an ICE. As a guideline, an FC vehicle is more expensive than a plug-in
hybrid, and the plug-in hybrid is dearer than a gasoline-powered car. With low
fuel prices, alternative propulsion systems are difficult to justify on cost alone
and the environmental benefits must be considered. Japan is making renewed
efforts with FC propulsion to offer an alternative to the ICE and the EV. Toyota
plans to phase out the ICE by 2050 and other vehicle makers are observing the
trend.

Cost of Mobile and Renewable Power

Lifting off in a large airplane is exhilarating. At a full weight of almost 400 tons,
the Boeing 747 requires 90 megawatts of power to get airborne. Take-off is the
most demanding part of a flight and when reaching cruising altitude the power
consumption decreases to roughly half.
Powerful engines were also used to propel the mighty Queen Mary that was
launched in 1934. The 81,000-ton ocean liner measuring 300 meters (1,000ft) in
length was powered by four steam turbines producing a total power of
160,000hp (120 megawatts). The ship carried 3,000 people and traveled at a
speed of 28.5 knots (52km/h). Queen Mary is now a museum in Long Beach,
California.
Table 10-15 illustrates man’s inventiveness in the quest for power by
comparing an ox of prehistoric times with newer energy sources made available
during the Industrial Revolution to today’s super engines, with seemingly
unlimited power.

Table 10-15: Ancient and modern power sources. Old power sources were sustainable; limits must be
applied to modern reserves.

Large propulsion systems are only feasible with the ICE, and fossil fuel
serves as a cheap and plentiful energy resource. Low energy-to-weight ratio in
terms of net calorific value (NCV) puts the battery against the mighty ICE like
David and Goliath. The battery is the weaker vessel and is sensitive to extreme
heat and cold; it also has a relatively short life span.
While fossil fuel delivers an NCV of 12,000Wh/kg, Li-ion provides only
between 70Wh/kg and 260Wh/kg depending on chemistry. Even at a low
efficiency of about 30 percent, the ICE outperforms the best battery in terms of
energy-to-weight ratio. The battery capacity would need to increase 20-fold
before it could compete head-to-head with fossil fuel.
Another limitation of battery propulsion over fossil fuel is fuel by weight.
While the weight diminishes when being consumed, the battery carries the same
deadweight whether fully charged or empty. This puts limitations on EV driving
distance and would make the electric airplane impractical. Furthermore, the ICE
delivers full power at freezing temperatures, runs in hot climates, and continues
to perform well with advancing age. This is not the case with a battery as each
subsequent discharge delivers slightly less energy than the previous cycle.

Power from Primary Batteries

Energy from a non-rechargeable battery is one of the most expensive forms of
electrical supply in terms of cost per kilowatt-hours (kWh). Primary batteries are
used for low-power applications such as wristwatches, remote controls, electric
keys and children’s toys. Military in combat, light beacons and remote repeater
stations also use primaries because charging is not practical. Table 10-16
estimates the capacity and cost per kWh of primary batteries.

Table 10-16: Capacity and cost from primary alkaline cells. One-time use makes energy stored in
primary batteries expensive; cost decreases with larger battery size.

Power from Secondary Batteries

Electric energy from rechargeable batteries is more economical than with
primaries, however, the cost per kWh is not complete without examining the
total cost of ownership. This includes cost per cycle, longevity, eventual
replacement and disposal. Table 10-17 compares Lead acid, NiCd, NiMH and
Li-ion.

Table 10-17: Energy and cost comparison of rechargeable batteries. Although Li-ion is more expensive
than Lead acid, the cycle cost may be less. NiCd operates at extreme temperatures, has the best cycle life
and accepts ultra-fast charge with little stress.

Power from Other Sources

To reduce the fossil fuel consumption and to lower emissions, governments and
the private sector are studying alternate energy sources. Table 10-18 compares
the cost to generate 1kW of power that includes initial investment, fuel
consumption, maintenance and eventual replacement.

Table 10-18: Cost of generating 1kW of energy. Estimations include the initial investment, fuel
consumption, maintenance and replacement of the equipment. Grid electricity is lowest.
* Amortization of investment yielding 200 days of 5h/day sun; declining output with age not included.
 Power from the electrical utility grid is most cost-effective. Consumers pay
between $0.06 and $0.40US per kWh, delivered with no added maintenance cost
or the need to replace aging power-generating machinery; the supply is
continuous. (The typical daily energy consumption per household in the West is
25kW.)
The supply of cheap electricity changes when energy must be stored in a
battery, as is the case with a solar system that is backed up by a battery and in the
electric powertrain. High battery cost and a relatively short life can double the
electrical cost if supplied by a battery. Gasoline (and equivalent) is the most
economical solution for mobility.
The fuel cell is most effective in converting fuel to electricity, but high
equipment costs make this power source expensive in terms of cost per kWh. In
virtually all applications, power from the fuel cell is considerably more
expensive than from conventional methods.
Our bodies also consume energy, and an active man requires 3,500 calories
per day to stay fit. This relates to roughly 4,000 watts in a 24-hour day (1 food
calorie = 1.16 watt-hour). Walking propels a person about 40km (25 miles) per
day, and a bicycle increases the distance by a factor of four to 160km (100
miles). Eating two potatoes and a sausage for lunch propels a bicyclist for the
afternoon, covering 60km (37 miles), a past-time activity I often do. Not all
energy goes to the muscles alone; the brain consumes about 20 percent of our
intake. The human body is amazingly efficient in converting food to energy; one
would think that the potato and sausage lunch could hardly keep a laptop going
for that long.
Table 10-19 compares the estimated power and energy per
passenger/kilometer for a loaded Boeing 747, the retired Queen Mary ocean
liner, a gas-guzzling SUV, a fit person on a bicycle, and walking on foot.
Table 10-19: Power needs of different transportation modes. Air travel consumes the least per
passenger-km in high-speed transportation; the boat is efficient for slow tonnage transport, but the absolute
lowest energy consumption is the bicycle.
* 1 joule is the energy of 1A at 1V for 1 second, or 1 watt times second, or 0.238 calorie/s;
4.186 joules raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1° Celsius; 1,000 joules are 0.277Wh.

The bicycle is by far the most effective form of transportation. Comparing a

bicycle to a car, a cyclist would only consume 0.4 liter of fuel per 100km
(630mpg). Walking is also efficient; it uses about 1 liter per 100km (228mpg).
The problem with self-powered propulsion is the limited travel range before
fatigue sets in.
In terms of energy usage, cars are one of the least efficient modes of
transportation. Most ICEs utilize only 25 percent of the net calorific value from
the fuel for propulsion. The math looks even worse when including vehicle
weight and a single passenger, the driver. The ratio of machine to man is about
ten-to-one, higher on a large vehicle. When accelerating a 1.5-ton vehicle, less
than 2 percent of the energy moves the 75kg (165 lb) driver, his briefcase and his
lunch bag; 98 percent goes to heat and friction. Even a modern jet plane has
better fuel efficiency than a car. A loaded Airbus 340 gets 3.4l/100km (70mpg),
cruising at 950km/h (594mph).
Trains are one of the most efficient modes of transportation. The 36km
Yamanote circle line, connecting major urban centers in Tokyo carries 3.5
million passengers per day. During rush hour, the 11-car train runs every 150
seconds. Such a passenger volume would be unthinkable by private cars on city
streets.
Modern trains are less intrusive than freeways to move people and goods.
Building efficient public transportation systems would give cities back to the
people who are the rightful owners. The most desirable cities were built before
the arrival of the car as designers had the well-being of people in mind. Trains
are also economical to move freight. Transporting one ton of freight consumes
only 0.65 liters of fuel per 100km (362mpg).

Net Calorific Value

Since the beginning of time, wood was a readily available fuel to mankind;
however during the medieval period, King Henry VIII (1491–1547) was
concerned that England could not produce enough wood for heating, cooking
and building houses and he urged citizens to conserve. Coal mining in the 1700s
lifted this apparent shortage and the abundant new energy source became the
nucleus for the Industrial Revolution. But burning large amounts of coal soon
began to darken the skies over cities and caused health problems.
In 1859, explorers discovered oil, first in Pennsylvania and then in Texas.
By 1900, the Middle East became a key supplier of oil, and after World War I,
Mexico, Venezuela and Iran began pumping liquid energy. Oil was cheap,
plentiful, easy to transport, safe to use and relatively clean to burn; it soon
became the preferred energy resource.
As wood led to coal and coal to oil, scientists turned to nuclear power to
generate what was seen as an unlimited pool of energy at low cost. The most
common nuclear fuels are uranium-235 and plutonium-239, of which plutonium-
239 is so powerful that 1kg can produce nearly 10 million kWh of electricity.
Science writer David Dietz (1897–1984) wrote, “Instead of filling the gas tank
of your car two or three times a week, you will travel for a year on a pellet of
atomic energy the size of a vitamin pill.”
 In the 1950s, nuclear plants began generating electricity and nuclear-
powered submarines and aircraft carriers became common. Amendments were
written and the Atomic Energy Act invited the private sector to harness nuclear
energy. This was met with a sharp learning curve that led to accidents and
meltdowns. The most serious nuclear accidents were Three Mile Island in the
USA, Chernobyl in the Ukraine and Fukushima in Japan. The enormity of
damage led to slowing nuclear growth and to this day, radiation and disposal of
spent fuel remains a problem.
Scientists pointed to hydrogen as the next energy miracle as it has an
unlimited supply and is clean. Cars powered by the hydrogen fuel cell would run
so clean that the hot water from the tailpipe could be used to serve tea. But
hydrogen is expensive to produce because it takes as much energy to create as it
delivers. After much anticipation, hydrogen became a pipedream.
Much of the global energy comes by burning hydrocarbons in the form of
petroleum, natural gas and coal that are leftovers of living matter from past
geological times. The sun, the source of all life, provided these canned energies
but they are non-renewable. Figure 10-20 illustrates the fuels used to generate
electricity. Coal, the most common fuel, produces the highest amount of CO2;
natural gas is about half that of the coal equivalent, and oil sits somewhere in
between.
Figure 10-20: Global electricity generation by fuel (IEA 2014).
Coal is cheap but emits about twice the CO2 of natural gas. The CO2 emission of oil is in between coal and
natural gas.
Source: Internal Energy Agency

Table 10-21 lists the net calorific value (NCV) and efficiency of various
energy sources in Wh per liter. Diesel and gasoline overshadow hydrogen and
the Li-ion battery in terms of NCV. Any departure from a simple combustion
process to harvest energy is met with higher energy costs, but the gain must be
offset with the benefit of generating less greenhouse gas (CO2).
Figure 10-21: Net calorific values.
Diesel and gasoline surpass hydrogen and Li-ion. The conversion efficiency is thermal output and does not
include friction and drag.
* CNG (compressed natural gas) is 250 bars (3,625psi)
** Hydrogen is at 350 bar (5,000psi)
Courtesy of Cadex

Table 10-22 provides a summary of the net calorific values of ancient and
modern fuels by mass (kg) and volume (liter). With the exception of hydrogen
by mass, hydrocarbons offer the highest energy by weight.
Oil and natural gas can be drawn from the earth cheaply and with little
preparation. Hydrogen, in comparison, needs energy to be produced and it is
hard to store. Economics are a deciding factor when choosing a fuel for heating
and mobility. This puts environmental issues on the backburner. Fossil fuel is
among the cheapest, most efficient and readily available fuels, but the ecological
harm when consumed in large scale is beginning to get everyone’s attention.
Table 10-22: Energy densities of fossil fuel and batteries.
Fossil fuel carries roughly 100 times the energy per mass compared to Li-ion.
Compiled from various sources. Values are approximate.
* Hydrogen has the highest energy to mass ratio (Wh/kg), but energy by volume (Wh/l) reveals a truer
picture in terms of storage and delivery. Diesel has almost 14 times the specific energy of pure hydrogen
 by volume (750Wh/l at 350 bar or 5,000psi)

Working Towards Sustainability

Private transportation is a much desired and emotional issue and governments
are promoting this culture by subsidizing roads and even handing out grants to
buy certain vehicles. In the 1950s, the car was given the status of supreme ruler
and commuter trains were removed in favor of freeways. With pollution hitting
the tipping point and roads in gridlock, the lack of long-term city planning is
becoming evident. Commuting by car in an urban setting is not sustainable as the
road system cannot accommodate the population growth in urban areas.
In the 1930s, Europe had a different vision for the car. With a large rural
population, farmers needed low-cost transportation and Citroën, a French
carmaker, designed a “rugged umbrella on four wheels.” The car was to carry
four workers and a payload of 100kg (220 lb), traveling at a top speed of 60km/h
(37mph) on a well-suspended chassis that did not break farm eggs when driving
across a ploughed field. The vehicle was to consume no more than 3 liters of
gasoline per 100km (78mpg). The first models had a 375cc motor developing
9hp; the 2CV (my first car in Switzerland) had the larger 425cc engine with 19hp
(14kW). With a tailwind the car would reach a top speed of 85km/h (53mph).
Figure 10-23 illustrates a 1958 Citroen 2CV.
Figure 10-23: 1958 Citroen 2CV.
In 1930, the main objectives were economical transportation for people and goods and the Citroen 2CV met
this criterion with a 425cc air-cooled two-cylinder motor producing 19hp.
Source: Classic Car Catalogue

In 1934, then chancellor Adolf Hitler gave Ferdinand Porsche specifications

to build the Volkswagen: a “people’s car” capable of transporting two adults and
three children at 100 km/h (62 mph) while consuming no more than 7 liters of
fuel per 100 km. The engine had to be powerful enough to maintain cruising
speeds on Germany’s new freeways, which Hitler is said to have promoted to
ease mass unemployment. He asked for a simple design to make the car
affordable and to ensure that worn parts could be exchanged quickly and
cheaply. The car was to be made available to citizens on a savings scheme at a
price that was less than a worker’s 2-year income.
Today’s luxury cars are powered with 275hp (200kW) engines, enough to
provide electrical energy for 10 houses. Most vehicles carry only the driver, and
few restrictions exist as to vehicle size, horsepower and distances driven. Our
highways are mostly free to use; general tax revenue and gas tax pay for them. A
research group said that gasoline would need to cost five-times the current price
if drivers were to pay for the highway costs.
 Free-roaming takes a toll on the environment. According to the US
Department of Energy, 71 percent of the oil consumed in the USA is for
transportation and 51 percent goes to passenger cars and light trucks.
Concerns about pollution by burning fossil fuel were first published in
1971; governments acknowledged an environmental demise in 1991, and today
our leaders are taking note but cannot halt the rise of greenhouse gases. Over the
past 400,000 years, CO2 concentrations have fluctuated between 180 and 280
parts per million; today’s level is at 400 parts per million.
The US burns 19 million barrels of oil a day (one barrel has 159 liters).
Europe, with twice the population and a comparable standard of living,
consumes only half this amount. More could be done to reduce consumption,
and concerned citizens feel that climate change is not being taken seriously in
the West. An analogy is vodka consumption in Russia that causes drunkenness.
Stopping the flow, economists say, would bring the country to a halt.
Scientists say that developed nations consume a level of energy that is one-
and-a-half times what mother earth can produce. Folks living in the next
millennium might fret over the environmental damage their forefathers have
caused, forcing millions of farmers in water-starved territories to flee the once
fruitful land because of encroaching deserts. Schoolbooks may describe how
wealthy businessmen lined their pockets while politicians looked the other way
and denied any connection with human activity and unusual weather patterns.
Questions will be asked why past leaders did nothing to slow a frivolous and
unsustainable lifestyle.
No one likes change, and when the medical associations realized in the
1970s that smoking tobacco was harmful to human health, the then US president
Ronald Reagan hinted, “Yes, we must do everything to cut down on smoking,
but let’s not hurt the tobacco industry” (paraphrased).
New European cars under the 2015 law can only emit 130 grams of CO2 per
kilometer. This is equal to 5.6 l/km (42mpg). The 2021 target will be 95g/km and
4.1 l/km (57mpg). Car makers must pay 95 euro per gram of excess emission
premiums for each vehicle that exceeds this limit. Japan is following the lead and
also requires and achieves emission levels of about 130g/km. Meanwhile, air
travel produces about 81 grams of CO2 per passenger kilometer, a decrease of
roughly 28 percent over the last 15 years.
The US president said that America is getting tough on car pollution as
well. Progress was made and the CO2 release of 268g/kg in 2010 was lowered to
an average of 190g/km, or 8.15 l/100km (29mpg), on 2015 model cars. Much
work still lies ahead to reduce fuel consumption as burning 1 liter of gasoline
generates 2.3kg of CO2 (19 lb per US gallon).
Resource-rich Americans dislike limitations while resource-lean countries
in Europe and Asia were enticed to conserve and get innovative. Our European
and Japanese friends have demonstrated that protecting our environment is
possible without sacrificing standard of living. Much work will revolve around
the electric powertrain, but no battery exists yet that can match hydrocarbons in
net calorific value. Limitations will continue as long as the battery operates on
an electrochemical process.
Pledge to Humanity
The goal for humanity is to maintain an environment that is sustainable, finds
contentment and provides social justice. Rich nations may not reach this
objective without the help from poorer lands. These caring and resourceful folks
may one day come forth to teach the well-established that material possession
does not satisfy and that the deeper meaning of life is love, relationships and
spiritual fulfillment. They will tell rich nations to go back to the basics and
rediscover the bounty of this fine earth by letting go of excess baggage. Those
who find the virtue of simplicity will begin to enjoy life more abundantly.

________________
* IPP: Peak current delivered at 0.3 seconds into a 15 second controlled discharge at a constant terminal
voltage of half the nominal battery voltage.
**IPR: This is the discharge current at the conclusion of a 15 second controlled discharge at a constant
terminal voltage of half the nominal battery voltage.
Glossary
AC: Alternating current; current flows in both directions. Household current is AC.
Acid: Compound in a battery that promotes electrochemical reaction.
AGM: Absorbent Glass Mat is a lead acid battery that uses a glass mat to promote the recombination of
gases produced by the charging process.
Allotrope: Two or more forms of the same element in the same physical state (solid, liquid, gas) that differ
from each other in physical and sometimes chemical properties.
Ampere-hours: Symbol Ah is a unit of charge. Example: Drawing a current of one ampere (1A) from a
battery for one hour (1h) equates in one ampere-hour (1Ah).
Anode: Electrode on which oxidation occurs; releases electrons on discharge. When applying power to a
device (vacuum tube, diode, battery on charge), the anode is positive; taking power away on discharge
turns the anode to negative.
Antimony: Used in lead acid batteries to improve mechanical strengths of lead plates and enhances
performance. Other uses are flame proofing, producing low friction applications, and building
semiconductors.
Barrel: Measuring unit for liquids (oil); 1 barrel has 42 US gallons, 35 Imperial gallons, 159 liters.
Basel Convention: International treaty to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations;
signed in1989 in Basel, Switzerland and made effective in 1992.
Battery: Electrochemical cell, or cells, connected in series (some in parallel); composed of the anode
(negative electrode), cathode (positive electrode), separator and electrolyte as catalyst.
Battery cycle: Charge followed by a discharge and recharge. No standard exists as to level of charge and
discharge to constitute a cycle.
Battery Directive 2006/66/EC: European legislation on waste batteries to protect the environment.
BMS: Battery Management System used inside or outside a battery to manage charge, discharge and
provide SoC; forms an essential part to assure battery longevity and safety.
Bluetooth: Low-power radio communications up to 10 meters (30 feet). Bluetooth borrowed the name from
Harald Bluetooth, a Danish king who lived more than 1,000 years ago.
Boolean bit: System of symbolic logic devised by George Boole in the 1840s; used in computers.
Button cell: Miniaturized battery also known as coin cell. Most are non-rechargeable.
Calcium: Fifth most abundant element by mass in the earth’s crust; essential for living organisms to build
bone, teeth and shells. Discovered by Humphry Davy (1778–1829). Improves mechanical strength of
lead plates in lead acid batteries; enhances performance.
Candela (cd): Unit of luminous intensity; agreed international name since 1967.
Capacitance: Unit measuring electrical charge in a capacitor (condenser), measured in farad (f).
Capacitor: Component consisting of two conductive surfaces separated by an insulator. Passes AC;
indefinite resistance for DC; voltage lags behind the current (opposite of a coil).
Capacity: Electrical charge of a battery in ampere-hours (Ah). The stored energy is measured by observing
the elapsed time while discharging at a constant current to the end-of-discharge voltage. The capacity
is the leading health indicator of a battery.
Capacity offset: Capacity correction when discharging a battery at a higher C-rate than specified.
Carbon dioxide: (CO2) Odorless gas formed during combustion, respiration and decomposition of organic
substances. Plants absorb CO2; excess CO2 is blamed for climate change.
Cathode: Electrode in an electrochemical cell in which reduction takes place by absorbing electrons.
During discharge, the cathode is positive; reverse on charge.
C-code: Abbreviation for configuration code. C-code is stored in a battery adapter and configures the
analyzer to the correct battery settings (Cadex systems).
Cell mismatch: Cells in a battery pack that have unequal capacities, voltages or resistive values.
Cell reversal: Cell polarity reverses on a deep discharge at high load. Damages affected cell.
Charge: Replenishing electrical charge to a cell or battery.
Chemical battery: Behavior of the actual battery as opposed to monitoring peripheral activities.
Cobalt (Co): Hard, lustrous, gray metal; used in batteries, magnets, and high-strength alloys.
Co-generation: Utilization of heat and kinetic force. Heat drives steam turbines; kinetic force produces
electricity through a generator; charges a battery on deceleration.
Coke: Derivative of coal from which most gases have been removed through heating.
Coulomb: Unit of electric charge. One coulomb (1C) equals one ampere (1A) per second.
Coulombic efficiency, also called faradaic efficiency or current efficiency describes the charge efficiency
by which electrons are transferred in a batteries.
C-rate: Unit by which charge and discharge times are scaled. At 1C, the battery charges and discharges at a
current that is at par with the marked Ah.
Current-limiting charger: Keeps current constant and allows voltage to fluctuate. (NiCd, NiMH chargers)
Cycle: Charge/discharge/charge. No standard exists as to what constitutes a cycle.
Cycle life: Number of cycles a battery can deliver. (End of-battery-life for portable devices is commonly set
to 80%.)
Cylindrical cell: Positive and negative plates are rolled up and placed into a cylindrical container.
DC: Direct current; current flows in one direction. A battery delivers a DC current.
DC-to-DC converter: Converts DC to a higher or lower voltage potential.
Delta temperature over delta time (dT/dt): Senses rate of temperature increase over time rather than by
measuring absolute value; detects full charge of nickel-based batteries.
Digital battery: Peripheral that monitors battery activity associated with the smart battery.
DIN, IEC: Capacity of a starter battery is measured with a 0.2C-rate (5h) discharge of a fully charged
battery to 1.55V/cell or a 0.05 (20h) discharge to 1.75V/cell.
DoD: Depth of discharge; 100% is full discharge; 80% commonly used for specification.
Double-layer capacitor: Electrostatic storage device utilizing the electrical double layer effect that is
formed near the surface of the carbon electrode; also called supercapacitors or ultracapacitors.
Driving range: EVs display the allowable driving rang range rather than capacity. As the capacity fades,
battery gets charged more and discharged deeper. The full capacity is hidden.
Dumb battery: Basic electrochemical battery with no electronic intelligence with which to communicate.
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), also known as impedance spectroscopy; method to test
electrochemical characteristics of a battery; EIS injects AC signals at different frequencies and
analyzes the response.
Electrode: Conductor or plate in a cell in which an electrochemical reaction occurs.
Electrolyte: Non-metallic conductor of electricity (typically liquid) placed between positive and negative
 electrodes of a battery. Ion movement enables current flow.
Electrolyte oxidation (EO): Formation of a restrictive film on the Li-ion cathode if the voltage is kept
above 4.10V/cell. The longer the battery stays in a high voltage, the more pronounced the degradation
will be.
Energy: Work measures over time. Multiplying voltage x current x time = Watt-hours (Wh). Energy is also
given in joules (J); 1,000 joules are 0.277Wh.
Energy Cell: Battery cell designed for maximum capacity. Power density may be compromised.
Energy density: Also known as volumetric energy density; specifies the amount of energy a cell can hold in
volume (Wh/l). Energy density is synonymous with the runtime of a battery.
Energy Star: Organization promoting energy efficiency.
Exercise: In battery maintenance, one or several discharge cycles to the end-of-discharge with recharge;
prevents memory buildup in NiCd and NiMH batteries.
Farad (f): Charge in coulombs necessary to change the potential between the plates of a capacitor by 1V. (1
Farad = 1 Coulomb per Volt)
Fast charge: 1–3 hours charge time.
Float charge: Similar to trickle or maintenance charge; compensates self-discharge of lead acid battery.
Flow battery: A cross between a conventional battery and a fuel cell. Liquid electrolyte of metallic salts is
pumped through a core with positive and negative electrodes, separated by a membrane. The resulting
ion exchange generates electricity.
Frequency: Number of events in a given time. Indicates how often the AC voltage changes from positive to
negative per second, or how many times a battery is cycled.
Fuel cell: Device converts oxygen and hydrogen into electricity and water.
Fuel gauge: State-of-charge (SoC) indicator to estimate the charge level of a battery.
Fuzzy logic: Multi-valued, mathematical logic derived from blurred data derives at a voted result. Battery
rapid testing, image recognition, weather forecasting and medical tests follow fuzzy logic.
Graphene: Allotrope of carbon in a two-dimensional hexagonal lattice in which one atom forms each
vertex; establishes the basic structural element of graphite, charcoal diamonds and more.
Graphite: A form of carbon with hexagonally crystallized allotrope, used in lead pencils, lubricants,
batteries and the anode of most Li-ion.
Gravimetric energy density: Also known as specific energy; indicates the amount of energy a cell holds in
weight (Wh/kg); synonymous with battery runtime.
Halon: Agent to suppress fire. Used also for Li-ion fires.
Hertz (Hz): Unit of frequency; 1Hz constitutes one full cycle per second.
Hydrogen (H): Chemical element with atomic number 1; lightest and most abundant chemical element;
constitutes roughly 75% of the universe’s elemental mass. Hydrogen gas becomes explosive at a
concentration of 4 percent.
Hydrometer: Device to measure the specific gravity of a fluid; reads state-of-charge of a lead acid and
other flooded batteries.
Hysteresis charge: Charger turns off at full charge and resumes after a time to compensate for parasitic
loads and self-discharge.
I2C: Inter-Integrated Circuit is a multi-master, multi-slave, single-ended, serial computer bus invented by
Philips Semiconductor.
IEC 60079: Intrinsically safe standards to prevent explosion in areas of flammable gas and dust.
IEC 60086: Safety standard for primary batteries.
IEC 62133: Safety requirements for sealed secondary cells/batteries for portable use.
IEEE 1625: Standard for rechargeable batteries for mobile computing devices.
IEEE 1725: Standard for rechargeable cells/batteries for mobile phones.
Imaginary impedance: Also known as complex impedance; characterizes the electrical resistance of
reactive components as a function of frequency. Rising frequency lowers the capacitive resistance and
increases the inductance resistance.
Impedance: Combination of capacitive, inductive and ohmic resistance; measured in ohms (R); frequency
dependent.
Inductance: (L) Winding that causes an electromotive force when current is applied; frequency dependent;
reacts opposite to a capacitor; measurement in Henry (H.
Intelligent battery: Also known as smart battery; enables communication between device, charger and
user.
Internal resistance: Electrical resistance of a battery pack in milliohms (mΩ). A good battery has low
resistance; corrosion raises it.
Intrinsically safe battery: Has built-in protection circuit to enable safe operation in a hazardous area;
prevents sparks by limiting voltage and current spikes.
Ion: Atom or molecule with unequal number of electrons and protons; provides a positive or negative
electrical charge.
Joule (J): Energy measurement: 1 joule = 1A at 1V for 1s. Also applies to mechanical energy.
Lead acid battery: Oldest rechargeable battery; used as starter battery wheeled mobility, UPS, etc.
Lithium (Li): Soft, silver-white metal belonging to the alkali metal group; lightest and least dense metal in
the element family; discovered by Johan August Arfwedson in 1817; metal is named after the Greek
word “lithos” meaning “stone.”
Lithium battery: Has lithium-metal anode; most are non-rechargeable.
Lithium-ion battery: Rechargeable battery with cobalt, manganese, nickel and/or other metals as cathode
and graphite anode.
Lithium-ion polymer battery: Similar to Li-ion with a solid polymer as electrolyte; addition of gelled
material promotes conductivity.
Lithium polymer battery: Also known as solid-state battery; uses solid polymer as electrolyte; heat
induces conductivity.
Load current: Current flow when applying an electrical load.
Maintenance charge: Similar to trickle or float charge; compensates for self-discharge.
Manchester coding, also known as phase coding, is used in 1-Wire battery communications to combine
data and clock in a single-wire system
Manganese (Mn): Cathode material of Li-ion. Also used in steelmaking.
Matrix: Lookup table to compare and derive at characteristics, such as battery capacity.
Max Error: Expected margin of error (%) of charge calibration on SMBus battery.
Memory: Reversible capacity loss in nickel-based batteries.
Microsecond (μs): One-millionth of a second (10-6).
Milliampere-hour (mAh): Specifies battery capacity or rating; 1000mAh equals 1Ah.
Millihertz Unit of frequency. Example: 1 Hertz = 1 cycle/second; 1mHz = 1,000 seconds.
Millisecond (ms): One-thousand of a second (10-3).
Nano: Latin for dwarf. 1 nanometer (nm) is one-billionth (10-9) of a meter or a layer of 3–6 atoms.
NCA: Nickel-cobalt-aluminum Li-ion; serves as cathode material.
Negative delta V (NDV): Drop in battery voltage when sealed NiCd and NiMH reach full charge; used to
detect full charge.
Newton (N): Unit of force named after Isaac Newton; equal to accelerating 1kg a distance of 1 meter per
second; (1N = 0.2248 pounds of force).
Nickel-cadmium battery (NiCd): Rechargeable battery using cadmium as anode and nickel as cathode.
Nickel-hydrogen battery (NiH): Rechargeable battery for satellites; pressure vessel contains the hydrogen.
Nickel-iron battery (NiFe): Rechargeable battery developed by Thomas Edison in 1901.Used for mining;
powered German V-1 flying bomb and V-2 rockets during World War II.
Nickel-metal-hydride battery (NiMH): Similar to NiCd; anode made of a hydride alloy that is less toxic
than cadmium; 30 percent more capacity than NiCd but is less durable.
Nickel-zinc battery (NiZn): Similar to NiCd; first developed in 1920; short life due to dendrite growth.
Nit: Unit of brightness equal to one candela per square meter.
NMC: Lithium-ion with nickel, manganese and cobalt as cathode material.
Nominal voltage: Terminal voltage of batteries.
Nyquist plots: Invented by Harry Nyquist (1889–1996) while working at Bell Laboratories; provides the
frequency response of a linear system that displays both amplitude and phase angle on a single plot
using frequency as parameter.
Ohmic resistance: Electrical DC resistance with no capacitive and inductive reactance.
OhmTest™: Battery resistance measurement based on IEC 61951 (Cadex trademark).
Organic: Relating or belonging to carbon-based chemical compounds. Also relates to an organism, a living
entity. Organic matter is the product of decay from a once living organism
Overcharge: Exceeding charge acceptance. The battery heats up, produces gases and is subject to an evet.
Overpack: Package can contain other non-dangerous or compatible dangerous good items. Limit is one
package in accordance with Section II of PI 965. (Effective 1 April 2016).
Parasitic load: Power consumption with the device turned off.
Passivation layer: Resistive layer that forms on some batteries after prolonged storage. Applying a brief
load breaks the layer and enables current flow.
Peukert law: Calculates battery capacity on discharge rate; higher numbers decrease capacity. Mainly used
for lead acid batteries; a reading close to 1 is a battery with minimal loss; larger number reflect higher
losses; named after Wilhelm Peukert (1897).
Phosphate: Salt or phosphoric acid.
Polymer: Electrical insulator that passes ions.
Pouch cell: Packaged into a flexible, heat-sealable foil pouch similar to wrapping food products.
Power: Voltage x current = power in watts (W). Also in horsepower (1hp = 746W).
Power Cell: Battery cell designed for maximum current delivery. Energy density may be compromised.
Power density: Also known as volumetric power density; reflects loading capability of a battery.
Power factor: Ratio of real power versus apparent power. The unity power factor of 1 delivers 100%
current to a load; a power factor of 0.50 reduces the contribution to 50%. A purely resistive load
 (heater elements) has a unity power factor of 1; a purely capacitive or inductive load has a power
factor of 0.
Primary battery: Non-rechargeable battery.
Prismatic cell: A battery in which the positive and negative plates are stacked instead of rolled.
Protection circuit: Electronic circuit in a battery maintains safety when exceeding limits.
Quick charger: Charges a battery in 3–6 hours.
QuickSort™: Classifies battery state-of-health into good, low and poor (Cadex trademark).
QuickTest™: Method to quick-test battery state-of-health (Cadex trademark).
Ragone chart: Plots battery performance on specific energy versus specific power
Randles Model: Equivalent electrical circuit representing electrolyte resistance in a battery that is
commonly used in electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS).
Rapid charge: Same as quick charge.
Reactance: Inductive and capacitive resistance; frequency dependent.
Recondition: Secondary discharge applied after end-of-discharge to drain the battery further; helps break
down crystalline formation (memory) of nickel-based batteries.
Reformer: Device that extracts hydrogen from fossil and other fuels.
Reserve Capacity: American way of measuring battery capacity by applying a fixed discharge current and
measuring time in minutes. Europe uses the ampere-hour (Ah) method under DIN and IEC. DIN and
IEC mark the battery in Ah at a typical discharge of 0.2C-rate (5h-rate). See also RC in Abbreviation
on page 344.)
Residual capacity: Remaining battery capacity before charge.
Resistance: Restriction to current flow; high resistance generates voltage drop and heat.
Reverse load charge: Intersperses discharge pulses between charge pulses to promote the recombination of
gases generated during fast charge; reduces memory.
Runtime: The length of time a battery provides power with a charge.
SAE J537: Test standard for 12V automotive starter batteries.
RC: Apply a full charge (charge to 14.4–16V at 16°C–43°C (60°F–110°F)). After a 24h rest, apply a
regulated 25A discharge to 10.50V (1.75V/cell). Readings are in minutes of discharge time known
as “Reserve Capacity” (RC).
CCA: Fully charge the battery and cool to -18°C (0°F) for 24 hours. While cold, apply a discharge
current equal to the specified CCA reading. To pass, the voltage must stay above 7.2V (1.2V/cell)
for 30 seconds.
SAE J1634: Test standard for electric vehicle; energy consumption, range.
SAE J1772: North American standard for electrical connectors for electric vehicles.
Secondary battery: Rechargeable battery
Self-discharge: Capacity loss due to internal leakage.
Separator: Isolates cathode and anode in a battery; acts as catalyst to promote ion movement from cathode
to anode on charge and in reverse on discharge.
Siemens (s): Unit of electric conductance; equal to reciprocal ohm. Named after Ernst Werner von Siemens
(1816–1892).
Silver-zinc: Rechargeable battery with high specific energy for defense and aerospace; has a short cycle
life; is expensive.
Single-wire Bus: Simplified smart battery with one wire providing digital communications.
Slow charge: Overnight charge lasting 10–16 hours at a charge current of 0.1C.
Smart battery: Also known as an intelligent battery; communicates with device, charger and user.
SMBus: System Management Bus is a two-wire interface based on I2C; communicates with the battery and
device by accepting control parameters and providing battery status, such as state-of-charge,
manufacturer information, cycle count and error messages.
Sodium-nickel-chloride: Further development of sodium-sulfur battery. Zeolite Battery Research Africa
Project (ZEBRA) made the battery commercially viable; must be heated for operation, used for large
UPS and EVs.
Sodium–sulfur: (NaS) Molten-salt battery; gained attention in 1970s, 1980s; has a short service life and
high manufacturing costs; superseded by the sodium-nickel-chloride battery.
Soft cell: High cell resistance. The voltage drops on a load and is unable to clamp on charge. Very cold
temperature and lack of electrolyte causes this condition.
Solid electrolyte interface (SEI): A film composed of lithium oxide and lithium carbonate forms on the
surface of the Li-ion anode. The SEI layer grows with cycling and can form a barrier to obstruct ion
flow.
Sol: Used by planetary astronomers to refer to the duration of a solar day on Mars. A Mars solar day has a
mean period of 24 hours 39 minutes 35.244 seconds.
Specific energy: Also known as gravimetric energy density; indicates the amount of energy a cell contains
in weight (Wh/kg); relates to battery capacity; governs runtime.
Specific gravity (SG): Weight ratio of a chemical solution compared to water at a specified temperature.
SG of water is 1.0; the electrolyte of a fully charged lead acid battery is about 1.30.
Specific power: Also known as gravimetric power density; reflects the loading capability or the amount of
current the battery can deliver; readings in W/kg.
Spectro™: Multi-model electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Scans battery with a frequency and
compares the signatures against matrices representing various conditions. (Cadex trademark)
Spectroscopy: Analysis of a compound or a battery when scanned with a frequency.
Spinel: Hard glassy mineral consisting of an oxide of magnesium and aluminum that forms a three-
dimensional chemical structure. Manganese-based Li-ion has such a spinel structure.
State-of-charge (SoC): Indicates charge level of a battery; normally measured in percent. SoC has no
relationship with capacity.
State-of-function (SoF): Reflects battery readiness that verifies capacity, current delivery, voltage, SoC,
self-discharge and more; measured in %. (Capacity, current delivery and SoC are most basic.)
State-of-health (SoH): Reflects battery performance that verifies capacity, current delivery, voltage and
self-discharge; measured in %. SoH excludes SoC.
Sulfation: Formation of lead sulfate crystal in a lead acid battery that inhibits current flow; storage at low
state-of-charge causes this.
Supercapacitor: Electrochemical capacitor also known as an ultracapacitor or double-layer capacitor;
specific energy is a fraction of Li-ion. Has high cycle life; offers good cold temperature performances.
System Management Bus (SMBus): Protocol for smart battery (See SMBus in Glossary).
Thermal runaway: Uncontrolled disintegration of a battery from the inside out; can be caused by cell
defect, overcharging, excess heat and other abusive conditions.
Thermal voltage: A voltage created by the junction of dissimilar metals when a temperature difference
exists between these junctions.
Thermistor: Electrical resistor that changes resistance with temperature.
Titanate: Substance used for anode material of some lithium-based batteries.
Trickle charge: Also known as maintenance charge, compensates self-discharge of a battery.
UL 1642: Safety acceptance test for lithium-based batteries by Underwriters Laboratories. Other agencies
are IEC 62133, IEEE 1625, IEEE 1725, BAJ (Japan), UN. In 2010, UL 1642 transitioned to IEC
62133, made fully effective on 1 May 2012.
UN 38.3: Safety norms for shipping battery products
Universal Serial Bus (USB): Bi-directional data port featuring a 5-volt supply and two data lines to
accommodate auxiliary devices and to charge batteries.
Valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA): Maintenance-free lead acid battery recombines oxygen (positive plate)
with hydrogen (negative plate) on charge; valve regulates pressure by release of excess gases.
Repeated venting will lead to dry out.
Vinylene carbonate: Additive to improve performance of Li-ion cathode.
Voltage (V): Electric energy potential per unit charge. 1V = 1J/Coulomb.
(1,000 joules = 0.277Wh).
Voltage delay: During prolonged storage, some battery systems develop a passivation layer. This results in
a momentarily lower voltage until the film is dissipated through discharge.
Voltage limit: Battery thresholds on charge and discharge.
Voltage-limiting charger: Current is allowed to fluctuate in saturation mode while the voltage is capped
(lead acid and Li-ion charging).
Volumetric energy density: Also known as energy density; specifies energy storage in volume (Wh/l). (See
Energy Density in this Glossary)
Watt (W): Unit of power; ampere (A) x volt (V) equals watts (W).
Watt-hour (Wh): Unit of electrical energy equivalent to a power consumption of one watt for one hour
(One watt-hour = 3600 Joules). Multiplying a battery voltage (V) by the rated capacity (Ah) gives the
battery energy in Wh. Example: 14.4V x 2.5 Ah = 36 Wh.
Wi-Fi: Wireless Internet connections; based on 2.4GHz 802.11b standard.
Zapping: Applying a momentary current pulse to a battery to evaporate a short.
Zinc-air: Generates electrical energy by an oxidation process of zinc and oxygen. Most zinc-air batteries
are non-rechargeable, provide high specific energy but have poor load capabilities.
Abbreviation / Conversion
$ Dollar in US currency (exchange rate of ca. first quarter 2016)
18650 Li-ion cylindrical cell format measuring 18mm x 65mm
A Ampere (electrical)
A4WP Alliance for Wireless Power
AAMI Association for the Advancement of Medical Instruments
AC Alternating current
ACA Accessory Charging Adapters used to charge batteries from
USB port
ADAC Allgemeiner Deutscher Automobil-Club (German automobile
club)
AEDLC Asymmetric Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitor
AFC Alkaline fuel cell
AGM Absorbent Glass Mat (battery)
AGV Automatic Guided Vehicle
Ah Ampere-hour; battery provides energy over a specified time
ALABC Advanced Lead-Acid Battery Consortium
ALPA Air Line Pilots Association
ANSI American National Standards institute
APU Auxiliary Power Unit
BAPCO Business Applications Performance Corporation
Bar Unit of pressure; 1 bar = 100kPa; 1 bar = 14.503psi
bbl Measurements of liquid, 1 barrel = 42 US gallons (35 Imperial
gallons), 159 liters
BCG The Boston Consulting Group
BCI Battery Council International
BMS Battery management system
BMW Bavarian Engine Works (Bayerische Motoren Werke)
BTU British Thermal Unit; 1 BTU = 1,054 joules; 1 BTU = 0.29Wh
C Celsius, Centigrade (°C x 9/5 + 32 = °F)
cal Calorie; 1cal = 4.18 joules; 1cal = 4.18 watt x second; 1,000
joules = 0.277Wh
CAN Bus Controller Area Network, vehicular network to communicate
with applications
CARB California Air Resources Board
CCA Cold cranking amps at –18°C (0°F). The norms differ as
follows:
BCI discharges battery at CCA-rate for 30s; battery at or above 7.2V
passes
IEC discharges battery at CCA-rate for 60s; battery at or above 8.4V
passes
DIN discharges battery at CCA-rate for 30s and 150s; battery at or
above 9V and 6V respectively passes
CC/CV Constant current constant voltage (charge method for lead acid,
Li-ion)
CCV Closed circuit voltage (battery under charge or discharge)
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access (digital communication on
mobile phones)
CEC Certificate of Equivalent Competency (International regulations)
CEC California Energy Commission seeking high efficiency in
consumer AC adapters
CID Circuit interrupt device (acts as fuse)
CIPA Camera and Imaging Products Association
CL Current limiting (as in charging a battery)
CNG Compressed natural gas
CNT Carbon nanotube
CPU Central processing unit
Co Cobalt (metal)
COC Certificate of Competency
CO2 Carbon dioxide (also seen as CO2)
CPR Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
C-rate Discharge rate of a battery
DC Direct current
DCA Dynamic charge acceptance
DC-to-DC Direct current to direct current converter, also seen as DC-DC or
DC/DC
DCP Dedicated Charger Port, a dedicated USB charging port only
with no data
DGP Dangerous Goods Panel
DGR Dangerous Goods Regulation
DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung (German Institute for
Standardization)
DLC Double-layer capacitor
DMFC Direct Methanol Fuel Cell
DoD Depth of discharge
DOE Department of Energy (US)
DOT Department of Transportation (US)
DSP Digital signal processor
dT/dt Delta Temperature over delta time (charge method)
EBM Electronic battery monitor
EDLC Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitor
EDTA Crystalline acid
EFB Enhanced Flooded Battery
EIS Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
ELC Equivalent lithium content
EMF Electromagnetic field
EMF Electromotive force
EPA Environmental Protection Agency (US)
ESS Energy storage systems
EV Electric vehicle
F Fahrenheit (°F - 32) x 5/9 = °C)
f Farad (unit of capacitance)
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FC Fuel cell
FCVT FreedomCAR & Vehicle Technologies (US Department of
Energy)
FDA Food and Drug Administration
Foot/’ Foot (dimension) 1’ = 12”; 1’ = 0.3048m; 1’ x 3.28 = 1m
g Gram; 1g = 0.035oz; 1g x 28.35 = 1 oz
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications (cell phones)
h Hour (time)
HEV Hybrid electric vehicle
hp Horsepower (power) 1hp = 745.7 watts
Hz Hertz (electrical frequency)
I Current (electrical)
I2C Inter-Integrated Circuit, multi-master bus
i.e. Id est. Latin: That is
IATA International Air Transport Association
IC Integrated circuit (chip)
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
ICE Internal combustion engine
JCESR Joint Center for Energy Storage Research
IEC International Electrochemical Commission, non-profit standards
organization
ILA International Lead Association
Inch/“ Inch; 1” = 25.4mm; 1” = 0.0254 meter; 1” x 39.3 = 1m
IPF Interfacial protective film
IPP IEC aircraft battery rating (0.3/15s power discharge)
IPR Aircraft battery rating according to IEC (15s power discharge)
IS Intrinsic safety (used on batteries)
J Joule (unit of energy), 1J = 1A at 1V for 1s = 1 watt x second; 1J
= 0.238 calorie/s
kg Kilogram; 1kg = 0.45 pound; 1kg x 2.2 = 1 pound
kJ Kilo-Joule; 1kJ = 0.277Wh
km Kilometer; 1km = 0.621 miles; 1km x 1.60 = 1 mile
kN Kilo-Newton (force in MKS units) 1N = 1kg m/s2

kPa Kilo-Pascal (pressure); 1kPa = 0.01 bar; 1kPa = 0.145psi

kW Kilowatt (electrical power); 1kWh = 3.6MJ; 1MJ = 860kcal =
238cal/s
kWh Kilowatt-hour (electrical energy)
L Inductance (electrical coil)
lb Pound (weight, from Roman libra) 1 lb x 0.45 = 1kg
LCD Liquid crystal display
LCO Lithium cobalt oxide (also LiCoO2, secondary battery)
LED Light emitting diode
LFP Lithium iron phosphate (also LiFePO4, secondary battery)
LFPT Low frequency pulse train (method to test a battery)
LiCoO2 Lithium ion cobalt oxide (also LCO, secondary battery)
LiFePO4 Lithium iron phosphate oxide (also LFP, secondary battery)
LiFeS2 Lithium iron disulfide (primary battery)
Li-ion Lithium ion battery (short form, secondary battery)
LIN Bus Local Interconnect Network, low-cost multiplexed automotive
communication
Li-M Lithium manganese dioxide (also LiMnO2, primary battery)
LiMn2O4 Lithium ion manganese oxide (also LMO, secondary battery,
spinel structure)
LiMnO2 Lithium manganese dioxide (primary battery, different from
secondary LiMn2O4)
LiNiCoAlO2 Lithium ion nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (also NCA,
secondary battery)
LiNiMnCoO2 Lithium ion nickel manganese cobalt oxide (also NMC,
secondary battery)
Li2TiO3 Lithium titanate oxide (also LTO, secondary battery)
LiSO2 Lithium sulfur dioxide (primary battery)
LiSOCI2 Lithium thionyl chloride (also LTC, primary battery)
L/km Liter per kilometer
LMO Lithium ion manganese oxide (also LiMn2O4, secondary battery,
spinel structure)
LTC Lithium thionyl chloride (also LiSOCI2, primary battery)
LTO Lithium-titanate (also Li2TiO3, secondary battery)
m Meter (dimension) 1m = 3.28 feet; 1m x 0.305 = 1 foot
mAh Milliampere-hours
mHz Millihertz (1mHz has a sinusoidal revolution of 1,000 seconds)
MCFC Molten carbonate fuel cell
Microfarad [µF] Farad is the standard unit of capacitance, one-millionth 10-
6 of a farad)

Min Minute (time)

mm Millimeter (dimension) 1mm = 0.039”; 1mm x 25.4 = 1”
Mn Manganese (chemical element used in batteries)
MPa Mega-Pascal unit of pressure (1MPa = 145 psi)
Mpg Miles per gallon
MPPT Maximum power point tracking
ms Millisecond
MW Megawatt (power)
N Newton is a force. 1N = 1kg m/s2 (force required to accelerate
1kg at 1m/s)
NaS Sodium-sulfur (battery)
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NCA Lithium-ion battery with nickel, cobalt, aluminum cathode (also
LiNiCoAlO2)
NCV Net calorific value (1 food calorie = 1.16 watt-hour)
NDV Negative delta V (full-charge detection)
NG Natural gas, consumption measured in joules (1,000 joules =
0.277Wh)
NiCd Nickel-cadmium (secondary battery)
NiFe Nickel-iron (secondary battery)
NiH Nickel-hydrogen battery (secondary)
NiMH Nickel-metal-hydride (secondary battery)
NiZn Nickel-zinc (secondary battery)
NMC Lithium-ion with nickel, manganese, cobalt cathode (also
LiNiMnCoO2)
NRC National Research Council
NTC Negative temperature coefficient
OCV Open circuit voltage
OEM Original equipment manufacturer
Oz Ounce; 1 oz = 28 grams; 1 oz x 0.035 = 1 gram
Pa Pascal (1Pa = 0.00045psi)
PAFC Phosphoric acid fuel cell
PC Personal computer
PEM Proton exchange membrane (fuel cell), also PEMFC
PEMFC Proton exchange membrane fuel cell, also PEM
pf Pico-farad (capacitor rating, one-trillionth 10-12 of a farad)
pf Power factor (ratio of real power to the apparent power on AC)
PHEV Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
PMA Power Matters Alliance
PRBA Portable Rechargeable Battery Association
psi Pound per square inch (pressure) 1psi = 0.145kPa; 1psi x 6.89 =
1kPa
PTC Positive temperature coefficient
PTC Over-voltage protection (batteries, motors, speakers)
QA Quality assurance
Qi Standard on inductive charging by Wireless Power Consortium
(WPC)
R Resistor (electrical)
RBRC Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation
RC Remote control (hobbyist)
RC Reserve Capacity of starter battery. Conversion formula: RC
divided by 2+16=Ah. A short method is dividing RC by 1.9.
R&D Research and development
RPM Revolution per minute
s Second (time)
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers, founded early in 1900 by US
auto manufacturers
SBS Smart Battery System
SEI Solid electrolyte interface (Li-ion)
SG Specific gravity (acid density of electrolyte)
SLA Sealed lead acid (battery)
SLI Starter-light-ignition (battery), also known as starter battery
SMBus System Management Bus, single-ended simple two-wire bus for
batteries and more
SoC State-of-charge
SoF State-of-function
SOFC Solid oxide fuel cell
SoH State-of-health
UL United Laboratories (product safety testing and certification)
UPS Uninterruptible power supply
US$ Currency in United States dollar
USB Universal Serial Bus (data)
V Voltage (electrical)
VA Volt-ampere (similar to watt with true current flow in a reactive
load)
VAC Voltage with alternating current (grid)
VL Voltage limiting (as in charging a battery)
VRLA Valve regulated lead acid (battery)
W Watt (electrical power; voltage x current = watts)
Wh Watt-hour (electrical energy; watts x h = Wh); 1Wh = 860 cal/h
= 0.238cal/s
Wh/kg Watt-hour per kilogram (measurement of specific energy)
Wh/km Watt-hour per kilometer
Wh/l Watt-hour per litter (measured in energy density)
Wi-Fi Wireless fidelity (network)
W/kg Watt per kilogram (measurement of specific power)
WPC Wireless Power Consortium, standard for wireless charging
WW World War
Z Impedance (reactance-based resistance, frequency dependent)

ZEBRA Zeolite Battery Research Africa Project (battery)

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Index
18650 cell, 30, 59–65, 93, 94, 96, 97, 112, 313, 340
1-Liter Car, 310
1-Wire system (see “single-wire system”)
26650 cell, 94, 96, 97
A123, 96, 172, 173
AA, AAA, AAAA, 38, 39, 56, 94, 323,
AAMI, 262, 340, 360
Absorbent glass mat (AGM), 47, 50, 115, 135,240, 244, 331
AC conductance, 267, 269, 270, 278
Accessory Charging Adapters (ACA), 153
Acid stratification, 136, 236, 239, 240
Ackerman, 21, 24
Additives, 46, 117, 118, 240, 241, 256–258
Adolf Hitler, 329
Advanced Lead-Acid Battery Consortium, 52
Advanced Lead-carbon, 52
Air travel, 203, 204, 205
Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC), 81
Alkaline, 36, 37, 41, 93
Allgemeiner Deutscher Automobil-Club (ADAC), 263
Alliance for Wireless Power (A4WP)
Allotrope, 120, 331, 334
Altraverda Bipolar, 53
Aluminum, 90, 122, 124, 214
Ampère, André-Marie, 21, 24
Anode, 33, 331
Antimony, 17, 46, 123, 331
Aqua refining, 212
Asymmetric Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitor, 76
Audi, 91, 156, 318
Autoclaving, 151
Automatic Guided Vehicle (AGV), 301
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU), 302
Avicenne Energy, 96, 100, 346
Axion Power, 53
B, C, D, E, FF cells, 93, 94
Basel Convention, 212, 331
Battery analyzer, 131, 132, 139, 174, 184, 192, 288
Battery Directive, 21, 331
Battery label, 296–298
Battery maintenance, 174, 187, 262, 296–298
Battery Parser, 185–187
Battery recall (2006), 107, 108, 116, 234, 254
BCI Failure Modes Study (2010), 236, 238, 244, 263, 346
Belcore, 24
Benchmarq, 177
Becquerel, Edmond, 158
Berliner Emile, 23
Brandt, Georg, 212
BMW i3, 64, 91, 112, 156, 232, 312, 313, 318, 319, 340
Boeing Dreamliner, 112, 234, 302, 360
Boosting Li-ion to life, 126, 162, 226, 228, 253
Boston Consulting Group, 64, 66, 69
Burp or reverse load charge, 141
Business Applications Performance Corporation (BAPCo), 217
Cadmium, 46, 123, 272, 331
Calibration, 130, 180–184, 220, 250, 273, 293, 335
California Air Resources Board (CARB), 307
California Energy Commission (CEC), 157
Camera and Imaging Products Association (CIPA), 217
Campbell, Bill, 12
Candela, 217, 331, 335
Capacity, general, 35–43, 131, 165 132, 174, 181, 191–197, 218–224, 228–232, 235, 261–264, 275,
283–285, 288, 323, 332
Primary batteries, 56, 323
Lead acid, 47–49, 134, 171, 241–245, 266–270, 277–279, 285
Nickel-based, 72, 73, 142, 170, 280–,
Li-ion, 61–70, 74, 143, 151, 168, 172, 186, 196, 232, 249–259, 281
Electric powertrains, 307–311, 314
Carnegie, Andrew, 22
Cathode, 33, 332
Caustic soda, EDTA, 241
C-code, 289, 332
Cell balancing, 162, 232
Cell match, mismatch, 30, 102, 167, 192, 230, 231, 332
Cell propagation, 97, 109, 110
Cell reversal, 168, 247, 332
Celgard, LLC, 114
Center for Automotive Research, 254
Ceramic-coated separator, 115
CHAdeMO connector, 316–318
Champlin, Keith, S, 267
Charge cradle, 147, 157
Charge efficiency, 32, 57, 127, 134, 141, 143, 145, 150, 151
Charge flag, discharge flag, 181, 183
Charge times, 31, 33, 45, 131, 133, 143, 215, 219, 312, 316–319
Charge transfer, 281, 282
Charge with power supply, 137, 138
Charger for operational readiness, 146
Charging cobalt-blended Li-ion, 144
Charging flooded nickel-cadmium batteries, 142
Charging Lead Acid, 133
Charging lithium-ion, 143
Charging nickel-cadmium, 139
Charging non-cobalt-blended Li-ion, 147
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, 177
Chemical battery, 129, 181–184, 193, 273, 284, 287, 292, 332
Chevy Volt, 64, 311, 312, 319,
Chicago World’s Fair, 17, 22,
Chloride, 65, 123
Choi et al, 171, 252
Circuit Interrupt Device (CID), 110, 340
Citroën, 328
Civil Aviation and Safety Authority (CASA), 203
Class 9 dangerous goods, 203–208
Class D extinguisher, 109
Closed circuit voltage (CCV), 35, 105, 272, 340
Cobalt, 61, 121, 332
Coke, 60, 120, 332
Cold Cranking Amp (CCA), 35, 48, 230
How to measure CCA, 242–244, 268–270, 276–279
CCA standards, 337, 340
Cold temperatures losses in Li-ion, 168, 169, 174
Columbia Dry Cell Battery, 93
Combo Charging System (CCS), 317
Complex modeling, 268, 269, 276, 286
Conn, David, 11
Constant Current Constant Voltage (CC/CV), 126, 133
Cooling, 111, 112, 309
Copper dendrites in Li-ion, 26, 27, 59, 90, 126, 226, 314
Corrosion, 46, 84, 134, 220, 236–241
Cost of energy with solar panels, 160–162
Coulomb counting, 146, 176, 273, 284, 298
Coulomb, 177, 332
Coulombic efficiency, 32, 45, 57, 71, 128, 171, 255–257, 273, 332
C-rate, 36, 131, 165, 332
Craig, Paul, 10
Cruickshank, William, 20, 24
Crystalline formation, 246
CSIRO Ultrabattery, 53
Cycle life, 45, 50, 61–70, 72–74, 78, 130, 167, 170, 171, 232, 235, 244, 250–252, 257, 323, 332
Dahn, Jeff, 10, 255, 257, 346
Daily Telegraph, 203
Dalhousie, 116, 255, 257
Dangerous Goods Regulations (DGR), 204–209
Daniell, John F, 21, 24
Date stamp, 229, 262, 284
Davy, Sir Humphry, 19, 21, 123, 124, 331
DBM Energy (Germany), 91
De-Leon, Shmuel, 109, 348
Dedicated Charger Port (DCP), 153
Delta temperature over delta time (dT/dt), 127, 140, 142, 332
Depth-of-discharge (DoD), 45, 49, 50, 72, 166, 167, 250, 305, 332
Dietz, David, 326
Diffusion, 281, 282
Digital battery, 181, 182, 193, 273, 284, 287, 292, 332
DIN (Deutsches Institut für Normung) , 269, 275, 337, 332, 340
Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC), 82
Disposal, 33, 210, 215
DOE, 229, 341, 360
Double layer capacitor, 76
Driving range, 182, 311–315, 319, 333
Drone, 263
Duracell, 55, 156, 178,
E-One Moli Energy, 24, 63, 74, 90, 257
Eastman, George , 23
Edison, Thomas, 21, 57, 58, 305, 306
EE Times, 194
EEStor, 54
Electric Vehicle Service Equipment (EVSE), 316
Electrical short, 59, 88, 89, 108, 168, 231, 234, 237
Electrochemical dynamic response, 281
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), 268, 274, 276, 278, 286, 333, 338
Electrolyte, 19, 34, 47, 58, 60, 70, 71, 76, 80, 86–88, 115–118, 136, 139, 193, 234, 235, 240, 241, 255–258,
273, 277, 333
Electrolyte oxidation (EO), 118, 193, 333
Electromagnetic energy, 157
Electronic battery monitor (EBM), 285
Eneloop, 56,
Energizer, 42, 55, 210
Energy Cell, 30, 61, 130, 132, 145, 162, 168,
165–173, 291, 333
Energy consumption ICE cs. EV, 315
Energy density, 35, 333
Energy Star, 127, 157, 333
Energy Storage System (ESS), 99, 100, 303
Enhanced Flooded Battery, 54
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 213
Equalizing charge, 136
Equivalent lithium content (ELC), 201, 204
EV1 (by GM), 307
Excess emission premiums, 330
Exercise, 247, 249, 333
Exponent Inc., 39, 40, 173, 347
Factory Mutual Research Corporation, 107
Farad, (capacitor measured in pf, μF), 75, 333
Faraday, Michael, 21, 24, 75, 154,
Fast charging, 31, 127, 129, 141, 215, 316–318, 333
FDA, 262, 342, 360
Fiat 500e, 313
Fire extinguishers, 109
Firefly Energy, 53
Fishbowl icon, 185, 186,
Float charge, 128, 133, 134
Flow battery, 86
Flywheel, 78, 304
Ford Focus, 313
Formatting, 191–193, 235
Franklin, Benjamin, 23, 347,
FreedomCAR & Vehicle Technologies Program, 309
Frequency domain, 281
Frequency regulation, 305
Frost & Sullivan, 25, 347
Fuel cell paradox, 85
Full charge capacity (FCC), 181, 184, 185
Full-charge detection, 127, 138, 140, 142, 149
Fuzzy logic, 333
Galvani, Luigi, 18, 24, 125,
Gates, Bill, 360
General Electric, 23
Gilbert, William, 24
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), 170
GM Spark, 313
Goodenough, John B, 59
Graphene, 27, 60, 76, 92, 120, 334
Graphite, 18, 59–62, 90, 91, 92, 114, 119, 255, 334
Gravimetric energy density, 35, 334, 338
Greatbatch Medical, 151
Grid storage batteries, 304
Grove, William Robert, 24, 81,
Halon, 108
Hatz, Wolfgang, 310
Hawker Cyclone cell, 97, 135, 197
Hazardous material, 33, 37, 50, 54, 107, 196, 200–209
High-temperature charge, 150
His Master’s Voice, 23
Hitchcock, Alfred, 22
Honda, 53, 309, 313
Hydrogen gas becomes explosive, 89, 137, 199, 334
Hydrogen-sulfide, 166, 200
Hydrometer, 117, 136, 272, 334
Hysteresis charge, 135
I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit), 178, 334, 337
IEC (International Electrochemical Commission), 93, 210, 332
IEC testing, 269, 332, 337, 340
IEC 60079 (intrinsic safety), 107, 334
IEC 60086 (safety of primary batteries), 36, 334
IEC 61951 (resistive measure), 267, 336
IEC 62133 (safety of secondary batteries), 106, 110, 334
IECEx, 107
Impedance tracking, 180, 184
Impedance, 222, 265–269, 276, 282, 334
Inductance, 226, 334
Incremental conductance, 160
Inductive charging, 155
Interfacial protective film (IPF), 192
Internal combustion engine (ICE), 32, 81, 286, 305, 312, 320
Internal Energy Agency, 327
Internal resistance, general, 38-42, 45, 72–74, 167, 221–223, 261, 265, 334
 Lead acid, 171, 241–243, 276–278, 281,
Nick-based, 141, 280, 284,
Li-ion, 169, 193, 258
International Air Transport Association (IATA), 113, 204–206,
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), 204
International Electrochemical Commission (IEC), 93
International Electrotechnical committee (IEC), 210
International Energy Agency (IEA), 315
International Lead Association (ILA), 198
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 320
Intrinsically safe batteries, 106, 334
Invention of the battery, 17
Ion, 33, 34, 114, 116
IPP (Current Peak Power), 302
IPR (Current Power Rating) 302
Iron, 123
J1772 connector, 317
Johnson, Eldridge, 23
Joint Centre for Energy Storage Research, 27
Journal of Power Sources, 237, 346, 347, 348
Jungner, Waldmar, 21, 54, 57
Kordesch, Karl, 81, 89,
Lead poisoning, 123, 198, 213
Lead, 123
Leclanché, Georges, 24, 25, 41
Levstek, Ljuba, 12
Leyden jar, 18
Level 1, 2, 3, charging, 316
LiFePO starter battery, 237
Lithium carbonate, 122, 255, 338
Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), 61, 62
Lithium iron disulfide (LiFeS2), 39, 40, 41, 42, 56
Lithium iron phosphate, 66
Lithium manganese dioxide (LiMnO2), 43
Lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O4), 63
Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (LiNiCoAlO2 or NCA), 68, 70, 91, 130, 161, 162, 256, 312, 335
Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide, (LiNiMnCoO2 or NMC), 64, 65, 66, 68, 71, 147, 161, 162, 172,
215 etc.
Lithium sulfur dioxide, (LiSO2), 43
Lithium thionyl chloride (LiSOCI2 or LTC), 42, 193
Lithium-titanate (Li2TiO3), 69
Lithium-air, 27, 90
Lithium-ion fire, 109, 204
Lithium-metal fire, 109
Lithium-metal, 26, 37, 42, 43, 90, 91, 109, 200–209
Lithium-polymer, 70, 91, 167
Lithium-sulfur (Li-S), 92
Load leveling, 304
Lohner-Porsche carriage, 305
Low-temperature charge, 148
Magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt), 241
Maintenance Charger, 160
Maintenance requirements, 45, 179–180, 302
Manchester code, 177, 335
Manganese, 123, 335
Mars Curiosity Rover, 303
Marx, Karl, 358
Max Error (maximum error), 184, 186, 230, 335
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT), 159
Maxwell Technologies, Inc., 78,
Memory, 163, 164, 215, 220, 225, 246, 247, 303, 335
Mercedes B, 313
Micro-hybrid, 244
Migration, 281, 282, 287
MIT, 24
Mitsubishi iMiEV, 312, 313, 316, 317,
MobileMark 2014, 217
Moli Energy (E-One Moli), 24, 63, 74, 90, 257
Moore’s law, 14, 27
Moore, Gordon, 13
Mossing of lead acid, 238
National Institute of Standards and Technology, 93
National Institute of Standards Technology, 254
National Museum of American History, 306
NCA (Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide, 68, 91, 161, 256, 312, 335
Negative delta V (NDV), 140, 142, 335
Negative temperature coefficient, (NTC), 293, 343
Net calorific value (NCV), 80, 301, 322, 327, 343
Neumann, Georg, 21, 24
Nickel, 123
NMC, 64–66, 161, 172, 215, 256, 312, 336
Nominal voltage, 35, 38, 43, 336
Nissan Leaf, 64, 91, 112, 118, 254, 258, 312, 313,
316–319
Nit, 217
Nyquist, Harry, 276, 336
Nyquist plot, 276, 282, 336
Nickel-cadmium (NiCd), 21, 54, 93, 198, 303, 304, 309
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 254
Open circuit voltage (OCV), 35, 105, 135, 272, 343
Operational cost, 14, 136
Orazem, Mark, 264
Overcharge, 234–237, 246, 336
Overcharging Li-ion, 147
Overnight charger, 127
Overpack, 205–207, 336
Oxide, 125, etc.
Packaging Instructions 965–970, 205–208
Panasonic, 38, 55, 56, 82, 97, 156, 168, 168, 201
Parallel Connection, 103, 104
Parasitic load, 147, 148, 164, 166, 272, 274, 336
Parser, see Battery Parser
Parthian battery, 17
Passivation layer, 122, 192–194, 336
PC-BatteryShop™, 289
Perturb and observe (P&O), 159
Peukert Law, 171
Positive temperature coefficient (PTC), 42, 95, 106, 110, 222, 293, 344
Photovoltaic (PV), 158, 160
Piëch, Ferdinand, 310,
Planté, Gaston, 21, 24, 46
Plateau timer, 127, 140
Pledge to Humanity, 330
Polyethylene (PE) separator, 115
Polyolefin a separator, 115
Polystor Energy, 98,
Porsche, 156, 318,
Porsche, Ferdinand, 305, 329
Portable Rechargeable Battery Association (PRBA), 201
Potassium hydroxide, 34, 57, 117
Pouch cell (laminated cell), 98, 99, 100
Power, 28, 29, 30, 35, 336,
Power Cell, 30, 61, 130, 132, 145, 162, 169,
165–173, 291, 336
Power density, 29, 35, 86, 258, 333, 336, 338
Power Matters Alliance (PMA), 155, 156
Powermat, 156
PPM Power, 76
Pre-charge conditioning (see Boosting Li-ion to life)
Price comparison of EV batteries, 112
Protection circuits, 106
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC), 81
Pulse charging, 135
Qi norm, 156
QuickTest, 280
Quebec Hydro, 24
Radio charging, 155
Ragone chart, 40, 336
Ragone Plot, 172–174, 336
Randles model, 266, 267, 268, 269, 277, 337
Rapid Charger, 127, 131
Rapid disassembly (see also venting with flame), 108, 111
RBRC (Battery Recycling Corporation), 211, 344,
Reactance, 222, 265–267, 337
Recondition, 249
Reserve Capacity RC), 35, 48, 269, 275, 337, 344, 337
Resistive readings by DC and AC, 222
Resonance charging, 155
Restoring, 228
Portable Batteries, 228
Batteries for wheeled mobility, 230
Starter, stationary batteries, 230
Restrictions of Hazardous Substances Directives, 123
Reusable Alkaline, 89
Retriev Technology (battery recycling), 211
Ripple voltage, 135
Ronald Reagan, 330
Roskill, MMTA, 122
Runtime, 35, 39, 40, 42, 168, 171, 172, 217, 337
SAE DC Fast Charging standard, 317
SAE International J1772 Committee, 317
SAE J537 (12V automotive) 48, 243, 268, 269, 275, 337
SAE J1634 (electric vehicle), 309, 337
SAE J1772 (EV connectors), 317, 337
Safety devices, 42, 106,
Safe usage, safety requirements, 30, 44, 45, 61–71, 91, 106–113, 116, 147, 199, 200 204, 252, 259,
Safety vents, 47, 110, 139
Sakichi battery, 28
Sanyo, 95, 97, 172, 173, 201, 348
Saturation charge:
Lead acid, 134, 215
Li-ion, 128, 131, 145–147
Schlecht & Ackermann. 21, 24
Security code, 292, 293
Self-discharge, 45, 55, 56–67, 72–74, 78, 88, 114, 133, 193, 195, 224–233, 261, 291, 337
Separators, 33, 34, 47, 70, 91, 114, 108, 110, 114–116, 337
Series configuration, 311
Series connection, 19, 101, 152
Series/Parallel Connection, 104
SFC Smart Fuel Cells AG, 83
Shedding, 236, 237,
Shmuel De-Leon, 109, 348
Shoa, Tina, 11
Siemens, 38, 265, 337
Silicon anode, 27, 61, 64, 90
Silver, 124
Silver-zinc, 88
Single-cell configuration, 101, 232, 291,
Single-wire system, 177
Sleep mode, 162
Sleep mode, 197
Sleep-and-charge Mode (USB), 153
Sleep-and-charge USB port, 153
Sleeping Li-ion, 253
SLI (starter-light-ignition), 25, 35, 48, 244 (see “starter battery”)
Smart battery, 130, 176–186, 338, 332, 344, 337, 348
Smart Fortwo, 312,
SMBus, 130, 177–186, 230, 283, 292, 293, 338, 339
SnapLock™ battery adapter, 289
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), 337, 344
Sodium, 124
Sodium-sulfur, 87
Sol, 303, 338
Solar panel, 158–162
Solid electrolyte interface (SEI), 118, 193, 255, 258, 338
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC), 82
Solid-state Lithium, 92, 116
Sony, 24, 27, 59, 60, 107, 116, 156, 173, 179, 221, 234, 318,
Specific energy, 30, 31, 35, 45, 338
Specific gravity (SG), 117, 149, 197, 233, 272, 234–236, 245, 272–273, 334, 338
Specific power, 30, 35, 338
Spectro™, 242, 244, 268–279, 283, 286, 287, 338
Spectroscopy, 268–279, 333, 337, 338
Spinel, 124
Starter battery, 48 175, 242–244, 267, 272, 275, 277, 332, 344
State-of-charge fuel gauge, 181, 283, 293
State-of-charge (SoC), 36, 128–129, 141, 146, 163, 176–183, 271-274, 278, 338,
Lead acid, 46, 52, 135, 139, 194, 197, 239, 240, 267–270, 282, 285
Nickel-based, 143, 197
Lithium-based, 140, 145, 151, 152, 194, 196, 225, 251, 253, 256,
Electric Power train, 308, 314, 319
State-of-function (SoF) or tri-state, 182, 283, 285, 286
State-of-health (SoH), 178, 185, 261, 280–283, 314, 338
Step-differential charge, 142
Storage, 135, 191–197, 215, 261
Sulfation, 133, 135, 238-239
Sulfur, 18, 92, 124
Sulfuric acid, 34, 117, 196, 272,
Supercapacitor, 52, 75–79, 165, 328, 338
Swelling of pouch cell, 99, 100
Synthetic graphite, 120
Talison Minerals, 118,
Temperature coefficient, 134, 293, 343, 344
Tesla car, 91, 104, 112, 256–258, 305, 312–319
Tesla Supercharger, 318
Tesla, Nicola, 22, 23, 154
Texas Instrument, 185
The sodium-nickel-chloride battery, 87
Thermal thresholds of batteries, 147
Thermistor in battery, 292–293, 295, 328
Time domain analysis, 281
Tin, 124
Tinnemeyer, Jörn, 11
Titanate, 125
Topping charge, 133, 134, 142, 144
Toshiba, 82, 83, 153,
Toxicity, 30, 32, 43, 45, 199, 215,
Toyoda, Sakichi, 27
Toyota, 27, 156, 308, 309, 311, 312, 317, 319, 321
Transport of Dangerous Goods, 112
Trickle charge, 127, 128
Trilayered separator, 115
Tri-state fuel gauge or SoF, 182
TU München, 226
Two-wire system, 177
Type-C connector (USB), 154
Ultra-fast Charging, 43, 129, 314, 316,
NiCd, 141
Umicore, 211
UN 2794, 201
UN 3480–3091, 205–208
UN 38.3, 112, 200, 204, 339
Underwriters Laboratories (UL), 107
Universal battery adapter, 289
Universal Serial Bus (USB), 152
University of Montreal, 24
University of Texas, 24
Urry, Lewis, 24, 41
US Army Electronics Command, 246
US Department of Energy, 27, 80, 309, 329,
US Army Materiel Command, 121
USB 2.0, 3.0, 3.1, 152–154, 339
USB Implementers Forum, 153
USB power delivery, 153
Valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA), 47, 117, 137, 245, 303, 339
van Musschenbroek, Peter, 18
Vanadium, 86, 87, 125
Ventilation, 109, 137, 199
Venting gases, 109
Venting with flame, (see also rapid disassembly), 59, 108, 111, 147
Victor Talking Machine Company, 23
Vinylene Carbonate (CV), 118, 256
Volkswagen, 285, 318, 329
Volkswagen 1-Litter Car, 310
Volt, 18–22, 28, 29, 35, 36, 42, 43, 45,
Volt-amp (VA36, 345
Volta, Alessandro, 18, 19, 24, 28
von Guericke, Otto, 18
von Kleist, Ewald George, 18, 24
von Wentzel, 172
Watt, 29, 36, 40, 172, 336, 339
Watt-hours (Wh), 26, 29, 36, 172, 204, 333
Westinghouse, George, 22
Who Killed the Electric Car, 307
Wind turbines, 158, 159, 305
Wireless charging, pros and cons, 157
Wireless Power Consortium (WPC), 155
Woods Motor Vehicle, 305
WPC, see Wireless Power Consortium
ZEBRA, 87, 88, 338, 345
Zhang, 170
Zinc-air, 88
Zinc-carbon, 41
Zinc-carbon, 93
Zink, 125
When performance counts and when
the safety of people are at stake, it
doesn’t matter if the ions move from
positive to negative or negative to
positive. We just need a reliable and
safe battery.
About the Author
Isidor Buchmann is the Chairman and founder of Cadex Electronics Inc. as well
the author of www.BatteryUniversity.com.
Fascinated with electronics during his school years, Isidor built and sold
broadcast radios that ran with no external power source – they only required an
antenna and a ground wire (no battery needed). During his apprenticeship, he
invented an internal combustion engine that was based on continuous
propulsion. Felix Wankel in Germany, the inventor of the Wankel Rotary Engine,
reviewed the drawings and theory of operation and replied that while the design
was unique and original, manufacturing would be too expensive for
commercialization. The continuous propulsion ICE invented by Isidor was never
built.
After graduation, Isidor left his native Switzerland and immigrated to
Canada to pursue a career in electronics. When the anticipated job opportunities
did not materialize, he pooled his savings and started his own company. In a
small room at his house he worked on product developments long into the night
while raising a large family.
Isidor conceived the business model in the early 1980s while working at
General Electric. NiCd batteries caused many failures then, and while repairing
two-way radios he discovered a way to rejuvenate these “memory” prone
batteries. In his spare time at home, he developed a battery analyzer that featured
the proprietary “recondition” program. To prevent conflict of interest with GE,
Isidor quit his job and went on his own. The beginning was challenging but with
perseverance, his company, Cadex Electronics, eventually flourished.
Isidor knew early on that manufacturing battery analyzers to reverse
memory had a limited market, and in 2000 Cadex began researching battery
diagnostics that included rapid-test methods. The development secured several
patents and established a leading position in the field of battery diagnostics and
monitoring. Spectro™, one of the inventions, is currently the only commercial
device that employs electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) to estimate
the capacity of a battery. Most competitive test systems use the simpler internal
resistance method. Batteries have improved and resistance alone no longer
provides reliable health indications.
Realizing the importance of batteries for an increasing number of users
from all walks of life, Isidor began to write articles that have been published in
about 300 trade magazines worldwide. Many articles were translated into
different languages and he earned a writer’s award.
The growing interest in batteries enticed Isidor to publish a book entitled,
Batteries in a Portable World: A Handbook on Rechargeable Batteries for Non-
Engineers. The first release dates back to 1997; a larger second larger edition
arrived in 2001 and subsequent editions followed. The book became a bestseller.
Isidor wanted to share his battery knowledge with a broader audience and in
2003 he began publishing the material on the web. Today,
www.BatteryUniversity.com is an open teaching resource for engineers,
academia, media, as well as students and ordinary battery users.
The website is continuously being updated to reflect advancements in
battery technologies and how to apply them in industries. As the battery
improves, Isidor believes that the use of the battery will further grow to
eventually become a partial alternative to fossil fuel in the electric powertrain,
drones and wheeled mobility. This, he says, has much room for improvement.
Isidor is the father of five grown children and lives in the Vancouver suburb
of Burnaby. To reduce greenhouse gases and keep fit he commutes the 10km (6
miles) trip to work by bicycle, rain or shine. The downhill ride to the shores of
the Fraser River where the Cadex Headquarters is located is easy; climbing the
hill in the evening takes a bit more effort. He believes in human propulsion and
has not yet switched to an e-bike. He wants to keep the fossil fuel that is so
frivolously being burned in the ground to lower green-house gas and enable
future generations to enjoy.
About Cadex
Isidor Buchmann, founder and CEO of Cadex Electronics, recognized the high
failure rate of nickel-cadmium batteries in portable devices and developed a
battery analyzer that would exercise and rejuvenate these rechargeable batteries.
He ran his business in a small room in his residence under the name Buchmann
Enterprises Inc. After receiving the registered Cadex trademark, he changed the
company name to Cadex Electronics Inc. in 1985. Cadex is derived from
“CADmium-EXerciser.”
The first battery analyzer introduced in 1981 failed to achieve the
anticipated market acceptance and only a few of the Cadex 450 were sold. The
setback did not discourage Isidor, and he started to design a modular battery
analyzer that could simultaneously service different battery types. The resulting
Cadex 550 battery analyzer sold reasonably well and became the workhorse for
two-way radio batteries serving the public safety, railway and oil industries. In
1983, the company moved from Isidor’s home address to a rented office.
In 1985, a communications company commissioned Cadex to develop and
manufacture an intelligent fast-charger for the End-of-Train Unit. The device
clamps to the last car of a freight train and replaces the caboose by providing
vital operating information such as brake pressure and car-in-motion data. The
successful project formed the foundation for several new Cadex products that
were assisted with research funds from the Science Council of British Columbia
and the National Research Council of Canada (NRC).
The charger design led to the development of a fully programmable battery
analyzer in 1991 that benefitted from the rapidly growing mobile phone market.
In 1995, the Cadex C7000 Series with the SnapLock™ battery adapter system
established a new standard to which competitive products were compared. This
opened markets in public safety, defense, healthcare, transportation, logistics and
mining in over 100 countries, resulting double-digit growth for several years.
As Cadex grew, the company needed relocating to larger premises.
Doubling plant size with each move made the new location look empty at first.
Items that were within arm’s reach now needed long-distance running.
Eventually, employees and equipment filled in the void and the hum of activity
replaced the echoing sound resembling an empty hall.
Isidor felt proud walking down the long corridors with offices to the left
and right, filled with dedicated staff serving customers and taking orders. During
this period of rapid growth, Cadex received contracts from a U.S. defense
organization and a leading medical company to supply battery chargers and
analyzers for defibrillators. Business organizations took notice of this rising
company and Isidor was a finalist at four Entrepreneur of the Year events.
Cadex reached financial strength to build its own headquarters and acquired
one of the most scenic parcels of land in a new industrial park in Richmond, BC.
Architects drew up plans and Isidor spent several months optimizing the floor
layout and enhancing the appearance.
The building includes a large two-story glass octagon that serves as
entrance lobby and accommodates the reception and meeting rooms. A broad
staircase leading to the second floor conveys an atmosphere of grandeur and
space. Large windows and balconies facing the mighty Fraser River, on which
the building is located, provide a relaxing show of swans frolicking in the waters
and ducks grazing on the riverbanks. This tranquil setting central to metropolitan
Vancouver provides a pleasant working environment and promotes creative
thinking.
Cadex Headquarters in Richmond, BC, Canada.
With the wonders of nature at its door, Cadex offers its staff a tranquil alternative to the noise and hustle of
crowded city streets.
Courtesy of Cadex

Everyone with an idea and a little bit of savings can start a company. This
turns Karl Marx’s famous dictum on its head that imposed layers of permissions,
secure access to capital, a plant filled with machinery and ready buyers to
consume the products it produced. What is needed more than ever is a vision and
the discipline to slug it out even when the first attempt goes bust. Once the
products are accepted, continued improvements must be made together with
attentive customer service. Products may fail in the field, but how quickly the
problems are being solved measures the success. And, yes, don’t forget sacrifice.
The owners must become the servants who continuously hunt for the greatest
talents in the land.
Batteries have become the lifeline in
our society. Any incremental
improvement doubles our freedom and
mobility and the pursuit for the super
battery continues.
Afterword — The Battery Paradox
In closing, the author stresses the importance of observing battery performance.
The battery begins to fade the moment it comes off the assembly line plant; it is
also the most prone parts to fail. While a faded pack in a personal device may
only cause mild inconvenience, loss of mission-critical power can have serious
consequences.
Safety falls under regulatory authorities and being labeled uncontrollable, the
battery tends to evade the scrutiny of inspection. This allows weak battery to
hide in a system and cause havoc. Meanwhile seemingly less important
regulatory issues are being tightened to the hilts.
Batteries should receive the same treatment as a critical part in an aircraft or
machine where wear-and-tear falls under strict maintenance guidelines. This is
not the case and a biomed technician said: “Batteries are the most abused
components. Staff care little about them and only do the bare minimum.
References to battery maintenance are vague and hidden inside service
manuals.”
A new device is approved with a perfect battery, rendering the procedure flawed.
Batteries will fade in use and field personnel ask, “At what capacity should I
replace the battery? How much spare is enough? How often should I test the
pack?”
An AAMI (Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation)
survey of medical professionals states: “Battery management emerged as a top
10 medical device challenge.” A US FDA survey says, “up to 50 percent of
issues in hospitals are battery related.”
A Li-ion in a medical device lasts for about 5 years. In the absence of battery
maintenance, the manufacturers mandate a 2-year life span. Most packs still
have over 90 percent capacity when being discarded. DOE reports that “every
year roughly one million usable Li-ion batteries are sent in for recycling with
most having a capacity of up to 80 percent.”
Battery developments fall into two categories: Birth-to-graduation and
workforce-to-retirement. Striving for higher capacities is desirable but battery
fade must also be observed. Capacity is the leading health indicator, a measure
that is poorly understood. When battery users are asked, “At what capacity do
you replace the battery?” most reply in confusion, “I beg your pardon?”
Battery maintenance has a good return rate and when demonstrating a battery
analyzer, the manager of a US railway company quipped, “Our guys could not
be bothered testing batteries; they throw them out with the radios.” (The
company maintained 10,000 high-end radios.)
Battery diagnostics and monitoring have lagged behind other technologies but an
industrial revolution in batteries is looming. In the 1970s, the world had
computers but little software. Bill Gates changed this with the PC and shared
software. Today, the world evolves around batteries but lacks control technology.
Modern systems will assess battery performance during charge and make the
results transparent to the battery user and fleet manager alike.
A Crash Course on Batteries — in Plain English

Batteries receive much media attention but they lag behind other technologies.
These limitations become apparent when advancing the battery from portable
uses to wheeled mobility that demands strenuous conformities and long service
under harsh conditions. Incremental improvements are being made and the
fourth edition Batteries in a Portable World elaborates on these developments.
This bestseller handbook on batteries provides a basic understanding of their
strength and limitations. It helps the busy professional who needs a crash course
on batteries; the engineer who searches for a battery to launch a new product; the
student who seeks answers for an academic project; and the everyday battery
user who wants to get the most out of each battery. The book is easy to read and
makes minimal use of technical jargons. The focus is on practical applications
and steps towards perfection.

ISIDOR BUCHMANN is the Chairman and founder of Cadex Electronics Inc., a technology provider in
batteries and diagnostic devices. Active in wireless communications, Isidor has studied the behavior of
batteries in practical and everyday use, wrote many articles, delivered numerous technical papers, published
books, and created www.BatteryUniversity.com to share battery knowledge with battery users worldwide.
Readers of Batteries in a Portable World are invited to visit www.BatteryUniversity.com, an online
community dedicated to learning more about batteries. Sign up at BatteryU™ and tell us about your
experience with batteries on [email protected].