5

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Embankment Dam

Embankment dam are construct of soils or rocks or both. As the soil and rock
fill dam are non-rigid materials, the embankment dams are also called non-rigid dams.
The embankment dams are broadly classified as follow.

(a) Earth Dam: These dams are constructed mainly from earth.
(b) Rockfill Dam: These dams are constructed mainly from rock or pieces of
rock.
(c) Composite earth or rockfill dam: These dams are constructed from
both earth and rockfill.

2.2. Types of Earth dam

Earth dams can be divided into the following reasons,

(a) Depending upon the section of the dam,
(i) Homogeneous earth dams
(ii) Zone earth dams
(iii) Diaphragm type earth dams
(b) Depending upon the method of construction
(i) Rolled-earth dam
(ii) Hydraulic-fill earth dam
(iii) Semi-hydraulic earth dam

2.3. General Feature of Embankment Dams

Every embankment dam (earth or rockfill dam) consists of three basic

components as shown in figure 2.1. The first component is the foundation which is
either earth or rock. It provides the support for the embankment, resisting both the
vertical and the horizontal loads. The other two components are the core or membrane
and the shell. The purpose of the core (membrane) is to hold back free water.
 6

Upstream Top width Downstream

Water surface Free Board

Sod
D/S
U/S Internal Drain
Shell
Shell
Riprap
Core Toe Drain
U/S Toe D/S Toe
Transition filter

Pervious foundation Filter

Cut-off

Impervious Stratum

Figure 2.1 General Features of Embankment Dam

Depending on the structural requirements of the dam, the core can be located
at the centre, upstream from the centre or in the case of rockfill dams, on the upstream
face. When the foundation is incapable of resisting under seepage it is necessary to
extend the core down into the foundation to the depth where impervious materials are
reached. Such an extension of the core is termed a cut-off. The purpose of the shell is
to provide structural support for the core and to distribute the loads over the
foundation. In some instance the core and the shell are constructed of the same
materials in which case the dam is termed homogeneous.

In core dams a transition filter is often necessary between the core and the
shell to prevent the migration of the core materials into the pores of the shell
materials. Such transition filters are particularly needed between clay cores and rock
or gravel shells. An internal drain is an essential feature of all but the smallest dams
unless the downstream shell is so pervious that it acts as a drain. The toe drain at the
downstream toe of shell serves a similar purpose as the internal drain. It prevents
sloughing of downstream face from rain water or seepage saturation.

Riprap is required to cover the upstream face to prevent erosion or wash by

waves shown in figure 2.2 (a). Ordinarily, it extends from above the full tank level. If
the downstream face is subjected to inundation, it also requires riprap. Sod for erosion
protection is required on the downstream face to prevent rain wash shown in figure
2.2 (b). In a few cases, riprap or even paving has been employed for the same
purpose, but these are usually more expensive. A minimum top width is required to
 7

permit access to the dam for maintenance and in some cases, for a roadway. Berms
are sometimes employed on the downstream face to provide access for maintenance
and to break the slope and thus reduce rain wash.

U/S D/S U/S

Sodding
Riprap

(a) Sodding at Downstream (b) Riprap at Upstream

Figure 2.2 Sodding and Riprap of Dam
2.4. Causes of Failures of Earth Dams

Earth dam are very huge earth structure which store a large quantity of water
in the reservoir upstream. Their failure may cause vast damage, catastrophe and loss
of human lives. The development of soil mechanics has given the engineer powerful
analytical tools and rotational procedures which have made many larger earth dams.

Every precaution of through investigations, Earth dam failures are mainly

caused by improper design, lack of thorough investigations, inadequate investigations,
inadequate care in construction and poor maintenance. Various failures of earth dams
may be grouped into four basic causes:

(a) Hydraulic failures

(b) Seepage failures
(c) Structural failures
(d) Other miscellaneous causes

On the basic of investigations carried out in the actual failures of a large

number of earth dams, it has been found that about 35% of the failures are hydraulic
failures, about 38% of are seepage failures, and about 20% are structural failures. The
remaining 7% of the failures are due to other miscellaneous causes.
 8

Water level

(a) Overtopping

Water level

Piping through dam

Piping through foundation

(b) Piping Failure

Water level

(c) Sliding due to Weak Foundation,

Water level

(d) Cracking of Embankment due to Foundation

Settlement,
 9

Water level

(e) Downstream Slide due to Seepage

High Water level

Low Water level

(f) Sliding due to Sudden Drawdown of Reservoir.

Figure 2.3. Types of Failures of Earth Dams

2.4.1 Hydraulic Failures

Note that about one third of the failure of dam which are produce by surface
erosion of the dam by water. The hydraulic failure may occurs due to one or more of
the following reasons :
(a) Overtopping
(b) Erosion of Downstream face (D/S face)
(c) Erosion of Upstream face (U/S face)
(d) Erosion of Downstream toe (D/S toe)
(e) Frost action

2.4.1.1 Overtopping

An earth dam fails as soon as its overtopping occurs Figure 2.3(a).

Overtopping is the most common cause of the failure of an earth dam. An earth dam
cannot withstand the erosive action of the overflowing water and its fails suddenly.
About 30% of the failures in the past occurring due to overtopping. Overtopping of
the earth dam occurs due to the following facts :
 10

(1) The design flood is under estimated

(2) The spillways capacity is not adequate
(3) The spillway gates ate not properly operate
(4) The free board is not sufficient
(5) Excessive settlements of the foundation and dam occurs

The water level rises above the top of dam as shown in Figure 2.4. because of
some reasons such as insufficient free board, inadequate spillway capacity, spillways
resulting from unusual storms, improper operation of the spillways gates and clogging
of spillway with debris.
To avoid overtopping, the design flood should be properly estimated and
adequate spillway capacity should be provided. The gates should be operated
according to the requirements. The free board should be adequate and it should take
into account the likely settlements in the foundation and dam.

1 2
Subcritical supercritical

Erosion Zones

1 2 3
3 4

Reservoir

Dam Crest

5 6

Figure 2.4 Failure due to Overtopping

 11

2.4.1.2 Erosion of Upstream Face

About 5% of the earth dam in the past have been caused by the erosion of the
upstream face. Generally upstream face is provided with riprap to safe guard against
wave erosion. This riprap is laid on a filter bed to prevent washing out of the soil
below during sudden drawdown. If the riprap thickness is not adequate or if the filter
bed is not properly designed, the waves in the reservoir may cause erosion of the
upstream face. So, to avoid the erosion of the upstream face, suitable riprap or
pitching should be provided on a properly graded filter.

2.4.1.3 Erosion of Downstream Face

Erosion of the downstream face may occur due to rains. Sometimes erosion if
the downstream face also occurs because of high winds. Heavy rain falling directly
over the downstream face may lead to gully formation resulting in partial failure of
slopes. However, sometimes even complete failures may occur due to erosion of the
D/S face.

To avoid erosion of the downstream face, turfing (or sodding) is usually done.
Suitable berms are also provided to check the velocity of the flowing water. Proper
arrangement should be made for removing the rain water collected on the berms.

2.4.1.4 Erosion of Downstream Toe due to Tail Water

Erosion of downstream tow of an earth dam may cause due to the following
two reasons :
(a) Cross-currents that originate from the spillway bucket, if a spillway is
provided along with the dam.
(b) Waves developed in the tail water

To avoid erosion of the downstream toe, pitching (or riprap) is provided upon
height slightly above the normal tail water depth. The side wall (divided walls) if the
spillway separation the earth dam and the caused to the D/S toe due to erosion usually
leads to the partial failure of the earth dam.

2.4.1.5 Frost Action

If the earth dam is located at the place where the temperature falls below the
freezing point, frost may form in the pore of the soil in the earth dam. When there is
 12

heaving due to rise in temperature, the cracks may form in the soil. This may lead to
dangerous seepage and consequent failure.

To avoid the failure due to frost action, the soil susceptible to frost formation
should not be used. A suitable extra free board should be provided for dams in region
of low temperature where frost is likely to form.

2.4.2 Seepage Failure

Seepage is inevitable in all earth dams and ordinarily it does not harm. Seepage
of water through the foundation or embankment has been responsible for more than one
third of earth dam failure (about 23 per cent failures of earth dams are due to erosion or
piping and excessive loss of water from the reservoir). Uncontrolled seepage; may
however, cause erosion within the embankment or in the foundation which may lead to
piping as shown in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5 Failure due to Seepage

When the core is cracked or when there are pervious seams in the foundation
or when boundary seepage along joints of conduits in poor soil takes place, small
natural conduits are formed by seepage water. As a result, progressive erosion of the
soil takes places from downstream face upwards. Seepage failures are generally
caused by-
(a) Piping through the dam
(b) Piping through the foundation
(c) conduit leakage and
(d) sloughing of downstream toe
 13

2.4.2.1 Piping through the Dam

Piping or progressive erosion of concentrated leaks, has caused a larger
number of catastrophic failures than any other failures as shown in figure 2.6. It
begins at a point of concentrated seepage where the gradients are sufficiently high to
produce erosive velocities. If forces resisting erosion i.e. cohesion, inter-locking
effect, weight of soil particles, action of downstream filter etc. are less than those
which tend to cause, the soil particles are washed away causing piping failure. There
have been many origins of the leaks which have let to piping failure.
The following are the common causes of embankment leaks which lead to
piping:
(a) Poor construction control - If the soil of the dam is not properly
compacted, piping may occur. If there is poor bond between embankment
materials and foundation or between the successive layers of the
embankment, it may also lead to piping. Piping may also occur when there
is inadequate compaction around the outlet provided in some dams.
(b) Different settlement - Cracking may develop in the dam due to differential
settlement in the foundation of the dam, which may lead to piping failure.
(c) Animal burrows – Burrow animals, such as crocodiles or musk rats, may
dig holes in the dam which may lead to piping failure.
(d) Surface cracking - Shrinkage and dry cracks in the soil surface may lead to
piping failure.
(e) Presence of roots – The presence of the trees, pockets of gravel or boulders
in the embankment may lead to piping failure.
(f) Soluble salt – If there are soluble salts in the soil, they get leached out due
to which hollows are created in the soil, which may lead to failure.

Piping through the embankment

Water
surface

Piping through the foundation

Figure 2.6 Piping Failure

 14

2.4.2.2 Piping through the Foundations

Presence of strata and lenses of sand or gravel of high permeability or cavities

and fissures in the foundation may permit concentrated flow of water from the
reservoir causing piping. Piping through the foundation occurs when the rate of
pressure drop (i.e. hydraulic gradient) resulting from seepage through the foundation
exceeds the resistance of the soil particles. The particles tend to move and piping
occurs due to removal of the finer particles from the region just downstream of the toe
of the embankment. This leads to the increased flow of water through the foundation.
Ultimately, rush of water and soils occurs, causing piping failure.

Moreover, the foundation and the dam may sink down into these hollows and
the failure occur. Piping in the foundations may also occur when there are pockets of
loose soil in the foundation. Presence of buried channels under the seat of dam have
also been responsible for this type of failure.

2.4.2.3. Conduit Leakage

Conduits through the dam have been responsible for nearly one third of the
seepage failure and more than one eighth of all failures. Sometimes outlet (conduit)
are provided through the dam. Cracks may develop in these conduits due to
foundations settlements or due to the deterioration of the conduit itself. Leakage
occurs through these cracks, which may lead to the failure of the dam. About 13% of
all the failure in the past occurred due to conduit leakage.

Conduit leakage may cause the failure of the earth dam due to seepage through
cracks developed in the conduit. Seepage along the conduit walls occurs if there is a
zone of poorly compacted soil around the conduit or if there is a gap between the
conduit and the surrounding soil. Such a gap usually occurs when the soil mass
shrinks away from the underside of the conduit. The seepage occurring along the
conduit walls may also lead to piping failure.

The conduit passing through an earth dam may cracks due to unequal
settlement of the dam or due to overloading of the dam. Cracking in the conduit may
also occur if the soil mass lying below the conduit settle and the conduit is not strong
enough to support the soil mass lying above it. Leakage through these cracks may
lead to piping failure.
 15

2.4.2.4. Sloughing of Downstream Toe

Failure due to sloughing takes place where downstream portion of the dam
becomes saturated either due to choking of downstream drain, or due to the presence
of highly pervious layer in the body of the dam. The sloughing of the downstream toe
of the earth dam occurs under the reservoir full conditions when the downstream
portion of the dam becomes saturated and continuously remains in the same state,
causing the softening and weakening of the soil mass. This usually occurs when the
phreatic line cuts the D/S face.

The process begins when a small amount of material at the downstream toe is
eroded and produces a small slide. It leaves a relatively steep face which becomes
saturated by seepage from the reservoir and slumps again, forming a higher and more
unstable face. This process is continued until the remaining portion of the dam is too
thin to withstand the water pressure and complete failure occurs. Sloughing failures
were about 2% of the total past failures of the earth dam occurs.

2.4.3 Structural Failures

Structural failures in earth dams are generally shear failures in the earth dams
are of the following types :

(a) Slide in embankment

(b) Foundation slide
(c) Liquefaction slide
(d) Failure by spreading
(e) Failure due to earthquakes
(f) Failure due to holes caused by burrowing animals
(g) Failure due to holes caused by leaching of salts

2.4.3.1 Slide in Embankment

Sliding of the slope of the embankment occurs when the shear forces tending
to cause sliding on any potential sliding surface exceed the resisting forces. The
failure of slopes is one of the main causes of the failure of the earth dams. About 15%
of the failures in the past occurred due to slope failure. The following three types are
the common slope failures :
 16

(a) Failure of U/S slope during sudden drawdown : The most critical condition
for the U/S slope occurs during the sudden drawdown of the reservoir.
During that condition, the pore eater pressure in the soil is not fully
dissipated due to low permeability of the slope and consequently the shear
strength of the soil is reduced and the slope may fail.
(b) Failure of D/S slope during steady seepage : The most critical condition
for the D/S slope occurs when the reservoir is full and steady seepage
conditions have developed in the soil below the phreatic line cause a
reduction in the shear strength of the soil, the failure of the D/S slope may
occur.
(c) Failure of the U/S and D/S slope during construction : The failure of the
U/S and D/S slopes may occur during construction period. When an earth
dam is constructed of relatively impervious soil, the drainage is extremely
slow. The pore water pressure develops during and immediately after
construction, especially if the rate of construction is relatively fast. The
pore water pressure up to 100% of the vertical stress due to weight of soil
at that point has been observed in the field. The slope may fail during
construction if it is not designed for such a high pore water pressure.

2.4.3.2 Slides in Foundation

Sliding failure may occur in the foundation of an earth dam if it is weak. If

the foundation consists of fine sands and soft soil. The slide may occur in the
foundation. Similarly, if a soft and weak clayey seam exists in the foundation, the
dam may slide over that seam.

Excessive pore water pressure in the confined sand and slit seams in the
foundation may also create an unbalanced condition leading to failure. Expansion of
clayey soils may cause lifting of the dam and the failure of the foundation may occur.

2.4.3.3 Liquefaction Slides

If the foundation consists of fine sand and silt on loose condition, liquefaction
slides (or flow slides) may occur when the dam is subjected to vibrations. In
liquefaction, a large part of the weight of the overlying soils mass is momentarily
carried by the pore water pressure and there is very little intergranular (or effective)
 17

pressure between the soil particles. Consequently, the shear strength, which depends
upon the intergranular pressure, is reduced to almost zero and the soil flows as a
liquid in the downwards direction in the foundation. Similar liquefaction slides may
also occur in the lower portion of the earth dams have caused about 3% of the failure
of earth dams in the past.

2.4.3.4 Failure by Spreading

Failure by spreading usually occurs when the earth dam is located above a
stratified deposited that contains layers of silt clay.

2.4.3.5 Failure due to Earthquake

Failure due to earthquake may occurs in the following cases :

(a) Earthquakes may cause cracks in the core of dam, leading to leakage and
piping.
(b) Earthquakes may cause excessive settlement of the dam due to which the
free board is reduced and overtopping may occur.
(c) Earthquakes cause shaking of the reservoir bottom due to which slow
waves are form which may cause overtopping.
(d) Earthquake may cause liquefaction of loose sand foundation and
consequent liquefaction slides.
(e) Inertia forces due to the earthquake acceleration may cause shear slides.
(f) Rock slides in flanks may occur due to earthquakes, causing a rise of the
water level in the reservoir because of falling of the rock into the reservoir
and overtopping of the dam may occur.
 18

Figure 2.7. Cracking of Embankment

2.4.3.6 Failure due to Holes Caused by Burrowing Animals

Burrowing animals, such as crocodiles, musk rats, ground squirrel, and snakes,
dig holes in the earth dam to make their homes. In the case of small earth dams, free
passage of water may occur through these holes from the upstream to the downstream
face, leading to the piping failure. The slope failure may also occur due to the cavity
formed.

In the case of large earth dams, such failures morally do not occur because the
holes are relatively small and do not penetrate to a great depth which may cause
failure.

2.4.3.7 Failure due to Holes caused by Leaching of Salts

Leaching of water-soluble salts, such as gypsum, iron oxide, etc., from the
abutment and foundation soils may cause cavities, which may lead to the excessive
settlement of the dam. Moreover, these salts may get deposited in the toe filter and
may choke it, thus causing drainage problems.

2.5. Analysis of Failure shape of an earth dam

An analysis of potential failure methods, shapes, and locations is essentially
required to determine the stability of an earth dam and the most common types of
failure are slope instability, earthquake loading, overtopping, inadequate foundations
and seepage.
This chapter focuses on analysing slope instability failure. However, it is
important to note other causes of failure that can contribute to slope instability. Each
and every failure is entirely predictable in hindsight. Hence, the importance of
understanding the different failure types, and what causes an earth dam to fail, is
demonstrated.

Slope
-Natural or Artificial

Infinite Slope Finite Slope

-A long distance -Not far away distance
-Identical condition along the surface -At different level

Rotational sliding failures Compound sliding failures Translational sliding failures

Base Toe Slope

 19

Figure 2.8. Flowchart of Slope Failure

2.5.1 Rotational Sliding

In two-dimensional analysis, the failure surface can be approximated by a

circular arc, often called a slip circle. There is an infinite number of possible failure
arcs, however, failure will occur at the most critical slip circle with the lowest factor
of safety. This occurs when the shear stress along the failure circle is equal to or
greater than the shear strength of the soil, i.e. when the factor of safety is less than 1.
The shear strength resisting slope movement must be greater than the shear stress
created by the self-weight (W) of the sliding mass for the slope to be stable.

The failure is rotational as the failure mass is in the shape of an arc rotating
about an instantaneous center of rotation. In addition, it is most commonly caused by
changes to the phreatic surface or material permeability, settlement of the foundation,
ground vibration, or a steep slope angle.

There are many methods for determining the factor of safety of potential slip
circles including: Bishop (1955), Fellenius (1936), Janbu (1954), and Morgenstern
and Price (1965) methods.

Failure surface Failure surface Failure

surface

(a) Circular (b) shallow (c) non-circular

Figure 2.9. Failure Surfaces

 20

Figure 2.10. Potential Critical Failure Surfaces

Figure 2.11. Example of Rotation Sliding

2.5.2. Translational Sliding

Translational sliding is similar to rotational sliding, however the failure
surface is straight rather than arc, as shown in Figure 2.12. It occurs when a weaker
soil overlies a stiff stratum, causing the weaker soil to slide downwards.

Failure surface
Failure surface

(a) Block Slice (b) Slab slice

Figure 2.12. Translational Sliding Failure

 21

Figure 2.13. Example of Translational Sliding

2.5.3. Compound Failure

A combination of rotational and translational failure (called a compound

failure) occurs when the slip surface is circular but is intercepted by a stiff stratum
causing a straight failure surface along the interface between strata. Translational and
compound failure surfaces are known as non-circular failure surfaces. Methods due to
Morgenstern and Price (1965), Spencer (1967), and Janbu (1954) can be used to
calculate factors of safety for non-circular failure surfaces.

Failure Surface
Failure Surface

Figure 2.14. Compound Sliding Failure

Rotational slide is more common in homogeneous fine grained soil and it has
its point of rotation on an imaginary axis parallel to the slope. Thus there are three
types of the rotational failure, one is the base slide, other one is the toe slide and slope
slide.

The base slide failure is one of the types of the rotational slide, base slide
occurs by an arc engulfing the whole slope and this can occur when there is a soft soil
layer resting on a stiff layer of soil or an embankment with a strong soil or a stiff soil
or a good quality material construct on a soft foundation soil.
 Arc

Stiff soil
22

Figure 2.15. Base Slide Failure

In such situation in which an embankment resting on soft foundations, a base

failure can take place. The soft soil layer resting on a stiff layer of soil is prone to base
slide. There it can be seen that how this is the failure arc which is shown and so these
particular portions of soil get detached and then get tangential to the stiff soil portion
which is there.

Then the other type of the rotation slide is toe slide that is the failure surface
passes through the toe of the slope. So this type of failure can occur if there is an
embankment which is constructed, man-made embankment constructed with poor
quality material or with poor compaction conditions.

Thus the two failures which actually can occur and then passes through the toe
of a slope and the slopes slide in this case the failure surface passes through the slope
that is the slope portion itself, the failure surface passes and then the slope will be
subjected to failure.

Toe Slide

Failure
Toe Arc

Figure 2.16. Toe Slide Failure

Slope Slide

Failure
 23

Figure 2.17. Slope Slide Failure

They are the base slide, toe slide and slope slide. They are the forms of the
different types of the rotational slides and it can be seen how different they are; one is
actually passing through a soft soil and then will be tangential to a stiff soil and
another one is actually within the slope material itself. The other slopes are a failure
surface passing through the toe of a slope.

2.6. Fundamental step in design of earth dam

Evaluation of slope stability requires; (a) Establishing the conditions, call

“Design Conditions” or “Loading conditions”, to which the slope may be subjected
during its life, and (b) Performing analyses of stability for each of these conditions.
Every soil mass which has slope is subjected to shear stresses on internal surface in
the soil mass, near the slope. The shear resistance of the soil is greater than the
shearing stress induced along the most severely stressed or critical internal surface,
the slope will remain stable.

The slope stability of an earth dam thus depends on the shear resistance of the
soil. There are four design conditions that must be considered for dams:

(a) During the end of construction condition

(b) Steady state seepage condition
(c) Rapid drawdown condition
(d) Earthquake loading.
The first three conditions are static, the fourth involves dynamic loading.

The fundamental steps in designing an earth dam were summarized by

G.L.Asawa (2014). They are:
 24

(a) Although exploration of the foundation and abutments, and an evaluation

of the quantities and characteristics of all the embankment construction
materials available within a reasonable distance of the site.
(b) A study of all the conditions which may influence the design.
(c) The selection of possible trial designs.
(d) An analysis of the safety of the trial designs.
(e) The modification of the designs in order to meet minimum stability
requirements.
(f) The preparation of detailed cost estimates.
(g) The final selection of the design which seems to offer the best
combination
of economy, safety and convenience in construction.
The slope stability is very important of the embankment dam, because the
failure of dam is very effect upon the human. The side of the slope of an embankment
dam should be safe against shear failure. The soil mass on an earth dam, because of its
slope, is subject to the actuating (or driving) forces which tend to cause movement (or
sliding) of the soil mass. This movement is resisted by the stabilizing (or resisting)
forces which develop at the potential sliding surface because of the shear strength of
the soil. The slide slopes of the earth dam will remain stable if the sum of the resisting
forces on every possible surface of failure of failure (or surface if slippage) is greater
than the sum of the actuating forces. Even if there is a single surface on which this
condition is not satisfied, slipping of the soil mass will occur on that surface and the
dam may fail.

2.7. Factor of Safety for Slope Stability

The factor of safety(FS) that is the primary design criteria used in the slop
stability analysis. The most basic purpose of slope stability analysis is to determine a
factor of safety against a potential failure, of land slide. If this factor of safety is
determined to be large enough, the slope is judged to be stable (safe). If is 1.0 or less,
it is unsafe.

The uncertainty regarding analysis conditions should be considered with a

value of factor of safety. Recommended minimum values of factor of safety are show
 25

in table 2.1. which is presented based on experience, US Army Crops of Engineers

developed a factor of safety Criteria of slope Stability Manual.

Table 2.1 Factor of Safety Criteria from U.S Army Crops of Engineers’ Slope
Stability
Manual

Analysis Condition Required Minimum Slope

Factor of Safety
End-of-Construction Upstream
(including staged 1.3 and Downstream
construction)
Long-term
(Steady seepage,
maximum storage pool,
spillway crest or top of 1.5 Downstream
gates)
Maximum surcharge pool 1.4 Downstream
Rapid drawdown 1.1-1.3 Upstream

For slope stability analysis of embankment of dams, the recommended factor

of safety will vary with loading conditions. Minimum value of factor of safety in
current usage correspond approximately to those suggested by Irrigation Department
(Design Criteria on Fill Dam, First Edition) which is summarized in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Permissible Factor of Safety for Embankment Stability

Analysis Condition Required Minimum Slope

Factor of Safety

End-of-Construction 1.3
-with earthquake loading 1.0 Upstream and Downstream
condition in addition

Steady seepage 1.5

-with earthquake loading 1.25 Upstream
condition in addition
Steady seepage 1.5
-with earthquake loading 1.25 Downstream
condition in addition
 26

Rapid drawdown 1.25

-with earthquake loading 1.0 Upstream
condition in addition