The Difference between

the Countermovement and

Non-Countermovement
Jump: Implications on
Performance
Nicklaas C Winkelman, CSCS, NSCA-CPT

It is well established in literature, that the use of a countermovement

jump (CMJ) will result in a higher vertical jump, when compared to a
non-countermovement jump (NCMJ), (often referred to as a squat
jump or static jump).15,26 While this point is not disputed by
researchers, there is much debate on the neuromuscular and
mechanical mechanism(s). At the centre of this argument lies the
understanding of the Stretch-Shortening Cycle (SSC). The SSC can be
defined as a rapid eccentric (stretch) muscle action, followed
immediately by a concentric (shortening) muscle action.15
An athlete’s ability to optimise the use of the SSC during a CMJ has
been termed the Eccentric Utilisation Ratio (EUR).18 It has been
proposed that a coach may be able to use the EUR to measure an
athlete’s stretch-shortening ability and use it as a consistent form of
testing to track fatigue and training readiness. While there is limited
data out there on the percentage difference between the CMJ and the
NCMJ, studies have shown various results that may depend on sport,
sex and training age.18 Carlock et al.7 examined jump height
differences between the NCMJ and the CMJ in weightlifters, and found
a 5.4% difference in females and an 11.8% difference in males.
To better understand the difference between CMJ and NCMJ, and
therefore what training variables are most important to optimise an
athlete’s ability to use the SSC, authors have focused their attention
on the neuromuscular and mechanical mechanisms. There are four
Nick is currently the Performance Education
proposed mechanisms that explain why the use of the SSC during a
Manager at Athletes' Performance in Tempe,
CMJ allows for greater jump height than a NCMJ. 1) increased
AZ, where he oversees all continuing
potentiation of the neuromuscular system, 2) increased myogenic
education courses, and is a full-time strength
active state and force production, 3) storage and re-utilisation of
and conditioning coach. He designs and
elastic energy and 4) reflex contribution.12,15,21,22,26 The aim of this
implements performance training programs
review is to present the current findings linked to these four
for elite and professional athletes with a main
mechanisms and provide a recommended training framework to
focus in hockey, baseball, together with
maximise an athlete’s stretch-shortening ability.
military and fire fighter based groups. Nick
has previously implemented the strength and
conditioning program for the Oregon State
Discussion
University 2006 College World Series To accurately discuss the difference between the NCMJ and the CMJ we
Champions and has been the Strength and must provide a framework for muscle action. Throughout this review,
Conditioning coach for the Pittsburgh Pirates we will be discussing muscle action in terms of Hill’s13 3-component
Rookie League team in Bradenton, Florida. model of musculotendinous action. This model is composed of a
Nick is in the process of pursuing a Masters contractile element (CE) that produces active force during shortening
in Strength and Conditioning through Edith and lengthening contractions, a series elastic component (SEC) that is
Cowan University, and has dual certifications composed of the tendon, aponeurosis and elements within the cross-
with Distinction through the National Strength bridge (e.g. Titin), and a parallel elastic component (PEC) that is
and Conditioning Association (CSCS, *D and composed of plasma membranes and connective tissue that
NSCA-CPT, *D). encapsulate the CE and SEC26 (Figure 1).

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 Therefore, the additional time needed during the
stretching phase of the SSC allows time for a build-up
of maximal force. Simulation models have been a
common way for researchers to evaluate this
mechanism and the implications on the CMJ. Bobbert
et al.4 performed a comparison of 6 elite volleyball
players performing a CMJ and NCMJ, and compared the
data to a simulation model. The results showed an
average jump height increase of >2.5cm from NCMJ to
CMJ. Results from a simulation model constructed by
Bobbert et al.4 produced similar results. However, the
model failed to recognise the additional contribution of
elasticity to CMJ height in comparison to NCMJ height.
Bobbert et al.4 noted that the difference between
13
Figure 1. Hill’s 3-component model showing jumps in elastic energy at push-off was 13J, and
relationship between contractile element (CE), series therefore the average of 274J produced during
elastic component (SEC) and the parallel elastic “negative work” in the CMJ was primarily dissipated as
component (PEC). heat and not re-utilised as elastic energy. Additional
simulation studies by Bobbert and Casius,3 and
1) Potentiation Anderson and Pandy2 support these findings. In the
It has been previously documented that stretching an controversial review and response by Schenau et al.21,22
already tetanised muscle (i.e. pre-activated) can result the authors support the muscle AS mechanism as the
in force production that is two times greater than primary reason for an increase in jump height during
maximal isometric force.8,21 Since there is no stretching the CMJ. Schenau et al.21,22 suggest that changes in
phase involved in the NCMJ, there is no time for the RFD and peak maximal force have more to do with the
athlete to pre-activate or force pre-load, which could increased work being done during the concentric
be a contributing factor to the lower jump heights. phase, and less to do with the storage and re-
Additionally, studies have shown that increasing the utilisation of elastic energy. The authors also dispute
velocity of the stretch, and decreasing the time that reflex actions are a primary mechanism and that
between stretch and shortening (i.e. coupling time), the amount of time needed for the Stretch Reflex (SR)
will further augment force production during the is not available during the CMJ. Both of these points
shortening phase.24 This enhancement of the have been heavily disputed by other authors and will
shortening force has been termed potentiation.10,21 Note be addressed in the following sections.
that potentiation is only referring to changes in the CE 3) Storage and Re-Utilisation of Elastic
and not changes in the SEC. Potentiation involves an
increase in force production due to changes in calcium
Energy
kinetics, phosphrylation of the myosin light chains and The original Schenau et al.21 paper has brought about a
changes to the force-velocity characteristics of the lot of controversy within the research community.
cross-bridges.10 Herzog12 stated that the target article did not present
McBride et al.17 examined muscle pre-activity and their argument within a singular framework and used a
eccentric muscle activity on jumping performance using Hill-type13 argument for some sections and a Huxley-
a NCMJ, CMJ and drop jump (DJ). The study resulted in type14 argument for others. Further, there was a
significant increase in jump height and integrated distinct lack of focus on the SEC and its functional
electromyography (iEMG) activity for the CMJ compared contribution to the SSC. Within the Hill13 model for
to the NCMJ, but no significant difference in jump muscle action, there is a distinct focus on the SEC and
height between CMJ and DJ. Further, iEMG and PEC, and their role in the absorption and re-utilisation
concentric peak force was significantly higher during of elastic energy.
the DJ, compared to the NCMJ and CMJ. Komi15 noted Of the proposed mechanisms underpinning the SSC,
similar changes in muscular activity using iEMG elastic energy has been researched the most. Research
between NCMJ, CMJ and DJ. Therefore, it would seem has shown that under rapid stretching, the CE will work
that muscle potentiation as expressed by iEMG is in an isometric or quasi-isometric state allowing for
related to high muscle pre-activity, fast eccentric increased levels of muscle stiffness25 and thereby cause
contraction and a quick transition from stretching to a deformation, (lengthening), in the more compliant
shortening.15 While potentiation appears to be an SEC.11,26 Note that PEC will change length based on the
important mechanism in SSC, and a contributing factor CE and plays a primary role in passive muscle
to the increase in jump height seen in the CMJ, there is stiffness.11,26 Studies have examined the relative
still limited research on the topic. changes in the muscle and the tendon at different SSC
speeds. The tendon and the aponeurosis are
2) Active State Development considered to be the primary elements within the SEC.
A second proposed mechanism for the increase in jump Kubo et al.16 examined in vivo changes in fascicle
height is an increase in muscle active state (AS). This (muscle) and tendon length during rapid SSC. Using
mechanism supports the idea that an athlete has more ultrasonography, the authors had participants perform
time to build-up force or the AS of the muscle during dynamic dorsiflexion into plantarflexion at slow (0.3Hz)
the CMJ compared to the NCMJ. For this reason the and fast (1.0Hz) speeds. Results showed that the
athlete achieves greater hip extension moments and fascicle lengthened more in the slow condition (58.2 ±
concentric force, velocity and power on take-off.4 This 5.4mm) compared to the fast condition (54.4 ±
concept is further supported by research on rate of 5.5mm). Inversely, the tendon lengthened less during
force development (RFD), which clearly shows that the slow condition (6.4 ± 3.4mm), and more during
maximal force is typically achieved at ≥300ms.1 the fast condition (9.9 ± 2.8mm). In terms of

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 shortening velocity, the tendon shortened significantly leading to an increase in muscle activation.10,26 This
faster (82.9 ± 17.3mm s-¹) than the fascicle (16.3 ± process can be broken into the short-latency response
17.1mm s-1). Finally, it was shown that the tendon (M1), and the long-latency response (M2).10,26 The M1
contributed 20.2% and 42.5% to the total amount of will take 30ms and the M2 will take 50-60ms, whilst
work performed for the slow and fast condition, voluntary activation does not begin until 170ms.10,26
respectively. Similar results were shown in computer Therefore, any SSC that are >170ms allows enough
simulation studies that examined the difference time for the SR to operate and contribute to the work
between the NCMJ and the CMJ.5,19 of the muscle.15
A slower fascicle shortening velocity is in line with the Most fast SSC observed in sport will be achieved in
force-velocity properties of muscle; allowing for a >250ms.1 Note that the SR is considered one of the
greater development of force. In simulation models the primary control mechanisms for muscle stiffness during
fascicle shortening velocity has been shown to human locomotion.26 Further support for the SR
decrease by as much as 63% allowing for greater force mechanism can be derived from the studies that have
production.5 Further, increased shortening velocity of shown that the CE works in an isometric-concentric
the tendon allows for the overall muscle shortening state during rapid lengthening.16 Despite conflicting
velocity to be high. The overall increase in shortening thoughts on the degree to which the SR maximises
velocity, and the intramuscular increase in force, allows performance during SSC, there is enough evidence to
for greater power output during the CMJ. Komi15 support that it plays a role that is most likely
presents the concept of slow versus fast SSC and conditional on the velocity of the muscle stretching
states that the CMJ can be considered a slow SSC and phase.
the DJ can be considered a fast SSC. Schmidtbleicher23
classifies these further saying a slow SSC involves Practical Implications
ground contact times >250ms and fast SSC involves
ground contact times <250ms. Further, it has been The proposed mechanisms (i.e. Potentiation, Active
shown that a delay of .85s between the eccentric- State Development, Stored Elastic Energy and Stretch
concentric muscle actions results in a 55% loss of Reflex) contributing to the SSC, and therefore why one
stored elastic energy.24 Therefore, a fast eccentric achieves better performance with the CMJ, provide a
contraction, followed by a short coupling time, allows framework for developing plyometric progressions. The
for the greatest storage and re-utilisation of elastic efficacy of using plyometrics or “jump training” to
energy. For this reason, authors have stated that the enhance human performance has been well established
CMJ may not be the best model to examine the SSC within literature.9 Understanding neuromuscular and
mechanism, and that fast hopping or DJ may provide mechanical differences between different types of
more insight to the relationship between the muscle- jumps allows the coach to develop better progressions
tendon complex during human locomotion.15 and develop an adaptation continuum.
Further support for the storage and re-utilistion The use of a NCMJ plays a large role in the
mechanism can come from examining muscle and development of explosive strength in athletes. Many
tendon stiffness. Stiffness has been defined as the sports require athletes to hold a triple flexed position
resistance of an object to changes in length.6 In other statically prior to an explosive dynamic action, (e.g.
words, stiffness is the increase in force during the start of the 100m sprint). For this reason, we want
lengthening. Stiffness can be calculated by dividing to develop what has been termed “starting strength” or
change in force by change in length (∆F/∆L), such that explosive concentric strength.20 Further, the NCMJ can
the change in force per unit of elongation is be used to develop coordination and develop the higher
determined. In a passive state, the tendons stiffness levels of tissue tolerance needed in the CMJ and DJ.
far exceeds that of the PEC (i.e. muscle), but in an Once an athlete has mastered the NCMJ, then
active state the muscle stiffness will exceed that of the transitioning them to a CMJ is the next logical
tendon, supporting the compliant storage of elastic progression. The CMJ involves a higher volume of
energy.26 Studies looking at tendon and aponeurosis eccentric loading and neuromuscular efficiency.
have found that, of the two, the tendon has greater Additionally, this provides a foundation for developing
stiffness and the aponeurosis is more compliant to higher levels of muscular stiffness and therefore, the
deformation.11,27 Additionally, studies that have looked ability to better store and release elastic energy.
at muscle stiffness and performance have found a high The DJ is the next step within the progression and
correlation with decreased ground contact times.25,26 provides an environment to develop high levels of
Further, the muscle exhibits higher levels of stiffness muscle stiffness and “reactive strength.” There is
when performing concentric and isometric conclusive evidence that DJ, (i.e. fast SSC), will
contractions.25 For this reason, there is greater storage increase SEC loading and CE stiffness to the greatest
of elastic energy within the SEC during rapid degree. In terms of drop height, it can be
lengthening, due to the increased stiffness of the CE. recommended to start very low and work up to
increasing the height as the athlete improves. There
4) Stretch Reflex will be a range of drop heights that can be used and
The final mechanism that has been linked to the starting heights may vary, but a practical
increase in CMJ jump height is the involuntary stretch recommendation is to never use a drop height that
reflex (SR). The SR is modulated by the muscle spindle exceeds the athlete’s current CMJ height. If the athlete
(MS) within the CE. The MS detects the change in progresses prior to adaptation, (i.e. uses far too high
length of the CE and the rate of change in length of the drop heights), this may lead to inhibitory actions upon
CE. When the muscle undergoes a rapid stretch, the ground contact or potential mechanical failure (i.e.
gamma motor neurons that innervate the MS increase muscle tearing).15 Finally, movements and directions
the stretch on the MS and therefore, the sensitivity to should be varied based on the sport and the position.
further stretch from the muscle.10,26 This results in the In Table 1 there are a series of recommendations for
MS indirectly signaling the alpha motor neurons, categorising and progressing plyometrics.

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

6 © UKSCA | Issue 20 | WINTER 2010/11 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: [email protected]
Exercise Options Movement Direction Movement Initiation
Emphasis Progression

Jump: 2-leg take-off Direction: Linear, Lateral or Drop to Squat

2-leg landing Rotational Non-Countermovement
Hop: 1-leg take-off Emphasis: Vertical or Horizontal Countermovement
same 1-leg landing
Double Contact
Bound: 1-leg take-off
Continuous
opposite 1-leg landing
Drop Jump
+Load (ex. Weight Vest)
Table 1. Variables used for developing plyometric progression

The relative ratio of NCMJ to CMJ (NCMJ/CMJ) can also countermovement on jump height due to active state
be used to monitor strength deficits and training development? Med Sci Sports Exerc. 37:440-446.
readiness. McGuigan et al.18 provides a framework for 4. Bobbert, M.F., K.G. Gerritsen, M.C. Litjens, and A.J. Van
the use of the EUR. If the ratio is >1 then the athlete Soest. (1996). Why is countermovement jump height
has poor stretch-shortening ability and therefore may greater than squat jump height? Med Sci Sports Exerc.
need to develop better coordination, muscle stiffness 28:1402-1412.
and reactive strength. If the ratio is <1 then the 5. Bohm, H., G.K. Cole, G.P. Bruggemann, and H. Ruder.
athlete shows they have reasonably developed stretch- (2006). Contribution of muscle series elasticity to
shortening capabilities. It should also be noted that the maximum performance in drop jumping. J Appl Biomech.
magnitude of difference between CMJ and NCMJ, 22:3-13.
reflected by the EUR, likely depends on the sport and 6. Brughelli, M., and J. Cronin. (2008). A review of research
position. From a monitoring standpoint this information on the mechanical stiffness in running and jumping:
can provide insight on adaptation and training methodology and implications. Scand J Med Sci Sports.
readiness. If an athlete comes off a full recovery period 18:417-426..
and their performance remains low (e.g. EUR >1), then 7. Carlock, J.M., S.L. Smith, M.J. Hartman, R.T. Morris, D.A.
further recovery could be initiated. Ciroslan, K.C. Pierce, R.U. Newton, E.A. Harman, W.A.
Sands, and M.H. Stone. (2004). The relationship between
Conclusion vertical jump power estimates and weightlifting ability: a
Defense can be made for each of the four proposed field-test approach. J Strength Cond Res. 18:534-539.
mechanisms behind the SSC and the increase in jump 8. Cavagna, G.A., F.P. Saibene, and R. Margaria. Effect of
height seen during the CMJ and DJ. The focus for the Negative Work on the Amount of Positive Work Performed
practitioner should not be on which mechanism is by an Isolated Muscle. (1965). J Appl Physiol. 20:157-158.
correct, but rather how they all work together. As the 9. Chu, D.A. (1998). Jumping Into Plyometrics. Champaign,
athlete anticipates the vertical jump, (i.e. CMJ), there IL: Human Kinetics.
will be heightened pre-activity, leading to a CE 10. Enoka, R.M. (2002). Neuromechanics of Human
potentiation effect. As the athlete loads into the Movement. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
stretching phase there will be a continual rise in the 11. Fukashiro, S., D.C. Hay, and A. Nagano. (2006).
active state of the muscle. The rise in the active state Biomechanical behavior of muscle-tendon complex during
would be initiated by the initial stretch reflex that dynamic human movements. J Appl Biomech. 22:131-147.
occurred due to a rapid change in muscle length. With 12. Herzog, W. (1997). What is the Series Elastic Component
an increase stretch sensitivity, the muscle is able to act in Skeletal Muscle? J Appl Biomech. 13:443-448.
in an isometric state with an increased firing frequency 13. Hill, A.V. (1938). The Heat of Shortening and the Dynamic
of the alpha motor neurons, causing further increase in Constraints of Muscle. In Proceedings of the Royal
the active state and muscle potentiation. The increase Society of London, pp.136-195.
in CE stiffness during the lengthening phase allows for 14. Huxley, A.F. (1957). Muscle structure and theories of
optimal loading of the SEC. As the athlete transitions to contraction. Prog Biophys Biophys Chem. 7:255-318.
the shortening phase, the SEC will be able to shorten 15. Komi, P. (2003) Stretch-Shortening Cycle. In: Strength and
at a much faster velocity than the CE, allowing for Power in Sport. P. Komi (Ed.) Osney Mead, Oxford:
optimal force-velocity characteristics. The net result is Blackwell Science Ltd, 2003.
an increased performance on the jump due to the 16. Kubo, K., H. Kanehisa, D. Takeshita, Y. Kawakami, S.
combination of neuromuscular and mechanical Fukashiro, and T. Fukunaga. (2000). In vivo dynamics of
mechanisms. human medial gastrocnemius muscle-tendon complex
during stretch-shortening cycle exercise. Acta Physiol
References Scand. 170:127-135, 2000.
1. Aagaard, P., E.B. Simonsen, J.L. Andersen, P. 17. McBride, J.M., G.O. McCaulley, and P. Cormie. (2008).
Magnusson, and P. Dyhre-Poulsen. (2002). Increased rate Influence of preactivity and eccentric muscle activity on
of force development and neural drive of human skeletal concentric performance during vertical jumping. J Strength
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93:1318-1326, 18. McGuigan, M.R., T.L. Doyle, M. Newton, D.J. Edwards, S.
2. Anderson, F.C., and M.G. Pandy. (1993). Storage and Nimphius, and R.U. Newton. (2006). Eccentric utilization
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3. Bobbert, M.F., and L.J. Casius. (2005). Is the effect of a 19. Nagano, A., T. Komura, and S. Fukashiro. (2004). Effects

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 of Series Elasticity of the Muscle Tendon Complex on an 24. Wilson, G.J., B.C. Elliott, and G.A. Wood. (1991). The
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7th ANNUAL
CONFERENCE
18–19 JUNE, 2011

UKSCA Annual Conference 2011

As announced before Christmas, this year's UKSCA Annual
Conference will take place at the Stirling Management Centre,
which is based at the University of Stirling on 18/19 June 2011.
In response to feedback from our members and to ensure that as
many of our members as possible can attend, the format of the
conference has been changed this year to take place over 2 full
days - Saturday and Sunday, as opposed to a 3-day programme
with a late start on Friday and early finish on Sunday as previous
years.
The conference will still have the same volume of presentations,
excellent quality speakers and be a great opportunity to network
with colleagues in your field. It also means we can deliver a better
value for money CPD event for our members.
Costs and speakers will be announced over the coming weeks, but
please mark this date in your diary.
We look forward to seeing you in Stirling!

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

8 © UKSCA | Issue 20 | WINTER 2010/11 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: [email protected]