Republic of the Philippines

Aurora State College of Technology

Zabali Baler, Aurora

Machine Elements (ME 321)

Course and Year: BSME – 3 Instructor: Engr. John Freddie C. Depalog Jr.
Number of Units: 2 units (Lec), 1 unit (Lab)
Schedule:
Topics: Vector (Part 1)
Introduction
Mechanism analysis involves manipulating vector quantities.
Displacement, velocity, acceleration, and force are the primary
performance characteristics of a mechanism, and are all vectors.
Prior to working with mechanisms, a thorough introduction to
vectors and vector manipulation is in order. In this chapter, both
graphical and analytical solution techniques are presented. Students who
have completed a mechanics course may omit this chapter or use it as a
reference to review vector manipulation.
Scalars and Vectors
In the analysis of mechanisms, two types of quantities need to be
distinguished. A scalar is a quantity that is sufficiently defined by simply stating a
magnitude. For example, by saying “a dozen donuts,” one describes the quantity of
donuts in a box. Because the number “12” fully defines the amount of donuts in
the box, the amount is a scalar quantity. The following are some more examples of
scalar quantities: a board is 8 ft long, a class meets for 50 min, or the temperature
is 78°F—length, time, and temperature are all scalar quantities.
In contrast, a vector is not fully defined by stating only a magnitude.
Indicating the direction of the quantity is also required. Stating that a golf ball
traveled 200 yards does not fully describe its path. Neglecting to express the
direction of travel hides the fact that the ball has landed in a lake. Thus, the
direction must be included to fully describe such a quantity. Examples of properly
stated vectors include “the crate is being pulled to the right with 5 lb” or “the train
is traveling at a speed of 50 mph in a northerly direction.” Displacement, force,
and velocity are vector quantities.
Scalars and Vectors contd…
Vectors are distinguished from scalar
quantities through the use of boldface type (v).
The common notation used to graphically
represent a vector is a line segment having an
arrowhead placed at one end. With a graphical
approach to analysis, the length of the line
segment is drawn proportional to the
magnitude of the quantity that the vector
describes. The direction is defined by the
arrowhead and the incline of the line with
respect to some reference axis. The direction is
always measured at its root, not at its head.
Figure 3.1 shows a fully defined velocity vector.
Graphical Vector Analysis
Much of the work involved in the study of mechanisms and analysis of
vectors involves geometry. Often, graphical methods are employed in such
analyses because the motion of a mechanism can be clearly visualized. For
more complex mechanisms, analytical calculations involving vectors also
become laborious.
A graphical approach to analysis involves drawing scaled lines at specific
angles. To achieve results that are consistent with analytical techniques,
accuracy must be a major objective. For several decades, accuracy in
mechanism analyses was obtained with attention to precision and proper
drafting equipment. Even though they were popular, many scorned graphical
techniques as being imprecise. However, the development of computer-aided
design (CAD) with its accurate geometric constructions has allowed graphical
techniques to be applied with precision.
Trigonometry Required in Analytical Vector
Analysis
In the analytical analysis of vectors, knowledge of basic
trigonometry concepts is required. Trigonometry is the study of the
properties of triangles. The first type of triangle examined is the right
triangle.
Right Triangle
• In performing vector analysis, the use of the
basic trigonometric functions is vitally
important. The basic trigonometric functions
apply only to right triangles. Figure 3.2
illustrates a right triangle with sides denoted
as a, b and c and interior angles as A, B and C.
Note that angle is a 90° right angle. Therefore,
the triangle is called a right triangle.
Right Triangle contd…
The basic trigonometric relationships are defined as:

These definitions can also be applied to angle:

Right Triangle contd…
• The Pythagorean theorem gives the relationship of
the three sides of a right triangle. For the triangle
shown in Figure 3.2, it is defined as:

• Finally, the sum of all angles in a triangle is 180°.

Knowing that angle C is 90°, the sum of the other
two angles must be:
Example Problem:
• Figure 3.3 shows a front loader with cylinder BC in a vertical position.
Use trigonometry to determine the required length of the cylinder to
orient arm AB in the configuration shown.
Example Problem (solution):
1. Determine Length BC Focus on the triangle formed by points A, B
and C in Figure 3.3.
Example Problem (solution):
2. Determine Length AC
Oblique Triangle
• An approach to general, or oblique, triangles is also important in the study of
mechanisms. Figure 3.5 shows a general triangle. Again a, b, and c denote the
length of the sides and A, B, and C represent the interior angles.

• For this general case, the basic trigonometric functions described in the previous
section are not applicable. To analyze the general triangle, the law of sines and
the law of cosines have been developed. The law of sines can be stated as:
Oblique Triangle contd…
• The law of cosines can be stated as:

• In addition, the sum of all interior angles in a general triangle must

total 180°.
Oblique Triangle contd…
• Problems involving the solution of a general triangle fall into one of four cases:
Case 1: Given one side (a) and two angles (A and B).
To solve a problem of this nature,

The law of sines can be rewritten to find the remaining sides.

Oblique Triangle contd…
Case 2: Given two sides (a and b) and the angle opposite to one of the
sides (A) .
To solve a Case 2 problem, the law of sines can be used to
find the second angle.

The law of cosines can be used to find the third side.

Oblique Triangle contd…
• Case 3: Given two sides (a and b) and the included angle (C) .
To solve a Case 3 problem, the law of cosines can be used
to find the third side:

The law of sines can be used to find a second angle.

Oblique Triangle contd…
Case 4 Given three sides.
To solve a Case 4 problem, the law of cosines can be used
to find an angle.

The law of sines can be used to find a second angle.

Once familiarity in solving problems involving general triangles is

gained, referring to the specific cases will be unnecessary.
Example Problem:
• Figure 3.6 shows a front loader. Use trigonometry to determine the required
length of the cylinder to orient arm AB in the configuration shown.
Example Problem (solution):
1. Determine Length BC - By focusing on the triangle created by points
A, B, and , it is apparent that this is a Case 3 problem. The third side can
be found by using the law of cosines:
Vector Manipultaion
• Throughout the analysis of mechanisms, vector quantities (e.g., displacement or
velocity) must be manipulated in different ways. In a similar manner to scalar
quantities, vectors can be added and subtracted. However, unlike scalar
quantities, these are not simply algebraic operations. Because it is also required
to define a vector, direction must be accounted for during mathematical
operations.
• Adding vectors is equivalent to determining the combined, or net, effect of two
quantities as they act together.
• As repeatedly stated, the direction of a vector is just as important as the
magnitude. During vector addition, 1 + 1 does not always equal 2; it depends on
the direction of the individual vectors.
Graphical Vector Addition (+>)

• Graphical addition is an operation that determines the net effect of vectors. A

graphical approach to vector addition involves drawing the vectors to scale and at
the proper orientation. These vectors are then relocated, maintaining the scale
and orientation. The tail of the first vector is designated as the origin (point O) .
The second vector is relocated so that its tail is placed on the tip of the first
vector. The process then is repeated for all remaining vectors. This technique is
known as the tip-to-tail method of vector addition. This name is derived from
viewing a completed vector polygon. The tip of one vector runs into the tail of the
next.
Graphical Vector Addition (+>) contd…
• The combined effect is the vector that extends from the tail of the
first vector in the series to the tip of the last vector in the series.
Mathematically, an equation can be written that represents the
combined effect of vectors:
Graphical Vector Addition (+>) contd…
• Vector R is a common notation used to represent the resultant of a series of
vectors. A resultant is a term used to describe the combined effect of vectors. Also
note that the symbol +> is used to identify vector addition and to differentiate it
from algebraic addition.
• It should be noted that vectors follow the commutative law of addition; that is,
the order in which the vectors are added does not alter the result. Thus,

• The process of combining vectors can be completed graphically, using either

manual drawing techniques or CAD software. Whatever method is used, the
underlying concepts are identical.
Example Problem:
• Graphically determine the combined effect of velocity vectors A and B, as shown
in Figure 3.8.
Example Problem (solution):
1. Construct Vector Diagrams
To determine the resultant, the vectors
must be relocated so that the tail of B is
located at the tip of A. To verify the
commutative law, the vectors were
redrawn so that the tail of A is placed at
the tip of B. The resultant is the vector
drawn from the tail of the first vector,
the origin, to the tip of the second
vector. Both vector diagrams are shown
in Figure 3.9.
Example Problem (solution):
2. Measure the Resultant
The length vector R is measured as 66
in./s. The direction is also required to
fully define vector R. The angle from the
horizontal to vector R is measured as
57°. Therefore, the proper manner of
presenting the solution is as follows:
Analytical Vector Addition (+>): Triangle Method
Two analytical methods can be used to determine the net effect of vectors.
The first method is best suited when the resultant of only two vectors is required.
As with the graphical method, the two vectors to be combined are placed tip-to-
tail. The resultant is found by connecting the tail of the first vector to the tip of the
second vector.
Thus, the resultant forms the third side of a triangle. The length of the third
side and a reference angle must be determined through the laws of sines and
cosines to fully define the resultant vector.
This method can be illustrated through an example problem. To clearly
distinguish quantities, vectors are shown in boldface type (D) while the magnitude
of the vector is shown as non-bold, italic type (D).
Example Problem:
• Analytically determine the resultant of two acceleration vectors as shown in
Figure 3.12.
Example Problem (solution):
1. Sketch a Rough Vector Diagram
The vectors are placed tip-to-tail as shown in Figure 3.13. Note that only a rough
sketch is required because the resultant is analytically determined.
Example Problem (solution):
2. Determine an Internal Angle
The angle between A and the horizontal is 20°. By
examining Figure 3.13, the angle between vectors A
and B is:

Therefore, the problem of determining the

resultant of two vectors is actually a general
triangle situation.
Example Problem (solution):
3. Determine Resultant Magnitude
By following the procedure outlined for a Case 3 problem, the law of cosines is
used to find the magnitude of the resultant:
Example Problem (solution):
4. Determine Magnitude Direction
The law of sines can be used to find the
angle between vectors A and R:
Example Problem (solution):
5. Fully Specify Resultant
The angle from the horizontal is 20° + 25.5° = 45.5°. The resultant can be properly
written as:
To be continue…