Julius Emuriat

Parametric Study on Analysis and Design of Permanently
Anchored Secant Pile Wall for Earthquake Loading
Julius Emmanuel Emuriat
A Thesis Submitted to
The School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Prepared in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Degree of Masters of Science in Civil Engineering (Geotechnical)
Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
March, 2017
Copyright
Unpublished thesis submitted for the Master‟s degree and deposited in the University of Addis
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Addis Ababa University
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
This is to certify that the thesis prepared by Julius Emmanuel Emuriat, titled: Parametric Study
on Analysis and Design of Permanently Anchored Secant Pile Wall for Earthquake
Loading and submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of
Science (Geotechnical Engineering) complies with the regulations of the University and meets
the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality.
Approved by Board of Examiners:
Dr. - Ing. Henok Fikre ………………………. ……………………
Research Advisor Signature Date
Dr. - Ing. Samuel Tadesse ………………………. …………………….
Internal Examiner Signature Date
Prof. Alemayehu Teferra ………………………. …………………….
External Examiner Signature Date
Dr. - Ing. Agizew Nigussie ...…………………… …………………
Chairman Signature Date

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
General Terms
Depth
Normal stress
Angle of internal friction
Total unit weight
Soil unit weight above phreatic level
Soil unit weight below phreatic level
Shear strain
Deviatoric Stress
Cohesion
Ratio of initial horizontal stress/ Initial vertical stress
Gravitational acceleration
Soil density
Young‟s modulus
Initial modulus
Secant Young‟s modulus at 50% of failure stress from triaxial test
Poisson‟s ratio
Standard penetration test blow count
i
Finite Element Analyses
Finite Element Method
Three Dimensional Anniversary Edition
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
Federal Highway Administration
Commercial Bank of Ethiopia
USGS United States Geological Survey
Plaxis Constitutive Model Terms
Mohr Coulomb
Friction angle
Cohesion
Dilation angle
Young‟s modulus
Poisson‟s ratio
Unit weight
Longitudinal wave velocity
Transverse wave velocity
Hardening Soil Model
Friction angle
ii
Cohesion
Dilation angle
Secant stiffness in standard triaxial test at
Secant stiffness for primary oedometer loading at
Power for stress level dependency of stiffness
Unloading/reloading stiffness
Poisson‟s ratio for unloading-reloading
Reference stress for stiffness
Failure ratio
Tension cutoff
Incremental increase of cohesion with depth
Stress ratio in a state of normal consolidation
Unit weight
Preconsolidation Pressure
Overconsolidation Ratio
Hardening Small Strain
Secant stiffness in standard triaxial test at
Secant stiffness for primary oedometer loading at
Unloading/reloading stiffness
Power for stress level dependency of stiffness
iii
Cohesion
Friction angle
Dilation angle
Shear strain at which
Initial shear modulus
Shear modulus at very small strain
Poisson‟s ratio for unloading-reloading
Tangent shear modulus
Volumetric threshold shear strain
Rint Strength reduction factor for interface
iv
1 Acknowledgement
First and foremost I would like to thank the entire faculty and staff of Addis Ababa University
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, the dedication and support did not go unnoticed.
When the opportunity arose to study and research at Addis Ababa University, it certainly
appeared to be a golden opportunity to learn from the experienced, knowledgeable and superb
teaching style of the academic staff of Addis Ababa Institute of Technology. These expectations
were indeed fulfilled - what i had not anticipated was the loyal and mutually respectful
friendship that was evolved throughout the learning process.
I am very grateful to all those who contributed in different ways to the success of this research.
Am highly indebted to the European Union Commission that selected and sponsored me to
pursue Masters of Geotechnical Engineering exchange programme to Addis Ababa University,
Ethiopia.
Special thanks to Dr. Melaku Duguma, The director graduated programmes and the coordinator
Arise Sponsorship in Addis Ababa University (Partner University). He bridged the
communication gap between me and the Coordinating University (UCT) and made sure all the
funds needed for the project were received in time.
Thanks to friends in Ethiopia who listened attentively to me during at very trying moments and
made helpful suggestions to make my stay in Ethiopia meaningful.
Last but not least many thanks to my advisor Dr.Ing. Henok Fikre, he has been of seemingly
inexhaustible source of patience, support and inspiration. He guided me through and saw the
work evolve from the conceptual point to final work worth execution.
v
3 Abstract
Due to space limitations in urban areas, deep excavation in to the ground has become a common
practice worldwide. Among the conventional retaining support systems, this study is focused on
secant pile walls. The secant pile methodology comprised the formation of overlapping concrete
piles. The overlap between the piles is achieved to prevent soil and ground water ingress. The
analysis of these deep excavations requires considerations of; nonlinear, dynamic and
complicated system and involves consideration of soil parameters, deformation, interaction of
soil and retaining configuration. It is difficult to precisely describe the nonlinear system using
traditional analysis. Thus, in order to accurately describe the behavior of the anchored secant pile
for earthquake loading, 3D finite element simulation was applied. The analysis indicated for 20m
excavation step in the fourth stage, showed incremental lateral displacement was 0.0552E-3m
and total displacement was 0.114E-3m. The analysis indicated that the displacement induced in
the ground increased with excavation depth. As the excavation depth increased, the magnitude of
unbalanced forces increased resulting to increase in stresses and displacement. Increase in pile
diameter increased displacement near the surface of the wall. In addition, the modulus of
deformability of the soil has a great importance in the settlement of the soil. It is visible that
when the thickness of the wall increased, the horizontal and vertical displacements near the wall
increased. Decreasing the horizontal and vertical spacing of anchors increased stiffness of the
anchor per unit width. With high anchor stiffness, displacement occurred near the excavation
surface thus, reducing the displacement of the wall.
Key words: secant, pile wall, earthquake loading, plaxis.
vi
Table of Content
Contents Pages
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ............................................................................................... i
Acknowledgement .......................................................................................................................... v
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... vi
Table of Content ........................................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... xiv
List of Appendices ........................................................................................................................ xv
List of Appendix Figures ............................................................................................................. xvi
List of Appendix Table s............................................................................................................. xvii
Chapter 1 - Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement .............................................................................................................. 3
1.3 Objective ............................................................................................................................. 3
1.3.1 General Objectives ........................................................................................................ 3
1.3.2 Specific objectives ........................................................................................................ 3
1.4 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Thesis Structure .................................................................................................................. 5
Chapter 2 Literature Review ........................................................................................................... 6

2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Previous Literature Reviews ............................................................................................... 6
2.2.1 Large initial lateral soil stresses can adversely affect deep excavation ........................ 8
2.2.2 Moormann‟s Database .................................................................................................. 9
2.3 Effect of deep excavation.................................................................................................. 11
2.4 Effect of supporting structure ........................................................................................... 12
vii
2.5 Secant Pile Walls .............................................................................................................. 12
2.5.1 Methods used in Secant Wall Construction ................................................................ 13
2.5.2 Secant Piles-merits and demerits ................................................................................ 13
2.5.3 Case Histories on Secant Pile Walls ........................................................................... 14
2.5.3.1 Design and construction of circular scant pile walls in soft clays in Houston
Texas. ................................................................................................................. 14
2.5.3.2 Construction of Access shaft for Tunnels and Deep pipelines in Urban New
Zealand with Secant piles. ................................................................................. 16
2.6 Factors that affect the performance of excavations .......................................................... 17
2.7 The Design of Composite Materials and Structures ......................................................... 19
2.8 Halpin-Tsai Equations ...................................................................................................... 22
2.9 Potential Geotechnical Failures ........................................................................................ 23
2.9.1 Rotational Failure........................................................................................................ 23
2.9.2 Translational Failure ................................................................................................... 23
2.9.3 Global Stability Failure ............................................................................................... 23
2.10 Constitutive Models ........................................................................................................ 26
2.10.1 Linear Elastic Model (LE) ........................................................................................ 26
2.10.2 Mohr Coulomb Model (MC) .................................................................................... 27
2.10.3 Hardening Soil Model (HS) ...................................................................................... 27
2.10.4 Hardening Soil Model with small stiffness (HS small) ............................................ 27
2.10.5 Soft Soil Model (SS) ................................................................................................. 28
2.10.6 Soft Soil Creep Model (SSC).................................................................................... 28
2.10.7 Modified Cam Clay Model (MCC)........................................................................... 28
2.11 Response Spectrum ......................................................................................................... 29
2.12 Recent Developments in the Definition of Design Earthquake Ground Motion ............ 30
2.12.1 Seismic Hazard Results............................................................................................. 33
viii
2.13 Seismic refraction ........................................................................................................... 33
2.14 Seismic hazards in Ethiopia and its historical record ..................................................... 36
2.14.1 Historical records of earthquakes in Ethiopia ........................................................... 36
Chapter 3 Modelling ..................................................................................................................... 37

3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 37
3.2 Project description and site condition ............................................................................... 37
3.3 Secant Pile Model ............................................................................................................. 37
3.4 Selection of an appropriate constitutive model and input parameters .............................. 39
3.4.1 Constitutive Model...................................................................................................... 39
3.4.2 Soil and material parameters ....................................................................................... 39
3.4.2.1 Deformability ...................................................................................................... 40
3.5 Model Geometry ............................................................................................................... 46
3.5.1 Static loading .............................................................................................................. 47
3.5.2 Dynamic loading ......................................................................................................... 47
3.5.3 Base case model and mesh set up ............................................................................... 49
3.6 Plaxis 2D Model ............................................................................................................... 51
3.7 Comparision of results according to Plaxis 2D and 3D .................................................... 52
Chapter 4 Parametric studies ........................................................................................................ 57

4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 57
4.2 Parameter analysis ............................................................................................................ 57
4.2.1 Effect of stage excavation ........................................................................................... 57
4.2.2 Diameter of Pile wall .................................................................................................. 59
4.2.3 Height of the pile wall................................................................................................. 59
4.2.4 Anchor spacing ........................................................................................................... 60
4.3 Seismic Site Response ...................................................................................................... 61
4.3.1 Accelerations............................................................................................................... 62
ix
4.3.2 Site Response Spectrum .............................................................................................. 63
4.3.3 Velocities .................................................................................................................... 64
4.3.4 Ground Amplification ................................................................................................. 65
Chapter 5 – Results and Discussion .............................................................................................. 66

Chapter 6 – Conclusions and Recommendations.......................................................................... 69
6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 69
6.2 Conclusions of Modeling .................................................................................................. 69
6.3 Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 71
Reference ..................................................................................................................................... 72
Appendices .................................................................................................................................... 74
x
List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Site location plan .......................................................................................................... 1
Figure 1.2: Work approach for this research study ......................................................................... 4
Figure 2.1 Summary of settlements adjacent to open cuts in various soils, as function of distance
from edge of excavation................................................................................................ 6
Figure 2.2: Dimensionless settlement profile recommended for estimating the distribution of
settlement adjacent to excavations in different soil types. ............................................ 7
Figure 2.3: Chart for estimating maximum lateral wall movements and ground surface
settlements for support systems in clays. ...................................................................... 8
Figure 2.4: Definition of symbols by Moormann. .......................................................................... 9
Figure 2.5: Variation of maximum horizontal displacement with excavation depth following ... 10
Figure 2.6: Variation of normalized maximum horizontal displacement with system stiffness
following. .................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 2.7: Typical secant pile wall arrangement with female (primary) and male (secondary)
piles forming hard/soft walls (left) and hard/hard walls (right) after Suckling et al.
(2005) .......................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 2.8: Plaxis Model of the excavation. ................................................................................. 15
Figure 2.9: Oberved and FE predicted settlements since start of LNG dike construction............ 15
Figure 2.10:Hoop stress and vertical bearing zone ....................................................................... 17
Factors that affect the performance of excavations ...................................................................... 17
Figure 2.11: Typical profiles of wall and ground movement for anchored wall. ......................... 18
Figure 2.12: Aligned continuous fibres ........................................................................................ 20
Figure 2.13: Stiffness perpendicular to the fibres ......................................................................... 21
Figure 2.14: Failure modes for tie-back retaining walls [Source: Sabatini et.al, 1999] ............... 25
Figure 2.15: (a) Response of real soil to hydrostatic stress ;(b) Response of idealized soil to
hydrostatic Stress ........................................................................................................ 29
Figure 2.16: Acceleration response spectra during the 22 February 2011 Christchurch earthquake
(Cubrinovski and McMahon 2011) ............................................................................. 30
Figure 2.17: The seismic hazard map of Ethiopia based on the Global Seismic Hazard
assessment program data for return period of 475 year (Journal of EEA, Vol.28,
2011) ........................................................................................................................... 31
xi
Figure 2.18: Fourier amplitude spectra of microtremor for the city of Addis Ababa ................... 32
Figure 2.19: Predominant period Microtremor measurements for the city of Addis Ababa ........ 32
Figure 2.20: Uniform Hazard Spectra at Addis Ababa (blue curves) compared with elastic
acceleration spectra from EN 1998 based on the PGA from RP = 475yr.and country
seismic code criteria .................................................................................................... 33
Figure 2.21: P-wave refraction result along profile 1 which clearly shows indentation with
relatively low velocity in the middle for the CBE New Building Site. .................... 34
Figure 2.22: P-wave refraction result along profile 2. The P-wave velocity values are shown by
the colour Coded legend and the lines are the seismic ray paths the traversed or
scanned medium for the CBE New Building Site ..................................................... 34
Figure 2.23: Location of the survey site and alignment of the geophysical survey profiles (thin
red lines) modified from google earth map................................................................. 35
Figure 3.1: Site layout for the alternative wall scheme for using secant pile wall (All dimensions
in cm) .......................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 3.2: Cross section of the secant pile wall as the alternative scheme ................................. 39
Figure 3.3: Soil profile in plaxis3D Model .................................................................................. 47
Figure 3.4: Real time accelerogram of Del Valle Dam - Loma Prieta Earthquake ...................... 48
Figure 3.5: Static loading .............................................................................................................. 49
Figure 3.6: Overview of mesh set up for model in Plaxis 3D model ........................................... 50
Figure 3.7: Overview of model and ground anchors in Plaxis 3D model..................................... 50
Figure: 3.8: Distribution of nodes and stress points in interface elements and their connection to
soil elements............................................................................................................... 52
Figure 3.9: Static load condition ................................................................................................... 53
Figure 3.10: Total Acceleration .................................................................................................... 54
Figure 3.11: Examples of plane strain situation............................................................................ 55
Figure 3.12: Comparision of 3D results with 2D reference solution ............................................ 56
Figure 4.1: Effect of stage excavation on deformation under static loading ................................ 58
Figure 4.2: Effect of stage excavation on deformation under dynamic loading ........................... 58
Figure 4.3: Maximum displacement Ux versus pile wall diameter under static and dynamic
loading......................................................................................................................... 59
xii
Figure 4.4: Effect of length of pile on lateral deformation of pile wall under static and dynamic
loading......................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 4.5: Anchor spacing 4m for static and dynamic loading ................................................... 61
Figure 4.6: Magnitude of acceleration .......................................................................................... 63
Figure 4.7: Site response spectrum ............................................................................................... 63
Figure 4.8: Velocity in horizontal direction .................................................................................. 64
Figure 4.9: Velocity in vertical direction ...................................................................................... 64
Figure 4.10: Ground amplification ............................................................................................... 65
xiii
List of Tables
Table 3.1: Summary of ground conditions encountered in borehole ............................................ 41

Table 3.2 : Summary of Seismic properties encountered in borehole .......................................... 42
Table 3.3: Material properties of rebar anchor ............................................................................. 42
Table 3.4: Material properties of Concrete ................................................................................... 42
Table 3.5: Material properties of composite secant pile wall ....................................................... 45
Table 3.6: Material properties of various composite secant pile wall .......................................... 46
xiv
5 List of Appendices
Appendix A- Hardening Soil Model ............................................................................................. 74

Appendix B - Geotechnical properties of soil............................................................................... 77
Appendix C – Modelling Outputs for 2D Analyses...................................................................... 78
Appendix D – Modelling Outputs for 3D Analyses ..................................................................... 82
Appendix E – Site layout plan ...................................................................................................... 86
xv
6 List of Appendix Figures
Figure C.1 :Total displacement under static load condition
Figure C.2 :Vertical displacement under static load condition
Figure C.3 :Total Acceleration
Figure C.4 : Horrizontal Acceleration
Figure C.5 : Vertical Acceleration
Figure C.6: Peak Axial, Bending and Shear forces under dynamic load condition
Figure C.7: Peak Axial, Bending and Shear forces under static load condition
Figure D.1 Total displacement under static load condition
Figure D.2: Total displacement for stage excavation under dynamic load condition
Figure D.3: Stage excavation 5m – Total displacement
Figure D.4: Stage excavation 5m – horizontal displacement
Figure D.5: Stage excavation 5m –vertical displacement
Figure E.1: Site layout for the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia New Headquarter Building
xvi
7
8 List of Appendix Tables
Table B.1: Typical values of Young‟s modulus for granular material (MPa)
Table B.2: Typical values of Young‟s modulus for cohesive material (MPa)
Table B.3: Typical values of Poisson‟s ratio for soils and other material
xvii
9 Chapter 1 - Introduction
1.1 Background
The New Headquarter Building of Commercial Bank of Ethiopia high-rise office tower complex
consisting of 48 storey tower multi-functional and a 5 level underground basement. The structure
is like a cylinder with exterior framework of steel structure and interior space filled with
concrete, measuring 186.90m in height above the ground. The basement area is approximately
50500 sq.m with 20m below the ground level. Figure 1.1 shows site location plan for CBE.
Figure 1.1: Site location plan
1
Providing space for parking, public amenities, etc in multi-storey buildings at the urban settings
has created the need for deep excavations in to the ground to create additional floor space to
meet the increasing space requirements. Special features of urban areas are restricted
movements, inadequate space for equipment, soil heterogeneity (including fill and remains of old
foundations or other unexpected obstructions), effects of changes in the water table, foundation
interaction (detrimental effects of construction of new structures on the surrounding buildings).
Structures in the immediate vicinity of excavations, dense traffic scenario, presence of

underground obstructions and utilities have made excavations a formidable task to execute.
Clearly, deep excavations are posing mounting problems that demand a site specific and tailor
made retaining solution.
A deep excavation in to the ground is indispensible to create additional floor space to meet
increasing space requirement for parking for multi-storey buildings at the town centers. In this
context, analysis and design of proper deep excavations and their supporting systems are
essential. Even in a very complicated urban setting, deep retaining systems are being deployed
successfully by overcoming construction challenges.
Deep excavations are supported by systems like conventional retaining walls, sheet pile walls,
diaphragm walls and secant pile walls. Secant piles are primarily used in unsuitable ground
conditions or where there is high water table. Secant piled walls are preferred option near
buildings, roads and other sensitive structures. Secant walls can be used to form continuous
water tight walls which can be an added benefit to the construction of basement and underground
car parks.
Topographically the site is relatively flat with scattered undulating morphologies created by
detritus materials from demolished houses. The proposed geology and volcanic stratigraphic
sequences of Addis Ababa area from bottom to top are; Alaji basalt, Entoto silicics, Addis Ababa
basalts, Nazareth group, and Bofa basalt. The residual soils ranging from red to dark clay are
found covering extensive areas in the city. The project site constitutes different weathered rock
stratum (basalt) with localized swelling clays within the shattered rock mass.
2
1.2 Problem Statement
According to the annul “Wealth Report” released by global real estate consultancy Knight Frank
on March 5, 2016. Ethiopia Capital; Addis Ababa is among the four cities in the world dubbed as
"cities for the future", based on the wealth creation opportunities they will present in the future.
Despite the efforts to invest heavily on infrastructure, the multi-storey buildings at the town
Centre still lack adequate space for parking due to associated high urbanization cost of land
hence necessitating the need for deep excavation.
1.3 Objective
1.3.1 General Objectives
The research attempts to design a permanent anchored secant pile wall using the available soil
data for the new Commercial Bank Headquarter Site for Ethiopia. The general objectives are:
To design the anchored pile retaining wall based on excavation height, soil conditions
and loading conditions
To carry out parametric studies on the anchored secant pile wall by varying different
parameter when modelling for static and dynamic loading condition.
1.3.2 Specific objectives

The specific objectives of the study were set out as follows:
To carry out parametric studies on permanent anchored secant pile wall by varying pile
length, pile diameter and spacing between anchors under static and dynamic load
condition.
To determine the seismic response of the anchored secant pile to strong earthquake
ground motions.
1.4 Methodology
Firstly, the fundamental theory and literature which will be used in the report are described. The
data for the case of the New Commercial Bank Headquarter for Ethiopia was collected. This data
included the geotechnical investigation and geophysical investigation report. After the available
literature and data has been collected respectively, soil characterization was done in order to
determine the model parameters. The secant pile wall was used in the parametric study by
varying specific parameters; length of the pile, diameter of pile, and spacing between anchors for
both static and dynamic load conditions.
3
For seismic response analysis, an appropriate dynamic modulus of soil was determined to
prescribe the relationship between the stresses and shear strain of the soil. The real accelerogram
for strong ground motion of various earthquake histories was used to simulate the earthquake to
the secant pile.
The data resulting from parametric studies and the earthquake loading was analyzed and
discussed. The whole process was documented in the final report together with the important
conclusions and recommendations. Figure 1.2 shows the methodology for the research.
10 Figure 1.2: Work approach for this research study
1.5 Limitations
There were various influences in the research that are unavoidable and to deal with the
interaction between the structure and the soil was difficult to model. Among the soil parameters,
the task of incorporating the soil stiffness was very difficult. The soil stiffness used for modelling
had to be accurately determined this is because low stiffness values would lead to excessive
displacements and vice versa which does not represent reality.
4
1.6 Thesis Structure
The thesis is structured in to six Chapters. The first Chapter addresses the introduction including
the background, problem statement, research objectives, methodology and limitations of the
research. Chapter 2 gives the review of previous works, deep excavation systems, review of
seismicity to which objective 2 refers. Chapter 3 describes the modelling process and parameters
used. Chapter 4 presents parametric studies on secant pile walls for various secant pile wall
diameter, pile length and pile spacing under dynamic and static loading and addresses the set
specific objectives. Chapter 5 gives discussion of results and Chapter 6 presents the conclusion
and recommendations for the future works.
5
Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
This chapter serves as a review of the previous studies of secant pile wall design, excavation, and
seismicity in Ethiopia.
2.2 Previous Literature Reviews

Perk, summarized information from case histories on ground settlements adjacent to excavations
the results indicated that settlements next to deep excavations are correlated to soil types. As
shown in Figure 2.1 the settlement is classified in to three zones of settlement profiles based on
soil condition and workmanship.
The results further, indicated that wall movement for excavation in sand and gravel or very stiff
to hard clay are usually less than 0.4 percent of the excavation depth. The result also indicated
that wall movement for excavation in soft soil averaged about 1 percent of excavation depth [20].
11 Figure 2.1 Summary of settlements adjacent to open cuts in various soils, as function of distance
from edge of excavation [20].
6
Clough and O‟Rourke observed that the pattern of settlements next to excavations is influenced
by the soil type. The plot for normalized settlement envelopes proposed for estimating vertical
pattern of settlement next to excavation [5].Based on several case histories, Clough and
O‟Rourke (1990) suggested that the settlement profile is triangular for an excavation in sandy
soil or stiff clay. The maximum ground settlement will occur at the wall. The non-dimensional
profiles are given in Figure 2.2(a) and 2.2(b),which shows that the corresponding settlement
extends to about 2He and 3He for sandy soil and stiff to very hard clay respectively. For an
excavation in soft to medium clay, the maximum settlement usually occurs at some distance
away from the trapezoidal shape of the settlement tough as indicated in Figure 2.2(c).
12 Figure 2.2 Dimensionless settlement profile recommended for estimating the distribution of
settlement adjacent to excavations in different soil types [5].
7
2.2.1 Large initial lateral soil stresses can adversely affect deep excavation
Perk, noted that basal failure could occur in excavation in soils with large initial lateral stresses.
Peck also noted that ground next to deep excavations in stiff over consolidated clay might rise
instead of settling [20].
Clough and O‟Rourke also pointed out that movements in the anchorage zone for tie back walls
could occur in over consolidated clays with high lateral stresses [5].
The system stiffness is a function of the wall flexural stiffness, average vertical separation of
supports, and unit weight of water which is used as normalizing parameter. Figure 2.3 shows plot
of system stiffness and various Factor of safety. The family of curves in the figure is based on
average condition, good workmanship, and the assumption that cantilever deformation of the
wall contributes only a small fraction of the total movement. A method for estimating cantilever
movement is also recommended by Clough et al. to be added directly to those predicted by the
Figure 2.3
13 Figure 2.3 Chart for estimating maximum lateral wall movements and ground surface settlements
for support systems in clays [5].
8
2.2.2 Moormann’s Database
Moormann, had carried out extensive empirical studies by taking 530case histories of retaining
wall and ground movement due to excavation in soft soil (Cu< 75kPa) . It was concluded that the
ground conditions and excavation depth H are found to be the most influential parameters for
deformation due to excavation [16]. The location of maximum horizontal displacement is at 0.5H
to 1.0H below the ground Figure 2.4 and Figure 2.5. The retaining wall and ground movements
seem to be largely independent of the system stiffness of the retaining system
14 Figure 2.4 Definition of symbols by Moormann [16].
9
15 Figure 2.5 Variation of maximum horizontal displacement with excavation depth following [16]
The retaining wall and ground movements seem to be largely independent of the systems
stiffness of the retaining system. Figure 2.6 shows variation of normalized horizontal
displacement with the system stiffness of the retaining structure.The large scatter was observed
and calculated factor of safety of about 1 could lead to observed maximum wall displacement
as low as 0.1% even when the value expected by Clough et al. was about 1% even for
the system stiffness support system.
16 Figure 2.6 Variation of normalized maximum horizontal displacement with system stiffness
following [16] .
10
2.3 Effect of deep excavation
The effect of excavation geometry such as excavation width, depth of the firm stratum, the effect
of wall stiffness and the effect of wall embedment depth have been carried out by various
researchers:
Ng (1998) reported field measurements of a 10m excavation in over-consolidated stiff-fissured

gault clay lion yard, Cambridge. The field monitoring programme included lateral total earth
pressure and pore water pressure on both sides of the wall, prop load lateral wall displacement,
ground settlement behind the wall and basal heave inside excavation. The field measurements
revealed that due to construction of diaphragm wall, a significant reduction of lateral total earth
pressure at the soil wall interface is resulted. The piling operation inside the site caused a
negligible reduction of lateral earth pressure. Due to low lateral stress in the ground before the
main excavation, relatively low prop load and lateral wall displacements are resulted during
excavation. The reduction of lateral earth pressure due to excavation was substantially less than
that induced by the diaphragm walling [17].
Hashash and Whittle (1996) carried out a series of two dimensional numerical parametric studies
to study effects of wall embedment depth and prop spacing on ground deformations due to multi-
propped excavations. The research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) has
developed a series of generalized rate independent models for clay based on the theory of
incremental linear elastro-plasticity. MIT-3 model, describes the rate independent behavior of
normally to moderately over consolidated clay (OCR<8).Constitutive model (MIT-E3) adopted
in the numerical analyses is capable of considering anisotropic stress-strain relationship, stress
path dependency and strain dependency of clay. The model has additional features; small strain
nonlinear elasticity using a closed hysteric loop and bounding surface plasticity. Computed
results indicated that wall length has minimal effect on the pre-failure deformation for
excavations in deep layers of clay, but does not have a major effect on the location of failure
with in the soil. Use of very deep walls can improve base stability. However; large bending
movements can be resulted and may cause flexure failure of the retaining wall. Not only is basal
affected by final excavation depth, but also influenced by vertical prop spacing. Larger vertical
prop spacing can result in additional basal heave [10].
11
Jen (1998) carried out numerical parametric studies to study effects of excavation geometry,
retaining system and stress history of clay on ground deformations due to excavation. The
computed results revealed that distribution of ground deformation is significantly affected by
depth and hard stratum below soft clay. While magnitude of ground deformation is governed by
excavation width, excavation depth, and stress history of clay. Based on the computed settlement
trough behind the wall new design charts are proposed to correlate ground settlement to
excavation. Depth of the rock was found to be the key parameter affecting the distribution of
ground movements, excavation width, excavation depth and uncertainties in the stress history
profile and support stiffness were major factors contributing to the magnitude of the
displacement [13].
2.4 Effect of supporting structure

Mana and Clough carried out parametric studies on the effect of wall stiffness and strut spacing,
the effect of strut stiffness, and the effect of excavation geometry such as excavation width and
depth of the underlying firm layer, the effect of strut preloading and calculation of elastic soil
stiffness on the excavation induced deformation. Increasing the wall bending stiffness or
decreasing strut spacing decreases movement. This effect is more significant when the factor of
safety is low. Increasing the strut stiffness reduces movement, though the effect shows
diminishing returns at very high stiffness. Movement increases as excavation width and depth to
an underlying firm layer increases. Use of preloads in the struts reduces movement, although
there is diminishing return effect at higher preloads. Movement levels are strongly influenced by
the modulus. Higher modulus leads to smaller movement [15].
2.5 Secant Pile Walls

Secant piles are innovative way of constructing retaining walls and are formed by a series of
interlocking bored concrete piles. The usual practice is to construct alternative piles along the
line of the wall leaving a clear space of a little under the diameter of the required intermediate
piles. The exact spacing is determined by the construction tolerances which can be achieved.
These initially placed piles do not have to be constructed to the same depth as the intermediate
piles which follow, depending on the way in which the wall has been designed and reinforced.
Concrete is added and before it has fully set the intermediate holes are drilled along a parallel,
but slightly offset, line so that the holes cut into the first piles. The intermediate piles are placed
12
through a heavy casing whose cutting edge is toothed and enables the casing to cut into the
concrete of the initial piles on either side. Subsequent concreting results in a continuous wall [5].
2.5.1 Methods used in Secant Wall Construction

Secant piles can be constructed either with conventional drilling methods or through the use of
Continuous Flight Auger (CFA) techniques computer monitoring of the pile installation process
is essential for quality assurance. Secant pile walls typically include both reinforced secondary
(B) and unreinforced primary piles (A). The secondary piles overlap the primary piles, with the
primary piles essentially acting as concrete lagging Figure 2.7. The reinforcement in the
secondary piles generally consists of rebar cages or steel beams. Secant pile wall formed by the
primary (female) and secondary (male) piles by drilling the piles to the specified diameter and
required depth. The secant pile wall is constructed in two stages. The primary piles will be
constructed at Stage 1 with the specified strength of mass concrete and the secondary piles will
be constructed at stages with the required concrete strength after the reinforcement cage is
lowered into the bored holes. The secondary piles are positioned between the primary piles and
secant with the primary piles in order to form the interlocking joint [12].
17
Figure 2.7: Typical secant pile wall arrangement with female (primary) and male (secondary)
piles forming hard/soft walls (left) and hard/hard walls (right) after Suckling et al. (2005)
2.5.2 Secant Piles-merits and demerits

The main advantages of secant pile walls are: Increased construction alignment flexibility,
increased wall stiffness compared with sheet piles, can be installed in difficult ground
(cobbles/boulders), they are primarily used in unsuitable ground conditions or where there is a
high water table conditions without excessive dewatering. Properly placed columns can be as
close as 3” to 5” from existing buildings, less noisy construction. Secant piled walls are preferred
option near buildings, roads and other sensitive structures. Secant walls can also be used to form
a continuous water tight wall which can be an added benefit for the construction of basements
and underground car parks. Secant pile walls are used as permanent or temporary elements in
13
foundation, excavations, slope stabilization, retaining walls or hydraulic barriers. However the
disadvantages of secant pile walls include: verticality tolerances may be hard to achieve for deep
piles, total waterproofing is very difficult to obtain in joints, increased cost compared to sheet
pile walls if depth is less than 40‟ feet deep, noise and vibration are generated, if casing is driven
in lieu of hydraulically pushed and retrieved casings [4].
2.5.3 Case Histories on Secant Pile Walls
2.5.3.1 Design and construction of circular scant pile walls in soft clays in Houston Texas.
The site was underlain by deep deposit of very soft to stiff clay over a layer of dense sand. The
soil properties were estimated from the interpreted CPT data, as well as supplemented soil data
from extensive geotechnical investigation studies conducted for other terminal facilities which
was not limited to in-situ vane shear test and laboratory; triaxial, consolidation and index tests.
The subsurface conditions were explored by two piezocones, CPT-1 and CPT-2 at the center of
the basin. Additional geotechnical data were available from comprehensive geotechnical
investigations. In general the subsurface conditions at both basins consist of very soft to firm
clays to depths about 73ft and 78ft underlain by medium dense to very dense sand followed by
stiff to very stiff clays. Ground water is typically encountered at depth of about 6ft below the
ground.
The soil properties were estimated from the interpreted CPT data as well supplemented soil data
from extensive geotechnical investigation studies conducted for other terminal facilities which
included; insitu, vane shear test, laboratory triaxial, consolidation and index test
The FE code PLAXIS V8 was used in the study.Concete secant pile wall was represented by
plate elements. Figure 2.8 shows plaxis mode of the excavation. The advanced hardening soil
and Mohr coulomb model were used. The reinforced concrete secant pile wall was modeled as
linear elastic plate element.
FEM predict ground and support movements and also the effects of construction activities like
dewatering, equipment surcharge, and stage construction on deformation and overall stability.
14
18 Figure 2.8: Plaxis Model of the excavation [23].
During excavation in to the saturated clays, the weight of the blocks of clay behind the retaining
systems tends to displace the underlying clays towards the excavation.
Base stability for excavation in soft clays depends on height of excavation wall embedment
depth; undrained shear strength of clays below the base of excavation and the unit weight of the
soil. The undrained deformation (plastic) analysis was performed to evaluate base heave and
corresponding wall movement during each stage of excavation. The corresponding horizontal
movements were negligible as result of rigidity of the circular retention system.
19 Figure 2.9: Oberved and FE predicted settlements since start of LNG dike construction [23]
15
Stiffness properties.The construction of impoundment basin involves excavation(unloading
condition),as such soil behavior and hence the base heave magnitude will primarily be governed
by its unloading modulus.The effective (drained) stiffness properties, modulus and poisson
ratio,were used in undrained and drained analysis.Figure 2.9 shows reasonable agreement
between the measured settlement of 6.0ft and the estimated end of primary settlement of 5.8ft
[23].
2.5.3.2 Construction of Access shaft for Tunnels and Deep pipelines in Urban New Zealand
with Secant piles.
The demand for shafts to provide access to pipelines at depth has grown due to the increase in
the use of tunneling, pipe jacking and horizontal directional drilling (HDD).These system
required effectively as driven reception pits or shafts, which provided the respective starting and
finishing point of the drive. Convectional pilling equipment was used to directly bore a shaft to
form shaft using secant pilling walling.
For shafts in unstable ground, high ground water level and where the diameter is greater than that
achievable using large diameter bored pilling methodologies the use of secant piles can be an
effective solution. The secant pile methodology comprises the formation of overlapping concrete
piles. Typically alternate unreinforced or female piles are formed using lower strength concrete.
The remaining piles are standard reinforced concrete male piles. The strength of the unreinforced
low strength is critical to the design as it needs to be sufficient to transmit the hoop compression
stresses that enable the structure to be self-supporting without any propping or waler.Based upon
the shaft diameter, the hoop compression forces can be assessed from the combined earth and
water pressure Figure 2.10., the low radial strain results in little reduction in earth pressure from
insitu pressure value. However, from the construction point of view the low strength piles must
not be strong as it can result in poor verticality. The strength of the female piles was around
20Mpa at 28days which resulted in reduced drilling rates and localized poor vertical tolerance
being achieved, and the supplied slump of the approved structural mix was 140mm [12].
16
20 Figure 2.10:Hoop stress and vertical bearing zone [25]
Conventional crane mounted and hydraulic rigs are readily capable of drilling diameters of 2.5m
and with modifications over 3.0m due to available torque and drilling tool development. At
Waihi gold mine, 2.5m diameter shaft were excavated to 87m depth to provide emergency access
and ventilation to the mine workings below [25].
2.6 Factors that affect the performance of excavations

Ground conditions, soil properties and wall stiffness affect the performance of deep excavations.
The design includes the type of support and stiffness of the support system. The overall stiffness
of the support system is calculated in terms of an effective stiffness of the system. Secant pile
walls are considered stiff on the basis of rigidity of the wall element [6].It is difficult to consider
all the relevant factors in the detailed analysis of the deformation of deep excavations. The semi
empirical study of performance of deep excavation is a viable means to understand the associated
deformation. The semi empirical studies of deformation associated with deep excavations
worldwide have been conducted by a number of researchers [5 and 16].In these studies, data on
wall and ground deformation were categorized based on the ground conditions mainly consisting
of sedimentary clayey soil and sand. In each category of ground conditions, the data were
analyzed to study the effects of excavation depth, type of support and stiffness of the support
system on the magnitude of the wall deformation, and ground settlement of these 14 deep
excavations were collected and analyzed. The magnitude of deformation relationship between
the lateral wall deflection and the ground surface settlement and effect of the stiffness of the
support system on lateral wall deflection were studied and compared with other relevant case
histories worldwide. Typical profiles of wall and ground movement have been discussed by [5]
17
and are shown in Figure 2.11. In excavation with no lateral support or insufficient stiffness in the
support at the top during the initial stage of excavation, the wall deforms as a cantilever and the
resulting distribution of ground settlement is triangular Figure 2.11b.As excavation proceeds, the
upper part of the wall is restrained and the wall deforms inward near the excavation level(deep
inward movement).The combination of the cantilever and deep inward movement pattern results
in the cumulative movement pattern Figure 2.11(a).The distribution of ground settlement is
triangular if cantilever wall movement predominates, while it is trapezoidal if deep inward wall
movement predominates.
21 Figure 2.11: Typical profiles of wall and ground movement for anchored wall [6].
18
2.7 The Design of Composite Materials and Structures
A composite material is a material in which two or more distinct materials are combined together
but remain uniquely identifiable in the mixture. Reinforced concrete (a mixture of steel rod and
concrete (itself a composite of rock particles and cement).Composite materials are successfully
replacing conventional metals in many engineering applications. Light weight, high specific
strength and stiffness, affordability and ease of manufacturing are few of the advantages of
composite materials. Adoption of composite materials in many engineering applications
necessitates a thorough understanding of the strength and mechanics of materials.
First, the numerous materials related variables that contribute to the mechanical and physical
properties of the composite material were identified.
Secondly, the appropriate physical and mathematical models that describe how the properties of
the individual components of the composite are combined to produce the properties of the
required composite material. The composite has tendency to behave elastically almost to the
point of failure. If the composite material is to stay in equilibrium then the force is applied to the
composite as a whole, F must be balanced by an equal and opposite force in the fibre, Ff and the
matrix Fm.
The mechanics of material approach can be considered the simplest and easiest to apply. Several
equations have been developed according to this approach. The most widely used are: the rule of
mixtures (ROM), and Halpin-Tsai (H-T) equations. The basic assumptions used for the
development of (ROM) and (H-T) equations, as well as most micromechanical approaches are:
both matrix and fibres are linearly elastic, isotropic, and homogeneous, fibres are perfectly
aligned and spaced, matrix is void free, and bonding between matrix and fibre is perfect.
Consider an aligned continuous fibre composite with reinforced metal matrix composite or
thermoplastic matrix composite Figure 2.12.At low volume fractions of the fibres, the fibre first
fails then breaks and the load transfer to matrix with reduced cross section takes place and there
occurs sudden jump in stress depending on the increase in the stress matrix.
19
22 Figure 2.12: Aligned continuous fibres
The cross sectional area of the composite occupied by the fibres is just f, the volume fraction of
the fibres multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the composite itself - "A" - i.e. f.A.
Similarly the force on the matrix is just the stress in the matrix multiplied the cross-sectional area
of the matrix in the composite, i.e. (1-f).A.
So the stress in the composite is just the sum of the stresses in the fibre and the matrix multiplied
by their relative cross-sectional areas.
The stress in the fibre and the stress in the matrix are not the same. Thus, by applying Hooke‟s
Law, which states that the stress (or Force) experienced by a material is proportional to the strain
(or deflection).
For compatibility, the strain, must be the same in both the fibres and the matrix otherwise holes
would appear in the ends of the composite as we stretched it. This is known as the Isostrain
rule.
20
The rule of mixtures has proven adequate for tensile modulus(E) in to the axial direction,
isostrain rule of mixtures does not work for Shear modulus (G) and bulk modulus (k). Instead,
these moduli depend on the phase morphology of fibres.
23 Figure 2.13: Stiffness perpendicular to the fibres
In a fibrous composite with the applied stress aligned perpendicular to the fibres, the stress is
transferred to the fibres through the fibre matrix interface and both the fibre and the matrix
experience the same stress Figure 2.13. If the matrix and fibre have different elastic properties
then each will experience a different strain and the strain in the composite will be the volume
average of the strain in each material. Since the stress is the same in each phase this is known as
the Isostress rule of mixtures.
The material properties of the composite material can be determined accurately by

using the halpi-Tsai equations.
21
2.8 Halpin-Tsai Equations
The Halpin-Tsai equations are a set of empirical relationships that enable the property of a
composite material to be expressed in terms of the properties of the matrix and reinforcing
phases together with their proportions and geometry. These equations were curve fitted to exact
elasticity solutions and confirmed by experimental measurements - they work well but the
parameter has no scientific basis nor is it related to any material or geometric property. Halpin
and Tsai showed that the property of a composite Pc could be expressed in terms of the
corresponding property of the matrix Pm and the reinforcing phase (or fibre) Pf using the
following relationships [9]
The factor is used to describe the influence of geometry of the reinforcing phase on a particular
property. This factor is different for different properties in the same composite.
The first modulus E1, is given by [14]:
The strength of a unidirectional composite σc ,can be obtained according to the rule of mixtures
from the equation
These equations are based on the assumption of Isostrain, i.e.
This assumption is presented by springs in parallel, model.
Equation (2) assumes no interaction between fibres and matrix. Thus, each constituent
contributes its full capacity to the strength of the composite.
22
The second modulus, E2 according to the rule of mixtures is given by transverse loading; i.e load
is applied perpendicular to fibre direction. The stiffness of the composite, measured
perpendicular to the fibres increases much more slowly than stiffness measured parallel to the
fibres as the volume fraction of fibres is increased. Since the properties of the composite are
different in different directions, the composite is anisotropic.
E2 assumes is stress i.e.
Modulus E2 is given by [16]
2.9 Potential Geotechnical Failures
2.9.1 Rotational Failure

Lateral earth pressures acting on retaining walls tend to produce lateral forces that can result in
toppling of the wall. The wall must balance active and passive earth pressures about the potential
rotation point such that resisting moment exceeds driving moment. In a saturated soil, undrained
shear strength (rather than effective stress) is used in the calculation of rotational stability [21].
2.9.2 Translational Failure

Similar to the rotational failure of the wall resulting from excess overturning moments, a
translational failure can result when lateral driving forces exceed resisting forces. In a saturated
soil, undrained shear strength (rather than effective stress) is used in the calculation of
translational stability [21].
2.9.3 Global Stability Failure

Circular slump failures are of particular concern to geotechnical engineers. These slides tend to
be much larger in scale than translational or rotational wall failures, and are difficult to predict
due to variability in the radius of rotation. To calculate for global stability (also known as deep-
seated failure), the expected slide area is cut into slices and assessed piecewise. Unlike the
rotational and translational failures mentioned above, global stability is not determined by
parameters of the retaining wall, but rather by parameters of the soil itself. The primary
23
parameters are the unit weight and friction angle. Such soil failures are usually observed after
periods of extended rainfall. The retained soil becomes saturated, and experiences an increase in
pore water pressure which in turn reduces the effective stress in the soil. A left-ward shift in the
Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope can result in exceedance of resisting forces, and cause the entire
mass of soil to rotate, often without warning and in a catastrophic manner. The soil conditions
present at the gardens are some of the stiffest for geotechnical projects [21].
The anchor can provide the required stabilizing forces which are in turn, transmitted back in to
the soil at a suitable distance behind the active soil zone loading the wall implying that the
anchor bond length must extend in to the ground to intersect any potentially critical failure
surface which might pass behind the anchors and below the base of the wall as illustrated in
Figure 2.14. The required depth to which anchors must be installed in the soil should be
determined based on the location of the deepest potential failure surfaces that have insufficient
factor of safety without any anchor force.
24
24 Figure 2.14: Failure modes for tie-back retaining walls [Source: Sabatini et.al, 1999]
25
2.10 Constitutive Models
Soil is a complicated material that behaves non-linearly and often shows anisotropic and time
dependent behavior when subjected to stresses. Generally, soil behaves differently in primary
loading, unloading and reloading. It exhibits non-linear behavior well below the failure condition
with stress dependent stiffness. Soil undergoes plastic deformation and is inconsistent in
dilatancy and also experiences small strain stiffness at very low strains and upon stress reversal.
In addition to soil behavior, its failure in three dimensional state of stress is extremely
complicated. Numerous criteria have been devised to explain the condition for failure of a
material under such loading state.
Currently, various constitutive models for the soil have been developed. These models cover a
wide range of soil features such as anisotropy, cyclic loading, creep etc. The selection of a
constitutive model for a geotechnical application depends on the mechanical properties of the
soil. (i.e permeability, stiffness and strength), previous history on the mechanical properties of
the soil and the stress changes that will occur in feature [26].
In the finite element analysis, reliable predictions can be achieved by using an appropriate
constitutive model for a particular geotechnical problem. In general, the criterion for the soil
model evaluation should always be a balance between the requirements from the continuum
mechanics aspect, the requirements of realistic representation of soil behavior from the
laboratory testing aspect, convenience of parameter derivation and simplicity in computational
application. The application of some constitutive models in Plaxis finite element model and some
parameters from correlation and laboratory testing are briefly discussed below:
Linear Elastic Model(LE)
Mohr Coulomb Model(MC)
Hardening Soil Model with small stiffness(HS Small)
Soft Soil Model(SS)
Soft Soil Creep Model(SSC)
Modified Cam Clay Model(MCC)
2.10.1 Linear Elastic Model (LE)

The linear Elastic Model (LE) is based on the Hook‟s law of isotropic elasticity. It only involves
two basic parameters Young‟s modulus (E) and poisson ratio ( ).The LE Model is not suitable
26
to model soil because soil behavior is highly nonlinear and irreversible, but it is appropriate to
model stiff volumes in soil like concrete walls.
2.10.2 Mohr Coulomb Model (MC)

The Mohr Coulomb Model (MC) is a linear elastic and perfectly plastic model. It involves five
parameters, both elastic and plastic behavior parameters i.e Young‟s modulus (E) and Poisson‟s
ratio( ) for soil elasticity, friction angle( ) and cohesion(c ), for soil plasticity and the ditatancy
angle( ).
Although the increase of stiffness with depth can be taken in to account. The stiffness behavior
below the failure line is assumed to be linear elastic according to Hook‟s law.Hence,the model
does not accurately predict deformation behavior before failure, especially in situation where the
stress levels are changing or multiple different stresses paths are allowed. For tunnel
construction, the MC model predicts too wide settlement trough. As far as its strength behavior is
concerned, this model is suitable to analyze the stability of dams, slopes and embankments.
However, the model does not show softening behavior after peak strength. Soft soils like
normally consolidated clays, generally show a decreasing mean effective stress during undrained
shearing, whereas the Mohr-Coulomb model would predict a constant mean effective stress in
this case, which results in an over prediction of the shear strength [3].
2.10.3 Hardening Soil Model (HS)
The Hardening Soil (HS) model is a true second order model for soils in general (soft as well as
hard soils) for most types of applications. The model, in an undrained loading shows a reduction
in mean effective stress for soft soils and an increase in mean effective stress for hard soils,
respectively. This model can accurately predict displacements and failure for general types of
soils in various geotechnical applications. The model does not include anisotropy and time
dependent behavior [3].
2.10.4 Hardening Soil Model with small stiffness (HS small)
The Hardening Soil model with small strain stiffness (HS small) is a modification of the
Hardening Soil Model. At low strain levels, most soils show a higher stiffness than at
engineering strain level, and the stiffness varies non-linearly with strain. This behavior is
captured by HS small model.
27
2.10.5 Soft Soil Model (SS)
The Soft Soil Moddel is a Cam-Clay type of model for predicting the behavior of normally
consolidated soils (clays, clayey silts and peat).The SS model does not over predict the shear
strength for over consolidated states of stress. The SS model works well in primary loading
conditions, such as embankment or foundation construction. The model has no advantages over
the Mohr-Coulomb model in unloading situations, such as excavations or tunnel construction [3].
2.10.6 Soft Soil Creep Model (SSC)
The Soft Soil Creep Model (SSC) is suitable for prediction of creep related settlement of
embankments and foundations in soft soils (normally consolidated clays, silt and peat).The SSC
model over predicts the range of elastic behavior in unloading situations such as excavations and
tunnel construction [3].
2.10.7 Modified Cam Clay Model (MCC)
The Modified Cam Clay Model is an elastic plastic strain hardening model where the non-linear
behavior is modeled by means of hardening plasticity. The MCC model uses a logarithmic
relationship between the mean effective stress (p´ ) and the void ratio (e).Virgin compression
and recompression lines are linear in the e-inp‟ space, which is most realistic for near-normally
consolidated clays Figure 2.15. Hence, the model involves a linear stress-dependency of the
stiffness, which is more realistic for normally consolidated clays. For over-consolidated soil, the
MCC model predicts an unrealistic elastic range which leads to an unrealistic high peak strength,
followed by softening behavior until the critical state is reached. The MCC model is more
suitable to describe deformation than failure especially for normally consolidated soft soils. The
model also performs best in applications involving loading conditions such as embankment or
foundation. However, the MCC model is not suitable for high over-consolidated soils. The model
is suitable for soft soils such as normally consolidated clays [3].
However, the short comings of the MCC model are:
It assumes soil to be isotropic, whereas in natural state soils are anisotropic due to the
mode of deposition.
28
It over estimates the failure stresses on the dry side (i.e states to the left of the critical
state line).It predicts peak strength in undrained heavily over-consolidated clay, which is
not usually observed in experiments.
It can not successfully predict the behavior of sand, because sand does not closely follow
the associated flow rule.
The MCC model, on primary loading produces large plastic strains, but on subsequent
unloading-reloading cycles within the yield surface, only produces purely elastic strains
(Hau, 2003)[11].
Figure 2.15: (a) Response of real soil to hydrostatic stress ;(b) Response of idealized soil to hydrostatic Stress
[Source: Roscoe and Burland, 1968]
2.11 Response Spectrum

Response spectra are curves plotted between maximum response of Single Degree of Freedom
(SDOF) system subjected to specified earthquake ground motion and its time period (or
frequency). Response spectrum can be interpreted as the locus of maximum response of a SDOF
system for a given damping ratio. Response spectra thus helps in obtaining the peak structural
response under linear range, which can be used for obtaining lateral forces developed in structure
due to earthquake thus, facilitates in earthquake resistant design structure. Usually response of a
SDOF system is determined by time domain or frequency domain analysis, and for a given time
period of system, maximum response is picked. Final plot with system time period on x-axis and
response quantity on y-axis is the required response spectra pertaining to specified damping ratio
29
and input ground motion Figure 2.16. Same process is carried out with different damping ratios
to obtain overall response spectra.
25 Figure 2.16: Acceleration response spectra during the 22 February 2011 Christchurch earthquake
26 (Cubrinovski and McMahon 2011).
2.12 Recent Developments in the Definition of Design Earthquake Ground Motion

The Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program (GSHAP) depicts Peak Ground Acceleration
(PGA) with 10% chance of exceedance in 50years, corresponding to a return period of 475years.
The PGA values according to the Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program map (GSHAP)
indicates that both seismic regions and the entire size and the extent are assigned much higher
PGA .The values of PGA according to GSHAP are shown in Figure 2.17.The new map indicates
that the most seismic area of the country is concentrated near the Afar region and characterized
by PGA of 0.216g to 0.24g. Addis Ababa city belongs to the second most seismic zone with
PGA in the range of 0.1g to 0.16g.
30
Figure 2.17: The seismic hazard map of Ethiopia based on the Global Seismic Hazard Assessment
Program data for return period of 475 year (Journal of EEA, Vol.28, 2011)
Fourier amplitude and predominant periods are determined for each measurement site.The
numerical value for locations between measurement sites is obtained by interpolation.Finally the
seismic microzonation map of the more developed part of Addis Ababa is prepared by using
Fourier amplitude and predominant period.The fourier amplitude spectra of microtremor for
Addis Ababa city is shown in Figure 2.18.Similarly,the predominant period for Addis Ababa city
is indicated in Figure 2.19.
31
Figure 2.18: Fourier amplitude spectra of microtremor for the city of Addis Ababa
Source: 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering Vancouver, B.C., Canada. August 1-6, 2004.
Figure 2.19: Predominant period Microtremor measurements for the city of Addis Ababa
Source: 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering Vancouver, B.C., Canada. August 1-6, 2004.
32
2.12.1 Seismic Hazard Results
The Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Assessment (PSHA) combines seismic source zoning,
earthquake recurrence and the ground motion attenuation to produce hazard curves in terms of
level ground motion and associated annual frequency of exceedance.The results are expressed in
terms of Uniform Hazard Response Spectra (UHRS) which is represented for a fixed probability
of exceedance (return period), the value of the ground motion parameters versus the structural
period with 5% damped UHRS on rock are computed from return period of 475yr. (probability
of 10% in the next 50yr.) and of 2,475yr (probability of 0.02% in the next 50yr). Figure 2.20
shows the UHRS spectra for 475yr-RP at Addis Ababa City.
Figure 2.20: Uniform Hazard Spectra at Addis Ababa (blue curves) compared with elastic acceleration
spectra from EN 1998 based on the PGA from RP = 475yr.and country seismic code criteria
Source: 2nd European Conference on Earthquake Engineering and Seismology, Istanbul Aug.25-29, 201
2.13 Seismic refraction

The seismic refraction method is non-invasive test method, used for determination of the p-wave
velocity of the different subsurface layers and thickness of each layer. The analysis of
geotechnical earthquake engineering requires characterization of the dynamic soil properties
using geophysical method. Figure 2.21 and Figure 2.22 show P-wave refraction result along
profiles [1].Figure 2.23 shows the location of profiles in the site.
33
27 Figure 2.21: P-wave refraction result along profile 1 which clearly shows indentation with
relatively low velocity in the middle for the CBE New Building Site [1].
28 Figure 2.22: P-wave refraction result along profile 2. The P-wave velocity values are shown by
the colour Coded legend and the lines are the seismic ray paths the traversed or
scanned medium for the CBE New Building Site [1].
34
The coordinates of the two geophysical survey profiles are 473005E/996598N –
472997E/996723N (Profile-1) and 473000E/996724N –73048E/996646N (Profile-2).The ground
surface was well leveled and the altitude is about 2332m above mean sea level. Before the
commencement of the geophysical surveys, the construction site was excavated to a depth of
20m.
Figure 2.23: Location of the survey site and alignment of the geophysical survey profiles (thin red lines)
modified from Google earth map [1].
35
2.14 Seismic hazards in Ethiopia and its historical record
2.14.1 Historical records of earthquakes in Ethiopia

The magnitude of the earthquake as per the report published in September, 1999 by Addis Ababa
RADIUS group is 6.5, which is predicated by the seismologist to happen in areas of close
proximity to Addis Ababa. Addis Ababa is very close to Main Ethiopian Rift Valley about 75-
100 kilometers away. The Rift Valley is said to be the hotbed of tremor and active volcanoes.
Other major cities in Ethiopia like Nazret, Dire Dawa and Awassa are very near the main fault
lines such as the Wonji fault, the Nazret fault, the Addis-Ambo-Ghedo fault, and the Fil Woha
fault lines along which numerous earthquakes of varying magnitude have occurred over the
years. The presence of the Fil Woha hot springs in the middle of Addis Ababa about 365m from
the CBE New Building Site is an indicative that Addis Ababa lies on the fault lines. These fault
lines have a very low building strain which is accumulated over time and there release could
cause the earthquake phenomena.
Pierre Gouin, founder and long-time director of the Geophysical Observatory at the Addis Ababa
University has extensively written about earthquake hazards in Ethiopia, particularly from the
1400's to 1977 in his now classic book: Earthquake History of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa.
In his book, Gouin describes the earthquakes of 1906 and 1961 that shook Addis Ababa and
caused widespread panic [8]. Gouin writes,
The magnitude of the main shock of 25 August 1906 was 6.75; the estimated epicentral
location, 100 km south of Addis Ababa. The August tremors were exceptionally violent. It
is also reported that the shock of 28 October was strong enough to cause the bells of the
Church in the Finfine district to ring spontaneously." He further adds, "The population of
Addis Ababa was greatly afraid. Damage, however, was slight because: the town, being
barely 10-years-old, had not yet fully developed.
36
29 Chapter 3 Modelling
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Project description and site condition

The Commercial Bank of Ethiopia New Headquarter Building project is currently under
construction .The building comprises of five basement levels and 46 floors above ground level.
The geotechnical investigation was conducted by design and Share Company limited. The
ground water was encountered at 5m below the natural ground level (NGL) during testing. The
detailed design for the lateral support and foundation was conducted by China State Engineering
Corporation and included but not limited to; soldier piles and shotcrete lagging techniques which
retained the soil. The solider piles were driven at intervals of 1800mm along the planned
excavation perimeter. The lagging consisting of steel mesh was inserted behind the front pile
flanges as the excavation proceeded and concrete of grade C-20 was sprayed to the lasgging.The
wall was designed to receive additional support from the anchors of different free and bonded
length placed in layers. This study is to investigate the shoring of the commercial bank of
Ethiopia project using the secant pile wall as an alternative support scheme.
3.3 Secant Pile Model
The alternative model shown in Figure 3.1 represents the layout of the secant piles as per the site
drawing used for the construction (Appendix E).
The components of the retaining wall are illustrated in Figure 3.2.The structure consist of wall
facing, anchors, tendons and anchor heads that provide the connection of the tendon to the wall
facing. The anchor transmits a tensile force from the main structure through the anchor tendons
to the surrounding ground. The shear strength of the ground is used to resist the tensile force.
The anchors are composed of a fixed length that is bonded to the grout and unbounded free
length that transfers the lateral earth force from the wall to the anchorage. The anchor tendons
were constructed of prestressed steel in the form of threaded bars.
37
30
Figure 3.1: Site layout for the alternative wall scheme for using secant pile wall (All dimensions
in cm)
38
Figure 3.2: Cross section of the secant pile wall as the alternative scheme
3.4 Selection of an appropriate constitutive model and input parameters

3.4.1 Constitutive Model
Basing on the data collected for the CBE site the parameters are not elastic in behavior. Their
inelastic behavior under cyclic loading can be described by elastic-plastic constitutive models.
According to the constitutive model options available in Plaxis, Hardening soil model with small
strain stiffness (HS small) was used for dynamic analysis. However, the model does not include
softening behavior under cyclic loading conditions and does not incorporate the liquefaction
behavior under loading conditions [3].
3.4.2 Soil and material parameters

The original site information was obtained from the geotechnical report for the Commercial
Bank and the P-wave refraction result along the weak profile obtained from the seismic
refraction report furnished by seismology department at Arat Kilo Addis Ababa University. The
preliminary surface investigation was performed by Design and Share Company Limited under a
contract with the China State Engineering Corporation Limited. The totals of 12 sampling
borings were taken and the laboratory testing was done.
39
The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) was useful in profiling, identification and assessing
engineering parameters of the soils during boring.
3.4.2.1 Deformability
The technique of seismic refraction was used to determine the compressional waves (p) Figure
2.21 and Figure 2.22, and since the shear wave(s) was not determined correlation of the soils
identified from the Standard Penetration Test was done to determine the dynamic Poisson‟s ratio
( ).Once the Poisson‟s ratio is known, the elastic modulus was calculated from the equations.
Constrained Modulus, M
The constrained modulus is equal to the reciprocal of the ondometer vertical coefficient, Mv.
Referring to the geotechnical investigation report, at borehole No.6 and depth 38.2m the average
value the coefficient Mv = 0.0001343m2/kN. Therefore, the value of the constrained modulus
M = 7446.02kN/m2.
Dynamic (Small strain) shear Modulus
The dynamic shear modulus, G, is of great importance in soil dynamics and earthquake
engineering. Most numerical modeling software includes the values of and as input parameters
to define the stiffness reduction relationship for various geomaterials. The reason given for normalization
using the volumetric threshold shear strain is that the stiffness reduction becomes less prone to error
(Benz, 2007).
The compressional wave velocity (p) from the p-waves refraction and the Poisson‟s ratio
obtained from correlation can be used to calculate shear wave velocity from the relationship.
Young’s Modulus, E
The soil as identified at each bore hole when conducting the Standard Penetration Test was
correlated with values of Appendix B (Tables B.1 and B.2).The values were also checked for
accuracy with Young‟s Modulus,E determined based on the dynamic shear modulus, using the
relationship.
40
Characterization of the soil to determine the input soil parameters used for modelling by
applying the soil parameters and seismic parameters obtained from the geotechnical investigation
report and seismic refraction test conducted by Design and Share Company Limited and
Seismology Department Addis Ababa University respectively. Tables 3.1 and 3.2. Further, the
material properties from the catalog of the manufacturer were used to determine the composite
properties of materials by combining the Young‟s modulus, shear modulus and Poisson‟s ratio
using Halpin-Tsai Equations. Tables 3.3 to 3.6 summarize the engineering properties of the
composite secant pile wall.
31 Table 3.1: Summary of ground conditions encountered in borehole
41
Table 3.2 : Summary of Seismic properties encountered in borehole
32 Table 3.3: Material properties of rebar anchor
33 Table 3.4: Material properties of Concrete
42
Composite parameters for the secant pile wall
Secant pile wall can be represented by composite parameters, generally expressed in terms of the
material properties shown in table 3.3 and table 3.4.The parameters required for the composite
secant pile wall are: Young‟s modulus(E),Poisson‟s ratio(v) and Shear modulus(G).
a) Young’s modulus
b) Poisson’s ratio
Poisson‟s ratio (v12), describes the contraction in the two directions when a stress is applied in
the perpendicular direction, composite efficiency factor (f), Poisson‟s ratio of steel (vf) and
concrete (vm) can be used to obtain (v12) from the rule of mixtures.
c) Shear modulus
= 3.038 GPa
The shear modulus G12 indicates the ratio of shear stress (acting in one direction on the plane
with a normal in the two directions)
43
The composite body does not rotate, therefore Gij = Gji and since for aligned fibre composites,
the 2 and 3 directions are equivalent, there are only two shear moduli as:
k- bulk modulus of the composite material for tability of an unconstrained block of material
44
34 Table 3.5: Material properties of composite secant pile wall
45
35 Table 3.6: Material properties of various composite secant pile wall
3.5 Model Geometry

The soil stratum consists of various layers of soil and decomposed basalt with 83.0m depth as
determined from the SPT result. The soil stratigraphy, the general water level and the initial
conditions of the soil layers were considered in the modelling. A finite element numerical
analysis using non-linear time history dynamic analysis was performed by using Plaxis 2D and
3D software. Figure 3.3 shows the finite element model of the soil strata. In the study the soil
strata was subjected to real earthquake waves(upland earthquake) which occurred in1989.Figure
3.4 shows the acceleration time histoy for Loma Prieta earthquake.
In a 2D model, plane strain elements with 15 nodes and Hardening Soil model were used to
model the soil.Tnsion cut off was used to prevent the tensile stress which are not allowed in the
soil element during the analysis.
46
Figure 3.3: Soil profile in plaxis3D Model
3.5.1 Static loading

Due to the existence of several buildings around the excavation and the associated traffic, large
surcharge load is expected to take care of the adjoining structures and the traffic loading. Since
the existing site surcharge could not be estimated accurately, the applied overload of 150kPa was
used in the modeling. This load was also used in 3D finite element analysis of a deep excavation
for the Odeon project in Monaco [22].
3.5.2 Dynamic loading

In order to stimulate the actual condition, the dynamic load considered in this study is the upland
earthquake of 18 Oct, 1989 of real accelerogram which occurred at Del Valle Dam Station. The
Finite Element analysis with PLAXIS 3D software was applied. In PLAXIS 3D non option is
selected, it is assumed that the base of the model is rigid and the seismic signal is trapped within
the soil deposit and cannot escape through the bottom boundary. The real accelerogram of strong
motion was assigned as dynamic multiplier and the generated spectrum was adjusted to the
acceleration of 0.12g for the case of Addis Ababa area. PLAXIS allows the use of earthquake
47
records in standard strong motion CD-ROM (SMC) format as input data for earthquake loading.
Figure 3.4 shows the real accelerogram of Loma Prieta Earthquake used as input for modelling
the dynamic parameters of the secant pile wall and additional parameter for the dynamic
response of the soil during the earthquake.
36 Figure 3.4: Real time accelerogram of Del Valle Dam - Loma Prieta Earthquake
In order to define the secant pile wall and the corresponding interfaces, all the vertical surfaces
created as the volume of the soil was decomposed were selected and create plate option was used
as the boundary condition. Figures 3.5.The create data set for the secant pile wall (plates)
according to table 3.5 and 3.6 was assigned to all vertical walls.
The surface load was defined by creating a surface load around the periphery of the excavated
area and uniformly distributed load was applied all round the excavation. Figure 3.5 shows the
surface load applied at the top view of the model geometry.Non-isotropic (different stiffnesses in
the two directions) secant pile walls are defined. As the vertical direction is generally the stiffest
direction, the local axis shall point in the z-direction.
48
37 Figure 3.5: Static loading
3.5.3 Base case model and mesh set up

The project data from the project drawings were initially used to develop 3D geometric model to
represent the construction process by reconciling field report and simulating the actual
construction process of the project.
The refinement of the mesh affects the calculation results in the FE Analysis. The refinement of
the mesh is also related to the calculation time. The large mesh elements generated require large
calculation time due to the large stiffness matrices. The balance between accuracy and efficiency
is key to the mesh setup. In PLAXIS 3D, the mesh is generated automatically with the global
refinement as set in Figure 3.6.
The model is based on the site dimensions and the actual conditions. Figure 3.7 shows the
resulting finite element model represents a close approximation to the original geometric model
with PLAXIS 3D.
49
38 Figure 3.6: Overview of mesh set up for model in Plaxis 3D model
39 Figure 3.7: Overview of model and ground Anchors in Plaxis 3D model
50
3.6 Plaxis 2D Model
The excavation was modeled as plain strain condition. The general procedure when modeling is;
to define the geometry with elements and corresponding materials,
to define loads and boundary conditions,
to create FEM-mesh,
to define the initial condition and perform the FEM-calculations.
Plate elements are composed of beams elements. The beam element has three degrees of freedom
per node and has three respective 5nodes when used with 6nodes volume elements and 15nodes
volume elements.
The 15nodes and 6nodes triangular elements are used to model volume clusters. Materials
properties are assigned to each volume cluster. In order to perform calculations on the created
model, the geometry was divided in to finite elements.
Geogrid element has tensile strength i.e no compressive strength or bending moment strength.
Interface elements are used for modelling of interaction between two materials. In FEM
calculations just one displacement is allowed in a specific node.
When creating geometry, first define points, geometry lines and cluster (areas) and assign
different properties. The clusters are given a soil element and soil materials, geometry line is
given either a structural element or a boundary condition. There different elements available in
plaxis 2D:
There are two different elements implemented for soil modelling in Plaxis 2D.These are both
triangular elements and have 6nodes respective 15nodes and have 3 respective 12 stress points
(Gaussian integration points). Figure 3.8.
Plaxis has the ability to create the mesh automatically. However; the automatically created mesh
may not be accurate enough to perform an acceptable numerical analysis. To prevent this, the
mesh can be manually refined, both as whole and in areas where large stress and strain
concentration or gradient occur.
51
Figure: 3.8: Distribution of nodes and stress points in interface elements and their connection to soil
Elements [19]
3.7 Comparision of results according to Plaxis 2D and 3D

The sectional forces obtained from the design of the excavation and those arising from the
seismic action are compared for both 2D modelling.
The dynamic analysis yields for the peak axial force 4520 kN/m, which is 2.6% less than the
design excavation force.
The dynamic analysis yields peak bending moment of 6860 kN/m which is 1.6% higher than the
design bending moment.
The dynamic analysis yields peak shear force of 2700 kN/m which is 1.5% higher than the
design shear force.
The total displacement before the earthquake event for 2D and 3D are 0.94378E-3m and
0.1104E-3m respectively.The 3D yields 88.3% less the 2D displacement under static load
condition.
52
40 Figure 3.9: Static load condition
After the earthquake,the total displacement recorded for 2D and 3D are 38.05E-6m and 0.3375E-
3m respectively. The 3D yields 88.7% more than 2D displacement under dynamic load
condition.The bigger difference could be due to the non realistic modelling of the 2D.
2D plain strain modelling assumes the out-of-plane geometry is large and or constrained and that
the loading does not vary in the out-of-plane direction(z) such that the z- displacements are
neglected ,whereas 3D modelling takes width effect in to account and therefore provides insight
in to better modelling results than 2D finite element model.Inaddition modelling errors may have
occurred in the model.
53
41 Figure 3.10: Total Acceleration
The results from the modelling indicate that there is great difference in values between the 2D
and 3D analysis. The reason for this discrepancy may be found in the different geometry of the
structure and the plain strain condition on which the 2D analysis is based.
Plaxis 2D modelling in plain strain is used in geometries which are more or less uniform cross
sections and correspoinding stress state and loading scheme over certain length perpendicular to
the cross section (Z-direction).Practically ,this means that 2D plain strain model considers one
dimension to be relatively long(imagine the 2D cross-section being extruded infinitely in out of
plane direction).
3D model alternative secant pile support system is clearly not a plane strain situation because
some 3D effects are not captured in a 2D plane strain model.Thus,the excavation geometry and
loading conditions can only be fully modelled using plaxis 3D analysis.
The load condition was changed to be applied uniformly all around the perimeter of the
excavation.This would stumulate the construction condition and also the acting surcharge from
the adjacent structures.
54
The geometry model, which is seen in figure 3.1 is based on construction drawings for the CBE
headquarter site and the soil parameter evaluations.The plaxis 2D is used to carry out analysis of
deformations and stability problems for different geotechnical situations in two
dimensions.However,when the 3D problems to be investigated are simplified in to 2D there is
possibility of obtaining matching results. Figure 3.11 shows multiple cross sections representing
different types of geotechnical situations in 2D.
In order to make clear comparision for the alternative secant pile according to 2D and 3D
modelling, the model geometry should be simplified to 2D as seen in the first figure (from left to
right) Figure 3.11.
The research conducted at Graz University of Technology using diaphragm wall model for
comprision of 2D and 3D model showed matching results Figure 3.12.
42 Figure: 3.11: Examples of plane strain situation
The research conducted at Graz University of Technology was an attempt to demonstrate the
application of the ground anchor in 3D foundation; the diaphragm wall was modelled as a
continuum element. The results from the 3D calculation with HS-Model compared well to the
2D solution.
The deviation of forces in the node-to-node anchor between both calculations is less than
4%.Furthermore; the vertical displacements behind the diaphragm wall from the 3D calculation
are very similar to those obtained from 2D solution [7].
55
43 Figure 3.12: comparision of 3D results with 2D reference solution [7].
56
Chapter 4 Parametric studies
4.1 Introduction
One of the purposes for this study was to study the parameters due to the anchored secant pile
wall by varying; length of the piles, anchor spacing and pile diameter under static and dynamic
load condition. The analysis was performed on the model with the same characteristics (except
pile length, anchor spacing and pile diameter).The plastic analysis using plaxis 3D Anniversary
Edition was performed because the excavation process takes short period of time. Stage
construction was also considered in the analysis and consolidation analysis which would be
important to determine the future behavior of the structure was not performed since the
excavation process takes short period of time.
4.2 Parameter analysis
In order to evaluate the impact of some parameters due to anchored pile wall on the deformation
analysis, a parameter analysis is performed. In this analysis some important parameters; pile
length, anchored spacing and pile diameter was analyzed by changing the values of each of them
according to the specific parameter. Stage excavation, was also included in the analyses.
4.2.1 Effect of stage excavation
The excavation steps used in modeling the effect of stage construction are in intervals of 5m
depth. This is the conservative design, which leads to more calculation steps and more
calculation time. The excavation steps considered are: 5m, 10m, 15m, and 20m from surfaces are
added to stimulate each single excavation step and number of calculation steps. The excavation
steps in 3D model were added by deactivating the soil layers in the respective step.
Due to the different excavation steps the distribution of the lateral displacements of the secant
pile wall changes dramatically. Figure 4.1 and 4.2.shows the displacements of the secant pile at
20m deep for static and dynamic loading respectively.
The small excavation step 5m requires more calculation steps and more time and yields less
deformations. While the large excavation step takes short time and results to high lateral
displacement.
57
Figure 4.1: Effect of stage excavation on deformation under static loading
Deformation Uz * m
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
0
5
Depth of Ex cavation (m)
10 5m Excavation
10m Excavation
15
15m Excavation
20 20m Excavation
25
30
35
Figure 4.2: Effect of stage excavation on deformation under dynamic loading
58
4.2.2 Diameter of Pile wall
The diameter of pile wall was increased from 650mm to 1400mm.There was a change in
structural stiffness. In Plaxis 3D the pile wall was modelled with diameter of pile 650mm,
900mm, 1150mm and 1400mm.Increase in diameter of the pile increases displacement near the
surface of the wall in x and y directions Figure 4.3.
44 Figure 4.3: Maximum displacement Ux versus pile wall diameter under static and dynamic
loading
4.2.3 Height of the pile wall
The parametric study in varying the height of the wall and the deformation obtain from plaxis
output. The height of the wall used is 30m. This parameter was varied for different wall length of
24, 27, 30, 33 and 36m in the study. Figure 4.4 shows the results obtained from plaxis analysis.
The pile wall lateral deflection and pile wall depth below the ground are normalized. The
maximum excavation depth He for the project is 20m commencing from the natural ground level.
The wall length is 24m, 27m, 30m, and 36m and the maximum excavation is 20m.It was
observed that the height of the wall increased with increase in displacement. The high unusual
displacement at wall height 27m would be the basalt failure produced due to weak, highly
weathered scoriaceous basalt material and modelling error may have occurred in the model due
to the constraints to temporarily working nodes thus, rapid increase in displacement.
59
Figure 4.4: Effect of length of pile on lateral deformation of pile wall under static and dynamic loading
4.2.4 Anchor spacing

Horizontal and vertical spacing of anchors. The analysis was conducted with horizontal spacing
of 2m, 3m, 4m, and 5m and vertical spacing was also varied; 3m, 4m and 5m.
One level of ground anchors was spaced at 2m in the horizontal direction and installed at an
inclination of angle of 15° below the horizontal direction (left to right).The anchors were also
spaced at 3m in the vertical direction(top to bottom).
Decreasing the horizontal spacing can increase the stiffness of the anchor per unit width. With
high anchor stiffness, the compression of the anchor will be quite small, and the maximum
deformation occurs near the excavation surface. Figure 4.5 shows the results obtained from
plaxis analysis.
60
Displacement Uz
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

0
0.2
phase 1
Normalized Depth
0.4 phase 2
phase 3
0.6
phase 4
0.8
1.2
45 Figure 4.5: Anchor spacing 4m for static and dynamic loading
4.3 Seismic Site Response

The influence of local geologic and soil conditions on the intensity of ground shaking and
earthquake damage has been recognized for many years. Local site conditions can profoundly
influence all of the important characteristics of strong ground motion: amplitude, frequency
content and duration. The effect of their influence depends on the geometry and material
properties of the subsurface materials on the site topography, and on the characteristics of the
input motion. Based on the seismic damage data for the 1906 San Francisco California,
earthquake, Wood argued that the local site conditions emerge a dominant factor controlling the
amplification of damage during the earthquakes (Woods, 1916).The Northridge (1994), and
Loma Prieta (1989) earthquake have predicted the role of local site conditions in modifying the
characteristics of strong motions.
Damage patterns in Mexico City after the 1985 Michoacán earthquake demonstrates
conclusively the significant effect of the local site conditions on the seismic ground response.
Thus understanding of local site effects of the strong ground motion is of particular importance
for the mitigation of earthquake disasters as well as well as aiding the earthquake resistant
design. In order to estimate the behavior of the ground during an earthquake, this study considers
61
site condition as one of the most important ground motion parameters for engineering design and
it is often characterized by a set of simplified parameters such as site predominant period, ground
amplification. The purpose for this is to avoid the situation where the fundamental periods of the
structure is close to the predominant period of the site, thus the induced resonance like
phenomenon led to serious damage of the structure.
Surface geotechnical and geophysical data for the New Commercial Bank site was obtained and
used to estimate the local site condition on the earthquake ground motion. The ground response
analysis was conducted considering the nonlinear behavior of the soil using plaxis 3D.The
nonlinear site response analysis was used to estimate the site response and study the soil
behavior during the earthquake wave propagation. The nonlinear site response was estimated by
elastro-plastic constitutive model. The results for seismic site response obtained from plaxis
output are discussed below.
4.3.1 Accelerations
The seismic body and surface waves create inertia forces with in the secant pile wall. When the
wall starts shaking it is subjected to inertia forces. Thus, responding to Newton‟s second law of
motion.
Acceleration or the rate of change of velocity of the waves setting the structure mass or weight in
motion. The acceleration is measured in terms of the acceleration due to gravity or „g‟ which is
the change of velocity of the freely falling body in space. Figure 4.6 shows the magnitude of
acceleration of different earthquakes.
62
46 Figure 4.6: Magnitude of acceleration
4.3.2 Site Response Spectrum

A site respose spectrum is a graph that plots the maximum respose values acceleration
velocity,and displacement against the period and frequency.The spectrum shows on vertical
ordinate the acceleration,velocities and displacements that may be expected at varying periods on
the horizontal ordinate. Figure 4.7 show the site response spectrum.
47 Figure 4.7: Site Response Spectrum
63
4.3.3 Velocities
The velocity of motion on the ground caused by seismic wave is quite slow.This is because large
quantities of earth and the rock are moved Figure 4.8 and Figure 4.9.As result the motion of the
structure is slow and the displacements are very low.
48 Figure 4.8: Velocity in horizontal direction
49 Figure 4.9: Velocity in vertical direction
64
4.3.4 Ground Amplification
Earthquake shaking is initiated by a fault slippage in the underlying rock. As the shaking
propagates to the surface, it may be amplified depending on the intensity of shaking, the surface
soil and depth of the layers and the nature of the rock.
Weaker layers of soft soil may results in to higher amplification factor over the rock shaking.
The amplification factor 1.0 indicates the soils are firm. The amplification also tends to decrease
as the level of shaking is increased. The earthquake damage tends to be more severe in areas of
soft soils. Figure 4.10 shows the site amplification factor.
50 Figure 4.10: Ground Amplification
65
Chapter 5 – Results and Discussion
The analyses for stage excavation indicate that the maximum displacement (Uz) for 20m stage
excavation was 0.1104E-3m and 5m stage excavation was 0.02785E-3 for static condition. The
dynamic analysis also resulted to displacements (Uz) for 20m and 5m excavation depths as
respectively 0.1104E-3 and 0.04542E-3. This analysis reveals that the deeper the foundation
excavation was, the larger the deformation. Since the excavation width is very wide, it also
follows that the wider the excavation, the larger the deformation. As a matter of fact, for a typical
excavation the wider the excavation, the larger are the unbalanced forces, the larger the
unbalanced forces, the greater is the wall deformation. The magnitude of wall movement is
determined by the excavation-induced unbalanced forces. The unbalanced forces are as results of
factors such as excavation width, excavation depth and the preload. The stresses and deformation
caused by excavation arise from their unbalanced forces.
Also the dynamic analysis for stage excavation indicates that for the same materials property the
deformation increases with increase in excavation depth in the z-direction. The displacement at
5m and 10m stage excavation was respectively 0.04542E-3m and 0.03969E-3m.This further
reveals that soft soil material is displaced more than the firm material during the earthquake
event.
The effect of wall height. The modelling and analysis was performed to investigate the effect of
wall height (H) with increasing wall penetration depth (D) on the secant pile wall. The maximum
excavation depth (He) was 20m and the modelling was as per the site conditions. This parametric
study was conducted for 24, 27, 30, 33 and 36 m high wall. The soil parameters as in the
investigation presented the effect of this parametric study on the wall behavior. The analysis
results in terms of wall displacements for soil parameter studied in the modelling were obtained.
It was observed that as the height of the wall increased from 24m to 27m the displacement Uz of
the wall increased. Further increase in height from 27m to 30m observed was the decrease in
displacement Uz of the wall and 33m to 36m resulted to significant increase in displacement.
The high unusual displacement at wall height 27m would be the basalt failure produced due to
weak, highly weathered scoriaceous basalt material and modelling error may have occurred in
the model due to the constraints to temporarily working nodes thus, rapid increase in
displacement.
66
Effect of pile diameter. The diameter of secant pile wall was increased from 650mm to 1400mm
in the study. The deformation of the secant pile in horizontal and vertical directions (Ux and Uy)
increased as the diameter of the pile increased. During pile driving the increase in pile diameter
resulted to increase in deformation near the surface of the pile in horizontal and vertical
direction. The same observation was made during the dynamic analysis.
Horizontal and vertical spacing of anchors. The analysis was conducted with horizontal spacing
of 2m, 3m, 4m, and 5m and vertical spacing was also varied; 3m, 4m and 5m.The deformations
arising from anchor spacing can be distinguished in to that of horizontal spacing and vertical
spacing.
One level of ground anchors was spaced at 2m in the horizontal direction and installed at an
inclination of angle of 15° below the horizontal direction (left to right).The anchors were also
spaced at 3m in the vertical direction(top to bottom).
Decreasing the horizontal spacing can increase the stiffness of the anchor per unit width. With
high anchor stiffness, the compression of the anchor will be quite small, and the maximum
deformation occurs near the excavation surface.
The material of the interface element was defined by creating a new material, specific for the
interface element. The interface element could also be used to smoothen the mesh around the
areas with high stress and strain gradients (eg. sharp edges, stiff material). Standard volume
elements have difficulties to produce physical stress oscillation in such areas. Smoothening is
created by applying interfaces around the area and activating them during mesh generation and
deactivating during calculation.
With the start of the first stage of excavation, wall movement will be produced. The second stage
of excavation starts after the installation of the first level anchors. Since the stiffness of the
anchor is high, the compression of the anchor will be small so that the anchored retaining wall
will rotate about the contact point between the anchor connection bolt and the wall, and the wall
deformation is generated. The maximum wall deformation will occur near the excavation
surface. With the completion of the second level of the anchors, the third level of excavation
starts.
67
As the spacing between the anchors is increased, implying the stiffness of the anchors has been
reduced, the compression of the anchor increases. There will be large wall displacement around
the contact point during the second phase of excavation.
The final deformation pattern of the retaining wall will be close to linear type and the maximum
deformation will be produced at the top of the retaining wall.
The uniformly distributed load (UDL) is applied across the site, and this gives the better estimate
on the change of horizontal soil stresses due to surcharge application. The application of the
UDL modifies both active and passive limits of the underlying soil. Initial stresses are built up in
the calculation step and in the initial step in the calculations, by setting values of and over
consolidation ratio. The ground water level was set to 5m below the ground surface. Plastic
analysis is selected as calculation type due to that no time effect is considered on deformation
analysis.
68
Chapter 6 – Conclusions and Recommendations
6.1 Introduction
The finite element program Plaxis 3D was used in the modelling. Two different constitutive
models in plaxis i.e Hardening soil model and Hardening soil model with small strain, were used
to stimulate the secant pile wall and soil behavior.
The 3D models presented in this thesis allow the parametric studies for the pile length, pile
diameter and anchor spacing to be tested. The test results show that varying the pile length, pile
diameter and anchor spacing can have a great influence over the response of the secant pile wall.
With continued excavation, there was increase in deformation as the excavation depth was
increased. The excavation in 3D is attained by deactivating the soil layers. The parametric study
was conducted for static and dynamic loading case. The dynamic load used was one earthquake
and in order to determine the behavior of the ground during and after the earthquake, there was
need to use different earthquakes with different magnitudes, frequencies and epicentral distances
etc. All earthquakes were real accelerograms obtained from center for strong ground motion site
(USGS data).
6.2 Conclusions of Modeling

According to the parametric analysis; changing the stiffness modulus and varying the pile
diameter, pile length and anchor spacing, affects the deformation analysis. Special care was
taken when choosing the value and condition of these parameters most especially, the stiffness
modulus of the soil. The following conclusions have been drawn from the analysis.
Effect of stage excavation. The analyses for stage excavation showed that the deformations
increased as the excavation depth increased. This was due to increase in the magnitude of the
unbalanced forces as result of increase in depth of excavation, thus increasing stresses and
deformations.
Effect of wall height. The analysis was performed to investigate the effect of wall height with
increasing wall penetration depth on the secant pile wall. It was observed that as the height of the
wall increased from 24m to 27m, the deformation Uz of the wall increased rapidly. Further
increase in the height from 27m to 30m showed decrease in deformation of the wall and 33m to
69
36m resulted to significant increase in deformation. The erratic increase in deformation at wall
height 27m would be the basalt failure produced as result of highly weathered scoriaceous basalt
at that depth and modelling error may have occurred in the model due to the constraints to
temporarily working nodes thus, rapid increase in displacement.
Diameter of the pile wall was increased from 650mm to 1400mm.The decrease in displacement
of the retaining wall was observed as the diameter of the retaining wall increased. Increase in
diameter of pile wall reduces displacement of the pile due to increase in structural stiffness.
Decreasing the horizontal and vertical spacing of the anchors increased stiffness of the anchor
per unit width. With high anchor stiffness, displacement occurs near the excavation surface.
The modulus of deformability of the soil has great importance in the settlement of the soil. It is
visible that when the thickness of the wall increases, the horizontal and vertical displacement
near the wall increases.
The displacement at the base of the wall was very small; this is because the wall has the tendency
to insert in the soil.
70
6.3 Recommendations
There is need to consider the anticipated responses of the adjacent buildings during construction.
This will require the design professional to survey the condition of the adjacent properties to
understand their present condition and fragility, establish acceptable limits, conduct soil-structure
analyses of various support systems and develop limits on their respective movements, and
develop a monitoring strategy.
Monitoring information is compared with anticipated behavior predicted by analysis to evaluate

performance and provide information that can be used to understand adjacent building responses.
In addition measurement of vibrations to evaluate the likelihood of the damage and capture the
source vibrations at the foundation level and understand how those source vibrations attenuate or
amplify through the structure.
Further investigations on parameters and other conditions that affect seismic analysis like density
and shear modulus thus, compressional (p) waves and shear (s) waves can calculated from those
soil parameters for each layer and result can be compared with those from seismic refraction test.
Increasing the accuracy of the investigation of the modulus of deformability in different

stratification layers and other conditions would increase the accuracy of the simulated results.
3D model presents more realistic results than 2D model. The 3D effects are not captured in a 2D
model, which assumes plain strain condition. Thus, excavation geometry and the loading
conditions can only be fully modelled using Plaxis 3D analysis.
71
Reference
[ 1 ] Atalay, A. (2016).Unpublished Seismic Investigation report for the CBE, new building site.
[ 2 ] Bowles, J.E. (1977). Foundation Analysis and Design. MC Graw- Hill, Inc. New York.
[ 3 ] Brinkgreve, R.B.J., Swolfs, W.M., Engine, E. (2011).Plaxis User‟s manual, Plaxis Bv, the
Netherlands.
[ 4 ] Bryson.L.,Calvello,Finno.J.,Richard.(2002).Analysis and Performance of the excavation for
the Chicago State subway Renovation project and its effect on Adjacent Structures.
Northwest University.
[5] Clough, G.W., O‟Rourke, T.D. (1990).Construction Induced movement of in situ walls.Proc.
Design and performance of earth retaining structure, ASCE special conference,
Ithaca, Newyork, pp.439-470.
[ 6] Erin H.Y.Leung., Charles W.W.Ng. (1992).Wall and Ground Movements Associated with
Deep Excavations Supported by cast insitu wall in Mixed Ground Conditions. Journal
of Geotechnical and Geotechnical Engineering-Vol.118.
[ 7 ] Franz.T., Helmut.S. (2012).Application of the ground anchor facility in plaxis 3D
Foundation. Graz University of Technology.
[ 8 ] Gouin, Pierre. (1979). Earthquake History of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. International
Development Research Center. Ottawa, Canada, IDRC-118e, 259p.
[9] Halpin, J.C., Tsai, S.W. (1996).Effects of Environmental Factors on Composite
Materials, AFML-TR-67-423.
[10] Hashash, Y.M.A., Whittle, A.J. (1996). Ground movement prediction for deep excavations
In Soft clays.JGeotech Eng, ASCE, 122(6):474-486.
[11] Hau, K.W. (2003).Application of a three surface kinematic hardening model to the repeated
loading of thinly surface pavements. PhD Thesis. Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Nottingham, UK.
[12] Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE), 2007.Specification for pilling and Embedded Retaining
Walls. Thomas Telford Ltd, second edition, 264p.
[13] Jen, L.C. (1998). The design and performance of deep excavation in clay. PhD Thesis MIT.
[14] Jones, R.M, 2nd ed. (1999).Mechanics of Composite Materials. Taylor and Francis, USA.
253pp.
72
[15] Mana, A.I., Clough (1981).Prediction of movements for braced cuts in clay.JGeotech
Eng.ASCE, 106(6):759-777.
[16] Moormann, C. (2004).Analysis of wall and ground movement due to deep excavation in soft
Soils based on a new worldwide data base. Soils and Foundations, voil.44, No.1, 87.
[17] Ng, C.W.W. (1998). Observed performance of multi-propped excavation in stiff
Clay.JGeotech Geoenviron Eng, ASCE124 (9):889-905.
[18] Obrzud, R., Truty, A. (2012).The Hardening Soil Model. A practical Guidebook Z soil.Pc
100701 Report.
[19] Plaxis 2D reference manual, (2011).Plaxis Finite Element software. Delft University of
Technology and Plaxis Bv. The Netherlands.
[20] Perk, R.B. (1969). Deep excavation and tunneling in soft ground. In: proceeding of the 7th
International conference on soil mechanics and Foundation engineering, Mexico
City, State-of-the-Art Volume, pp225-290.
[21] Sabatini, P.J., Pass, D.G., and Bachus, R.C. (1999). Ground anchors and anchored systems.
Geotechnical Circular No.4, FHWA-IF-99-015, Federal Highway Administration,
Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C.
[22] Spring (2011).Plaxis Bulletin/www.plaxis.nl
[23] Suroor, Hadi. (2007).Performance Evaluation of Instrumented LNG Retention Dikes on
Louisiana Soft clays. 7th International Symposium on Field Measurements in
Geomechanics, Boston, USA.
[24] Truty A. Hardening soil model with small strain stiffness. Technical Report 080901.
[25] Wharmby, N., Leach, B., Storer, K., Murray. (2007).Construction of deep emergency access
And ventilation shaft at Waihi gold mine, in proceedings Tenth Australia New
Zealand conference on Geomechanics, 2:448-53p.
[26] Wood, D., Muir. (1990).Soil behavior and critical state soil mechanics. Cambridge
University press.ISBN0-521-3249-4.
73
51 Appendices
52 Appendix A- Hardening Soil Model
Hardening Mechanism in Finite Element simulation

In the Hardening soil model, accounting for stress path is possible. Isotropic and deviatoric. In
isotropic, the volumetric plastic mechanism in the form of cap surface is introduced to account
for a threshold point (preconsolidation pressure) beyond which important plastic straining occurs
characterizing a normally-consolidated state of soil. The shear mechanism generates no
volumetric plastic strain; the model without volumetric mechanism could significantly
overestimate soil stiffness in the virgin compression conditions, particularly for normally and
lightly over consolidated cohesive soils. The isotropic mechanism is thus important when
modeling consolidation problems related to ground lowering.
Hardening-soil model
It is an advanced hyperbolic soil model formulated in the framework of hardening plasticity. The
main difference with the Mohr-Coulomb model is the stiffness approach. Here, the soil is
described much more accurately by using three different input stiffness: triaxial loading
stiffness , triaxial unloading stiffness , and the oedometer loading stiffness . Apart
from that, it accounts for stress-dependency of the stiffness moduli, all stiffnesses increase with
pressure (all three inputs relate to reference stress, 100 kPa).
The Hardening Soil model has been presented before as a hyperbolic model. Often hyperbolic
soil models have been used to describe the nonlinear behavior; this is also a suitable application
in this research as sand usually behaves as a linear elastic material with shear modulus for shear
strains up to ≈ 10−5, and afterward the stress-strain relationship is strongly non-linear .The
background of this kind of models is the hyperbolic relationship between vertical strain and
deviatoric stress in primary triaxial loading. However, the Hardening-soil model is far better than
the original hyperbolic model as it uses theory of plasticity instead of theory of elasticity and
because it includes soil dilatancy and a yield cap. In contrast to an elastic perfectly plastic model
like Mohr-Coulomb, now the yield surface is not fixed but can expand due to plastic straining
[24].
74
The main characteristics of the model:
Stress dependent stiffness according to power law (defined by parameter m)

Plastic straining due to primary deviatoric stress (defined by parameter )
Plastic straining due to primary compression (defined by parameter )
Elastic unloading/reloading (defined by parameter , )

In the Hardening Soil model, the associated flow rule is defined as a relationship between
rates of plastic shear strain and plastic volumetric strain ; it has the linear form:
Where is the mobilized dilatancy angle, defined as:
With the critical state friction angle, constant for a certain material, independent of the
density, and the mobilized friction angle that can be calculated:
According to Rowe‟s stress-dilatancy theory (1962), material contracts for small stress ratios
( ) and dilates for high stress-ratios ( ). At failure, the mobilized friction angle
equals the failure one and:
Secant stiffness in standard drained triaxial test: , and then:
Tangent stiffness for primary oedometer loading:

Power for stress-level dependency of stiffness: m
Unloading/reloading stiffness: (default: =3 ), and then:
75
Poisson‟s ratio for unloading/reloading: (default: = 0.2)
Reference stress for stiffness: (default: = 100 stress units)
value for normal consolidation: (default: = 1− )
Failure ratio: = (default: = 0.9)
Tensile strength: (default: = 0)

Also it defines the oedometer stiffness:
Note that the oedometer stiffness relates to oedometer testing, therefore to the compaction
hardening part. On the other hand, and relate to triaxial testing and so to the friction
hardening part. To explain the plastic volumetric strain in isotropic compression, a second yield
surface closes the elastic region in the direction of the p-axis. While the shear yield surface is
mainly controlled by the triaxial modulus, the oedometer modulus controls the cap yield surface.
76
53 Appendix B - Geotechnical properties of soil
Typical values of soil Young’s modulus for different soils according to USCS.
In general, the soil stiffness and elastic modulus depends on the consistency and the parking
(density) of the soil. Typical values of soil Young‟s modulus are given below as guideline.
Table B.1: Typical values of Young‟s modulus for granular material (MPa) [18].
Table B.2: Typical values of Young‟s modulus for cohesive material (MPa) [18].
Table B.3: Typical values of Poisson‟s ratio for soils and other material [ 2 ].
77
54 Appendix C – Modelling Outputs for 2D Analyses
Figure C.1 :Total displacement under static load condition
Figure C.2 :Vertical displacement under static load condition
78
Figure C.3 :Total Acceleration
Fig C.4 : Horrizontal Acceleration
79
Figure C.5 : Vertical Acceleration
Figure C.6: Peak Axial, Bending and Shear forces under dynamic load condition
80
Figure C.7: Peak Axial, Bending and Shear forces under static load condition
81
55 Appendix D – Modelling Outputs for 3D Analyses
Figure D.1 Total displacement under static load condition
Figure D.2: Total displacement for stage excavation under dynamic load condition
82
83
84
85
56
57 Appendix E – Site layout plan
Figure E.1: Site layout for the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia New Headquarter Building
86

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Parametric Study on Analysis and Design of Permanently

Anchored Secant Pile Wall for Earthquake Loading

Julius Emmanuel Emuriat

Prepared in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Addis Ababa University

Approved by Board of Examiners:

Dr. - Ing. Henok Fikre ………………………. ……………………

Research Advisor Signature Date

Dr. - Ing. Samuel Tadesse ………………………. …………………….

Internal Examiner Signature Date

Prof. Alemayehu Teferra ………………………. …………………….

External Examiner Signature Date

Dr. - Ing. Agizew Nigussie ...…………………… …………………

Chairman Signature Date

Angle of internal friction

Total unit weight

Soil unit weight above phreatic level

Soil unit weight below phreatic level

Ratio of initial horizontal stress/ Initial vertical stress

Secant Young‟s modulus at 50% of failure stress from triaxial test

Standard penetration test blow count

Finite Element Method

Three Dimensional Anniversary Edition

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

Federal Highway Administration

Commercial Bank of Ethiopia

USGS United States Geological Survey

Plaxis Constitutive Model Terms

Ratio of initial horizontal stress/ Initial vertical stress

Longitudinal wave velocity

Transverse wave velocity

Hardening Soil Model

Secant stiffness in standard triaxial test at

Secant stiffness for primary oedometer loading at

Power for stress level dependency of stiffness

Poisson‟s ratio for unloading-reloading

Reference stress for stiffness

Incremental increase of cohesion with depth

Stress ratio in a state of normal consolidation

Ratio of initial horizontal stress/ Initial vertical stress

Hardening Small Strain

Secant stiffness in standard triaxial test at

Secant stiffness for primary oedometer loading at

Power for stress level dependency of stiffness

Shear strain at which

Initial shear modulus

Shear modulus at very small strain

Poisson‟s ratio for unloading-reloading

Tangent shear modulus

Volumetric threshold shear strain

Rint Strength reduction factor for interface

Key words: secant, pile wall, earthquake loading, plaxis.

1.2 Problem Statement .............................................................................................................. 3

1.3 Objective ............................................................................................................................. 3

1.3.1 General Objectives ........................................................................................................ 3

1.3.2 Specific objectives ........................................................................................................ 3

1.4 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 3

1.5 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 4

1.6 Thesis Structure .................................................................................................................. 5

Chapter 2 Literature Review ........................................................................................................... 6