Al-Nahrain University

College of Information Engineering

Department of Systems Engineering

“Robotics”

“L1”

Prepared By:

ayat saeed
LEC1 >> BUILDING BLOCKS OF AUTOMATION

The automation components can be classified into four basic categories, depending upon how they
are used:

1. Sensors.

2. Analyzers.

3. Actuators.

4. Drives.

The approximate relationship of these four categories is shown in (Figure 2. l). The operator here is a
human, not a robot. The industrial robot is part of the automated system (upper half of the figure). The
industrial robot is actually an integrated system made up of all four of the basic automation component
categories: sensors, analyzers, actuators, and drives,

__________________________________________________________________________________
1. SENSORS

Sensors are the first link between the typical automated system and the conventional process (the real
world). Sensors convey information from the manufacturing process equipment, the piece part being
manufactured, and from the human operator.

__________________________________________________________________________________

1.1 MANUAL SWITCHES

The automation system is linked to the operator by the manual Switches. The operator may desire to
turn the system on or off or make adjustments to the automated cycle.

The manual switch can be CLOSED (0n) or OPEN (OFF) Most switches has two stable states: on and off.
However, many switches have only a single stable state. Such switches have a spring action that returns
them to normal state whenever they are released from an outside force. That normal state can either be
in the open position or the closed position, which leads to the terms NORMALLY OPEN (NO) and
NORMALLY CLOSED (NO used to describe switches.

Manual switches can be divided into:

1-single-pole, single-throw (SPST) (Figure (2.2a)).

2-single-pole, double-throw (SPDT) (Figure (2.2b)).

3-double-pole. Single-throw (DPST) (Figure (2.2C)).

4-double-pole, double-throw (DPDI) (Figure (2,2d)).

5-multiple throws (rotary switch) (Figure (2.3)).

6-momentary switch (spring-return, pushbutton) 2.4

1.2 LIMIT SWITCHES

Limit switches are actuated mechanically from the manufacturing process, the material, or the
automated system itself, without intervention by the operator, so any limit switch considered as an
automatic input.

there are thousands of styles and models of limit switches (Figure (2.5)) (more than manual
switches).Because the limit switches must be designed to be exactly correct in size, lever travel, force of
actuation, and ruggedness for the specific automation application. Also manual switches are designed
for human operators who have relatively similar physical characteristics. While limit switches are used in
very difficult industrial and manufacturing situations.

Robot systems employ limit switches both in the construction of the robot itself and in the peripheral
equipment. Limit switches can be used to limit the travel of a robot arm on any of its axes of motion.

When the limit is reached, a circuit is opened (or closed) that removes power from that axis of motion
either directly or via the robot controller.

__________________________________________________________________________________

1.3 Proximity Switches

Proximity switches do not require physical contact or light radiation to sense an Object they sense the
present of a nearby object without touching it. Proximity switch can be used on robots to give robot
certain advantages over human operators. There are 3 physical types for proximity switches respond to
any object-metal or non-metal (Figure (2.6)).

1-One type uses an electromagnetic (radio frequency) antenna specially designed and placed to fit the
application. The receives a signal transmitted by strategically placed antenna. But the reception of the
signal is disturbed by the intrusion of any object into the filed, unfortunately the sensitivity of antenna is
related to the electric properties of material of the Object being detected, the size of the object to be
detected also plays a role.

2-Another type of proximity switch that works for nonmetric Objects is the sonar type. Sonar systems
transmit and receive reflections of pressure waves to detect object presence, pressure waves are
commonly called sound waves when their frequencies are within the audible range. Most sonar systems
use ultrasonic radiation that has frequencies higher than audible pressure waves

3-A sophisticated proximity switch system employs the Hall Effect, in which a small voltage is generated
across conductor carrying current in an external magnetic field the amount of Hall voltage is
proportional to the flux density of the magnetic field, which is perpendicular to the flow Of current. This
proportionality enables Hall Effect proximity switches to detect not only presence but also relative
distance to a sensed object.

__________________________________________________________________________________

1.4 -Photoelectric Sensors

Two basic approaches for employing photoelectric are in use.

The first approach uses a photocell to detect the presence of light radiating naturally from some object
in the process.
The second approach to photoelectric employs a beam of light emitted by an artificial light source. The
principal purpose of the second approach is to detect the presence or absence of objects in the path of
the beam. The beam emitter can be a separate unit or can be incorporated into the sensor. The
combination variety requires some type of natural or artificial reflector to direct the light beam back to
the emitter/sensor. Reflective surfaces for photoelectric systems are of three types: diffuse, specular
reflective and retroreflective (Figure (2.7)).

The diffuse reflective surface is the lowest in cost and describes most reflective surfaces. Even an
ordinary white object acts as a diffuse reflective surface in that it reflects light but not images, Diffuse
reflectors scatter so much light that only a small fraction makes its way back to the photoelectric sensor.

Specular reflective surfaces are most often associated with the word reflective and include mirrors and
very shiny surfaces. Specular reflective surfaces obey the physical law that the angle of incidence equals
the angle of reflection. It is obvious that the source and sensor must be more closely aimed tor specular
reflective surfaces than for diffuse surfaces. For systems in which the emitter and sensor are mounted in
he same unit, the plane of the specular reflective surface must be perpendicular to the direction of the
incident beam or the reflected beam will be lost. its can be either a disadvantage or an advantage.

Retroreflective surfaces are the most complex and expensive of the three types. Retroreflectors are
capable of reflecting back to the source a large percentage of the beam regardless of the angle of
incidence. Basically, the retroreflective surface violates the physical principle law that angle of incidence
equals to angle of reflection, except when the plane of the surface is perpendicular to the incident
beam.
Al-Nahrain University
College of Information Engineering
Department of Systems Engineering

“Robotics”

“L2”

Prepared By:

ayat saeed
LEC2 >> BUILDING BLOCKS OF AUTOMATION

Example of Optoelectronic Sensor (Sharp GP2D120)

The GP2D120 is a distance measuring sensor with integrated signal processing and analog voltage
output.

Features

• Analog output:

• Effective range: 4 to 30 cm

• Typical response time: 39ms;

• Typical start up delay; 44 MS

• Average Current Consumption: 33 ma

If a prominent boundary line exists in the surface being measured, it should be aligned vertically to avoid
measurement error.

When measuring the distance to objects in motion, align the sensor so that the emotion is in the
horizontal direction instead of vertical (Figure (3. l))
_____________________________________________________________________________________

1.5. INFRARED SENSORS

It is useful to detect radiation outside the visible range. Infrared sensors respond to radiation in the
range of wavelengths just beyond the visible spectrum at the red end.

 Infrared sensors are very useful when used with artificial beams to detect the presence or
absence of objects, even more so than are photoelectric systems. Since infrared radiation is
invisible.

 There are some advantages of using infrared beams and receivers instead of ordinary
photoelectric. Also, infrared sensors are virtually unaffected by stray ambient light with obvious
advantages.

 A strategy that is gaining popularity is the use of a modulated infrared beam, in which the
source is pulsed to provide much greater intensity and the sensor is modulated to receive at the
same frequency

__________________________________________________________________________________

1.6. FIBER OPTICS

Fiber optics is flexible pipes of glass or plastic that can be used to bend light beams around corners.
When bundles of fibers are used together, whole images can be transmitted. However, the typical
automation application is to use one fiber to transmit light beam that is sensed by the system as either
present or absent.

An advantage of fiber optics is their surprising efficiency, Fiber optics are so efficient that it becomes
worthwhile for the telephone industry to convert communications circuits from electrical signals to
modulated light signals for transmission via fiber optics and subsequent reconversion at the receiving
end.

1.7 LASER

Lasers are concentrated, amplified beams of collimated light

In automated systems, the laser is useful in providing very long, narrow, precise light beams.

The precision of these beams makes them excellent for detecting tiny objects that are capable of
breaking the beam at large and varying distances.

The presence or absence of a continuous beam then can be used as a logic input to an automated
control system. Such precision also makes the laser a good tool for dimensional measurement.
2. ANALYZERS

After the information is sensed by an automated system, it must be registered and analyzed for content,
and then a decision must be made by the system as to what action should be taken.

2.1. COMPUTERS

 Computers are as important as analyzers.

 Digital computers are the primary means of analyzing automation system inputs computers are
extremely versatile in that the ways they can be programmed to manipulate data are limitless.

 Increasing in the number of feasible applications of manufacturing automation and rapid growth
of industrial robots due to the continuing miniaturization of computer circuits along with
decreasing costs.

_____________________________________________________________________________________

2.2. COUNTERS

1-In Automation, It is frequently useful to determine how many of various items are present or pass
through an automated system. "This function can be handled either internally by a computer or
programmable controller or externally by a separate device called counter
2. The counter can be mechanical, but most automatic systems employ solid-state electronic counters. If
the counter is a separate unit, it will usually have a display to report current status of the count in
progress.

3. The quantity counted is usually a series of voltage pulses that have been generated by a sensor
detecting some physical quantity to the automated system

4. Example, glass bottles coming down a conveyor line. The curved glass would be somewhat specular ,
and at a precise-position the angle would be exactly right to reflect a pulse of light from a positioned
source upon a photoelectric sensor, as shown in Figure (3.4), The sensor would convert the light pulse
to a voltage pulse, which would be transmitted to the counter,

Note in Figure (3.4) that the spacing of the voltage pulses IS not uniform. It is also possible for the peaks
themselves to be of varying width (time) and amplitude (voltage). This is entirely satisfactory within
limits, of course because most industrial counters are capable of detecting peaks and peak intervals of
less than 100 us duration. There is also some tolerance in the voltage required to generate the count.

In Figure (3.4), the counter shown has two display registers. Top register is an electronic display and
represents the current count in progress. The bottom register is mechanical and represents a present
number that acts as a target to trigger an output signal when the current count register reaches the
value. This feature enables the counter to cause something to happen in the manufacturing process.
_____________________________________________________________________________________

2.3. TIMERS

 If precise clock pulses are available. a counter that counts these pulses becomes a timer

 An industrial timer is more similar to an alarm clock than an ordinary clock, When elapsed time
becomes equal to a preset value; an output signal is generated

 Like counters. Industrial timers can be bidirectional that is. Time up and time down.

 Timer is very useful devices in industrial logic control systems.

 Timers often have the additional feature of being interruptible that is, they can be cumulative in
summing the various periods of voltage up time interrupted by periods of voltage down time.

 The applications of industrial timers to robots and manufacturing automation are even greater
than that of the industrial counters.

 Industrial timers available as external separate units or can be internal to programmable

controllers and on-line process control computer

_____________________________________________________________________________________

2.4. BAR CODE READERS

Bar code reader is an analyzing system that incorporates laser scanner along with timers and counters.
Successive bars or varying width, as seen in Figure 3.5,
Are scanned and counted. The scan is orthogonal to the bars, and thus voltage pulses from the
photoelectric sensor can be compared to determine individual bar widths. The sequence and width of
bars is then analyzed to decode the bars and translate an alphanumeric data string for processing by the
automated system, as shown in Figure 3.6.

Alternatives to bar code readers can be easier for humans to read but present more problems in
manufacturing automation systems. Figure (3.5) shows optical character recognition formats that are
used in some automated systems. Unfortunately, the automatic recognition of these characters is a
much more accurate operation than is needed for bar codes. Alignment is important, and some of the
characters have tiny differences. Consider the problem in designing a scan procedure to distinguish
between the letters E and F, O and O. or P and R. Multiple scans me essential, and defective type or
smudges on the labels can easily result in a mislead. Scanning programs contain checks for
inconsistencies that can prompt a re-scan if necessary to assure a valid read. After repeated attempts
with no success, the scanner can be programmed to report "INVALID READ'. Some label deficiencies,
however can trick the scanner into an erroneous read a problem that is usually worse than an invalid
read.

Bar code scanners usually employ lasers because the concentrated-laser light can retain its focus over a
larger depth of field which explains why the bar code label does not have to be precisely positioned at a
fixed distance from the scanner.
Al-Nahrain University
College of Information Engineering
Department of Systems Engineering

“Robotics”

“L3”

Prepared By:

ayat saeed
Lec3 >> BUILDING BLOCKS OF AUTOMATION

2.5. OPTICAL ENCODERS

1. Optical encoder useful for automatically detecting shaft rotation, the shaft rotation
information can be fed back into a computer or control mechanism for controlling velocity or
position of the shaft. Such a device has application for robots and numerical control machine
tools.

2. Optical encoders can be either increment or absolute.

3. encoder it’s a simple device that output a digital signal for small portion of a movement .the
encoder wheel or strip divided into small sections each section is either opaque or clean (also
its can be reflective or non-reflective)

Light source such as led by on one side provide beams of light to the other side of encoder wheel
or strip will its can be seen by another light sensitive sensor such as a phototransistor

If wheel's angular position (or in the strip the linear position) such that the light go through so the
sensor on the opposite side will turned on and will have high signal

If the angular position of the wheel such that the light is stopped the sensor will off and the output
will be low ((digital output))

As the wheel rotates it can continuously send signals if the signal counted the approximate total
number displacement of the wheel can be measured at any time

4. The incremental types transmit a series of voltage pulses proportional to the angle of rotation
of the shaft. The control computer must know the previous position of the shaft in order to
calculate the new position.
5. Absolute encoders transmit a pattern of voltages that describes the position of the shaft at
any given time. The innermost ring switches from dark to light every 180 d, the next ring every
90, the next 450. And so on, dependent upon the of rings on the disk. The resulting bit pattern
output by the encoder reveals the exact angular position of the shaft
Ex// an absolute optical encoder disk has 8 rings and 8 led sensor and in turn provide 8 bit output
Suppose the output pattern 10010110 what is the angular position of the shaft?
3. ACTUATORS
After a real-world condition is sensed and analyzed, and then the actuation may be:

1- A direct physical action upon the process, such as a sweep bar that sweeps items of a conveyer belt at
the command of computer or other analyzer.

2- In other cases, an actuator is simply a physical making of an electrical circuit, which in turn has a
direct effect upon the process.

ex1/an example would be an actuator (relay) that turns on power to an electric furnace heating circuit

Ex2/In Robotics, actuators are the muscles of robots. If you imagine that the links and the joints are the
skeleton (Mechanical Structure) of the robot, the actuators act as muscles, which move or rotate the
links to change the configuration of robots. The actuator must have enough power to accelerate and
decelerate the links and to the loads, yet be light, economical, accurate, responsive, reliable, and easy to
maintain.

3.1. CYLINDERS
in an automation application the Cylinder is usually used when a linear movement is required, The most
popular are the pneumatic types because of the convenience piping compressed air throughout a
manufacturing plant, Shop air is generally regulated to the range 80 to 100 psi (pound-force per square
inch) which is adequate for most grippers, positioners and tool-stroking devices. Figure (4.3) shows the
use of pneumatic cylinders in an automatic works station.

The control of air cylinders is accomplished by valves that may be driven by electrical impulses or by air
logic devices.

when the manufacturing process required force to applied automatically in excess of 200 pound the
more powerful hydraulic is usually selected over the pneumatic cylinder ,hydraulic pressure excess of
2000 psi are readily available

1-there are some mechanical advantage of hydraulic , we know that pneumatic can deliver as large
a force as the hydraulic but the space and convenience tend to favor hydraulic for large force

The most powerful industrial robots are driven by hydraulic actuators

2-hydraulic beside of being powerful its have advantage of being well controlled throughout the
stroke in addition it’s quiet and pump and reservoir (to store hydraulic) it’s quite noisy

But its have disadvantage like high initial cost, maintenance and problem of leaking cylinders
*in the design either pneumatic or hydraulic both pressure and volumes requirement must met

A system may have sufficient pressure to actuate cylinders or other actuators, but may not be able to
maintain that pressure during high-speed operations.

This mistake has been observed especially in partially automated factories in which pneumatic system
are used to power mechanized screwdrivers, staplers and handling equipment.

System design that anticipates the demands which will be placed upon the pneumatic or hydraulic and
actuators during peak periods will avoid this drawback.

3.2 SOLENOIDS
An electrical solenoid is needed, when a small, light, quick linear motion is desired in an automated
system. In basic physics, we learned that the principle of the solenoid operation is the creation of a
magnetic field set up by passing an electrical current through a coil.

Thus, the core of the solenoid can be selectively drawn into the coil in response to an electrical current.
In the absence of the coil current, the core can be automatically returned by spring action, the stroke
motion do solenoid is not very controlled in comparison, for example, with a hydraulic cylinder, but
many automation applications require only a short, quick, discrete action, not a smooth, controlled
stroke.

3.3. RELAYS
✓ Basically a Relay is used to switch an electrical circuit. Switching-type circuits usually operate at lower
voltages and especially at lower amperage than power circuits The output of the switching logic network
then can be used to trip one or more relays to close or open a power circuit. There are many ways in
which relays can be combined in switching networks form the basis for the classical approach to
automating manufacturing systems.

✓ Figure (4.4) shows the use of relays to close electrical circuits under the automatic control of process
sensors. Compare the logic of the two circuits shown. In Figure (4.4 a), relays from both sensors must he
energized to make the power circuit. In the arrangement in Figure (4.4 1), the action of either relay A or
B is sufficient to make the circuit.

✓ Relay can be described as either "latching" or “non-latching " (Figure (4.5)). A latching relay needs
only an electrical. Impulse to pull and hold the power circuit closed. Another impulse is needed on a
different switching circuit to release the latch. Non-latching relays hold only while the switching relay is
energized and thus require a continuous electrical signal. The discontinuation of that signal permits the
relay to release the switch immediately.
✓ When the energization of a relay coil makes a circuit closed, the relay is designated "normally open"
Conversely, the relay that breaks a circuit when energized is designated "normally closed" it follows,
then, that the normal state of an electric relay is the de-energized state.'

Figure (4.6) compares a normally open relay with a normally closed relay in a single power circuit. In
Figure (4.6 a), (OPEN) the sensor must provide an energized control input in order to make the power
circuit. In Figure (4.6 b), (CLOSE) the control input must be de-- energized to make the power circuit.

✓ The typical relay and solenoids in general operate on low-voltage direct current. But the convenience
and availability of.110-volt alternating current (ac) have given rise to the ac relay and ac solenoid:
Another advantage to the higher voltage ac solenoids is their relative immunity to induced voltages from
power conductors in the manufacturing environment.

✓ Small motors, handling devices, and automated tool actuators usually are served by power circuits of
less than 10 A. and the relays that trip them are indeed called "relavs". however as the amperage ranges
upward between 10 and 30 A, the power relay may he called contactor Still, the basic principle of the
simple relay is being employed, and the automation engineer should not be confused by these terms.

✓ a special need for a relay is in the tripping of power circuits for electric motors. The automation
engineer will hear reference to “motor starters” these devices are either contactors or relay that in
addition provide “overload protection” to open the motor circuit if a heavy mechanical load begins to
cause the motor to carry too much current.
Al-Nahrain University
College of Information Engineering
Department of Systems Engineering

“Robotics”

“L4”

Prepared By:

ayat saeed
LEC4 >> BUILDING BLOCKS OF AUTOMATION

ACTUATORS
3.4. HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS
The hydraulic actuators receive pressurized hydraulic oil with controlled direction and pressure through
a system known as "power packs". The: speed and volume flow rates are also controlled by the
elements of the power pack. To produce linear motion the hydraulic cylinders are used and hydraulic
motors are used to produce rotational movements.

Elements of Power packs and functions

# Elements Functions

1-Reservoir or tank Stores and supply hydraulic oil to the system, in a closed circuit

2-Hydraulic pump pump Receives oil from the reservoir and pressurizes the oil in accordance with
its capacity.

3- Electric motor Receives electric current from mains and provides rotational movement to the
pump.

4. Valves Control the direction of flow, regulate the pressure and provide safety to the system

5- pipes and Hoses Provide connection between the various elements transporting the high pressure
oil.

• Hydraulic System
The hydraulic circuit shown in Figures (5.1(a) and 5.1(b)) shows symbolically the hydraulic system of
linear actuator in a simplest arrangement. On the forward stroke of the piston of the cylinder the high
pressure relief valve is effective and in the return stroke the low pressure relief valve acts to regulate
the system pressure. The load handling capacity is determined by the system pressure in the forward
stroke, The directional control valve controls the direction of motion of the piston in case of the linear
actuators.
• Hydraulic Motors
These are a type of power utilizing elements which convert hydraulic energy into mechanincal rotational
work useful in driving the links with revolute joints, in this context. One of the types of hydraulic motors,
the vane motor is most commonly used type , the motor consists of a circular rotor mounted
eccentrically inside a circular stator ring. The rotor has got suitable slots for accommodating radially
moving vanes. The rotational output of the motor depends on the eccentricity "e "of the rotor with
respect to the stator.

Dr= ‫قطر الزعانف‬

E= ‫ نسبة عدد الزعانف بالنسبة الى ال‬stator

Vr=‫سرغة الدوران‬

N= ‫الدورة بالدقيقة‬

T=‫العزم‬

R=‫نصف قطر الزعانف‬

P= ‫الضغط الي يتحكم بكل الي فوك‬

• Linear Actuators
The actuators that provide linear reciprocating motion to the prismatic joints, by utilizing hydraulic
power are known as linear actuators or cylinders, the constructional details are as shown in Figure (5.2).

A cylinder essentially consists of a piston located in the tubular housing and a piston rod passing through
one of the end covers. The ports provided in the end covers permit entry and return of the hydraulic oil
If the hydraulic oil is supplied to the cylinder is at a pressurep(N/m^2)with a volume flow rate of Q
(m^3/sec), the power delivered is given by
F= ‫الطاقة المجهزة اي الطاقة من كل‬actuator

P small=‫الضغط الي يشغلهم‬

Dp= ‫القطر مال ببيستون كلة‬

Dr=‫نصف القطر للبيستون‬

Ve=))‫سرعة الطبة والطلعة اي ((الخروج‬

Vr=‫سرعة االرتداد‬

Q= ‫معدل التدفق‬

Features of Hydraulic Actuators

✓Provide high power in small light components.

✓ Have flat load-speed or torque speed characteristics.

✓ Can operate safely and continuously under stall conditions.

✓ Provide stepless variation in speed.

✓ have longer life and reliability due to the lubricating properties of the oil.

✓ Can be easily built using readily available standard elements.

✓ Have contaminant sensitive elements.

✓ The operation is noisy.

✓ Higher inertia on the robot joints.

✓ Power loss and unclean work area due to possibility of leak

✓ Less deflection due to low compliance of die elements.

Applications of Hydraulic Actuators
✓ Used to drive the spray coating robots.

✓ Used in heavy part loading robots.

✓ Useful in material handling robot system

✓ Used to drive the joints of assembly (heavy) robots.

✓ Useful in producing translatory motion in cartesian robot.

✓ Useful in robots operating in hazardous, sparking environments.

✓Useful in gripper mechanisms.

3.5. PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS

The principles of pneumatic actuators match with that of hydraulic actuator. The working fluid in case of
this is the compressed air. The pressure of air used in this varies from 6-10 MPa. Because of low air
pressure the components are light and the force/torque transmitted is also less, Pneumatic cylinders are
used to actuate the linear joints and pneumatic motors are used to drive the revolute Joints. The main
problem with the pneumatic devices is that the working fluid (air) is compressible hence the actuator
drifts under loads.

The pneumatic actuators are characterized by the following features:

• lowest power to weight ratio

• highly compliant system

• drift under load constantly;

• low, inaccurate response due to low stiffness

• less leakage of air and not susceptible to sparks

• uses low pressure compressed air hence less actuation force or torque

• useful in on-off applications like pick and place robot

• simple and low cost components

• reliable and easily available components

• the exact positions of the actuators can be controlled by servo control valves differential movements.
4. DRIVES
Like actuators, drives take some action upon the process at the command of a computer or
other analyzer. For purposes of classification, the distinction being made here between
actuators and drives is that actuators are used to effect a short, complete, discrete motion
usually linear and drives execute more continuous movements typified by, but not limited to,
rotation. Actuators may turn drives on and off. and drives may provide the energy for the
movement of actuators. Some automation devices, such as genevas and walking beams, seem
to belong to both categories.

4.1. ELECTRIC DRIVES

Principle

A rotational movement is produced in a rotor when an electric current flows through the
windings of the armature setting up a magnetic field opposing the field set up by the magnets.

The Main Components

Rotor, stator, brush and commutator assembly. The rotor has got windings of armature and the
stator has got the magnet. The brush and the commutator assemblies switch the current to the
armature maintaining an opposed field in the magnets.

Km= ‫عزم نهائي مال ماطور‬

Ia= armature ‫تيار ال‬

Vin= ‫الفولطية الداخلية الي راح اسلطها‬

Eb)back e.m.f)= ‫نتيجة الدوران راح تتولد تيارات كهربائية معاكسة للفيض المغناطيسي راح تسوي هاي الطاقة الكهربائية‬
‫البسيطة‬

Ra= armture ‫مقاومة داخلية مال‬

Selection
The selection of the electric drive is based on the torque rating._ and the current rating of the
motor. The torque rating of an electric motor is derived from the power rating of the motor.

Pm= power ‫مال ماطور‬

Nm= ‫سرعة الدوران الشفت مال ماطور بالدقيقة‬

Types
The most commonly used electric drives in robotics are:

1. DC Servo Motor.

2. AC Servo Motor.

3. Stepper Motor.

Features
1-DC Servo Motor
• higher power to weight ratio.

• High acceleration.

• Uniform torque.

• Good response for better control.

• Reliable, sturdy and powerful.

• Produces sparks in operation, not suitable-for certain environments.

2- AC Servo Motor
• Rotor is a permanent magnet and stator is housing the winding..

• No commutators and brushes.

• Switch is due to AC but not by commutation.

• Fixed nominal speed.

• Favourable heat dissipation.

• More powerful.

• Reversibility of rotation possible.

3-Stepper Motors
• Moves in known angle of rotation.

• Position feed back is not necessary.

• rotation of the shaft by rotation of the magnetic field.

• Needs microprocessor circuit to start.

• Used in table top robot.

• Finds less use in industrial robotic.

• Extensive use is robotic devices.

Servo Motors
The desired position (Qs) is compared with the actual position (Qa) feedback from, the encoder
(E). This-gives the desired speed (Ns), which is compared with the actual speed (Na) obtained as
feedback from the tacho-generator (T). This gives the desired current (Is) which is adjusted by
the inner loop giving a feedback of actual current (Ia). A control signal (Vc) is generated which
along with supply voltage(Vd) from a 3-phase system is given to the motor as input. In a servo-
motor the position and speed of motor is controlled by the feedback control. The block diagram
of servo motor is shown below (Figure (5.3)).

Stepper Motors
The Stepper motors are unique type of motors that produce rotational movement in the form
of finite angular-steps the intermittent electrical pulses make the stepper motor shaft to rotate
in steps

The schematic arrangement of the principle stepper motor is shown in Figure (5.4(a)).

The stator in this case is made up of four-electromagnetic pules.

The rotor is a permanent magnet with two voles N and S.

When the excitation of pole 2 (P2) is changed to P3 pole the magnetic north rotates by 90
clockwise.

By continuous change in excitation in the order P2-P3-P4-P1-P2 the clockwise rotation is

produced in the shaft of the rotor, which results in continuous movement.
The multiple pole stepper Motor shown in Figure (5.4( b)). The stator has a winding made of
concentrated coils on distinct poles. The rotor is permanent magnet cylinder. Single-phase
stepper motor with two poles is shown in Figure (5.4(c)). By reversal of the current in the coil
the polarity changes continuously by change in flow of flux in the poles. The rotor which is the
permanent magnet makes rotation.
Al-Nahrain University
College of Information Engineering
Department of Systems Engineering

“Robotics”

“L5”

Prepared By:

ayat saeed
LEC5 >> INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
1. CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS
The following is the classification of robots according to the Japanese Industrial Robot
Association (JIRA):

Class 1: Manual-Handling Device: A device with multiple degrees of freedom that is Actuated by
an operator.

Class 2: Fixed-Sequence Robot: A device that performs the successive stages of a task according
to a predetermined, unchanging method and is hard to modify.

Class 3: Variable-Sequence Robot: Same as class 2, but easy to modify.

Class 4: Playback Robot: A human operator performs the task manually by leading the robot,
which records the motions for late playback. The robot repeats the same motions according to
the recorded information.

Class 5: Numerical control robot : The operates supplies the robot with a movement program
rather than teaching it the task manually.

Class 6: Intelligent Robot: A robot with the means to understand lt's environment and the
ability to successfully complete a task despite changes in the surrounding conditions under
which it is to be performed.

2-ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ROBOTS

1. Robotics and automation can, in many situations, increase productivity, safety,
efficiency, quality; and consistency of products

2. Robots can work in hazardous environments without the need for life support,
comfort, or concern about safety.

3. Robots need no environmental comfort, such as lighting, air conditioning,

ventilation, and noise protection

4. Robots work continuously without experiencing fatigue or boredom, do not get mad,
do not have hangovers, and need no medical insurance or vacation.
5. Robots have repeatable precision at all times, unless something happens to them or
unless they wear out.

6. Robots can be much more accurate than humans .Typical linear accuracies are a few
thousands of an inch. New wafer-handling robot have micro-inch accuracies.

7. Robots and their accessories and sensors can have capabilities beyond that of
humans.

8. Robots can process multiple stimuli or tasks simultaneously.Humans can only process
one active stimulus

9. Robots replace human workers Creating economic problems, such as lost salaries, and
social problems, such as dissatisfaction and resentment among worker.

10. Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies, unless the situation is pre-dieted
and the response is included in the system. Safety measures are needed to ensure that
they do not injure operators and machines working with then
This includes:
1) inappropriate Or wrong response
2) a lack of decision-making power
3)a loss of power
4) damage to the robot and other devices;
5) human injuries

11. Robots, although superior in certain sensor, have limited capabilities in:
1) degrees of freedom;
2) dexterity;
3) sensors;
4) vision systems;
5) real-time response.

12. Robots are costly, due to:

1) initial coat of equipment
2) installation casts
3) need for peripherals
4) need for training
5)need for programming
4. ROBOT COMPONENTS

A robot, as a system, consists of the following elements, which are integrated together
to form a whole:
✓Manipulator:
This is the main body of the robot and consists of the links, the joints, and other
structural elements of the robot. Without other elements, the manipulator alone is not
a robot.
✓ End effector :
This is the part that is connected to the last joint (hand) of a manipulator, which
generally handles objects, makes connection to other machines or perform the required
tasks. Robot manufacturers generally do not design or sell end effectors. In most cases,
all they supply is a simple gripper. Generally, the hand of a robot has provisions for
connecting specialty end effectors that are specifically designed for a purpose. This is
the job of a company's engineers or outside consultants to design and install the end
effector on the robot and to make it work for the given situation. A welding torch, a
paint spray gun, a glue-laying device, and a parts handler are but a few of the
possibilities. In most cases, the action of the end effector is controlled by the robot's
controller.
✓ Actuators and Drives:
Actuators are the "muscles" of the manipulators. Common types of actuators and
drives are servomotors, stepper motors, pneumatic cylinders, and hydraulic cylinders.
There are also other actuators that are more novel and are used in specific situations.
Actuators are controlled by the robot controller
✓ Sensors :
Sensors are used to collect information about the internal state of the robot or to
communicate with the outside environment. As in humans, the robot controller needs
to know where each link of the robot is in order to know the robot's configuration. For
robots; sensors, integrated into the robot send information about each joint or link to
the controller, which determines the configuration of the robot. Robots are often
equipped with, external sensory devices such as a vision system, touch and tactile
sensors, speech synthesizers, etc., which enable the robot to communicate with the
outside world.
✓ Controller :
The controller receives its data from the computer, controls the motions of the
actuators, and coordinates the motions with the sensory feedback information. Suppose
that in order for the robot to pick up a part from a bin, it is necessary that its first joint
be at 35°. If the joint is not already at this magnitude, the controller will send a signal to
the actuator (a current to an electric motor, air to a pneumatic cylinder, or a signal to a
hydraulic servo valve), causing it to move. It will then measure the change in the joint
angle through the feedback sensor attached to the joint (a potentiometer, an encoder,
etc.). When the joint reaches the desired value, the signal is stopped. In more
sophisticated robots, the velocity and the force exerted by the robot are also controlled
by the controller.
✓processor:
The processor is the brain of the robot. It calculates the motions of the robot's joints,
determines how Much and how fast each joint must move to achieve the desired
location and speeds, and oversees the coordinated actions of the controller and the
sensors. The processor is generally a computer, which works like all other computers,
but is dedicated to a single purpose. It requires an operating system, programs,
peripheral equipment such as monitors, and has many of the same limitations and
capabilities of a PC processor.
✓ Software
There are perhaps three groups of software that are used in a robot.
One is the operating system, which operates the computer.
The second is the robotic software, which calculates the necessary motions of each joint
based on the kinematic equations of the robot. This information is sent to the
controller. This software may be at many different levels, from machine language to
sophisticated languages used by modern robots.
The third group is the collection of routines and application programs that are
developed in order to use the peripheral devices of the robots, such as vision routines,
or to perform specific tasks.
It is important to note that in many systems, the controller and the processor are
placed in the same unit. Although these two units are in the same box, and even if they
are integrated into the same circuit, they have two separate function
4- ANATOMY OF A ROBOT
The industrial robots resemble the human arm in its physical structure. Like the hand
attached to the human body the robot manipulator or robot arm is attached to the
base. The chest, the upper arm and fore-arm in the human body compare with the links
in the robot manipulators. The wrist, elbow and the shoulder in the human hand are
represented by the joints in the robot arm. As the industrial robot arm compares with
the human hand, they are also known as "anthropomorphic or articulated robots (Figure
(9.1))

The drives or motion to the links is provided at the joints. The joints motions can be
rotational or transIatory (sliding). The tool known as end-effector (gripper) is attached
to the wrist.
5. ROBOT DEGREES OF FREEDOM
The three Cartesian coordination (x, y, and z) are necessary and sufficient to define the
location of the point. Although the three coordinates may be expressed in terms of
different coordinate systems, they are always necessary. A body suspended in space can
have six Positive degrees of freedom and six negative degrees of freedom.The three
degrees of freedom are the translatory or linear degrees or freedoms along the positive
Cartesian axes and three along the negative Cartesian axes which are opposite. Six
rotary movements about the Cartesian axes of which three are clockwise and remaining
three are anticlockwise. An object is said to have n degrees of freedom (DOF) if its
configuration can be minimally specified by n parameters. Thus, the number of DOF is
equal to the dimension of the configuration space .for a robot manipulator.the number
of joints determines the number of DOF. A rigid object in three-dimensional space has
six DOF: three for positioning and three for orientation. Therefore, a manipulator should
typically possess at least six independent DOF. With fewer than six DOF the arm cannot
reach every point in its work space with arbitrary orientation. Certain applications such
as reaching around or behind obstacles may require more than six DOF. A manipulator
having more than six DOF is referred to as a kinethatically redundant manipulator.
6. ROBOT JOINTS
Robots may have different types of joints, such as linear, rotary, sliding, or spherical.
Although spherical joints are common in many systems, since they possess multiple
degrees of freedom, and thus, are difficult to control. spherical joints are not common in
robotics. except in research. Most robots have either a linear (prismatic) joint or a rotary
(revolute) joint.
Prismatic joints are linear; there is no rotation involved. They are either hydraulic or
pneumatic cylinders, or they are linear electric actuators. These joints are used in
gantry, cylindrical, or similar joint configurations.
Revolute joints are rotary, and although hydraulic and pneumatic rotary joints arc
common, most rotary joints are electrically driven, either by stepper motors or,more
commonly, by servomotors.

7. ROBOT COORDINATES
Robot configurations generally follow the coordinate trames with which they are
defined, as shown in Figure (9.2).
Prismatic joints are denoted by P. revolute joints are denoted by R. and spherical joints
arc denoted by S. Robot configurations are
specified by a succession of P's, R's, or S's. For example, a robot with three prismatic
and three revolute joints is specified by 3P3R. The following configurations are common
for positioning the hand of the robot:
✓ Cartesian/rectangular/gantry (3P)
These robots are made of three linear joints that position the end effector, which are
usually followed by additional revolute joints that orientate the end effector.
✓ Cylindrical(R2F)
Cylindrical coordinate robots have two prismatic joints and one revolute joint for
positioning the part, plus revolute joints for orientating the part.
✓ Spherical(2RP)
Spherical coordinate robots follow a spherical coordinate system, which has one
prismatic and two revolute joints for positioning the part, plus additional revolute joints
for orientation.
✓ Articulated/anthropomorphic (3R)
An articulated robot's joints are all revolute, similar to a human's arm. They are perhaps
the most common configuration for industrial robots.
✓ Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm (SCARA)
SCARA robots have two revolute joints that are parallel and allow the robot to move in a
horizontal plane, plus an additional prismatic joint that moves vertically.
SCARA robots are very common in assembly operations. Their specific characteristic is
that they are more compliant in the x-y-plane, but are very stiff along the z-axis, and
thus have selective compliance.

7. ROBOT REFERENCE FRAMES

Robots may be moved relative to different coordinate frames. In each type of
coordinate frame, the motions will be different. Usually, robot motions are
accomplished in the following three coordinate frames (Figure 9.3):
1) World Reference Frame
This is a universal coordinate frame, as defined by x, y, z-axes. In this case, the joints of
the robot move simultaneously so as to create motions along the three major axes. In
this frame, for example, no matter where the arm is, a positive x-axis movement is
always in the positive direction of the x-axis; this coordinate is used to:
• define the motions of the robot relative to other objects;
• define other parts and machines that the robot communicates with;
• define motion paths.
2) Joint Reference Frame
This is used to specify movements of each individual joint of the robot. Suppose that you
want to move the hand of a robot to a particular position. In case of moving one joint at
a time in order to direct the hand to the desired location, each joint may be accessed
individually, and, thus, only one joint moves at a time. Depending on the type of joint
used (prismatic, revolute, or spherical), the motion of the robot hand will be different.
For instance, if a revolute joint is moved, the hand will move around a circle defined by
the joint axis.
3) tool reference frame
This specifies movements of the robot's hand relative to a frame attached to the hand.
The x'-, y'-, and z'-axes attached to the hand define the motions of the hand relative to
this local frame. Unlike the universal World frame, the local Tool frame moves with the
robot. Suppose that the hand is pointed as shown in Figure (9.3). Moving the hand
relative to the positive x-axis of the local Tool frame will move the hand along the x'-axis
of the Tool frame. If the arm were pointed elsewhere, the same motion along the local
x'-axis of the Tool frame would be completely different from the first motion. The same
+x'-axis movement would be upward if the x'-axis were pointed upwards, and it would
be downward if the x'-axis were pointed downward. As a result, the Tool reference
frame is a moving frame that changes continuously as the robot moves, so the ensuing
motions relative to it are also different, depending on where the arm is and what
direction the Tool frame has. All joints of the robot must move simultaneously to create
coordinated motions about the Tool frame. The Tool reference frame is an extremely
useful frame in robotic programming, where the robot is to approach and depart from
other objects or to assemble parts.
8. PROGRAMMING MODES
Robots may be programmed in a number of different modes, depending on the robot
and its sophistication. The following programming modes are very common:.
1) Physical Setup
In this mode, an operator sets up switches and hard stops that control the motion of the
robot. This mode is usually used along with other devices, such as Programmable Logic
Controllers (PLC)
2) Lead Through or Teach Mode
In this mode, the robot's joints are moved with a teach pendant .When the desired
location and orientation is achieved, the location is entered (taught) into the controller.
During playback, the controller will move the joints to the same locations and
orientations.This mode is usually point to point, where the motion between points is not
specified or controlled. Only the points that are taught are guaranteed to reach.
3) Continuous Walk-Through Mode
In this mode, all robot joints are moved simultaneously, while the motion is
continuously sampled and recorded by the controller. During playback, the exact motion
that was, recorded is executed. The motions are taught by an operator, either through a
model, by physically moving the end effector, or by directing the robot arm and moving
it through its workspace. Painting robots, for example, are programmed by skilled
painters through this mode.
4) Software Mode
In this mode of programming the robot, a program is written off-line or on-line and is
executed by the controller to control the motions. The programming mode is the most
sophisticated and versatile mode and can include sensory information, conditional
statements (such as if...then statements), and branching. However, it requires the
knowledge of the operating system of the robot before any program is written. Most
industrial robots can be programmed in more than one mode.

9. ROBOT CHARACTERISTICS
The following definitions are used to characterize robot specifications:

1) Payload
Payload is the weight a robot can carry and still remain within its other specifications
for example, a robot's maximum load capacity may be much larger than its specified
payload, but at the maximum level, it may become less accurate, may not follow its
intended path accurately, or may have excessive deflections. The payload of robots
compared with their own weight is usually very small. For example, Fanuc Robotics LR
Mate^TM robot has a mechanical weight of 86 lb sand a payload of 6.6 lbs, and the M-
16i^TM robot has a mechanical weight of 594 lbs and a payload of 35 lbs.
2) Reach
Reach is the maximum distance a robot can reach within its work envelope. As we will
see later, many points within the work envelope of the robot may be reached with any
desired orientation (called dexterous). However, for other points, close to the limit of
robot's reach capability, orientation cannot be specified as desired (called non
dexterous point). Reach is a function of the robot's joint lengths and its configuration.
3) Precision (validity)
Precision is defined as how accurately a specified point can be reached. This is a
function of the resolution of the actuators, as well as its feedback devices. Most
industrial robots can have precision of 0.001 inch or better.
4) Repeatability (variability)
Repeatability is how accurately the same position can be reached if the motion is
repeated many times. Suppose that a robot is driven to the same point 100 times. Since
many factors may affect the accuracy of the position, the robot may not reach the same
point every time, but will be within a certain radius from the desired point. The radius of
a circle that is formed by this repeated motion is called repeatability. Repeatability Is
much more important that precision. If a robot is not precise, it will generally show a
consistent error, which can be predicted and thus corrected through programming. As
an example, suppose that a robot is consistently off 0.05 inch to the right. In that case,
all desired points can be specified at 0.05 inch to the left, and thus the error can be
eliminated. However, if the error is random, it cannot be predicted and thus cannot be
eliminated.
Repeatability defines the extent of this random error .Repeatability is usually specified
for a certain number of runs. More tests yield larger (bad for manufacturers)
and more realistic (good for the users) results. Manufacturers must specify repeatability
in conjunction with the number of tests, the applied payload during the tests, and the
orientation of the arm. For example, the repeatability of an arm in a vertical direction
will be different from when the arm is tested in a horizontal configuration ,Most
industrial robots have repeatability in the 0.001 inch range,

10. ROBOT WORKSPACE

Depending on their configuration and the size of their links and wrist joints, robots can
reach a collection of points called a workspace. The shape of the workspace for each
robot is uniquely related to its characteristics. The workspace may be found
mathematically by writing equations that define the robot's links and joints and
including their limitations, such as ranges of motions for each joint. Alternatively, the
workspace may be found empirically, by moving each joint through its range of motions
and combining all the space it can reach and subtracting what it cannot reach. Figure
(9.4) shows the approximate workspace for some common configurations. When a
robot is being considered for a particular application, its workspace must be studied to
ensure that the robot will be able to reach the desired points. For accurate workspace
determination, please refer to manufacturers' data sheets.
11. ROBOT LANGUAGES
In order to use any particular robot, its programming language must be learned. Many
robot languages are based on some other common language, such as Cobol, Basic, C,
and Fortran. Other languages are unique and not directly related to any other common
language. Robotic languages are at different levels of sophistication, depending on their
design and application. This ranges from machine level to a proposed human
intelligence level.

I . High-level languages
High-level languages are either interpreter based or compiler based:
1) interpreter -based languages : execute one line of the program at a time, and each
line has a line number. The interpreter interprets the line every time it is encountered
(by converting the line to a machine language that the processor can understand and
execute) and executes each line sequentially. The execution continues until the last line
is encountered or until an error is detected. The advantage of an interpreter-based
,language is in its ability to continue execution until an error is detected, which allows
the user to run and debug the program portion by portion. Thus, debugging programs is
much faster and easier. However, because each line is interpreted every time, execution
is slower and not very efficient. Many robot languages, such as Unimation^tm VAL° and
IBM's AML° (A Manufacturing Language), are interpreter based.

2) Compiler-based languages : use a compiler to translate the whole program into

machine language (which creates an object code) before it is executed. Since the
processor executes the object code during execution, these programs are much faster
and more efficient. However, since the whole program must first be compiled, it is
impossible to run any part of the program if any error is present. As a result, debugging
compiler-based programs is much more difficult. Certain languages, such as AL°, are
more flexible. They allow the user to debug the program in interpreter mode, while the
actual execution is in compiler mode.

The following is a general description of different levels of robotic languages:

■ Microcomputer Machine Language Level:

In this level, the programs are written in machine language. This level of programming is
the most basic and is very efficient, but difficult to understand and to follow. All
languages will eventually be interpreted or compiled to this level. However, in the case
of higher level programs, the user writes the programs in a higher level language, which
is easier to follow and understand.
■ Point-to-Point Level:
In this level (such as in Funky and Cincinnati Milacron's T3), the coordinates of the points
are entered sequentially, and the robot follows the points as specified. This is a very
primitive and simple type of program; is easy to use. but not very powerful. It also lacks
branching, sensory information, and conditional statements.
■ Primitive Motion Level:
In these languages, it is possible to develop more sophisticated programs, including
sensory information, branching, and conditional statements (such as VAL by
UnimationTM). Most languages of this level are interpreter based.
■ Structured Programming Level:
Most languages of this level are compiler based, are powerful, and allow more
sophisticated programming. However, they are also more difficult to learn
■ Task-Oriented Level
Currently, there are no actual languages of this level in. existence. Autopass, proposed
by IBM in the 1980s, to be task oriented. This means that instead of programming a
robot to perform a task by programming each and every step necessary to complete the
task, the user was simply. to mention the task, while the controller would create the
necessary sequence. Imagine that a robot is to sort three boxes by size. In all existing
languages, the programmer will have to tell the robot exactly what to do, which means
that every step must be programmed. The robot must be told how to go to the largest
box, how to pick up the box, where to place it, go to the next box, etc. In Autopass, the
user would only indicate "sort," while the robot controller would create this sequence
automatically.
12. ROBOT APPLICATIONS
Robots have already been used in many industries and for many purposes. They can
often perform better than humans and at lower costs. For example, a welding robot can
probably weld better than a human welder, because the robot can move more
uniformly and more consistently. In addition. robots do not need protective goggles,
protective clothing, ventilation, and many other necessities that their human
counterparts do. As a result, robots can be more productive and better suited for the
job, as long as the welding job is set up for the robot for automatic operations and
nothing changes and as long as the welding job is not too complicated. Similarly, a robot
exploring the ocean bottom would require far less attention than a human diver. Also,
the robot can stay underwater for long periods and can go to very large depths and still
survive the pressure; it also does not require oxygen.
The following is a list of some applications where robots are useful:
1) Machine loading;
2) Pick and place operations;
3) Welding;
4) Painting;
5) Inspection.
6) Sampling.
7) Assembly operations.
8) Manufacturing.
9) Surveillance.
10) Medical applications.
11) Assisting disabled individuals.
12) Hazardous environments.
13) Underwater, space, and remote locations.
14) Other robot applications like military, Animatronics.
 Al-Nahrain University
College of Information Engineering
Department of Systems Engineering

“Robotics”

“L6”

Prepared By:

Haider Hashim
LEC6 >> ROBOT FEATURS
1. REACH AND STROKE

The reach and the stroke are the measures of the dimensions of the work volume. They can be horizontal
and vertical in the sense of movements. The respective reach and stroke are given in the Fig. (10.1) for a
Cartesian robot which has a cubical or parallelepiped work volume. A general relation between stroke and
the reach is given by

2. OPERATING ENVIRONMENT

The nature of the work performing surrounding of a particular robot is specific to an application. The
application of robot to a job can have following types of operating environments:

 dangerous to human beings,

 unhealthy in nature,
 harsh and difficult to access,
 complex and contaminated,
 extremely clean and dustless,
 ordinary and workable.

The examples of applications are movement of nuclear materials, spray coating or painting, welding
(spot/continuous), loading and unloading, handling the electronic components and assembly of parts.
3. PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

The manufacturing constraints and the design inevitability put some limitations on the
performance of the robots. Such parameters are accounted by defining the following terminologies.

 Repeatability
 Resolution or precision
 Accuracy.

3.1. Repeatability

"Repeatability measures the ability of the robot to position the tool tip in the same place
repeatedly". The position of the tool tip in the defined work space is programmed by understable
commands. In the repeatitive work sequence the tip of the tool may or may not return back to the same
point, leading to a repeatability error attributed to objective and subjective inaccuracies of the robot
manipulator components.

The statistical distributions of the tip return points are conceptualised and illustrated in the Fig.
(10.2) The desired position of the point in space is denoted by 'D' and the achievable point through
programming is 'A'. In the cycle of movement of the robot arm, the robot tries to return to a point nearest
to 'A', denoted by R. The point 'R' can not be returned always to lead to the definition of the repeatability.
This forms a cluster of repeated and non-repeated points distributed around the point A. The difference in
position of 'A' and the point 'R' is known as repeatability error.

The sphere of disrtibution in three dimensional space, of the point 'R' around the point 'A' gives
the measure of repeatability. The manufacturer specifies the repeatability as the radius of the sphere on
both sides of the centre of the sphere (point 'A'). If rp, is the radius of the sphere of distribution of point R
from 'A' then,

Repeatability = ± rp.
3.2. Resolution

"Also known as spatial resolution is the least count of the movement into which the robot's work
envelope can be divided to represent the incremental or decremental steps". The spatial resolution can be
contributed by two components:

 the control resolution;

 the mechanical resolution.

3.2.1. The Control Resolution

This component depends upon the type of position control system and its feedback control
elements. The hardware capability of the controller determines the control resolution, the ability to divide
the motion range into movement steps of the joints. The steps or the increments are also known as
"Addressable points" depends on bit storage capacity of the control memory. The number of increments
made equal by the designer, also called addressable point is:

i = 2k
where k = number of bits in the control memory.

3.2.2. The Mechanical Resolution

The mechanical resolution: is the other component of resolution which puts limitation on the
lower limit of the spatial resolution. The following are some of the factors that contribute to the
limitations.

1. Inaccuracies in the dimentions of the links and joint components.

2. Elastic deflection of the structural members.

3. Backlash in the meshing gears of power transmission.

4. Streching of the transmission components.

5. Leakage of the fluids of hydraulic/pneumatic actuators.

6. In accuracy magnification due to scaling.

7. Load handled and speed to be achieved.

When the above said mechanical factors become dominant the increase in bit capacities of
memory cease to benefit much on the improvement in the spatial resolution. The maintenance condition
and the age of the robot also play significant role in the process of usage of robot and determining the
resolution of the robot depreciation subject.
 If 'S' is the stroke of a linear, prismatic link and 'i' the number of increments or the addressable
points, the control resolution in total is given by:

𝑺 𝑺
𝑹𝒕 = = 𝒌
𝒊 𝟐
The angular control resolution of a revolute joint can be expressed in terms of the 'n' number of
slots arround the circumference of the circular disk in a reductionless drive as

𝟐𝝅
𝑨𝑪 = radians/count.
𝒏𝟐𝒌
If the speed reduction occurs between driver shaft to load shaft through a gear train, then:

𝟐𝝅
𝑨𝑪 = radians/count.
𝒏𝒛𝟐𝒌

Where gear reduction ratio is z :1

For a partial rotation of angle ∅ degree

∅
𝑨𝑪 = degree
𝟐𝒌
The spatial resolution represented with the mechanical components due to inaccuracies is
illustrated by a statistical distribution is shown in Fig. (10.3). If o is the standard deviation about the mean
point of the programmed position of tool tip, the spatial resolution takes the form

𝑹𝒔 = 𝑹𝒕 + 𝟔𝝈
 The spatial resolution of a particular joint in a robot arm is due to the specitications of the drive
system position sensors and power transmıssion mechanism like gears, spockets, chains, belts and
cabeles. The programmed reference signal of the controlling computer generated inside is sent to the
external analog feedback position control system through an 'k' bit digital to analog converter which
decides the spatial resolution of the joint in focus.

Resolution for a Cylindrical Co-ordinated Robot

The work envelope of the cylindrical robot and elemental sweep is as shown in the Fig. (10.4a)
The horizontal precision is lowest at the outer most radius or reach and highest at the inner most reach.

The grid element shown in Fig. (10.4b) is not a square but a sector. But for a very small division
it almost looks like a square. Hence:

If a spherical robot is considered both the vertical and the horizontal precision are highest along
the inside surface and decreases as the arm extends outward, and minimum at the outer most surface. If
the robot with articulated joints is considered both the resolutions vary over the work space.
3.3. Accuracy

"Accuracy is the measure of the robot's ability to orient and locate the tool tip at a desired target
location in the prescribed work volume or envelop".

Accuracy is related to resolution because as the resolution value is less, the accuracy is more. So
higher resolution gives better accuracy, the ability to achieve the prescribed target location. In a worst
case the desired point may lie in between the two target points. The error in positioning is the other name
to the inaccuracy given by the term,

𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐥 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
< error,
𝟐

where the mechanical components of inaccuracies are neglected as they are more complicated to
define and quantify. Hence, the precision related to the accuracy gives a picture of discrete grid nodes that
can be visited by the wrist end or the tool tip within the work space. Hence, the best accuracy is half of
the grid size as shown in the Fig. (10.5).

After a periodic operation set the robot may to be calibrated to maintain the reasonable accuracy. The
limit switch sensors of the robots are resert or zeroed during the periodic maintenance schedule. Futher
intelligent algorithms with real time solutions are needed to define and re-define the control strategies to
compensate for the uncertainity in environment and position.