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Steel Slag as A Road Construction Material

Mohd. Rosli Hainina, Md. Maniruzzaman A. Aziza,b*, Zulfiqar Alia, Ramadhansyah Putra Jayaa, Moetaz M. El-Sergany c, Haryati Yaacoba
aDepartment of Geotechnics and Transportation, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor Malaysia
b
UTM Construction Research Centre (CRC), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor Malaysia
ce-School of Health and Environmental Studies, Hamdan Bin Mohamed Electronic University, UAE

*Correspondence author: [email protected]

Article history Abstract

Received: 5 September 2014 Steel slag is a byproduct obtained from steel industry. It is generated as a residue during the production of
Received in revised form: steel. Because of the high disposal cost as a waste material and the overall positive features of steel slag, it
3 December 2014 has been declared a useful construction material, not an industrial waste by most of the developed countries.
Accepted: 3 January 2015 Successively, it is recycled as an aggregate for the construction of roads, soil stabilization, and base and for
the surfacing of flexible pavement. Despite this, a large amount of steel slag generated from steel industries
is disposed of in stockpiles to date. As a result, a large area of land is being sacrificed for the disposal of
this useful resource. Many researchers have investigated the use of steel slag as an aggregate in the design
of asphalt concrete for the road construction. The best management option for this by product is its
recycling. This leads to reduction of landfills reserved for its disposal, saving the natural resources and
attaining a potential environment. The purpose of this paper is to review the engineering properties of steel
slag and its utilization for road construction in different ways.

Keywords: Steel slag, recycle, skid resistance, soil stabilization, industrial waste material, sustainability

© 2015 Penerbit UTM Press. All rights reserved.

1.0 .INTRODUCTION According to John Emery iron slag were used for the construction
of roads during the Romans Empire also [4]. In 1998 up to 97% of
Aggregate is obtained from natural rocks. Mining of the aggregate, the total generated steel slag has been used in different ways for the
leads to the reduction of natural resources. The countries having construction of high trafficked roads by Germany. It is utilized as
limited resources of natural aggregate are thinking to save their aggregate for surface layer, road base and sub base. It is also
natural resources for their future generation. A large area of land is utilized in earthworks and hydraulic structures as well [5]. Because
utilized for the disposal of such solid wastes, producing by of significant amount of free iron, steel slag becomes hard and
industries. Factors like environmental, economic, technical and dense to provide high abrasion resistance [6]. It is a rough textured,
deficiency of proper construction material have diverted the sufficient angular, vesicular and porous material. After compaction
attention of researchers to other alternatives [1]. As a result, they it provides a satisfactory particle interlock and high stability. There
have explored variety of recycled materials which can be used as is not any standard for the proportioning of steel slag with natural
an aggregate. aggregate but if partially replaced at the percentage of about 20%
According to Geiseler (1996), in 350 BC Aristotle has indicated to 100% provides satisfactory results. Previous experimental
that during the purification of iron, a byproduct is generated like a studies show that the use of steel slag may improve the performance
stone called iron slag [2]. It has number of advantages but very pavement. The rough textured surface of steel slag provides high
effective for drying the injuries. The byproduct generates from the skid resistance. The high specific gravity and the proper
melting of scrape to produce steel by an electric arc furnace (EAF), interlocking due to angularity of steel slag result better stability and
and through the conversion of iron to steel by a basic oxygen resistance against rutting as well.
furnace (BOF). The steel slag obtained from these furnace looks
like similar but the properties may differ based on the grade of steel 2.0 PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF STEEL SLAG
produced and the furnace, while the chemical composition remains
within the range. As compare to electric arc furnace, the main During the production of three tons stainless steel around one ton
problem with basic oxygen furnace is the excess quantity of its free of steel slag is generated [7]. It has been noticed that per year fifty
lime and free magnesia contents. Particular expertise are needed to million tons of steel slag is generated from different steel industries
handle it in a proper way to avoid the volumetric expansion throughout the world. Only in Europe, around twelve millions of
otherwise it may result pavement failure [3]. steel slag is generated every year [5]. Steel slag is a residual
According to National Slag Association iron and steel slags have material that generates during the production of stainless steel by
been used in engineering constructions for more than 150 years. It different resources either from the melting of scrape to produce
is being used as aggregate in replacement of natural aggregate, for steel in electric arc furnace (EAF), or by converting iron to steel in
bounding applications (BFS) instead of Portland cement, fill basic oxygen furnace (BOF). Hot liquid metal, scrape and fluxes
material, rail road ballast and sub grade soil stabilization. together with lime and dolomite lime processed in basic oxygen

73:4 (2015) 33–38 | www.jurnalteknologi.utm.my | eISSN 2180–3722

34 Mohd. Rosli Hainin et al / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 73:4 (2015) 33–38

furnace. The impurities like carbon monoxide and silicon, far as the engineering properties of steel slag are concerned.
manganese, phosphorous and iron in liquid state combines with Sufficient research has been done on the chemical and mineral
lime is and dolomite lime are separated by injecting oxygen with composition as compare to the physical and mechanical properties
high pressure to form steel slag. Electric arc furnace is a kettle of steel slag. Geotechnical properties of steel slag like the bearing
shaped arrangement used to process cold steel scrape instead of hot capacity, compaction and shear strength have been neglected.
liquid metal. The scrap is melted through high electric current
passing through graphite electrodes by forming an arc. Some other 3.1 Chemical and Mineral Composition of Steel Slag
metals like Ferro, alloys are added to balance the required chemical
composition of steel and oxygen is blown to purify the steel. At the Generally steel slags consist of CaO, MgO, SiO2 and FeO oxides,
end, the floating steel slag is separated from the surface of molten which found within the range of about 88% to 90 %. The total
steel [8]. The residual steel slag is then crushed into 8 inches with concentration of these oxides in liquid slags is in the range of 88%–
the help of a large steel ball or a solid steel cylinder by dropping it 92%. Though these oxides fluctuate based on the material used,
to the slags. The process for crushing and grading is repeated until type of steel being manufactured and condition of furnace [8]. Use
to get the required grade of aggregates. Recovery of metallic of dolomite instead of lime as a flex, highly influence the chemical
particles is carried out through conveyer belts electromagnetically composition which provides higher content of MgO [10]. The
in the same plant. Then supplied in the form of construction chemical composition of steel slag are given in Table 1.
aggregate to the construction agencies. It is competing with natural Both BOF and EAF slags are dicalciumsilicate,
aggregate, where high performance aggregate is limited. This dicalciumferrite and wustite. Dicalciumsilicate provides stability,
indicates the importance of alternative aggregates like steel slag are which prevents disintegration of steel slag. Several studies show
valuable products not the wastes, also providing environmental that the dissolved lime and MgO does not affect the volume of steel
benefit [3]. slag, but the excess amount of “spongy free lime” and MgO may
cause the volume instability [2]. The mineralogical composition is
3.0 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF STEEL SLAG given in Table 2.

Engineering properties influence the level of performance and

suitability of the material being used for road construction [9]. As
Table 1 Chemical properties of steel slag

Steel CaO SiO2 Al2O3 FeO/Fe2O3 MgO MnO TiO2 SO3 P2O5 Free Reference
slag Cao
BOF 39.30 7.75 0.98 -/38.06 8.56 4.24 0.94 0.02 - - Shen et al , (2009)
[11]
EAF 35-40 9-20 2-9 15-13/- 5-15 0-8 - 0.08- .01-2.5 - Shi (2004) [8]
2.3
BOF 47.5 11.8 2.00 -/22.6 6.3 1.90 0.50 - 2.70 - Mahieux et al.,
(2009) [12]
EAF 30-40 10-20 <10 15-35/- <10 10 ~/ <0.25 <2 <1.5 Miklos,
(2000)[13]
BOF 41.30 12.50 2.40 -/31.20 4.3 6.10 0.8 - 1.10 - Chaurand et al.,
(2007) [14]
EAF 25-40 10-17 4-7 -/- 4-15 <6 - - <1.5 <3 Motz and Geseler,
(2001) [5]
BOF 47.88 12.16 1.22 26.30/- 0.82 0.28 - 0.28 3.33 - Das et al., (2007)
[15]
EAF 40.78 17.81 4.23 9.25/3.97 8.53 9.79 - 0.3 0.74 - Nicolae et al.,
(2007) [16]
BOF 40.1 17.80 2.04 12.92/6.58 6.32 6.52 - 0.46 1.13 3.9 Nicolae et al.,
(2007) [16]
EAF 45.5 32.2 3.7 3.3/1 5.2 2 - - - - Tossavainen et al.,
(2007) [17]
BOF 41.3 15.60 2.20 -/- 6.90 8.90 0.50 - - 3.3 John Emery,
(1984) [4]
EAF 32.1 19.4 8.6 -/- 9.4 6.8 0.4 0.6 - - Lekakh et al.,
(2008) [18]
BOF 41.44 15.26 4.35 13.95/9.24 8.06 5.2 0.72 - 1.15 3.9 Poh et al., (2006)
[19]
EAF 35.7 17.53 6.25 -/26.36 6.45 2.5 0.76 - - - Tsakiridis et al.,
(2008) [20]
BOF 45.41 13.71 3.8 21.85/3.24 6.25 3.27 - - 1.42 - Xue et al., (2006)
[21]
EAF 29.49 16.11 7.56 -/35.26 4.96 4.53 0.78 0.63 0.55 - Barra et al., (2001)
[22]
BOF 45 11.10 1.90 10.70/10.90 9.6 3.10 - - - - Tossavainen et al.,
(2007) [17]
EAF 23.9 15.3 7.4 -/- 5.1 4.5 - 0.1 - 0.45 Manso et al.,
(2006) [23]
EAF 52.3 15.30 1.30 -/- 1.10 0.39 - - 3.10 10.0 Reddy et al.,
(2006) [24]
EAF 24.4 15.35 12.21 34.36/- 2.91 5.57 0.56 - 1.19 - Luxan et al.,
(2006) [25]
35 Mohd. Rosli Hainin et al / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 73:4 (2015) 33–38

Table 2 Mineralogical composition of steel slag having affinity with binders is known as “hydrophobic” and the
aggregates which are not having such a property called
Mineralogical composition References “hydrophilic”. Steel slags are hydrophobic (strong affinity with
Slag binder), basic or alkaline in nature having pH value of around 12.
CaCo3, FeO, MgO, Fe2O3,Ca2Al Barra et al, Whereas the bitumen binder normally acidic, having a naturel
EAF
(AlSiO7), Ca2SiO4 (2001) [22]
chemical affinity with steel slags and the pH value of bitumen
2CaO.SiO2, 3CaO.SiO2, 2CaO.Fe2O3, Geilseler,
--
FeO, (Ca.Fe)O (1995) [2]
binder is less than 7. This property of steel slag provides a good
Ca2SiO5, Ca2Al (AlSiO7), adhesion and helps to resist against the stripping. A simple test is
Luxan et al, conducted by putting the sample into boiling water and the degree
EAF Fe2O3,Ca14Mg2(SiO4)8, MgFe2O4, Mn3O4,
(2000) [25] of stripping is evaluated [3].
MnO2
Nicolae et al,
BOF 2CaO. Al2O3.SiO2,Fe2O3,CaO,FeO
(2007) [16] 3.2 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Steel Slag
Nicolae et al,
EAF MnO2, MnO, Fe2SiO4, Fe7SiO10
(2007) [16] Roads are subjected to static and dynamic forces, including the
2CaO.Fe2O32CaO.P2O5, 2CaO. SiO2, Reddy et al, harsh environment like rain, temperature, freezing and thawing.
BOF
CaO (2006) [24]
The proposed material should provide adequate physical and
β-Ca2SiO4, FeO-MnO-MgO solid Tossavanien et
BOF
solution, MgO al ,( 2007) [17]
mechanical properties to resist and perform well. The physical and
Ca3MgSiO4)2, β-Ca2SiO4 spinal solid mechanical properties are given as: aggregate crushing value, loss
solution ( Mg,Mn)(Cr,Al)2O4wsuite-type Tossavanien et angles abrasion, aggregate impact value, soundness, polished stone
EAF value, water absorption, surface texture, stripping, specific gravity
solid solution al , (2007) [17]
((Fe,Mg,Mn)O),Ca2(Al,Fe)2O5 and flakiness. The physical and mechanical properties of steel slag
Ca2SiO4,4CaO.Al2O3.FeO3, productively meet the requirements of a high class material. As
Ca2Al(AlSiO7), Ca3SiO5, Tsakiridis et al compare to natural aggregate, it provides an ideal durability,
EAF
2CaO.Al2O3SiO2, FeO, Fe3O4, MgO, (2008) [20] permeability, stability and resistance against abrasion, cracking and
SiO2
permanent deformation. The physical and mechanical properties of
steel slag are given in Table 3.
3.1.1 Affinity of Steel Slag with Binder

The aggregate should have affinity with binder to provide an

adequate adhesion to the mix design. This property of aggregate

Table 3 Physical and mechanical properties of steel slag

Steel Gs Bulk Water LAA Soun ACV AIV Polishe CBR Strippi Reference
slag Densit absorp (%) dnes (%) d stone ng (%)
y tion s value
(Kg/m3 (%)
)
EAF 3-3.7 1800 to 0.2-2 20-25 <12 - - - - - Alizadeh et al., (1996) [26]
2000
- 3.69 - - 15 2.2 15 11 - <400 >97 Aiban and Abdul Wahab,
(1999) [27]
- - - - 20-25 <12 - - - 300 - Noureldin and Mc Daniel,
(1990) [28]
EAF 3.38 - - 24 - - - 0.05 - 0 Pasetto and Baldo, (2012)
[29]
EAF 3.91 - - 15.5- - - - 0.05 - 0 Pasetto and Baldo, (2012)
21.5 [29]
- 3.5 >1900 0-2 14 0-1.5 20 14 - >200 - Holliday (1997) [3]
WCS 3.4 - 1.6 13 0.4 - - - - - Sofilic(2010) [30]
ACS 3.3 - 1.8 16 0.8 - - - - - Sofilic(2010) [30]

3.2.1 Specific Gravity 3.2.2 Grain-Size Distribution

Steel slag contains sufficient amount of iron oxide, therefore it Grain size distribution, an important factor which is highly
has greater value of specific gravity as compare to the natural influenced the mechanical properties of the material. It is difficult
aggregates. Number of researchers have evaluated the specific to break it in to particles of different sizes during its generation in
gravity of other construction materials and that of steel slag fall the steel mill. During the cooling process, it breaks down into
within the range of 3 to 4 [31]. Steel slag is about 20 % heavier different particle size containing larger size as boulders up to the
than the lime stone and granite. This may be an economic sizes of silt. Further it is processed to obtain proper grade of steel
disadvantage, but is not considered, as it provides more slag by crushing plants as discussed earlier.
advantages like high strength and durability. The coarse gradation particles found in the range of about 64mm
to 200mm, similarly the medium size particles are up to 64mm.
The fine gradation is like well graded sand consisting of varying
sizes of gravel up to the silt size particles, retained at No. 4 sieve;
36 Mohd. Rosli Hainin et al / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 73:4 (2015) 33–38

4.75mm and passing through No 200 sieve ;0.075mm. the silt size for the past 60 years [40]. Above 300,000 tons of steel slag per
particle %age remains within the range of 10% to 15% [22, 32]. year was utilized for road construction. As an assessment of skid
resistance of asphalt surfaces incorporating steel slag, side force
3.2.3 Compaction Characteristics coefficient Routine Investigation Machine (SCRIM) was
measured on various categories of roads (100 mm and 14 mm
Limited studies have been carried out on the compaction of surface dressings). The surveys show that steel slag road surfaces
general steel slag. The results of previous researches show higher have at least as good long-term skid resistance properties as those
values of maximum dry unit weight of steel slag then natural of comparable natural aggregate road surfaces under similar
aggregate. Rohde et al., (2003) have studied the compaction traffic conditions [40]. SSA has also been successfully utilized in
characteristics of EAF steel slag of different grades by standard countries with high ambient temperatures that cause major
proctor compaction test method [32]. The optimum moisture problems in asphalt surfaces. Amongst the various countries
content and maximum dry weight of EAF steel slag were in the around the world with hot climates, such as Singapore, Malaysia,
range of 3%-6% and 23-26kN/m3. Australia, South Africa, Saudi Arabia and Italy, have already
realized the superior properties of steel slag asphalt [41].
3.2.4 Shear Resistance Permanent deformation can occur at a very early stage in the life
of asphalt surfacing material, when the road surface temperature
Steel slags are rough in surface texture, cubical and angular as begins to approach the softening point of the bitumen [42-46].
compare to the natural material. It provides better interlocking The high surface temperature causes the asphalt to become plastic
and friction which results stability, resistance to rutting and and then deform very easily resulting in rutting.
higher skid resistance. The friction angle of steel slag is reported It is observed that the use of EAF steel slag for low volume
40⁰ to 50 [28]. Because of its better shear resistance, can be use roads economical as compare to the natural aggregates. Properly
all the layers of pavements. weathered EAF steel slag has been investigated for the
construction of low volume roads as a base material. Satisfactory
3.2.5 Thermal Properties results of resilient modulus were obtained from EAF steel slag as
compare to the natural aggregates [32]. Aiban and Abdul Wahhab
It has been noticed that steel slag, has a potential to retain the heat (2006) incorporated a mixture of marl and sand with 30% to 85%
as longer than natural aggregate. The heat retention property of of steel slag by weight for road base and obtained CBR values up
steel slag aggregate is an advantage. It helps to prepare hot mix to 455% [27]. For the use of base and sub base courses, properties
asphalt concrete to coat the aggregates properly specially of cement stabilized steel slag also have been studied as well. The
repairing of pavements surface in cold weather [28]. results exhibited high values then natural aggregate cement
stabilization [47]. A mixture of fly ash and phosphogypsum with
4.0 UTILIZATION OF STEEL SLAG IN THE steel slag designed for road base. When the properties of this mix
CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS investigated, the resulted values of long term shear strength and
water stability indices were much higher than cement stabilized
Steel slags have been successfully utilized for the construction of granular materials [11]. It is also proposed by Mymrin et al.,
roads in wearing course, base and sub base as well. Especially (2005) that the construction cost of road base can reduced by the
Europe, Canada, Australia and USA have not treated it as an use of cement activated steel slag with natural soil mix, because
industrial waste but a useful construction material, and it provides maximum strength and stability with a shorter
successfully using steel slag as aggregate in surfacing and base of thickness as compare to the conventional material [48].
flexible pavements [6, 33]. Steel slag is produced in 29 states of
United States by 17 companies. Special specification, sufficient 5.0 CONCLUSION
record of its uses and performance on major projects around the
world indicate that both steel (BOF or EAF) slag is a material of This paper reviewed the engineering properties of steel slag. Steel
choice. In Batlimore according to Khan et al., (2002) the slag has a number of advantages with high engineering
outstanding characteristics demonstrating one of the advantages properties. It has been declared a useful construction material not
of using steel slag bituminous concrete is high skid resistance an industrial waste. The overall conclusion drawn based on the
(under wet or dry conditions) provided throughout the service- literature review is as followed; previous studies have
life of the pavements [34-38]. SSA and asphalt mixtures were emphasized on utilization of steel slag in cement and concrete
used to provide 1 to 1.25 inch thick surface layer for a number of industry.
roadways in Indiana between 1979 and 1981 [28]. Bituminous Hence, most of the experimental studies explored the chemical
test sections were constructed using six different combination of composition not the physical or mechanical properties of steel
coarse and fine aggregate to produce mixtures with a wide range slag. The study further, steel slag mixture requires higher value
of gradations and proportions of steel slag coarse aggregates. of bitumen content, which does not meet the guidelines of
Skid resistance numbers measured using ASTM E274 indicate optimum bitumen content for natural aggregate. There is not any
that the use of steel slag aggregate in asphalt surface mixtures guideline or specification in general for steel slag to be followed,
provide pavement surfaces with good skid resistance. Asphaltic for the different proportions of steel slag blended with natural
paving mixtures using steel slag aggregate displayed aggregate to obtain adequate mix design. Literature showed that
exceptionally high stability, which may improve the rut resistant steel slag has enough potential and can be utilized in subgrade or
when used in pavement surface layers. Mix produced utilizing embankments, but very rare research have been done in this area.
steel slag aggregate and natural sand displayed exceptionally It is concluded based on chemical and mineralogical composition,
large stiffness modulus values. A large stiffness value is an the properties of steel slag are different compared to the natural
indicator of the possibility of using a reduced pavement thickness aggregate. So, the guidelines of natural aggregate are being
[39]. This thinner layer plays an important role in compensating followed for steel slag is not appropriate. Economically the steel
for the high-density disadvantage of steel slag asphalt mixtures. slag may be cheaper if utilized in urban roads but it would be
Stock and Ibberson, (1996) reported the use of steel slag in expensive for rural roads due to the transportation charges.
bituminous road construction in South Yorkshire and its environs
37 Mohd. Rosli Hainin et al / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 73:4 (2015) 33–38

6.0 FUTURE RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS [20] Tsakiridis, P. E., Papadimitriou, G.D., Tsivilis, S., Koroneos, C. 2008.
Utilization of Steel Slag for Portland Cement Clinker Production.
Journal of Hazardous Materials. 152(2): 805–811.
This current study reviewed literature on the engineering [21] Xue, Y., Wu, S., Hou, H., Zha, J. 2006. Experimental Investigation of
properties and the utilization of steel slag in the construction of Basic Oxygen Furnace Slag Used As Aggregate in Asphalt Mixture.
roads. However, more research work is needed in this area. For Journal of Hazardous Materials. 138(2):261 268.
this purpose, researchers need to explore the geotechnical [22] Barra, M., Ramonich, E., Munoz. M. 2001. Stabilization of Soils with
properties of steel slag needs some attention, because the shear Steel Slag and Cement for Application in Rural and Low Traffic Roads.
In Beneficial Use of Recycled Materials in Transportation Applications.
strength parameters and the compaction characteristics have not [23] Manso, J. M., Polanco, J. A., Losañez, M., González, J. J. 2006.
been studied properly. Durability of Concrete made with EAF Slag as Aggregate. Cement and
Concrete Composites. 28(6): 528–534.
Acknowledgement [24] Reddy, A. S., Pradhan, R., Chandra, S. 2006. Utilization of Basic
Oxygen Furnace (BOF) Slag in the Production of a Hydraulic Cement
Binder. International Journal of Mineral Processing. 79(2): 98–105.
The support provided by Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education [25] Luxán, M.P., Sotolongo, R., Dorrego, F., Herrero, E. 2000.
and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) in the form of a Characteristics Of The Slags Produced In The Fusion Of Scrap Steel By
research grant (Vote No. 09H33) for this study is very much Electric Arc Furnace. Cement and Concrete Research. 30(4): 517–519.
appreciated. [26] Alizadeh, R., Chini, M., Ghods, P., Hoseini, M., Montazer, S.,
Shekarchi, M. 2003. Utilization of Electric Arc Furnace Slag as
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