UNIT-5

Reference model and IP Addressing

Protocols are a set of rules governing exchange of information in an easy, reliable and secure
way. Before we discuss the most common protocols used to transmit and receive data over a
network, we need to understand how a network is logically organized or designed. The most
popular model used to establish open communication between two systems is the Open
Systems Interface (OSI) model proposed by ISO.
OSI Model
OSI model is not a network architecture because it does not specify the exact services and
protocols for each layer. It simply tells what each layer should do by defining its input and
output data. It is up to network architects to implement the layers according to their needs and
resources available.
These are the seven layers of the OSI model −
 Physical layer −It is the first layer that physically connects the two systems that need to
communicate. It transmits data in bits and manages simplex or duplex transmission by
modem. It also manages Network Interface Card’s hardware interface to the network, like
cabling, cable terminators, topography, voltage levels, etc.
 Data link layer − It is the firmware layer of Network Interface Card. It assembles datagrams
into frames and adds start and stop flags to each frame. It also resolves problems caused by
damaged, lost or duplicate frames.
 Network layer − It is concerned with routing, switching and controlling flow of information
between the workstations. It also breaks down transport layer data grams into smaller data
grams.
 Transport layer − Till the session layer, file is in its own form. Transport layer breaks it down
into data frames, provides error checking at network segment level and prevents a fast host
from overrunning a slower one. Transport layer isolates the upper layers from network
hardware.
 Session layer − This layer is responsible for establishing a session between two workstations
that want to exchange data.
 Presentation layer − This layer is concerned with correct representation of data, i.e. syntax
and semantics of information. It controls file level security and is also responsible for
converting data to network standards.
 Application layer − It is the topmost layer of the network that is responsible for sending
application requests by the user to the lower levels. Typical applications include file transfer,
E-mail, remote logon, data entry, etc.
It is not necessary for every network to have all the layers. For example, network layer is not
there in broadcast networks.
When a system wants to share data with another workstation or send a request over the
network, it is received by the application layer. Data then proceeds to lower layers after
processing till it reaches the physical layer.
At the physical layer, the data is actually transferred and received by the physical layer of the
destination workstation. There, the data proceeds to upper layers after processing till it reaches
application layer.
At the application layer, data or request is shared with the workstation. So each layer has
opposite functions for source and destination workstations. For example, data link layer of the
source workstation adds start and stop flags to the frames but the same layer of the destination
workstation will remove the start and stop flags from the frames.

TCP/IP

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. TCP/IP is a set of layered
protocols used for communication over the Internet. The communication model of this suite is
client-server model. A computer that sends a request is the client and a computer to which the
request is sent is the server.
TCP/IP has four layers −
 Application layer − Application layer protocols like HTTP and FTP are used.
 Transport layer − Data is transmitted in form of datagrams using the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP). TCP is responsible for breaking up data at the client side and then
reassembling it on the server side.
 Network layer − Network layer connection is established using Internet Protocol (IP) at the
network layer. Every machine connected to the Internet is assigned an address called IP
address by the protocol to easily identify source and destination machines.
 Data link layer − Actual data transmission in bits occurs at the data link layer using the
destination address provided by network layer.
TCP/IP is widely used in many communication networks other than the Internet.
TCP
Transmission control protocol is used for communication over a network. In TCP data is broken
down into small packets and then sent to the destination. However, IP is making sure packets
are transmitted to the right address.
Internet Protocol (IP)
IP is also working with TCP. It is an addressing Protocol. IP addresses packets route them and
show different nodes and network Unless it reaches its right destination. The IP protocol is
developed in 1970.
HTTP
HTTP is based on client and server model. HTTP is used for making a connection between the
web client and web server. HTTP shows information in web pages.

FTP

As we have seen, the need for network came up primarily to facilitate sharing of files between
researchers. And to this day, file transfer remains one of the most used facilities.The protocol
that handles these requests is File Transfer Protocol or FTP. File transfer protocol is basically
used for transferring files to different networks. There may be a mass of files such as text files,
multimedia files, etc. This way of file transfer is quicker than other methods.
Using FTP to transfer files is helpful in these ways −
 Easily transfers files between two different networks
 Can resume file transfer sessions even if connection is dropped, if protocol is configure
appropriately
 Enables collaboration between geographically separated teams
PPP

Point to Point Protocol or PPP is a data link layer protocol that enables transmission of TCP/IP
traffic over serial connection, like telephone line.
To do this, PPP defines these three things −
 A framing method to clearly define end of one frame and start of another, incorporating
errors detection as well.
 Link control protocol (LCP) for bringing communication lines up, authenticating and bringing
them down when no longer needed.
 Network control protocol (NCP) for each network layer protocol supported by other
networks.
Using PPP, home users can avail Internet connection over telephone lines.

SMTP

SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is connection oriented application
layer protocol that is widely used to send and receive email messages. It was introduced in
1982 by RFC 821 and last updated in 2008 by RFC 5321. The updated version is most widely
used email protocol.
Mail servers and mail transfer agents use SMTP to both send and receive messages. However,
user level applications use it only for sending messages. For retrieving they use IMAP or POP3
because they provide mail box management
RFC or Request for Comments is a peer reviewed document jointly published by Internet
Engineering Task Force and the Internet Society. It is written by researchers and computer
scientists describing how the Internet should work and protocols and systems supporting them.
Simple mail transfer protocol manages the transmission and outgoing mail over the internet.

POP3

POP3 or Post Office Protocol Version 3 is an application layer protocol used by email clients to
retrieve email messages from mail servers over TCP/IP network. POP was designed to move the
messages from server to local disk but version 3 has the option of leaving a copy on the server
POP3 is a very simple protocol to implement but that limits its usage. For example, POP3
supports only one mail server for each mailbox. It has now has been made obsolete by modern
protocols like IMAP.
IMAP
IMAP stands for Internet Message Access Protocol. IMAP was defined by RFC 3501 to enable
email clients to retrieve email messages from mail servers over a TCP/IP connection. IMAP is
designed to retrieve messages from multiple mail servers and consolidate them all in the user’s
mailbox. A typical example is a corporate client handling multiple corporate accounts through a
local mailbox located on her system.
All modern email clients and servers like Gmail, Outlook and Yahoo Mail support IMAP or POP3
protocol. These are some advantages that IMAP offers over POP3 −
 Faster response time than POP3
 Multiple mail clients connected to a single mailbox simultaneously
 Keep track of message state like read, deleted, starred, replied, etc.
 Search for messages on the server
VOIP

VoIP is the acronym for Voice over Internet Protocol. It means telephone services over
Internet. Traditionally Internet had been used for exchanging messages but due to
advancement in technology, its service quality has increased manifold. It is now possible to
deliver voice communication over IP networks by converting voce data into packets. VoIP is a
set of protocols and systems developed to provide this service seamlessly.

Here are some of the protocols used for VoIP −

 H.323
 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
 Session Description Protocol (SDP)
 Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP)
 Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP)
 Skype Protocol
We will discuss two of the most fundamental protocols – H.323 and SIP – here.

H.323

H.323 is a VoIP standard for defining the components, protocols and procedures to provide
real-time multimedia sessions including audio, video and data transmissions over packet
switched networks. Some of the services facilitated by H.323 include −
 IP telephony
 Video telephony
 Simultaneous audio, video and data communications

SIP

SIP is an acronym for Session Initiation Protocol. SIP is a protocol to establish, modify and
terminate multimedia sessions like IP telephony. All systems that need multimedia sessions are
registered and provided SIP address, much like IP address. Using this address, caller can check
callee’s availability and invite it for a VoIP session accordingly.
SIP facilitates multiparty multimedia sessions like video conferencing involving three or more
people. In a short span of time SIP has become integral to VoIP and largely replaced H.323.

IP address definition

An IP address is a unique address that identifies a device on the internet or a local network.

IP stands for "Internet Protocol," which is the set of rules governing the format of data sent via
the internet or local network.

In essence, IP addresses are the identifier that allows information to be sent between devices
on a network: they contain location information and make devices accessible for
communication.

The internet needs a way to differentiate between different computers, routers, and websites.

IP addresses provide a way of doing so and form an essential part of how the internet works.

What is an IP?

An IP address is a string of numbers separated by periods.

IP addresses are expressed as a set of four numbers — an example address might be

192.158.1.38.

Each number in the set can range from 0 to 255. So, the full IP addressing range goes from
0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.

.
How do IP addresses work

If you want to understand why a particular device is not connecting in the way you would
expect or you want to troubleshoot why your network may not be working, it helps understand
how IP addresses work.

Internet Protocol works the same way as any other language, by communicating using set
guidelines to pass information. All devices find, send, and exchange information with other
connected devices using this protocol. By speaking the same language, any computer in any
location can talk to one another.

The use of IP addresses typically happens behind the scenes. The process works like this:
1. Your device indirectly connects to the internet by connecting at first to a network connected to
the internet, which then grants your device access to the internet.
2. When you are at home, that network will probably be your Internet Service Provider (ISP). At
work, it will be your company network.
3. Your IP address is assigned to your device by your ISP.
4. Your internet activity goes through the ISP, and they route it back to you, using your IP address.
Since they are giving you access to the internet, it is their role to assign an IP address to your
device.
5. However, your IP address can change. For example, turning your modem or router on or off can
change it. Or you can contact your ISP, and they can change it for you.
6. When you are out and about – for example, traveling – and you take your device with you, your
home IP address does not come with you. This is because you will be using another network
(Wi-Fi at a hotel, airport, or coffee shop, etc.) to access the internet and will be using a different
(and temporary) IP address, assigned to you by the ISP of the hotel, airport or coffee shop.
Types of IP addresses

There are different categories of IP addresses, and within each category, different types.

Consumer IP addresses

Every individual or business with an internet service plan have two types of IP addresses: their
private IP addresses and their public IP address. The terms public and private relate to the
network location — that is, a private IP address is used inside a network, while a public one is
used outside a network.

Private IP addresses

Every device that connects to your internet network has a private IP address. This includes
computers, smart phones, and tablets but also any Bluetooth-enabled devices like speakers,
printers, or smart TVs. With the growing internet of things, the number of private IP addresses
you have at home is probably growing. Your router needs a way to identify these items
separately, and many items need a way to recognize each other. Therefore, your router
generates private IP addresses that are unique identifiers for each device that differentiate
them on the network.

Public IP addresses

A public IP address is the primary address associated with your whole network. While each
connected device has its own IP address, they are also included within the main IP address for
your network. As described above, your public IP address is provided to your router by your ISP.
Typically, ISPs have a large pool of IP addresses that they distribute to their customers. Your
public IP address is the address that all the devices outside your internet network will use to
recognize your network.

Public IP addresses

Public IP addresses come in two forms – dynamic and static.

Dynamic IP addresses

Dynamic IP addresses change automatically and regularly. ISPs buy a large pool of IP addresses
and assign them automatically to their customers. Periodically, they re-assign them and put the
older IP addresses back into the pool to be used for other customers. The rationale for this
approach is to generate cost savings for the ISP. Automating the regular movement of IP
addresses means they don’t have to carry out specific actions to re-establish a customer's IP
address if they move home, for example. There are security benefits, too, because a changing IP
address makes it harder for criminals to hack into your network interface.

Static IP addresses

In contrast to dynamic IP addresses, static addresses remain consistent. Once the network
assigns an IP address, it remains the same. Most individuals and businesses do not need a static
IP address, but for businesses that plan to host their own server, it is crucial to have one. This is
because a static IP address ensures that websites and email addresses tied to it will have a
consistent IP address — vital if you want other devices to be able to find them consistently on
the web.

This leads to the next point – which is the two types of website IP addresses.

There are two types of website IP addresses

For website owners who don’t host their own server, and instead rely on a web hosting package
– which is the case for most websites – there are two types of website IP addresses. These are
shared and dedicated.

Shared IP addresses

Websites that rely on shared hosting plans from web hosting providers will typically be one of
many websites hosted on the same server. This tends to be the case for individual websites or
SME websites, where traffic volumes are manageable, and the sites themselves are limited in
terms of the number of pages, etc. Websites hosted in this way will have shared IP addresses.

Dedicated IP addresses

Some web hosting plans have the option to purchase a dedicated IP address (or addresses). This
can make obtaining an SSL certificate easier and allows you to run your own File Transfer
Protocol (FTP) server. This makes it easier to share and transfer files with multiple people within
an organization and allow anonymous FTP sharing options. A dedicated IP address also allows
you to access your website using the IP address alone rather than the domain name — useful if
you want to build and test it before registering your domain.

The Five IPv4 Classes:

In the IPv4 IP address space, there are five classes: A, B, C, D and E. Each class has a specific
range of IP addresses (and ultimately dictates the number of devices you can have on your
network). Primarily, class A, B, and C are used by the majority of devices on the Internet. Class D
and class E are for special uses.

The list below shows the five available IP classes, along with the number of networks each can
support and the maximum number of hosts (devices) that can be on each of those networks.
The four octets that make up an IP address are conventionally represented by a.b.c.d - such as
127.10.20.30.

Class A Public & Private IP Address Range

Class A addresses are for networks with large number of total hosts. Class A allows for 126
networks by using the first octet for the network ID. The first bit in this octet, is always zero.
The remaining seven bits in this octet complete the network ID. The 24 bits in the remaining
three octets represent the hosts ID and allows for approximately 17 million hosts per network.
Class A network number values begin at 1 and end at 127.

 Public IP Range: 1.0.0.0 to 127.0.0.0

o First octet value range from 1 to 127
 Private IP Range: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
 Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0 (8 bits)
 Number of Networks: 126
 Number of Hosts per Network: 16,777,214

Class B Public & Private IP Address Range

Class B addresses are for medium to large sized networks. Class B allows for 16,384 networks by
using the first two octets for the network ID. The first two bits in the first octet are always 1 0.
The remaining six bits, together with the second octet, complete the network ID. The 16 bits in
the third and fourth octet represent host ID and allows for approximately 65,000 hosts per
network. Class B network number values begin at 128 and end at 191.

 Public IP Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0

o First octet value range from 128 to 191
 Private IP Range: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
 Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0 (16 bits)
 Number of Networks: 16,382
  Number of Hosts per Network: 65,534

Class C Public & Private IP Address Range

Class C addresses are used in small local area networks (LANs). Class C allows for approximately
2 million networks by using the first three octets for the network ID. In a class C IP address, the
first three bits of the first octet are always 1 1 0. And the remaining 21 bits of first three octets
complete the network ID. The last octet (8 bits) represent the host ID and allows for 254 hosts
per network. Class C network number values begins at 192 and end at 223.

 Public IP Range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.0

o First octet value range from 192 to 223
 Private IP Range: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
 Special IP Range: 127.0.0.1 to 127.255.255.255
 Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0 (24 bits)
 Number of Networks: 2,097,150
 Number of Hosts per Network: 254

Class D IP Address Range

Class D IP addresses are not allocated to hosts and are used for multicasting. Multicasting
allows a single host to send a single stream of data to thousands of hosts across the Internet at
the same time. It is often used for audio and video streaming, such as IP-based cable TV
networks. Another example is the delivery of real-time stock market data from one source to
many brokerage companies.

 Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255

o First octet value range from 224 to 239
 Number of Networks: N/A
 Number of Hosts per Network: Multicasting

Class E IP Address Class

Class E IP addresses are not allocated to hosts and are not available for general use. These are
reserved for research purposes.

 Range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255

o First octet value range from 240 to 255
 Number of Networks: N/A
 Number of Hosts per Network: Research/Reserved/Experimental
Private IP Addresses

Within each network class, there are designated IP address that is reserved specifically for
private/internal use only. This IP address cannot be used on Internet-facing devices as that are
non-routable. For example, web servers and FTP servers must use non-private IP addresses.
However, within your own home or business network, private IP addresses are assigned to your
devices (such as workstations, printers, and file servers).

 Class A Private Range: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255

 Class B Private APIPA Range: 169.254.0.0 to 169.254.255.255
o Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA) is a feature with Microsoft Windows-
based computers to automatically assign itself an IP address within this range if
a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server is not available on the
network. A DHCP server is a network device that is responsible for assigning IP
addresses to devices on the network.

At your home, your Internet modem or router likely provides this functionality.
In your work place, a Microsoft Windows Server, a network firewall, or some
other specialized network device likely provides this functionality for the
computer at your work environment.
 Class B Private Range: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
 Class C Private Range: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255

Special IP Addresses

IP Range: 127.0.0.1 to 127.255.255.255 are network testing addresses (also referred to as loop-
back addresses). These are virtual IP address, in that they cannot be assigned to a device.
Specifically, the IP 127.0.0.1 is often used to troubleshoot network connectivity issues using
the ping command. Specifically, it tests a computer's TCP/IP network software driver to ensure
it is working properly.

Summary of IPv4 Classes

Public IP # of # of Hosts per

Private IP Range Subnet Mask
Range Networks Network

Class 1.0.0.0 to 10.0.0.0 to

255.0.0.0 126 16,777,214
A 127.0.0.0 10.255.255.255

Class 128.0.0.0 to 172.16.0.0 to

255.255.0.0 16,382 65,534
B 191.255.0.0 172.31.255.255
 Public IP # of # of Hosts per
Private IP Range Subnet Mask
Range Networks Network

192.168.0.0 to
Class 192.0.0.0 to
192.168.255.25 255.255.255.0 2,097,150 254
C 223.255.255.0
5

IPv4:

IP stands for Internet Protocol and v4 stands for Version Four (IPv4). IPv4 was the primary
version brought into action for production within the ARPANET in 1983.
IP version four addresses are 32-bit integers which will be expressed in hexadecimal notation.
Example- 192.0.2.126 could be an IPv4 address.
Parts of IPv4
 Network part:
The network part indicates the distinctive variety that’s appointed to the network. The
network part conjointly identifies the category of the network that’s assigned.
 Host Part:
The host part uniquely identifies the machine on your network. This a part of the IPv4
address is assigned to every host.
For each host on the network, the network part is the same, however, the host half must
vary.
 Subnet number:
This is the nonobligatory part of IPv4. Local networks that have massive numbers of hosts
are divided into subnets and subnet numbers are appointed to that.

Characteristics of IPv4
 IPv4 could be a 32-Bit IP Address.
 IPv4 could be a numeric address, and its bits are separated by a dot.
 The number of header fields are twelve and the length of the header filed is twenty.
 It has Unicast, broadcast, and multicast style of addresses.
 IPv4 supports VLSM (Virtual Length Subnet Mask).
 IPv4 uses the Post Address Resolution Protocol to map to mack address.
 RIP may be a routing protocol supported by the routed daemon.
 Networks ought to be designed either manually or with DHCP.
 Packet fragmentation permits from routers and causing host.
Advantages of IPv4
 IPv4 security permits encryption to keep up privacy and security.
 IPV4 network allocation is significant and presently has quite 85000 practical routers.
 It becomes easy to attach multiple devices across an outsized network while not NAT.
 This is a model of communication so provides quality service also as economical
knowledge transfer.
 IPV4 addresses are redefined and permit flawless encoding.
 Routing is a lot of scalable and economical as a result of addressing is collective more
effectively.
 Data communication across the network becomes a lot of specific in multicast
organizations.

Disadvantages of IPv4
 Limits net growth for existing users and hinders the use of the net for brand
new users.
 Internet Routing is inefficient in IPv4.
 IPv4 has high System Management prices and it’s labor intensive, complex,
slow & frequent to errors.
 Security features are nonobligatory.
 Difficult to feature support for future desires as a result of adding it on is
extremely high overhead since it hinders the flexibility to attach everything
over IP.
IP address is your digital identity. It’s a network address for your computer so the Internet
knows where to send you emails, data, etc.
IP address determines who and where you are in the network of billions of digital devices that
are connected to the Internet.

IPv6:
IPv6 or Internet Protocol Version 6 is a network layer protocol that allows communication to
take place over the network. IPv6 was designed by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in
December 1998 with the purpose of superseding the IPv4 due to the global exponentially
growing internet users.
IPv4 vs IPv6
The common type of IP address (is known as IPv4, for “version 4”). Here’s an example of what
an IP address might look like:
25.59.209.224
An IPv4 address consists of four numbers, each of which contains one to three digits, with a
single dot (.) separating each number or set of digits. Each of the four numbers can range
from 0 to 255. This group of separated numbers creates the addresses that let you and
everyone around the globe to send and retrieve data over our Internet connections. The IPv4
uses a 32-bit address scheme allowing to store 2^32 addresses which is more than 4 billion
addresses. To date, it is considered the primary Internet Protocol and carries 94% of Internet
traffic.
Initially, it was assumed it would never run out of addresses but the present situation paves a
new way to IPv6, let’s see why?
An IPv6 address consists of eight groups of four hexadecimal digits. Here’s an example IPv6
address:
3001:0da8:75a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
This new IP address version is being deployed to fulfill the need for more Internet addresses.
It was aimed to resolve issues which are associated with IPv4. With 128-bit address space, it
allows 340 undecillion unique address space. IPv6 also called IPng (Internet Protocol next
generation).
IPv6 support a theoretical maximum of 340, 282, 366, 920, 938, 463, 463, 374, 607, 431, 768,
211, 456. To keep it straightforward, we will never run out of IP addresses again.

Types of IPv6 Address

Now that we know about what is IPv6 address let’s take a look at its different types.
 Unicast addresses
It identifies a unique node on a network and usually refers to a single sender or a single
receiver.
 Multicast addresses
It represents a group of IP devices and can only be used as the destination of a datagram.
 Anycast addresses
It is assigned to a set of interfaces that typically belong to different nodes.
Advantages of IPv6
 Reliability
 Faster Speeds: IPv6 supports multicast rather than broadcast in IPv4.This feature allows
bandwidth-intensive packet flows (like multimedia streams) to be sent to multiple
destinations all at once.
 Stringer Security: IPSecurity, which provides confidentiality, and data integrity, is
embedded into IPv6.
 Routing efficiency
 Most importantly it’s the final solution for growing nodes in Global-network.
Disadvantages of IPv6
 Conversion: Due to widespread present usage of IPv4 it will take a long period to
completely shift to IPv6.
 Communication: IPv4 and IPv6 machines cannot communicate directly with each other.
They need an intermediate technology to make that possible.
Difference between Ipv4 and Ipv6:

Basis for
IPv4 IPv6
differences
Size of IP address IPv4 is a 32-Bit IP Address. IPv6 is 128 Bit IP Address.
IPv6 is an alphanumeric address whose binary bits
Addressing IPv4 is a numeric address, and its
are separated by a colon (:). It also contains
method binary bits are separated by a dot (.)
hexadecimal.
Number of
12 8
header fields
Length of header
20 40
filed
Checksum Has checksum fields Does not have checksum fields
Example 12.244.233.165 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:ff00:0042:7879
Type of Addresses Unicast, broadcast, and multicast. Unicast, multicast, and anycast.
Number of IPv4 offers five different classes of IP lPv6 allows storing an unlimited number of IP
classes Address. Class A to E. Address.
You have to configure a newly
In IPv6, the configuration is optional, depending
Configuration installed system before it can
upon on functions needed.
communicate with other systems.
IPv4 support VLSM (Virtual Length
VLSM support IPv6 does not offer support for VLSM.
Subnet Mask).
Fragmentation is done by sending and
Fragmentation Fragmentation is done by the sender.
forwarding routes.
Routing
RIP is a routing protocol supported by
Information RIP does not support IPv6. It uses static routes.
the routed daemon.
Protocol (RIP)
Networks need to be configured
either manually or with DHCP. IPv4
Network
had several overlays to handle IPv6 support autoconfiguration capabilities.
Configuration
Internet growth, which require more
maintenance efforts.
Widespread use of NAT (Network
address translation) devices which
allows single NAT address can mask It allows direct addressing because of vast address
Best feature
thousands of non-routable addresses, Space.
making end-to-end integrity
achievable.
Basis for
IPv4 IPv6
differences
Use for the designated network from
Address Mask Not used.
host portion.
SNMP is a protocol used for system
SNMP SNMP does not support IPv6.
management.
Relatively constrained network
Mobility & topologies to which move restrict IPv6 provides interoperability and mobility
Interoperability mobility and interoperability capabilities which are embedded in network devices.
capabilities.
Security is dependent on applications -
IPSec(Internet Protocol Security) is built into the IPv6
Security IPv4 was not designed with security in
protocol, usable with a proper key infrastructure.
mind.
Packet size 576 bytes required,
Packet size 1208 bytes required without fragmentation
fragmentation optional
Packet
Allows from routers and sending host Sending hosts only
fragmentation
Does not identify packet flow for QoS
Packet head contains Flow Label field that specifies
Packet header handling which includes checksum
packet flow for QoS handling
options.
DNS records Address (A) records, maps hostnames Address (AAAA) records, maps hostnames
Stateless address autoconfiguration using Internet
Address
Manual or via DHCP Control Message Protocol version 6 (ICMPv6) or
configuration
DHCPv6
IP to MAC
Broadcast ARP Multicast Neighbour Solicitation
resolution
Local subnet
Internet Group Management Protocol
Group Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD)
GMP)
management
Does not have optional fields. But Extension headers
Optional Fields Has Optional Fields
are available.
Internet Protocol Security (IPSec)
Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) Concerning
IPSec concerning network security is
network security is mandatory
optional
Dynamic host Clients have approach DHCS (Dynamic
A Client does not have to approach any such server
configuration Host Configuration server) whenever
as they are given permanent addresses.
Server they want to connect to a network.
Uses ARP(Address Resolution Uses NDP(Neighbour Discovery Protocol) to map to
Mapping
Protocol) to map to MAC address MAC address
Combability with IPv4 address uses the dot-decimal IPv6 address is represented in hexadecimal, colon-
mobile devices notation. That's why it is not suitable separated notation. IPv6 is better suited to mobile
Basis for
IPv4 IPv6
differences
for mobile networks. networks.

IPv4 and IPv6 cannot communicate with other but can exist together on the same network. This
is known as Dual Stack.

Category of IP Address Classes:

Class A Network

This IP address class is used when there are a large number of hosts. In a Class A type of
network, the first 8 bits (also called the first octet) identify the network, and the remaining have
24 bits for the host into that network.

An example of a Class A address is 102.168.212.226. Here, "102" helps you identify the network
and 168.212.226 identify the host.

Class A addresses 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 cannot be used and is reserved for loopback
and diagnostic functions.

Class B Network

In a B class IP address, the binary addresses start with 10. In this IP address, the class decimal
number that can be between 128 to 191. The number 127 is reserved for loopback, which is
used for internal testing on the local machine. The first 16 bits (known as two octets) help you
identify the network. The other remaining 16 bits indicate the host within the network.

An example of Class B IP address is 168.212.226.204, where *168 212* identifies the network
and *226.204* helps you identify the Hut network host.

Class C Network

Class C is a type of IP address that is used for the small network. In this class, three octets are
used to indent the network. This IP ranges between 192 to 223.

In this type of network addressing method, the first two bits are set to be 1, and the third bit is
set to 0, which makes the first 24 bits of the address them and the remaining bit as the host
address. Mostly local area network used Class C IP address to connect with the network.

Example for a Class C IP address:

192.168.178.1
Class D Network

Class D addresses are only used for multicasting applications. Class D is never used for regular
networking operations. This class addresses the first three bits set to "1" and their fourth bit set
to use for "0". Class D addresses are 32-bit network addresses. All the values within the range
are used to identify multicast groups uniquely.

Therefore, there is no requirement to extract the host address from the IP address, so Class D
does not have any subnet mask.

Example for a Class D IP address:

227.21.6.173

Class E Network

Class E IP address is defined by including the starting four network address bits as 1, which
allows you two to incorporate addresses from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255. However, E class is
reserved, and its usage is never defined. Therefore, many network implementations discard
these addresses as undefined or illegal.

Example for a Class E IP address:

243.164.89.28

SUBNET:

A subnet, or subnetwork, is a network inside a network. Subnets make networks more efficient.
Through subnetting, network traffic can travel a shorter distance without passing through
unnecessary routers to reach its destination.

Subnetting is the practice of dividing a network into two or smaller networks. It increases
routing efficiency, which helps to enhance the security of the network and reduces the size of
the broadcast domain.

IP Subnetting designates high-order bits from the host as part of the network prefix. This
method divides a network into smaller subnets.

It also helps you to reduce the size of the routing tables, which is stored in routers. This method
also helps you to extend the existing IP address base & restructures the IP address.

Beneficial uses of subnets

 Reallocating IP addresses. Each class has a limited number of host allocations; for example,
networks with more than 254 devices need a Class B allocation. If a network administrator
is working with a Class B or C network and needs to allocate 150 hosts for three physical
networks located in three different cities, they would need to either request more address
blocks for each network -- or divide a network into subnets that enable administrators to
use one block of addresses on multiple physical networks.

 Relieving network congestion. If much of an organization's traffic is meant to be shared

regularly between the same cluster of computers, placing them on the same subnet can
reduce network traffic. Without a subnet, all computers and servers on the network would
see data packets from every other computer.

 Improving network security. Subnetting allows network administrators to reduce network-

wide threats by quarantining compromised sections of the network and by making it more
difficult for trespassers to move around an organization's network.

https://www.calculator.net/ip-subnet-calculator.html

SUBNET MASK:

A subnet mask is like an IP address, but for only internal usage within a network.

Routers use subnet masks to route data packets to the right place.

Subnet masks are not indicated within data packets of the Internet — those packets only
indicate the destination IP address, which a router will match with a subnet.

A subnet mask is a 32 bits address used to distinguish between a network address and a host
address in IP address.

A subnet mask identifies which part of an IP address is the network address and the host
address.

A subnet mask is a number that defines a range of IP addresses available within a network.

A single subnet mask limits the number of valid IPs for a specific network.

Multiple subnet masks can organize a single network into smaller networks (called subnetworks
or subnets).
 Systems within the same subnet can communicate directly with each other, while systems on
different subnets must communicate through a router.
A subnet mask hides (or masks) the network part of a system's IP address and leaves only
the host part as the machine identifier.
It uses the same format as an IPv4 address — four sections of one to three numbers, separated
by dots.
Each section of the subnet mask can contain a number from 0 to 255, just like an IP address. For
example, a typical subnet mask for a Class C IP address is:
255.255.255.0
In the example above, the first three sections are full (255 out of 255), meaning the IP
addresses of devices within the subnet mask must be identical in the first three sections. The
last section of each computer's IP address can be anything from 0 to 255. If the subnet mask is
defined as 255.255.255.0, the IP addresses 10.0.1.99 and 10.0.1.100 are in the same subnet,
but 10.0.2.100 is not.
A subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 allows for close to 256 unique hosts within the network (since
not all 256 IP addresses can be used).

If your computer is connected to a network, you can view the network's subnet mask number
in the Network control panel (Windows) or System Preference (macOS). Most home networks
use the default subnet mask of 255.255.255.0. However, an office network may be configured
with a different subnet mask such as 255.255.255.192, which limits the number of IP addresses
to 64.
Large networks with several thousand machines may use a subnet mask of 255.255.0.0. This is
the default subnet mask used by Class B networks and provides up to 65,536 IP addresses (256
x 256). The largest Class A networks use a subnet mask of 255.0.0.0, allowing for up to
16,777,216 IP addresses (256 x 256 x 256).