Ecosystems

Ecology:- Ecology is a science of interrelationship and deals with

relationship of living organisms and non-living components. The term
ecosystem was coined by British Ecologist A. G. Tansley in 1935.
The ecosystem includes the complex of living organisms and physical
factors which forms the environment. The word Eco means the
Environment and System means interacting with each other.

Concept of Ecosystem:-
Various kinds of life supporting systems like forests, grasslands, oceans,
lakes, rivers, mountains, deserts, estuaries show wide variations in their
structural composition and functions, but they consist of the living entities
interacting with their surroundings by exchanging matter and energy. These
different units differ in the type of their flora and fauna.
The concept of ecosystem is very broad and gives an idea about
interrelationship of living organisms with the complex physical
environmental components and has interdependence among them. The
interaction between autotrophs and heterotrophs is responsible for having
unique structure of all the ecosystems such as terrestrial, freshwater or
marine ecosystems.
As a general principle the living and non living parts of the ecosystem are
so interwoven into fabric of nature that it is difficult to separate them. E.g.
the most vital element such as C, N, H, O, S, P form abiotic component of
ecosystem are bound to form organic compounds such as carbohydrates,
proteins and lipids etc.
The ecosystem represents a distinct combination of air, soil, water (habitat)
along with plants, animals, and microbes forming a self sustaining unit. For
the survival of living organisms, all must have to adjust to the changing
physical and chemical conditions of the environment. Individual organism,
their populations and communities of different populations exist and
operate as part of ecosystems. The organisms do not live singularly in
nature but live in association with other living plant and animal
communities.
The ecosystem is normally open type of system where we see the
interaction between organism and environment. In this open system the
input is of an energy and nutrients and output is organized and stabilized
structure of ecosystem which is essential for maintenance of life on earth.
Different types of ecosystems are present on planet earth and there are no
sharp boundaries between the ecosystems but they contain ecotone. The
ecotone is the transition zone between two or more adjoining ecosystems
and this narrow region is represented by the species diversity from all the
ecosystems.
The natural ecosystems are over the period of years, stabilized and
balanced. If there is any change in the structure, character or function of the
ecosystem, which is responsible for disturbing the well established and
sensitive balance, the change or damage may be permanent.
Human activity in an inland ecosystem may cause rapid extinction of many
unique plant and animal species. Species rich ecosystems of evergreen
forests and coral reefs get degraded by human activities. River and wetland
ecosystems are affected by pollution and changes in surrounding landuse.
Definition:- An ecosystem is a self-regulatory group of biotic communities
of species interacting with one another and with their non-living
environment exchanging energy and matter.
Ecology is often defined as “the study of ecosystems”.

• Structure and Functions of An Ecosystem

The ecosystem comprises of Biotic and Abiotic components.
I) Biotic Components
The plants, animals and micro organisms present in an
ecosystem form the biotic components.
Biotic components divided into three types.
i) Producers ii) consumers iii) Decomposers
 i) Producers [Autotrophs, self nourishing, independent]
They are mainly the green plant, which can synthesize their
food themselves by using CO2 from the atmosphere and water in
presence of sunlight by involving chlorophyll, the green
pigment present in the leaves through the process of
photosynthesis. They are also known as Photoautotroph’s.
There are some micro organisms also which can produce
organic matter to some extent through oxidation of certain
chemicals in the absence of sunlight. They are known as
Chemosynthetic organisms or chemoautotrophs.
ii) Consumers [Heterotrophs, dependent]
These are the heterotrophic organisms’ chiefly animals that eat
other organisms or organic matter. They may be herbivorous,
carnivorous or omnivorous.
a) Herbivorous (Plant eaters):- They feed directly on producers and hence
also known as primary consumers.
 E.g. Rabbit, insect, man.
b) Carnivorous( meat eaters):- They feed on other consumers.
If they feed on herbivorous they are called secondary consumers. E.g.
Frog. Because it feeds on primary consumers. If they feed on other or
secondary consumers /carnivorous (snake, big fish etc.) they are known as
tertiary carnivorous or consumers.
Grass Insect Frog Snake

Producer
I II III
Consumer Consumer Consumer
b) Omnivorous:- They feed on both plants and animals.
E.g. Humans, rat, fox, many birds.
3. Decomposers:- They derive their nutrition by breaking down the
complex organic molecules to simple organic compounds and ultimately
into inorganic nutrients. Various bacteria and fungi are decomposers.
Abiotic Components:-
The physical and chemical components of an ecosystem constitute its
abiotic structure.
Physical factors include sunlight, intensity of solar flux, duration of sun
hours, temperature i.e. minimum and maximum, annual rainfall, soil type,
water availability are some important factors.
Chemical factors include major essential nutrients like carbon, nitrogen,
calcium, Phosphorus, potassium, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, toxic
substances, salts causing salinity and various organic substances like
proteins, amino acids, lipids and carbohydrates which are synthesized by
the biotic counterpart of an ecosystem.
All the biotic components of an ecosystem are influenced by the abiotic
components and vice-versa and they are linked together through energy
flow.
Depending upon the functions the ecosystem has two components.
1. Autotrophs: - They are self nourishing. They include green plants
including photosynthetic bacteria and Chemosynthetic bacteria that
synthesize food in presence of sunlight to build up complex
substances. Members of autotrophic component are known as
producers.
2. Heterotrophs: - They are nourished by others.
The organisms involved are known as consumers as they consume the
matter built up by the producers.

Example of an Ecosystem: - Pond ecosystem.

A lake or Pond is a classical example of the ecosystem. It includes
four basic units.
Abiotic Substances:- Water, co2, O2, Ca, N2, P, amino acids and
humic acids etc. is readily available to organisms in the form of
particulate matter.
Biotic Substances- Producers-
In a pond producers are of two types
a) Rooted or large floating plants generally growing in shallow water.
b) Minute floating algae i.e. Phytoplankton produces basic food.
Consumers:- Insect larvae, crustaceans, fish which feed directly
on living plants are called primary consumers whereas the
carnivorous i.e. carnivorous fish that feed on the primary
consumers are called secondary consumers.
Decomposers: - They are the aquatic bacteria and fungi that
decompose the dead organisms. The entire pond is divided into
two strata i.e. I ) An Upper strata means production zone and
ii) Lower strata i.e. decomposition or nutrient regenerative zone.
 Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
Flow of energy in an ecosystem takes place through the food chain and it is
this energy flow which keeps the ecosystem going. The most important
feature of this energy flow is that it is unidirectional or one way flow.
The flow of energy follows the two laws of Thermodynamics.
Ist law of Thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed but it can be transformed from one form to another.
The solar energy captured by the green plants (producers) gets converted
into biochemical energy of plants.
II law of Thermodynamics states that energy dissipates or it gets converted
from more concentrated form to dispersed or simple form. As energy flows
through the food chain there occurs loss of energy at every trophic lever i.e.
during running, respiration, growth, eating, locomotion, flying and other
activities.
Every ecosystem has several interrelated mechanisms that affect human
life. These are the water cycle, carbon cycle, oxygen cycle, nitrogen cycle
and energy cycle.

Energy flow Models-

Energy flow through an ecosystem was explained by E.P.Odum in 1956. Y
shaped energy flow model is one of the first published model. The energy
used all plant life processes is derived from solar radiation.
There are two types of energy flow models
Single channel energy flow model and Y shaped energy flow model.
Single channel energy flow model
The flow of energy takes place in a unidirectional manner through a single
channel of green plants or producers to herbivorous and carnivorous.
[There is a gradual decrease in energy level due to loss of energy at each
successive trophic level in a grazing food chain].
The energy that is captured by the autotrophs does not revert back to solar
input, that which posse to the herbivorous does not pass back to the
autotrophs. As it moves progressively through the various trophic levels it
is no longer available to the previous level. Thus due to one way flow of
energy the system would collapse if the primary source, the sun were cut
off. Secondly there occurs a progressive decrease in energy level at each
trophic level. This is accounted largely by the energy dissipated as heat in
metabolic activities and measured here as respiration coupled with
unutilized energy.

Y shaped energy flow model-

It shows a common boundary and in addition to light, heat flows, the
import, export and storage of organic matter are also included.
Decomposers are placed in a separate box as a means of partially
separating the Grazing food chain and Detritus food chain.
The food chain which starts from dead organic matter is known as
Detritus food chain.

The Water Cycle

When it rains, water falls on the ground and it flows into rivers or
falls directly on the sea. Some water percolates into the ground and it
is stored as a underground water for longer period. Plants absorb
underground water along with the nutrients. Plants release water from
the leaves by transpiration in the form of water vapor which returned
to the atmosphere. Due to sunlight water from sea surface is
converted into vapor. The water vapor is lighter than air which forms
clouds. When clouds rise higher the vapor condenses and changes
into droplets, which fall on the land as rain. This is an endless cycle
on which life depends. Human activities are making drastic changes
in the atmosphere through pollution which is changing rainfall
patterns. This sometimes results in droughts and floods. El Nino
storms have divested many places in the last few years.
Carbon Cycle

Carbon is found in both biotic and abiotic components of the

ecosystem. Carbon acts as a building block of both plants and animal
tissues. In the atmosphere, carbon occurs in the form of carbon
dioxide. During the process of photosynthesis plant leaves absorb
carbon dioxide in sunlight and it combines with water and form
carbohydrates. Plants use photosynthesis for their growth and
development. In this process oxygen is released in the atmosphere for
respiration of animals. Thus, plants help in regulating and monitoring
the percentage of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the earth’s
atmosphere. All mankind depends on the oxygen produced by this
cycle. It also keeps carbon dioxide at acceptable levels. Herbivore
animals feed on plants and get energy for their growth. Carbon
dioxide is released in the atmosphere by both plants and animals
during respiration. They also return fixed carbon to the soil in the
waste they excrete. When plants and animals die they return their
carbon to the soil. All these processed complete the carbon cycle.

Oxygen cycle

Plants and animals take oxygen from air during respiration. Plants
release oxygen to the atmosphere during photosynthesis. Thus oxygen
and carbon cycles are linked. Because of deforestation oxygen level
in the atmosphere is gradually reducing. Thus, plants play vital role in
our lives which we generally neglect. Therefore, afforestation
programmes are very important and everybody should participate in
it.
Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen forms many essential molecules, like amino acids, the
building blocks of proteins and genetic material like DNA and RNA.
In the air nitrogen is present 79% but plants and animals can not use
nitrogen in this form. For usable form it must be converted into
ammonia (NH3) or nitrate (NO3). The conversion of atmospheric
nitrogen into nitrate and ammonia is called nitrogen fixation and this
is done by nitrogen fixing bacteria present in soil and water.
Herbivorous animals feed on plants and carnivorous animals feed on
herbivorous animals. Thus, animals get nitrogen by feeding on plants.
When animals defecate, this waste material is broken down by worms
and insects mostly beetles and ants. The soil bacteria and fungi
further broken down into nutrients that plants can absorb and use for
their growth. The nutrients are recycled back from animals to plants.
Similarly dead bodies of animals are also broken down into nutrients
that are used by the plants for their growth. Thus, the nitrogen cycle
on which life is dependent is completed.
The nitrogen fixing bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates
which is important element to plants. The nitrates are a part of the
plant’s metabolism, which help in forming new plant proteins. This is
again used by animals that feed on the plants. The nitrogen is
transferred to carnivorous animals when they feed on herbivores.
Thus, our own lives are closely interlinked to soil animals, fungi and
bacteria. Thus microorganisms play an important role in ecosystem.

Ecological Succession
Ecosystem is dynamic in nature and changes its structure as wellas
functions with time and quite interestingly these changes are very
orderly and can be predicted.
It is observed that one type of a community is totally replaced by
another type of community over a period of time and simultaneously
several changes also occur. This process is known as ecological
succession.
Definition- Ecological Succession is defined as an orderly process of
changes in the community structure and function with time and
modifications in the physical environment and ultimately reaching in
a stabilized ecosystem known as climax.
Succession process takes hundreds or thousands of years.

Causes of succession
1. Initial or initiating causes- Erosion, deposits, wind, volcanic
eruptions etc.
2. Continuing causes or Ecesis- These are processes of migration,
aggregation, competition, reaction etc.
3. Stabilizing causes- These causes stabilization of the community.

E.g. Conversion of Bare rock into Forest Ecosystem

 1. Conversion of Bare rock into Forest ecosystem
This type of succession originates on a bare rock which lacks water
and organic matter. But here also the climax community is forest
ecosystem although the intermediate stages are very different.
During weathering (disintegration) if rocks some organic matter,
humus and soil get deposited on the rock, followed by marsh, then
grasses, herbs, shrubs and finally the forest trees.
2. Conversion of Pond ecosystem into forest ecosystem.

Types of Succession
1. Primary succession
It starts from the primitive substratum, where there was no previously
any sort of living matter. The first group of organisms establishing
there are known as the pioneers, primary community or primary
colonizers.
2. Secondary succession
It starts from the previously built up substrata with already existing
living matter. Such successions are comparatively more rapid.
3. Autogenic succession
After the succession has begun the community it modified its own
environment by some reactions, thus causing its own replacements
by new communities. This course of succession is known as
autogenic succession.
The plants themselves (biotic components) cause succession to occur.

Light captured by leaves

Production of detritus

Water and nutrient uptake

Nitrogen fixation

anthropogenic climate change

4. Allogenic succession
In some cases the replacement of the existing community is caused
largely by any other external conditions and not by the existing
organisms. Such a course is referred to as allogenic succession.
E.g. Hurricanes, forest fires, earthquake, climate change, flooding.

5. Autptrophic succession
It predominantly starts with autotrophic organisms like green plants.
It begins in inorganic environment (CO2, H2O, N2, Ca, Phosphates
etc.) and energy flow is maintained indefinitely also there is gradual
increase in the organic matter content and also in the energy content.
The succession where the green plants are much greater in quantity
than the animals.
6. Heterotrophic succession
It is characterized by heterotrophs such as bacteria, fungi,
actinomycetes and animals. It begins in a organic environment
(proteins, lipids, amino acids, carbohydrate, fats etc.) and there is
progressive decline in the energy content. Therefore they consume
the matter built up by the producers.

Process of Succession
Process of succession takes in a systematic order of sequential steps
as follows-

1. Nudation
 It is the development of a bare area without any life form. The
bare area may be caused due to topographic factors like
landslides, volcanic eruptions, earthquake etc. due to climatic
factors like drought, glaciers, frost or due to biological factors like
disease outbreak, agricultural and industrial activities.
2. Invasian
It is the successful establishment of one or more species on a bare
area through dispersal or migration. Dispersal of the seeds, spores
etc. is brought about by wind, water, insects, or birds. Then the
seeds germinate and grow on the land. As growth and
reproduction starts, these pioneer species increases in number and
forms groups or aggregations.
3. Competition and co-action
As the number of individuals grows there is competition between
both interspecific (between different species) and intra-specific
(within the same species) for space, water and nutrition. They
influence each other in number of ways known as co-action.
4. Reaction
This is most important stage in succession. The living organisms
grows use water and nutrients from the substratum and in turn
they strongly influence on the environment which is modified.
This is known as reaction. As a result of reaction changes takes in
soil, water, light condition, temperature etc. of the environment.
The modifications are such that they become unsuitable for the
existing species and favorable for some new species. These
reaction leads to several seral communities (different
communities are formed)
5. Stabilization (Climax)
Finally there occurs a stage in the process when the final terminal
community becomes more or less stable for longer period of time
 and maintains itself in equilibrium with the climate of the area.
This final community is not replaced and is known as climax
stage or community.

Example of succession
1. Hydrosere (Hydrarch)

This type of succession starts in a water body like pond. A number of

intermediate stages come and ultimately it reaches a climax stage which is
a forest community.
The pioneer community consist of phytoplankton which are free floating
algae, diatoms etc. Gradually they are replaced by rooted submerged plants
followed by rooted floating plants. Growth of these plants keep on adding
organic matter to the substratum by death and decay and thus a layer of soil
builds up and swallowing of water takes place. Then Reed Swamp
(marshy) stage follows in which the plants are partly in water and partly on
land. This is followed by sedge-meadow stage of grasses then by woodland
consisting of shrubs and trees and finally by a forest acting as climax.
Food Chains
The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food
chain. The transfer of food energy from the producers, through a series of
organisms (herbivorous to carnivorous to decomposers) with repeated
eating and being eaten is known as a food chain.
All organisms living or dead are potential food for some other organisms
and thus there is essentially no waste in the functioning of natural
ecosystem.
Plant leaf Caterpillar Sparrow Cat/Hawk
A caterpillar eats a plant leaf, a sparrow eats the caterpillar, a cat or a hawk
eats the sparrow and when they all die, they are all consumed by micro-
organisms like bacteria and fungi (decomposers) which breakdown the
organic matter and convert it into simple inorganic substances that can
again be used by the plants the primary producers.

Examples of simple food chains are

1.Grassland ecosystem
Grass Grasshopper Frog Snake Hawk

Producer I Trophic II III IV

Level
2. Pond ecosystem
Phytoplankton’s Zooplankton’s Small fish Big fish
Each organisms belongs to some trophic level depending on the nutritional
status. Thus in Grassland food chain , grass occupies the I st trophic level,
frog the II, snake the III, hawk the IV trophic level. The decomposers
consume the dead matter of all these trophic levels.

Types of Food chains

In nature there are two types of food chains

1) Grazing food chain
This type of food chain starts from the living green plants goes to
grazing herbivorous and then to carnivorous (animal eaters). Such
type of food chain are directly dependent on influx of solar radiations.
Detritus food chain
Detritus food chain

This type of food chain starts from dead organic matter. Such

ecosystems are less dependent on direct solar energy but depend

chiefly on the influx of organic matter produced in another system.

E.g. Detritus food chain in an estuary (pond) based on dead leaves

of Mangrove—

In Detritus food chain in an estuary a large quantity of leaf material

falls in the form of litter into the water. The leaf fragments are

eaten by saprotrophs [saprotrophs are those organisms which feed

on dead organic matter] these fallen leaves are colonized by the

saprotrophs or detritivorous consisting of crabs, mollusks, insect

larvae, fishes. The tritivorous are eaten by small carnivorous

fishes, which in turn are eaten by large carnivorous fishes.

Pond/ Estuary Mangrove ecosystem-

Leaf litter algae crabs small fish Large fish

Dead organic matter Fungi Bacteria (Forest

ecosystem)

Thus grazing food chain derives its energy basically from plant

energy while in the detritus food chain it is obtained primarily

from plant biomass, secondarily from microbial biomass and

tertiary from carnivorous.

Both the food chains occur together in natural ecosystems, but

grazing food chain usually predominates.

Mangrove trees

Food web

Food chain in ecosystems is rarely found to operate as isolated linear

sequences. When these food chains are found to be inter connected and
usually form a complex network with several linkages, they are known as
food webs. Thus food web is a network of food chains where different
types of organisms are connected at different trophic levels, so that there
are number of options of eating and being eaten at each trophic level.
Food webs give greater stability than linear food chain to the ecosystems.
In a linear food chains if one species become extinct or one species suffers
then the species in the subsequent trophic levels are also affected.
On the other hand, in a food web there are a number of options available at
each trophic level. So if one species is affected it does not affect other
trophic levels so seriously.
E.g. Food web in grassland ecosystem.
There may be seen as many as five linear food chains as follows—
Grass Grasshopper Hawk
Grass Grasshopper Lizard Hawk
Grass Rabbit Hawk
Grass Mouse Hawk
Grass Mouse Snake Hawk
These all five chains are interlinked with each other at different points
forming food web.
The broken arrows show how the two chains are linked into a food web.
Decrease in population of rabbit would naturally cause an increase in the
population of alternative herbivore, the mouse.

Significance of food chains and food webs-

1. Food chains and food webs play a very significant role in the
ecosystems because the two important functions of energy
flow and nutrient cycling take place through them.
2. The food chains also help in maintaining and regulating the
population size of different animals and thus help in maintain
the ecological balance.
 Ecological Pyramids
Graphical representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem
starting with producers at the base with successive trophic levels forming
the apex is known as ecological pyramids. Ecological pyramid are of three
types
1. Pyramid of Numbers
2. Pyramid of Biomass
3. Pyramid of Energy
1. Pyramid of Numbers-
It represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic
level. We may have upright or inverted pyramid of numbers
depending upon the type of ecosystem and food chain.
 Grassland ecosystem and Pond ecosystem-
A Grassland ecosystem and a Pond ecosystem show an upright
pyramid of numbers. The producers in the grasslands are grasses and that in
a pond are phytoplankton’s (algae) which are small in size but very large in
numbers so the producers form a broad base. The herbivorous in a
grassland are insects while tertiary carnivorous are hawks or other birds
which are gradually less and less in number and hence the pyramid apex
becomes gradually narrower forming an upright pyramid.
Similar is the case with pond ecosystem i.e. herbivorous, carnivorous
and top carnivorous in pond which decreases in number at higher trophic
levels.
Forest ecosystem—
In a forest ecosystem big trees are the producers, which are less in numbers
and hence form a narrow base.
A large number of herbivorous including birds, insects and several species
of animals feeds upon the trees (on leaves, fruits, flowers etc.) and form a
much broader middle level.
The secondary consumers like fox, snakes, lizards etc. are less in number
than herbivorous while top carnivorous like Lion, Tiger etc. are still smaller
(less) in number so the pyramid is narrow on both sides and broader in the
middle.
Parasitic food chain—
It shows an inverted pyramid of number. The producers are trees which
are few in numbers, so the base is narrow. The birds are herbivorous which
are larger in number. The parasites are much more in number than birds,
which still greater number of hyper parasites like bugs, fleas and microbes
feed upon them, thus making an inverted pyramid.
Parasitic food chains are always inverted. A single tree may support the
growth of many herbivorous and each herbivore may in turn provide
nutrition to several parasites which supports several hyperparasites. Thus
the number of organisms gradually shows the number of organisms
gradually shows an increase, making the pyramid inverted in shape.
Pyramid of Biomass

Pyramid of Biomass is based upon the total biomass(dry matter) at each

trophic level in a food chain. The pyramid of biomass can also be upright
or inverted as shown in figures.
The pyramid of biomass in a Forest or Grassland ecosystem is upright. This
is because the producers (trees, grass) accumulate huge biomass while the
consumers total biomass feeding on them declines at higher trophic levels
resulting in broad base and narrowing top.
The Pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass. Because the
total biomass of producers i.e. phytoplankton’s is much less as compared to
herbivorous (zooplanktons, insects), carnivorous(small fish) and tertiary
carnivorous(big fish). Thus the pyramid takes an inverted shape with
narrow base and broad apex.
Pyramid of Energy

TT

The amount of energy present at each trophic level is considered

for this type of pyramid. The pyramid of energy is always upright.

Because at every successive trophic level there is a huge loss of

energy (about 90%) in the form of heat, respiration, growth,

activities etc. Thus at each next step only 10% of energy posses on.
Thus there is sharp decline in the energy levels. Therefore the

pyramid of energy is always upright.

Major Ecosystems of the World

Forest Ecosystems

Forests are extensive wild natural self sustaining wooded tracts of

land with a biotic community predominated by trees and shrubs

with close canopy. Each type of forest has its peculiar vegetation

(plants) and community of animals. Plants and animals together

constitute forest biotic communities which are interdependent and

provide several natural resources and other life support system.

Forests are classified on the basis of climate (e.g. rainfall) and soil

characteristics, nature of their tree species (e.g. evergreen,

deciduous, xerophytes or thorn trees, mangroves), most abundant

species of trees etc.

The prominent forest ecosystems in the world include the

following forests.

1. Boreal coniferous forest/ Evergreen coniferous forest

The taiga or boreal forest is the world's largest land biome. [

The coniferous forest biome or great North woods lie between

45oN and 570N altitude. The climate is cold with greater

precipitation occurring mostly in summer. Boreal forest is acidic

and also deficient in minerals.

Location- U.S., Canada, Europe, Asia. They are found just south of

Arctic Tundra. Here winters are long, cold and dry. Sunlight is

available for a few hours only. In summer the temperature is mild.

Sunshine for long hours but the season is quite short.

The prominent vegetation is trees like white spruce, balsam fir,

pine, red wood, cedar etc. which have tiny, needle shaped leaves.

These leaves fall on the forest floor and cover the nutrient poor

soil. Species diversity is rather low in these forests.

Pine forest is example of coniferous forest. Trees that grow needles

instead of leaves and cones instead of flowers. Also known as

Taiga or snow forests. Animals observed in these areas are Elk

(wapiti) (cervus elaphus) , Amur Tiger, Bobcat- Felis rufus,

Snowshoe Hare, Grizzly Bear, Gray Fox, Cow Moose, Mule deer,

White tailed Deer, Reindeer.

Temperate Deciduous Forest

They are observed in Eastern North America, Entire Europe, part of Japan,
Australia and some part of south America. These areas have abundant and
evenly distributed rainfall. (30-60 inches).
 Deciduous forests are found in areas with warm moist summers and cool
winters. Deciduous forests are not as extensive as coniferous forests but
they represents one of the most important biotic regions of the world
because “white man civilization” has developed in these areas. So these
biome is highly modified by man and much of it has been replaced by
cultivated and forest edge communities.
There are large number of plants that produce pulpy fruits and nuts.
Animals observed are Deer, Bears, Squirrels, Grey foxes, Wood peckers
etc. Plants include Maple, Beech, Oak, Basswood, Cottonwood etc.
Structure of leaves are broad so also known as broad leaf forests.

Temperate Evergreen Forest

An evergreen forest is a forest made up of evergreen trees.
These forests are common in coastal areas or in mountain areas. They have
dry, warm summers, cool-moist winters and having heavy rainfall. Trees in
these forests having broad leaves or hard needles or mix of both tree types
also known as Temperate Coniferous forest. However the plants are very
well developed and fallow quick regeneration. They are observed in North
America, Spain, and Australia etc. The animals are Mule deer, Brush
rabbits, Wood rats, Lizards. Trees like Red wood, Oak, Maple, Stone pine,
Pine, fir, Larch, Spruce, elm, small leaved deciduous trees like birch,
poplar, willow, alder etc. Fire is important factor in this ecosystem. Soil is
poor in nutrients.
• Moose, Reindeer, Caribou, Elk.Raccoons, Owls, Eagles. Also
observed.
•
Tropical Rain Forest
They are evergreen, broad leaf forests found near the equator. They are
characterized by high temperature, high humidity and high rainfall (80-
90inches/year) which favors the growth of trees. All through the year the
climate remains more or less uniform. Even they are rich in biodiversity.
The rainforests are home to half of the Earth's plant and animal species.
They are winter homes to many birds that breed in temperate latitudes.
Tropical rainforests are some of the most beautiful wildernesses on our
planet. ... Tropical rainforests help maintain global rain and weather
patterns.
These forests found in central and south America, Central and Western
Africa, South and South East Asia, North West Australia, Amezon basin in
South America and in India Silent Valley in Kerala which is the natural
habitat for wide variety of species.
There are different types of plants and animals in the tropical rain forest.
Animals like Arboreal mammals, chameleon, Geckos, arboreal snakes,
frogs, and birds are abundant .
 Plants like Orchids, rubber trees, poinsettiascacao trees, Venus fly traps
passion fleece lilies, brazil nut trees ,mahogany trees, passion fruits,
lianas, birds of paradise, strangler fig, quinine also found. Animals
like sloths, tapirs, jaguars, ocelots, kinkajous, lemurs and agouti.

The flowers of forest trees are very large, colourful, fragrant and attractive
which helps in pollination by insects , birds, bats etc.
These forest form canopy structure. The tallest broad leaf evergreen trees
forms the topmost layer, below which lies the shorter trees. Below this is
present still smaller trees and even some climbers are found grown.
There are some other plants like orchids which are Epiphytes i.e. they are
attached to the trunks or branches of big trees and they take up water and
nutrients falling from above. The orchids have special types of leaves to
capture and hold the water. Some large epiphytes can hold as much as 4lit
of water equivalent to a small bucket. Rainforests are also threatened by
climate change, which is contributing to droughts in parts of the Amazon
and Southeast Asia. Drought causes die-offs of trees and dries out leaf
litter, increasing the risk of forest fires, which are often set by land
developers, ranchers, plantation owners, speculators, and loggers.

High Altitude or the Alpine Forest

The characteristic features of high altitude environment are low air density,
high ozone content, low oxygen and carbon dioxide, high wind velocity,
cold temperature and snow. Alpine zone exist at height of 3600mts and
characterized by few animal groups. Some animals in the alpine biome
are mountain goats, sheep, elk, pikas, marmots, , Birds like grouse ,
Insects like springtails, beetles, grasshoppers, butterflies.
These include perennial grasses, sedges, forbs, cushion plants, mosses,
and lichens. Alpine plants are adapted to the harsh conditions of the alpine
environment, which include low temperatures, dryness, ultraviolet
radiation, wind, drought, poor nutritional soil, and a short growing season.
To adapt to these difficult conditions, alpine plants developed various
strategies: very small size, protective screen against UV radiation,
protective anatomical structures, mechanisms to dissipate excess light
energy, detoxification of reactive oxygen species, etc.
Degradation of forest ecosystem and its effects
Following are the threats or reasons of degradation
1. Jhuming or shifting cultivation
2. Exotic weeds (e.g. Eupatorium odoratum or communist weed,
Parthenium hysterophorus or congress grass, Eichhornia or
Water Hyacinth)
3. Hydroelectric projects
4. Forest fires
5. Human establishments
6. Mountain and forest roads
7. Construction of canals
8. Overgrazing
9. Quarrying and mining
10. Timber extraction
11. Developmental activities
12. Rapid population growth
13. Urbanization
14. Industrialization lead to utilization of forest products

Effects
1. Non availability of fuel wood on which many poor people
depend.
2. Non availability of timber required for furniture
3. Change in climate due to reduced rainfall, increased
sunlight, hotter summers and colder winters.
4. Soil erosion
5. Flash floods as there is no obstruction to water and no
water retention
6. Siltation of water reservoirs due to deposition of eroded
soil.
7. Devastating effect of cyclones in absence of mangrove
forests.
8. Loss of biodiversity and germplasm.
9. Global warming due to increase in amount of atmospheric
carbon dioxide.
10. Uprooting of tribals and loss of their livelihood.
11. Decline in agricultural production due to decrease in
number of pollinating insects like bees, butterflies and
moths
Forests can be conserved by the sustainable use of forest
products, through Afforestation, by protecting natural forest
with all the biodiversity as national parks and wildlife
sanctuaries.
 Grassland ecosystem

Grassland Ecosystem is an area where the vegetation is dominated

by grasses and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants. It is also called
transitional landscape because grassland ecosystems are dominated by the
grass with few or no trees in the area where there is not enough for
a forest and too much of a forest.
The grass species and herbs show vigorous growth during favorable
conditions. In dry seasons or summer months above ground part of
the plant dies or their seeds lay dormant in the soil. In the next
monsoon the grass cover grows back from underground parts
(rhizomes or root stock) and herbs grow from the seeds of previous
year. Thus the grasslands have highly seasonal appearance.
Rainfall is average but erratic. Limited grazing helps to improve the
net primary production of the grassland but overgrazing leads to
degradation of these grasslands resulting in desertification.
Man selected the major food plants from grasses namely rice,
wheat, maize etc. Grassland soil contains large amounts of humus.
Three types of Grasslands are depending upon the height of the
grasses. They are classified as- Tall grass, Mid grass, Short grass.
a) Tall grasses- Their height ranges from 5 to 8 feet. They include
species like Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans), Slough grass
(Spartina pectinata), Switch grass (Panicufn virgatum), and Big
bluestem (Andropogon gerardi)
b) Mid grasses – Their height ranges from 2 to 4 feet. They
incluse species like Needlegrass (Stipa spartea), Drop seed
(Sporobolus heterolepis), Western wheat grass , Tune grass
(Koeleria cristata) and Indian rice grass (Oryzopsis) and many
other.
c) Short grass – Their height goes maximum upto 1.5 feet. Buffalo
grass (Buchloe dactyloides), Blue grass (Sporobolus
heterolepis), are some of the important species.
In U.S. and Canada these grasslands are known a Prairies, in
South America as Pampas, in Africa as Velds and in Central
Europe and Asia they are known as Steppes.
Apart from grasses different animals are found in different
regions of grasslands like Zebra, Giraffe, cows, buffaloes,
Deer, Sheep, Goats, Rabbit, Mouse, Antelopes, Burrowing
rodents such as ground squirrels, prairie dogs, frogs, lizards,
snakes, birds like chickens, long spurs, horned larks,
meadowlarks, rodent hawks.

Degradation of Grassland ecosystem and

effects
Main threat to the grasslands is from overgrazing by the cattle,
sheep, goats, lighting of repeated fires, changing grassland to
other uses like agriculture, tree plantation and industrialization.
Fodder is collected from the grasslands to feed the cattle or it
may be stored for dry season when there is no grass. Dried
grass is used to thatch houses and farm sheds. Thorny
bushes and branches of the trees are used as major source of
fuel wood by villagers.
Effects
1. Overgrazing makes the grassland bare.
2. Soil becomes compact due to trampling by animals and
becomes prone to water and wind erosion.
3. The degraded land has no grass to hold the soil in place
and it becomes a wasteland.
4. There will be a loss of plant and animal species
5. Loal people will find it difficult to support their livestock
herds.
6. Grasslands support wild relatives of crops and domestic
animals, which contain valuable genes e.g. wild goats, wild
sheep, wild ass etc.The genes of these animals and plants
are used to improve the domesticated strains.

Grasslands can be conserved by

1. By avoiding overgrazing
2. Rotational grazing pattern should be adopted
3. It is better to cut the grass and then fed to cattle instead of
grazing.
4. Fires must be prevented and controlled
5. National parks and sanctuaries must be created to save
the natural grasslands along with their animal populations
6. Soil and water management in micro catchment hilly
areas will help in restoration of natural productive
ecosystems.
7. Grasslands should not be converted into tree plantations
as they will lead to destruction of natural habitat and the
wildlife supported by them
8. Rare animal species like wolf, blackbuck, chinkara and
birds like bustards and floricans should be carefully
protected in national parks
9. Need to create awareness among people about
importance of grasslands and their wildlife.

Desert ecosystem
 A desert is a landscape or region that receives almost no precipitation.
Deserts are defined as areas with an average annual precipitation of less
than 250 millimeters per year. It occupies about 17% of the earth’s surface.
Deserts are characterized by hot days & cold nights.
The deserts of the world are mainly located in the South- western United
States, Mexico, North America, Asia (Thar, Gobi, Tibet) & west Asia.
Deserts are characterized by scanty flora & fauna. Soils of deserts often
have abundant nutrients but little or no organic matter and less water.
Desert plants and animals are having most typical adaptations for
conservation of water. Many desert plants are found to have reduced scaly
leaves so as to cut down loss of water due to transpiration or have succulent
leaves to store water (Cactus). Many a times the stem develops and form
chlorophyll so that they can take up the fuctions for photosysthesis. Some
plants show very deep roots to tap the ground water. Plants like Kher,
Babul, Cacti, Opuntia.
Desert animals like insects and reptiles have thick outer covering to
minimize loss of water. They usually live inside burrows where
humidity is better and heat is less.
In desert the rare animals are wolf, desert cats, desert fox, nocturnal rodent,
camel and birds like Great Indian Bustard, Florican, common birds like
Partridges(Titar), Quails, sandgrouse are observed.
Producers, consumers and decomposers of Desert ecosystem-
In a desert, producers are mainly shrubs/bushes; some grasses & a few
trees.
Dominant plant species include: Succulents (water - retaining plants
adapted to arid climate or soil conditions) & hardy grasses.
Besides some lower plants such as lichens & xerophytic mosses are
also present.
 These include animals such as insects, reptiles which are capable of
living in xeric conditions. Besides some nocturnal rodents, birds &
some mammalians like camel etc are also found. Due to poor vegetation
with very low amount of dead organic matter, decomposers are poor in
desert ecosystem. The common decomposers are some bacteria & fungi,
most of which are thermophillic.

Depending up on the climatic conditions(temperature) there are major three

types of deserts.
1. Tropical deserts- like Sahara and Namibia in Africa and Thar desert
in Rajasthan.
2. Temperate deserts like Mojave in southern California where day time
temperature is very hot in summer but cool in winters.
3. Cold deserts like the Gobi desert in China , Tibet has cold winters and
warm summers. In India Laddak.

Degradation of Desert ecosystem and effects

1. Growing human population and various developmental activities
have started affecting these ecosystems.
2. Natural characteristics of several areas have been altered due to
extensive irrigation by canals particularly the salination of soil.
3. The over extraction of ground water from tube wells has lowered
the water table leading to more dryness of environment.
4. If the unique features of this ecosystem are destroyed by human
activities. The special species that have evolved here over millions
of years may become extinct in near future.
Desert ecosystem can be conserved by..
1. Desert people have traditionally saved their limited water
resources. The Bishnoi tribe in Rajasthan has protected their
Khejiri trees and the blackbuck antelope for several generations.
2. The residual patches of this ecosystem must be protected as
national parks and wildlife sanctuaries in desert as well as
semiarid areas.
3. The Indira canal in Rajasthan destroying the natural ecosystem
as it will convert the region into extensive agriculture.
4. The spread of salt works in Little Rann of Kutch will destroy
the habitat of wild Ass.
5. Development projects and mining activities will alter the desert
and arid landscape.
 6. Thus to prevent the extinction of species a sustainable form of
development is needed by taking into account the special needs
of desert.

Aquatic Ecosystem

They deals with water bodies. 70% of the earth is covered by great oceans.
The water being held to the earth may occur as a gas, a liquid or solid
depending upon temperature. In aquatic ecosystems water provides habitat
for plants and animals to live in. Aquatic ecosystems comprise of fresh
water (lakes, ponds, streams, rivers etc.) and marine environment (estuary,
ocean, coral reef etc.)
Freshwater ecosystems are further standing type (Lentic) like ponds and
lakes or free flowing type (Lotic) like rivers, streams etc.
Pond Ecosystem

It is a small fresh water aquatic ecosystem where water is stagnant. Ponds

may be seasonal in nature i.e. receiving enough water during rainy season.
They are found in the regions of sufficient rain fall.
There are three types of ponds.
1. Flood plain ponds- Ponds found in stream flood plains are called as
flood plain ponds. They are quite productive due to accumulation of
organic matter.
2. Temporary ponds- These ponds are seasonal, during rainy season
and are dry for most part of the year but support a unique
community.Organissms in such ponds must be able to survive a
dormant stage during dry periods or be able to move in and out of
ponds.
3. Artificial ponds- These ponds are the result of damming of a stream
basin by man. They are artificially managed.
Ponds are often used by humans for washing clothes, bathing,
swimming, cattle bathing, drinking etc. and therefore get polluted.
Ponds are those water bodies that have large littoral zone, where
limnetic and profundal zones are absent are called ponds.

Lake Ecosystem

Zones in a lake ecosystem

Lakes are usually big fresh water bodies with standing water. They
have a shallow water zone called Littoral zone. It is mainly occupied
by rooted plants. An open water zone where effective penetration of
solar light take place called Limnetic zone and a deep bottom area
where light penetration is negligible known as profundal zone.
The organisms those living in the bottom sediments are called as
Benthos. Organisms those living on the projected surfaces such as
stems and leaves are called as Periphyton, organisms those swimming
freely with the water current are called as Plankton. The smaller
organisms that can swim and navigate at will know as Nekton.
Organisms resting or swimming on the surface are called Neustons.
There are three types of Lakes
1. Oligotrophic lake
2. Eutrophic lake
3. Impoundment
Oligotrophic lake

Ty

Typical oligotrophic lakes are deep with hypolimnion layer i.e. (cold,
viscous, non-circulating bottom layer) larger than epilimnion layer
i.e. (warm, circulating surface layerz). These lakes have low
productivity and so low nutrient concentration. Such lakes may
change into eutrophic lakes which are shallower and have greater
primary productivity. Lakes with less supply plant nutrient mostly
nitrates and phosphates. Such lakes are usually deep and has crystal
clear water with cold temperature. It has small population of
phytoplanktons.

Eutrophic lakes
These lakes are shallower and have high nutrient content. They are
over nourished by nutrients like nitrate and phosphates. Usually
because of agricultural runoff or municipal sewage discharge. They
are covered with algal blooms. Urban wetlands is a good example of
eutrophication. E.g. Dal lake and Ular lake in Kashmir.

Impoundment
These are artificial water bodies like dams, tanks, reservoirs made by
man. They are characterized by fluctuating water levels and high
turbidity. They are built to store and release water in a controlled
manner. The released water may be used for hydroelectric projects,
irrigation etc.
 Rivers and streams

These are fresh water aquatic ecosystem where the stream

organisms have to face more extremes of temperatures and action of
currents as compared to pond and lake organisms, but they do not have to
face oxygen deficiency under natural conditions. This is because the
streams are shallow, have a large exposed surface to air and constant
motion which churns the water and provides abundant oxygen. The
dissolved oxygen (D.O.) level is higher than that of ponds even though the
green plants are much less in numbers.

Rivers are large streams that flow downward from mountain

highlands and flowing through the plains fall into the sea. Rivers and
streams have Lotic(running water) habitat for communities. The lotic
systems are represented by springs, streams, rivers, manmade canals and
even waterfalls.

According to the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of

India, there has been significant increase in the number of human made
wetlands. However the natural wetlands with greater biodiversity are
getting decline in size and quality as these shallow wetlands are rich in fish
and these wetlands are degraded due to drainage, pollution and
urbanization.

Estuaries and Marine Ecosystem

An Estuary is the mouth of river where tidal action brings about a

mixing of salty water and fresh water. Salinity of estuaries varies between
0.5 to 0.35%. Estuaries are more productive than the oceans, due to the
nutrient trap produced by mixing of water of different salinity and the
favorable action of oscillating tidal currents in transporting nutrients, food
and waste material. The temperature in estuaries fluctuates considerably
during different seasons.

The upper layer of estuarine water may be cooler in winter and

warmer in summer than the bottom, when a bay or part of a river mouth
is temporarily cut off from the sea by a sand bar, salinity that tolerant high
salinities become abundant. Even estuaries serve as nursery for marine
species. They make a major contribution to the productivity of coastal
waters.
 Ocean Ecosystem

70% of earth surface is covered by sea and plays a key role in

production of marine species which serve as food for humans and other
organisms and give a huge variety of sea products and drugs.

Also oceans play an important role in regulating many

biogeochemical cycles, thereby regulating the earth’s climate. They are
major sinks of carbon dioxide.

The sea water is salty. In average salt content is 3.5%. Usually written
as 35%. Whereas fresh water has a salinity of less than 0.5%.

India has a large coast line of around 7000 km including eastern and
western coasts and Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands. The
Indian marine waters are rich in flora and fauna i.e. planktons, algae, sea
grasses, mangrove cultivation, corals, fishery and ocean associated animal
diversity.
Degradation of aquatic ecosystem and effects

1. Aquatic ecosystem of lakes and rivers get polluted due to entry of

untreated sewage and dumping of solid wastes into them from
urban areas.
2. Sewage leads to ‘eutrophication’ of water bodies, which reduces
oxygen content of water leading to death of aquatic life. E.g. fish
and crustaceans. Natural flora and fauna of aquatic ecosystem are
destroyed.
3. Excessive use of fertilizers in rural areas causes increase in
nutrients of water bodies when farm runoff fall into them. It
leads to their eutrophication and death of aquatic life.
4. Pesticides from neighboring fields pollute the water and harm the
aquatic life, particularly fish eating birds.
5. Contamination by heavy metals from toxic industrial effluents kills
a large number of life forms and affects the health of people who
use the polluted water or eat the poisoned fish e.g. Minamata
disease due to fish poisoned by mercury.
6. Large dams have serious ill effects on the natural river ecosystem.
7. High concentration of carbon dioxide in sea water affects on coral
reefs.