WRD-Handbook - Chapter 01 - Ferrocement Technology
WRD-Handbook - Chapter 01 - Ferrocement Technology
WRD-Handbook - Chapter 01 - Ferrocement Technology
FERROCEMENT TECHNOLOGY
FERROCEMENT TECHNOLOGY
(Rajendra Pawar)
Director General
Design Training Hydrology Research and Safety
Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute, Nashik
I
LIST OF PWD HANDBOOK CHAPTERS
1. Materials.
2. Masonry.
3. Reinforced Concrete Construction.
4. Prestressed Concrete.
5. Plastering and Pointing.
6. Preparation of Projects and Engineering Geology.
7. Surveying.
8. Excavation.
9. Foundations.
10. Building.
11. Town Planning.
12. Roads.
13. C.D.Works and Bridges.
14. Ports and Harbours.
15. Runways and Air-strips.
16. Electrical Works Connected with Buildings.
17. Soil Mechanics.
18. Hydraulics.
19. Hydrology and Water Planning.
20. Masonry and Concrete Dams,
21. Earth and Composite Dams.
22. Instrumentation.
23. Spillways, Outlets, Gates and Hoists.
24. Canals.
25. Irrigation and Irrigation Management
26. Soil Survey of Irrigation Command, Land Drainage and Reclamation.
27. Hydro-power Scheme.
28. Construction of Tunnels.
29. Urban Water Supply.
30. Rural Water Supply.
31. Sanitary Engineering.
32. Construction Machinery.
33. Quality Control:
Part I : Cement Concrete, Part II : Earth Work
34. Labour Laws.
35. Rate Analysis.
36. Construction Planning.
37. Part-I -Land Acquisition Part-II- Valuation.
38. Mathematical Data and Miscellaneous Information.
39. Colgrout Masonry works.
40. Placement of concrete
41. Ready Mix Concrete
Cr –Crack width
L –Bond length
Sr- Specific Surface- Parameter defined as ratio of area of contact of wires to the volume of
mortar which is bound by them.
III
INDEX
Page
Sr.No. Chapter
no.
1 Introduction 1
2 Terminology 5
3 Materials 7
4 Equipment and Tools 17
5 Testing of materials (Field tests) 20
6 Laboratory Tests 25
7 Applications of ferrocement 28
8 Methods of construction 45
9 Design of ferrocement structures 51
10 Cost estimation of ferrocement structures 67
11 Standardization of ferrocement 79
12 Research work 84
13 Ferrocement use on experimental basis 95
References 96
APPENDIX 1- List of ferrocement committee members 97
IV
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1. 1 Introduction:
Ferrocement is the composite of Ferro (Iron) and cement (cement mortar).
Ferrocement can be considered as a type of thin walled reinforced concrete construction
in which small-diameter wire meshes are used uniformly throughout the cross section
instead of discretely placed reinforcing bars and in which Portland cement mortar is
used instead of concrete. In ferrocement, wire-meshes are filled in with cement mortar.
It is a composite, formed with closely knit wire mesh; tightly wound round skeletal
steel and impregnated with rich cement mortar as shown in fig 1.1.
1. 2 Definition of ferrocement
Ferrocement is defined in different ways by different organizations.
1) According to United Nations High Commissioner for refugees (UNHCR),
ferrocement is defined as ‘A thin walled construction, consisting of rich cement
mortar with uniformly distributed and closely spaced layers of continuous and
relatively small diameter mesh (metallic or other suitable material).’ (reference-
UNHCR-Large ferrocement Water tank Manual July 2006).
1
2) ACI committee-549 describes it- ‘Ferrocement is a form of reinforced concrete
using closely spaced multiple layers of mesh and/or small diameter rods completely
infiltrated with, or encapsulated, in mortar. The most common reinforcement is steel
mesh’ (reference – ACI 549.1R-93- Guide for the design, construction and repair of
ferrocement)
1. 3 Historical background.
Ferrocement has a history of more than 170 years. The idea of impregnating
closely spaced wire meshes with rich cement mortar is similar to the Kood (कूड) type of
age-old method of walling. In Kood system, bamboo and reeds are tied closely together
and filled in with a mix of mud and cow dung as a matrix. It is used in rural areas of
India. Hence Ferrocement may be called as a modified form of Kood with standardized
raw materials, systematic method of construction and reliable structural properties.
Here the mesh is used in place of bamboo and reeds, and cement mortar instead of mud.
Ferrocement in the form of mesh-reinforced cement mortar was used in Europe
by Mr. J. L. Lambot in France. He constructed a ferrocement rowing boat in 1848, in
which reinforcement was in the form of flexible woven wire mat and small size bars.
He had patented this process.
In the early 1940, Nervi of Italy used ferrocement for shipbuilding to overcome
the shortage of steel plates in the world war-II. He also applied ferrocement techniques
in buildings and warehouses. Ferrocement has been used in construction of domes,
roofs of stadiums, opera houses and restaurants in Europe. In spite of Nervi’s
demonstration of successful use of the material, no systematic studies were made till
1960, when its use as a boat building material was made in Australia, U.K., and South
East Asian countries.
In 1972, National Academy of Science, U.S.A., established an Ad-hoc panel to
study the use of ferrocement in developing countries. Its report on ‘Ferrocement-
Applications in Developing Countries’, was published in 1973. It gave impetus to
systematic study of ferrocement in United States. This was followed by American
Concrete Institute, establishing committee 549 on Ferrocement in 1974. From then,
considerable effort have been made by many individuals and Institutions all over the
world to develop ferrocement as a construction material.
At Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand “International Ferrocement
Information Centre” was established and a “Journal of Ferrocement” is regularly
published by it.
1. 5 Advantages of Ferrocement
Ferrocement has following basic advantages over RCC
1) Increase in bond strength:
The transfer of load from steel to concrete and vice versa takes place through
bond between the two materials. The bond depends upon the bond-stress of concrete
and the area of contact between the steel and concrete. Bond stress of concrete
depends upon the grade of concrete. It is hardly 6 kg/cm2 for M15 concrete. The
bond can be substantially increased if the contact area between steel and mortar is
increased. For Ferrocement, it is achieved by use of small diameter wires and
mortar.
2) Bond area increase:
Increase in bond area will result in more adhesion between steel and mortar,
making it behave more like a homogeneous material and which has become very
strong in tension due to increase in bond.
3) Dispersion of steel wires:
Ferrocement is formed by tying together a number of layers of continuous wire
meshes. Volume of steel percentage is very large, may be up to 8 percent. Also the
mortar cover over the meshes is hardly 3 to 5 mm. Hence, throughout the body of
the composite, the wire reinforcement is fully dispersed. This leads Ferrocement to
become more homogeneous. It results in improving the properties of Ferrocement in
tension, flexure, impact resistance and crack resistance.
4) Crack control:
Meshes are fully bonded to mortar and spaced very near to the surface of
Ferrocement. Such closely spaced fine wires, very near to the surface of
Ferrocement, act as crack arrestors.
5) Equal strength in both directions:
The continuity and placement of equal mesh reinforcement in both directions
make Ferrocement to achieve equal strength in two directions and to become strong
in resisting diagonal tensions due to shear.
6) Containment of mortar matrix in mesh layers:
In Ferrocement, layers of wire meshes tightly tied together are impregnated
with cement mortar. The matrix is held by the meshes in between and is contained
by them.
7) Formless construction:
Tightly tied meshes in ferrocement can hold wet cement mortar when it is
pressfilled in them. The consistency of cement mortar is very thick with very low
water cement ratio. It won’t come out of the meshes. Thus casting of Ferrocement
does not need any formwork or shuttering. The other advantage of this aspect is no
honeycombing will occur in pressfilling, as the mortaring is done in front of your
eyes.
3
If the mesh is tied loosely or water cement ratio is not maintained to thick
consistency or over-sanding is done, the mortar will flow down and will not be held
by the meshes.
4
CHAPTER 2
TERMINOLOGY
2.1 Ferrocement, Ferrocrete, Meshcrete and MBBM: Ferrocement and ferrocrete are
similar terms. In Spanish countries they call this as Ferrocemento. Some people call it as
ferroconcrete. In Pune region the composite of mesh-reinforced rich cement mortar is
popularly known as Ferrocrete. Originally in 1940, Nervi in Italy had named this
composite of Ferro (iron) and cement (cement mortar) as "Ferrocemento". All over the
world it is known as “Ferrocement”
The matrix of this composite is not plain cement but cement mortar in the form of
micro-concrete. Hence, it is felt to include ‘crete' and not 'cement' in the name of the
composite and hence named it as “Ferrocrete”.
Further it is suggested by many engineers, that it will be more meaningful if the
composite is named as “Meshcrete” indicating mesh type of continuous reinforcement
with micro-concrete as matrix.
In RCC, steel bars are embedded in concrete while in Ferrocrete wire-meshes are
filled in with cement mortar. The mortar is confined in meshes which are placed very
close to the surface of the member. In addition the bond between the mortar and wire
meshes is very strong. Hence, to describe the true behavior of the composite it should be
named as Mesh Bound Bonded Mortar (MBBM).
In this handbook both the terms 'Ferrocement' and 'Ferrocrete' are used.
2.2 Weld mesh: It is the steel wire mesh having square or rectangular openings. The wires
are welded in factory.
2.3 Chicken mesh: It is the thin wire mesh and has hexagonal openings. This is made by
weaving the wires.
2.4 Skeleton: The shape of the ferrocement structure is given by skeleton or the steel frame.
It is also called armature.
2.5 Matrix: The cement sand wet mix mortar when pressed in the gaps of the skeleton
encasing the wiremeshes it becomes a matrix.
2.6 Press filling: The mortar is pressed from both sides of ferrocement wall to fill the gaps
completely. It is called press filling. This is done with two plate trowels.
2.7 Press spraying : Mortar spraying machines are now available and for mass work or
when only one surface of the ferrocement wall is available then the mortar is sprayed
with pressure. The method is called press spray method.
2.8 Volume fraction of steel (Vr): Volume fraction is the total volume of reinforcement,
including skeletal steel, divided by the volume of the composite including the
reinforcement and matrix. For a composite reinforced with square meshes, Vr is equally
divided into Vrl and Vrt for longitudinal and transverse directions respectively. Vrl and Vrt
will be different in other types of meshes.
2.9 Specific surface (Sr): The specific surface is the total bonded area of mesh
reinforcement divided by the volume of the composite.
5
2.10 Effective modulus of elasticity of reinforcing system (Er): The elastic modulus of
mesh reinforcement is not necessarily the same as the elastic modulus of wire from
which it is made. The same type of behavior is seen with expanded metal and
hexagonal mesh. These effects of straightening and tension stiffening are accounted by
introducing a term effective modulus of elasticity (Er) of the reinforcing system.
2.11 Global Efficiency Factor: The orientation of reinforcement is equally important, when
the strength under biaxial loading is considered. Square meshes give equal strength in
both directions, but at 45 degrees orientation the strength is 67 to 80 percent of the
strength in the direction parallel to wires in welded mesh. For expanded metals, the
strength in transverse directions is very low. For hexagonal meshes, strengths in
transverse directions average to 57 percent of strength in normal directions. The effect
of type of mesh and its orientation is accounted for by Global efficiency factors.
2.12 Stress at first crack: Different research workers have defined first crack in different
manners and hence the stress value at first crack differs a lot. Even before loading,
micro cracks exist in mortar matrix. When the micro cracks widen and propagate and
progressively join together under load, they are detected by some means, visual or
otherwise.
First cracking is defined by a crack width ranging from 0.005 mm to a value
visible to naked eye of 0.03 to 0.10mm. In some studies, first cracking is defined as first
deviation from linearity of the stress-strain curve in tension. It may be 900 to 1500 micro
strain or the corresponding deviation of load-deflection curve in flexure or as a crack
width of 0.075mm in flexural loading. In whatever way the first crack is defined, the first
crack stress and the specific surface of the composite are having a definite relationship.
First crack stress increases as the specific surface increases.
2.13 Equivalent area concept and Equivalent stress concept: When strains are same in
steel and concrete, the stresses are in proportion of Es/Ec (m). So equivalent area of
concrete is Ac + m As. Same is applicable for stresses.
2.14 Influence zone of bond: It is the volume of mortar around a steel wire up to which the
bond is effective.
2.15 Chord modulus of elasticity: On stress-strain curve in tension the line joining the
stress at first crack and yield point stress defines the Chord Modulus of Elasticity of
ferrocement.
2.16 Tension capsules and Compression blocks: With standardized method of
construction, ferrocement members in the form of capsules and blocks of assured
tensile and compressive strength can be developed and used in field.
2.17 Orientation of reinforcement: The direction of reinforcement, i.e. longitudinal or
transverse, horizontal or vertical etc.
2.18 Fibre Reinforced Plastic (FRP): The Fibre-reinforced plastic is a composite material
made of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres. The fibres are usually glass, carbon,
aramid, or basalt.
2.19 Column jacketing: Encasing of concrete or brick columns by ferrocement layer from
all sides.
6
CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS
c. Specifications:
Steel bars to be used should be according to I. S. Specifications as follows:
i. Mild steel bars confirming to IS-432(Part I) 1982,
ii. Hard drawn steel wires confirming to IS-432 (Part II) 1982 and
iii. Hard drawn steel wire mesh fabric IS 1566-1982.
7
Table 3.1 Weights and lengths of steel bars.
Sr. Bar dia. Area Weight Length of Number of
No. (mm) (sq.mm) (kg/m run) Bars 10 m bars
m/ 100 kg
1 4 12.56 0.099 1010 101
2 5 19.64 0.154 649 64.9
3 6 28.27 0.22 454 45.4
4 8 50.26 0.39 256 25.6
5 10 78.54 0.62 160 16
6 12 113.1 0.887 112 11.2
Table 3.2. Weights of skeletal bars per m2 of panel for various spacing of bars
(Calculation based on a panel size 3.0m X 3.0m)
3.3.1 Weldmesh
Welded wire mesh of rectangular pattern as shown in fig. 3.1 is formed by
aligning wires perpendicularly and welding them at their intersections. Weldmesh is
tied on skeletal steel framework and it provides a base for tying fine wire meshes on it.
Its surface area is considered in calculating the specific surface of the composite.
Weldmesh is designated by the spacing of wires or the size of openings, followed by
the gauge of the wire in longitudinal and transverse directions. Thus a 100 mm x 100
mm x 12 g x12 g means a weldmesh of opening size of 100 mm x 100 mm and wire
gauge used in longitudinal and transverse directions are 12 gauge. Weld meshes
generally used in ferrocement structures are having opening sizes in mm as 25 x 25, 50
x 50,75 x 75, 100 x 100, and 150 x 150. The wire gauges may vary from 10 to 16. Rolls
of weld meshes are available in widths of 900, 1200 and 1500 mm and in lengths of 15
m or 30 m.
8
Fig. 3.1 Welded mesh
3.3.1.2 Fine wire meshes /interlocked hexagonal wire mesh/Chicken wire mesh)
1) Woven square meshes are formed by weaving them on wire weaving machines and
are having rectangular openings of size 13 mm X 13 mm, 19 mm X 19 mm, 25 mm
X 25 mm, in them. Wire gauges used are 18 to 22 gauges. Generally they are
ungalvanized. Rolls of 15 m or 30 m in length and widths of 900 mm or 1200 mm
are available in market.
2) When square wire mesh is cut the ends of wires should be folded back
immediately. Otherwise the mesh wires get loosened and separated.
3) Interlocked woven hexagonal wire meshes (also called chicken mesh) While
weaving they are also interlocked due to which, they take a hexagonal shape. Their
interconnections are not rigid. Chickenmesh is available in galvanized form as
shown in fig 3.2, and in sizes of openings of 13 mm X 13 mm, 19 mm X 19 mm
and 25 mm X 25 mm. Wire gauges from 20 to 26 are in use. Rolls of chickenmesh
of 15 m or 30 m lengths and 900 mm, 1200 mm or 1500 mm widths are available
in market.
9
Fig. 3.2 Chicken mesh or hexagonal mesh
3.4.1 Cement:
The cement should be fresh, of uniform consistency and free from lumps and
foreign matter. It should be stored under dry conditions for as short duration as
possible. Types of cement are ordinary Portland cement of various grades, rapid
hardening cement, sulphate-resisting cement, white and coloured cement and pozzolana
cement. The choice of any particular cement depends upon the site conditions.
Generally Ordinary Portland Cement of 43 or 53 grades is used in ferrocement. In
coastal areas or for structures exposed to sea water or acidic industrial wastes sulphate
resisting cements are recommended. If sulphate-resisting cements or admixtures are not
available, rich cement mortar should be used and later the structure should be coated.
Cement content in ferrocement is higher than in conventional reinforced concrete. For
Ordinary Portland cement IS 8112: 2015 and IS 12269: 2015 should be referred.
11
3.4.2 Aggregates: Sand
3.4.2.1 Natural Sand
Well graded and washed river sand passing 2.36mm IS sieve is most commonly
used as fine aggregate in ferrocement. The maximum size of aggregate depends upon
the size of mesh openings and the spacing between the layers of mesh. For 13mm
mesh openings, 1/4th its opening size, that is less than 3.25 mm, should be the
maximum size of the fine aggregate. For proper gradation fineness modulus of sand
should be between 2.4 to 2.5 for maximum grain size of 1.18mm and it should be 2.9
to 3.0 for maximum grain size of 2.36 mm. As shown in fig 3.5, proper control over
the grain size and fineness modulus will result in the least water requirement, with
better workability and higher strength. Grading of sand, with cement of 43 grade and
aggregate as crushed sand confirming to IS 383-1970 is given in table 3.3.
Table 3.3 -Grading of sand for Grading zone II (as per IS 383:1970)
The fine aggregate should be clean, free from organic matter and relatively free
from clay and silt. Hard, strong and sharp silica will give strong mortar, while
rounded grains of river sand will result in smooth mortar finishes. IS 383-1970 for
coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources should be referred to for
specifications of natural sands.
12
3.4.2.2 Crushed sand or manufactured sand
Crushed sand is a good substitute for natural sands. It is manufactured from
quarried rock, by bringing down its particle size in the range of 4.75mm to 150
microns. Crushed sand is quite different than stone dust, which is a waste from stone
crushers. Crushed sand has two important features; one is its gradation and the second
is its particle size. Crushed sands are successfully used for various grades of concrete
from M15 to M40.
3.4.3 Water
The mixing water should be fresh, clean and potable. It should be free from
organic matter, silt, oil, sugar, chlorides and acidic materials. The value of pH should
be close to 7.0. The salt water is not acceptable but chlorinated drinking water will do.
3.4.4 Admixtures
Chemical admixtures in ferrocement serve four purposes:
a) Water reduction which increases the strength and reduces the permeability. It can
be achieved by using super plasticizers.
b) Waterproofing compounds may be used to get watertight structures.
c) Air entraining agents increase the resistance to freezing and thawing.
d) Suppression of galvanic action between galvanized steel and cement is achieved
by using Chromium trioxide approximately 300 parts per million, in mixing
water.
13
d) Another simple test to check silt content, is to rub the wet sand on the palms of hand,
the hands will get spoiled if the silt content is high.
e) One medium sized ghamela when filled in to its brim, with level surface, contains
about 6 to 8 liters of sand.
f) A good homogeneous cement mortar mix has uniform gray cement-colour and
smooth texture. All sand particles are fully covered with cement paste.
g) Compressive strength of ferrocement is the compressive strength of matrix. Hence
extreme care should be taken while proportioning and mixing of mortar. If higher
strengths are desired, steel fibers may be added or polymer mortars may be used.
Table 3.5 Quick guide for mortar mix by weight for various types of sand
14
3.4.8 Methods of Forming or casting: Mortar filling is done by two ways
Press fill method: After making the skeleton of bars and tightly fitting of meshes, it
is checked that there is movement of the meshes. The structure shall be strong
enough for any shocks and vibrations. The mortar of cement to sand in 1:2 or 1:3
proportions is preferred. The water content shall be as less as possible. The test is
that the mortar shall not flow but a ball of mortar can be prepared. The water to
cement ratio normally is 0.35 to 0.40. The thick mortar is then pressed in the gaps of
the meshes by using plate trowels. Two persons are required for pressing it from
both sides. No air shall remain in the mortar. After 3 hours, the filled mortar
becomes hard enough. The same surface can be plastered smooth after 1 day. This
method is useful when both surfaces are available for press filling.
Press Spray method: When only one surface is open, pressing of mortar from one
side is also possible, provided other surface is closed by fixed surface of rock or wall
as shown in fig. 3.6. For mass scale work sprayers of mortar are used. Water to
cement ratio for such mortar is 0.50 to 0.60. The mortar is sprayed with pressure and
it sticks in the gaps of meshes. The work of spraying is much faster than that done
manually.
15
3.5 Casting by using a vibrator:
As the ferrocrete is thin walled, use of a needle vibrator is of no use. A wood
orbital sander can be satisfactorily used for this purpose. It is very handy and is just like
an electric iron used for pressing clothes. The sander has got a handle and a vibrating
plate and it can be moved over the mortar to vibrate and compact it to its full depth. This
orbital sander is very convenient to compact mortar in thin layers.
3.6 Curing
Curing of the ferrocement walls and components is done as specified for cement
concrete. The hardening process is completed in 21 days. However as the thickness is
less, cracks due to shrinkage may develop. For this, curing has to be properly observed.
The covering of surface by wet cotton is always recommended. The curing plays a very
important role in ferrocrete construction, as the structures are very thin walled and
likely to get dried very quickly, particularly in summer season of the tropical countries.
In curing the structures like water tanks or containment vessels, they are filled in
completely with water and cured for 21 days. For the first 8 to 10 days the mortar is
seen wet and saturated with water. As it gets hardened with time, outer surface of the
tank becomes bone-dry and indicates that the tank is getting cured properly. The tank
should not be filled in full immediately after casting. Every day about 30 to 40 cm of
height of the tank should be filled, till it is full. The curing of other ferrocrete structures
can be done using wet gunny bags. For precast ferrocrete items, sprinklers or steam
curing techniques may be used.
16
CHAPTER 4
EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS
17
Fig 4.3 Pliers, hooks needed to stretch the meshes
19
CHAPTER 5
TESTING OF MATERIALS (FIELD TESTS)
5.1 Tests of raw materials in forming ferrocrete structures
a. Test of skeletal steel in the form of angles, steel bars, welded wire fabrics or pipes.
b. Test of steel wire meshes for forming cages.
c. Test of rich cement mortar, as matrix in the form of micro-concrete.
All these three raw materials are those which are commonly used in practice in
construction of conventional buildings. They are easily available even at village level.
Whenever a rebar under a high temp is quenched under controlled conditions and
cooled in air subsequently, due to metallurgical transformation, two distinct phases
(shades) show out. Tempered marten site in the form of a ring with definite width forms
the outer case (ring), whereas the inner core remains pearlite / ferrite. The outer case
(ring) and inner core are distinctly visible, when the cross-section of rebar is etched.
20
3. The cross section shall be smeared (etched) with drops of ‘Nitrol Solution’. It is nothing
but a synthesis of ‘10 % of Concentrated Nitric Acid’ and ‘90 % of Ethyl Alcohol’.
Soon after etching, two distinct phases (Shades) with uniform thickness are clearly
visible on the c/s, if the rebars are ‘Genuine TMT Rebars’. If the two phases are not
distinct, the rebars are either ‘Substandard’ or ‘Fake’ TMT rebars. Note: It is essential
that the c/s need to be examined soon after etching. In case of delay, etching has to be
redone.
21
5.4 Tests of aggregates
Well graded and washed river sand passing 2.36 mm IS sieve is most commonly
used as fine aggregate in ferrocrete. Grading of sand, with cement of 43 grade and
aggregate as crushed sand confirming to IS 383-1970 (table 5.1) is given in table below.
Table 5.1 Grading of sand for Grading zone II (as per IS 383:1970)
The fine aggregate should be clean, free from organic matter and relatively free
from clay and silt. Hard, strong and sharp silica will give strong mortar, while rounded
grains of river sand will result in smooth mortar finishes.
IS 383-1970 for coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources should be
referred to for specifications of natural sands.
22
Compared to natural sands, the crushed sands have the following special
features:
a. Fines passing 150 micron sieve are restricted. The deleterious materials like clays,
silts, inorganic and organic salts contained in natural sands affect the strength and
durability of concrete. They also cause cracking and discolouring to the finished
plaster surface.
b. The basic composition of particle sizes of natural sands hardly confirms with the
gradation desired in the mix design. In crushed sands, different particle sizes are
available which can be blended to the desired gradation curve.
c. The spheroidal shape of particles of natural sand offer less surface area for the
cement to cover, as compared to the cuboidal shape of the crushed sand. Hence
cement consumption is more in crushed sand.
d. Natural sand needs sieving. The sand available in market contains 15 to 25 %
oversize particles which are of no use at site.
e. To remove clay, silt and deleterious matter natural sand needs washing.
f. The fines in crushed sands, passing 75 microns, are within limit of 20 % as specified
in IS-383-1970. This fraction results in efficient aggregate packing and denser
concrete mix. This increased efficiency in void filling in ultra-fine range of cement
paste, closes the capillaries and decrease permeability of concrete.
5.6 Water
The mixing water should be fresh, clean and potable. It should be free from
organic matter, silt, oil, sugar, chlorides and acidic materials. Water should have Ph
more than or equal to 7.0. Salty water is not acceptable but chlorinated drinking water
will do. Presence of salt in water such as chlorides reduces initial strength of concrete
and causes rusting problem in steel used in construction. Therefore, testing of
construction water is very essential.
In market construction water testing kits are available as shown in fig. 5.2.
23
Construction Water Test Kit shall consist of all the necessary accessories and
reagents to measure the following key parameters (Table 5.2).
24
CHAPTER 6
LABORATORY TESTS
6.1 Testing of ferrocrete
Tests and observations which are commonly made in design, construction and
subsequent service life of concrete structures are also applicable to ferrocrete structures.
They include
1) Testing of physical, chemical and mechanical properties of component materials
prior to their acceptance, like water purity, sieve analysis, strength of mesh etc.
2) Tests to control the properties of fresh mortar mix: like slump, air content etc.
3) Tests on structural properties of the hardened composite: like all types of
strengths, cracking behavior, fatigue permeability etc.
6.2 Laboratory tests on materials like steel bars, cement and sand: These
laboratory tests are carried out as per relevant IS codes as mentioned in table no. 6.1.
25
6.3 Testing structural properties of ferrocrete
Four types of tests are recommended to predict the structural properties of
ferrocrete.
1. Compressive strength of mortar
2. Flexural strength (Load-Deflection Curve)
3. Tensile strength of mesh reinforcement
4. Stress-Strain Curve of ferrocrete specimen in tension.
This last test provides information on the yield strength of the mesh system, its
effective modulus and its reinforcing efficiency when encapsulated by a mortar mix.
H=100 mm
W= 50 mm
L=600 mm
a) The test specimen is prepared by embedding both ends of the rectangular coupon of
the mesh in mortar over a length at least equal to the width of the sample. The mortar
embedded ends serve as pads for gripping. The free portion of the mesh represents
the test sample.
b) The width of test sample should be not less than 6 times the mesh opening or wire
spacing measured normally to the loading direction.
c) The length of the test sample should be not less than 3 times its width or 150mm,
whichever is larger.
d) Measurements of elongation, from which strains are calculated, should be recorded
over middle half length of the mesh sample.
e) Yield strain of the mesh reinforcement is taken as the strain at the intersections of the
best straight line fit of the initial portion of stress-strain curve and the best straight
26
line fit of the yielded portion of the stress-strain curve as shown in fig 6.2. The yield
stress is then taken as the stress point on the original stress-strain curve at the yield
strain found above.
27
CHAPTER 7
APPLICATIONS OF FERROCEMENT
7.1 Application of ferrocement as per use
For different purposes ferrocement can be used in each and every civil engineering
construction. Few applications are classified as below.
29
Fig 7.3 Ferrocement fins at Satara . Fig 7.4 Front elevation of a Banglow (Noida)
Hospital
Stairs: Unlike RCC staircase very thin steps can be designed in ferrocement. Curved
shapes and precast steps are also possible. Few photographs are shown in fig 7.5 and
fig 7.6.
Fig 7.5 Steps using ferrocement built Fig 7.6 Jadhav Farm House
near Katraj, Pune Gowe, Near Satara.
(Courtesy: Ferrocement Society, Pune)
Walls: Practically any shape of wall is possible in ferrocement like in fig 7.7 to fig 7.9.
HYPAR shapes are popular in architecture. Very thin section of walls increases the
beauty of the building
Fig 7.7 Nautilus House, Fig 7.8 Oaxaca Building Fig 7.9 Building in Kerala
Mexico
Fig 7.10 Shell roofs Fig 7.11 Pyramidal roof Fig 7.12 Domes at
(Pune) Udaipur
(Courtesy: Ferrocement Society, Pune)
Jacketing of Columns and beams: For old buildings where the columns are seen
cracked jacketing with ferrocement makes them strong. It is found that the load
carrying capacity is increased by 50%. Even beams are also sometimes seen in bad
condition. The plaster of the beam is broken out. In such cases jacketing can be done by
ferrocement and the restoration of the old building is possible thereby increasing the
life of the building by approximately 20 to 25 years.
Water proofing: As the ferrocement layer is always water tight, many leaking RCC
slabs and tanks need water proofing by ferrocement. Many canals and aqueducts can be
lined by ferrocement. Additional load on the original structures due to water proofing
by ferrocement is less than that by thick brick bat coba.
2) House in Jabalpur:
Project details:
Name of the project : ‘Sumati Greens’
Location of project : Village Nigri – 25 kms. From Jabalpur on NH.7
Built up area : Ground floor: 120 m2and First floor: 145 m2
Year of completion : December 2012
This farmhouse building as shown in fig 7.14 rises up like a flower and attracts
hordes of travelers who cannot stop themselves from pausing in their tracks
curiously to have a closer look at this building.
32
The owner decided to build something unique and experimental. The building
which is a farmhouse is a two storied structure 40 feet in diameter and houses two
bedrooms and a kitchen cum lounge on the ground floor and a hall on the first floor
with a balcony overlooking the gardens and the distant hills on the banks of river
Narmada. There are eight fin walls surrounding the main structure which impart a
petal like beauty to the structure and also dissipate the high wind pressure in the area
throughout the year.
33
Fig 7.16 Ferrocement counterfort retaining wall
Fig 7.17 Small Belizean village USA sculpture, The Beatles sculptures on display
at Adickes' Sculpture work in Houston, Texas.
34
Sit outs: Different shapes are possible in gardens and parks for the visitors as a sit out.
Photo in fig 7.19 below shows a sit out in Government college of Engineering, Salem.
35
Entrance gates as shown in fig 7.22
Earth houses: Underground houses as shown in fig 7.23 are very common in USA. In
India also people have built such house. They are quite cool in summer also. The house
is covered with earth and lawns above.
Compound walls: As shown in fig. 7.24, different shapes and designs are possible
using ferrocement.
36
7.9.4 Water tanks: This ferrocement material is basically water tight. So people used it for
boat building. Last 50 years it is very popular in India and Singapore for water tanks.
The durability of ferrocement tanks as compared to steel tanks is tremendous. Many
shapes are possible for such ferrocement tanks. Popular are cylindrical. To contain a
prescribed quantity of water, cylindrical tanks need lesser walling area. The walls are
subjected to hoop stresses. RCC cylindrical tanks may be costly due to curvilinear
formwork and higher steel percentage. Ferrocrete tanks with mesh reinforcement cast
without formwork is definitely a cheaper alternative. But for large spans and large
capacity the shape of wall has to be changed as in fig 7.25 and table 7.1 below.
In rural area water tanks and storages are badly needed. If living in village people
know this technology, which is very rural friendly, then they can build these tanks very
easily thereby saving outside labour charges. In Maharashtra, nearly in all districts, one
can find ferrocement tanks built by villagers. For the capacity of the tank, there is no
limit. A water tank of 12 lakh liters is constructed with innovative design near Talegaon
Dabhade, Dist Pune. The photo in fig 7.26 shows the petal type walls and counterforts
to support the walls.
Flexible Pavements
Due to the ease in precasting and thinness of the plates, it is possible to make precast
ribbed plates as shown in fig 7.27.
The lower portion will be ribbed one and flat part will be based on compacted
murum surface. The variations in soil reactions will be taken by flexible nature of
plates. The bitumen carpet layer and wearing coat will be applied above the ribs
thereby covering the ribs. Repairs and replacement of damaged part of pavement
thus becomes very easy.
Cross Drainage Works: Culverts or pipe crossings can be precast with ferrocement.
For fast construction of big culverts lost formwork of ferrocement is possible. Many
times road on the pipe crossing is washed away. In such case, the ferrocement top
layer to damaged pipes can be done without changing the pipes, thereby saving the
costs.
Culverts converted to dam to store water: In Gujarat and Maharashtra water is
scarce. In villages where the nallas flow in rainy season and there is no water in
other seasons even for cattle. In order to recharge the groundwater the culverts are
being converted in to small dams. Photo in fig 7.28 shows the road side small
ferrocement dam near Aurangabad.
38
Foot bridges: As shown in fig 7.29, foot bridges are often needed for pedestrians to
cross the heavy traffic roads. Such bridges with different attractive shapes are
possible using ferrocement.
7.12 Applications in WRD: The magic simple material called ferrocement which is rich
cement mortar impregnated in hexagonal meshes can be very useful in water related
construction departments. Water retaining, toughness, encasing, precasting, thinness are
some of the properties that engineers will use wisely in water infrastructure
constructions.
39
Outcoating of steel pipes
In practice engineers use guniting technique consisting of welded mesh wrapping and
spraying the mortar by pressure on it. Approximately10 to 15 % of mortar is wasted in
spraying.
Method proposed for ferrocement outcoating of steel pipes. Operations involved-
1) Remove garbage, deteriorated rough surface on the pipes and clean it.
2) Clean the surface by water jet.
3) 2 layers of meshes tied over one another should be spread over the pipe surface and
hooked and grabbed. 10 cm length from each side of pipe will be kept untackled as
the jointing action with welding etc will have to be done in future.
4) Spacers will be inserted to maintain the thickness of mortar to 20 mm.
5) Cement mortar should be pressed inside the mesh layers and finished sand.faced.
6) Ferrocement layer should be cured for at least 21 days as per fig 7.31.
RETROFITTING OF STRUCTURES
Canals and roads always have culverts and bridges to cross the roads or drains.
Abutments and piers are the main load carrying members. Old constructions of such
cross drainage works invariably used stone masonry. In course of time the masonry
joints are loosened as shown in fig 7.32. Load carrying capacity is reduced. Many
mishaps have been reported as the pier is crushed or crumpled down all of a sudden.
The traffic or the water supply is hampered. Break in service results in costs. Jacketing
the piers with ferrocement is that way cost effective method as only 10% cost is to be
incurred instead of building a new pier in the same place.
40
Use of Ferrocement in Construction of Conduits
Many irrigation canals run through or nearby cities or dense habitats. People nearby
area always pollute the water and use the channel as a drain. Pune city has faced such
problems and opted for closed conduits. Egg shaped conduit of ferrocement with a
curved cover is always a feasible solution. Change in flow area is achieved by steps in
cross section which allows variation in discharges. A nalla near Himali Society in Pune
city is a case study as shown in fig 7.33 The extra width remaining is very valuable and
can be utilized for traffic problems, vehicle parking, gardens, jogging tracks etc.
41
PVC pipe with outcoating
With ferrocement outcoating it will now be possible to use plastic or PVC pipes of
small thickness and outcoating them with required thickness of ferrocement.
Structurally ferrocement can be designed for pressures and the inside of plastic pipe is
naturally serving for smoothness thereby improving the flow characteristics. The cost
of epoxy painting from inside is totally eliminated as no rusting is expected. Thus, the
life of the pipeline is also assured to be non recurring and maintenance free.
Replace prestressed pipes by ferrocement pipes
Manufacture of prestressed concrete pipe involves a number of high tech and tedious
operations. Ferrocement pipes can be designed for any pressures and cast with a single
spin. Architect Nervi has already tested a ferrocement penstock for 320 meter of water
head.
Stiffened ferrocement plates
Ribbed precast ferrocement plates can be cast for walling and floor panels. In mass
housing speed of construction and mechanization plays important role. Precast ribbed
panels are erected and joined at site and joints are filled in. They form cavity walls and
hollow floors. Filling concrete in the joints so formed, is the only work to be done at
site. So this system is best suited for mass scale housing. Dr. Divekar’s residence in
Model Colony, Pune is the case study.
42
due to strong bond. Hence for building bunkers in field, ferrocement panel is an ideal
material.
43
Fig 7.39 Canal or nalla closing by huge Fig 7.40 Ferrocement boats and pontoons
ferrocement pipe cast in Situ near Pune in Pune area
44
CHAPTER 8
METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION
8.1 Ferrocement construction methods:
The steps in constructing ferrocrete structures are-
a) planning,
b) fabricating,
c) tying,
d) mortaring,
e) curing and
f) Handling and erecting.
Methods can be classified as-
1. Precast components
2. Cast in Situ construction
3. Composite construction
4. Layered system
5. Special purpose structures
A ferrocrete structure is formed by first fabricating the mesh reinforcement to the
shape and size of the structure. It is then mortared and cured. A prime advantage of
fabricating cage of mesh reinforcement is that it gives you the complete idea of the
dimensions and the shape of the finished product. If required, changes can be made at this
stage only.
8.2 Precast Components:
Small size building elements, water tanks etc. can be precast and assembled at site.
The filling of joints is done at site after the joints are tightened by nut bolt system or
grooving arrangement. In precast method, moulds are used to give shape to the
components. Moulds are made from steel or fiber reinforced plastic (FRP). The durability
of steel moulds shall be sufficient, as at least 5000 or more pieces can be cast in the
lifetime of the mould. For FRP the mould normally is usable for 1500 castings. The edges
of the mould shall be very clean so that the beauty of the component is increased. Chajjas,
pipe sections, trapezoidal sections for small canals, small structures in field channels, like
distribution boxes, turn outs, falls etc. can be manufactured as per the design using precast
ferrocement method. Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC),
New Delhi is working under Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, GOI. It has already
developed a pattern of roofing ferrocement channel which can be used for floor and roof
slabs as shown in fig 8.1 to 8.3..
In Auroville also engineers are using precast chajjas, slab and channels for buildings.
The quality of sand gives the components good finish. In Satara, Mandar tiles and
fabricators have developed precast chajjas, toilet units and compound walls.
8.3 Cast in Situ Methods: For big size ferrocement structures normally skeletons are erected
at site. Then the mortaring is done. The skeletons are fabricated in factory and assembled at
site and mortared.
Following type of constructions are usually done by cast in situ method,
a. Single wall: For economical houses such single ferrocement walls can be constructed.
Labour camps, temporary shelters, farm houses, security cabins can be constructed
using single ferrocement walls.
b. Stiffened wall: ferrocement walls are thin and as such ribs on centre and all four sides
can be provided so that the walls become stiffer. The buckling effect is totally
reduced. Such precast components are also useful as slabs and walls.
c. Ribbed floors/roofs: Ribbing to the floors and slabs is possible using ferrocement.
d. Double wall or cavity wall: Cavity ferrocement walls are easy to construct. They are
used when outside temperature is high and cool rooms are necessary. Soundproofing
is also possible using cavity walls.
e. All-in-one method (Integral Construction): This is patented method developed by Dr
B N Divekar in Pune. He has constructed his home using this method.
All-in-One (Patented method) is a novel and unique method of constructing
structures and buildings, in which Ferrocement Paneled Cavity walls with inbuilt columns
and stiffeners hidden inside the cavity and Ferrocement boxed hollow floors with inbuilt
hidden grid beams are fabricated, erected, and cast simultaneously resulting in an integral
46
construction of walls and floors with inbuilt three dimensional structural framework of
columns, stiffeners, and beams. The traditional method of erecting, and casting of R.C.C
framework of columns, beams, and slabs first, and then to build filler walls in it, is
completely reversed here.
The Ferrocement walls are divided into panels and floors in box sections, the
joints of which act as structural framework as shown in fig 8.4. Due to paneling of walls
and boxing of floors and closer spacing of columns and beams, all the loads are equally
distributed throughout the body of the structure resulting in lighter sections of columns and
beams.
A special feature of this method is that the material of construction of all components
of the structure is the same, due to which transfer of loads, moments, and shear, torsion,
and shock loads is very smooth.
Ferrocement itself is having enormous capacity to absorb the shock loads. In addition
to it, the integral casting, box like construction , light weight due to thin walls with very
high strength to weight ratio, high and equal strength in both directions and close knit three
dimensional frame work make All-in-One the most ideal system for building structures in
earthquake – prone areas.
Compared to traditional methods, the site work is reduced to only ten percent,
resulting in saving of time of construction. All types of structures including multistoried
buildings, silos, space structures, large size conduits, can be easily constructed by using
this method.
Traditional building materials like stones, bricks, timber are completely eliminated in
‘All-in-One’. Pollution of air, water and noise is reduced to zero. Hence All-in-One is eco-
friendly method of construction.
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8.4 Composite construction method
In this method ferrocement components are used partly with basic structure of RCC
or structural steel. Two types can be explained as below,
a. Lost formwork of ferrocement: In RCC constructions cement concrete is always
poured inside the formwork. Timber or plywood formwork can be replaced by
ferrocement form work. Ferrocement elements are as thin as plywood say 18 mm to 30
mm. So if such formwork is used concrete can be poured and the formwork is not
required to be removed. So, it is called lost formwork. The ferrocement forms are quite
strong and they take tensile stresses. If designed properly the strength of such
ferrocement formwork can be taken into account and the sizes of column and beam can
be reduced.
b. Walling and cladding: Normally the RCC framework is constructed first before the
walls. It is quite possible to build ferrocement walls in the framework of RCC. The
walls are thin so the carpet area of the rooms increases. Ribbing of the walls is required
depending upon the size of the wall. Curved walls are also possible. For elevation
treatment ferrocement cladding or vertical fins can be constructed. In steel structures
even ferrocement slabs can be cast on the structure.
Old buildings loose the load carrying capacity due to deteriorated columns.
Ferrocement jacketing or encasing is done to increase the load carrying capacity. 50%
additional load can be taken by old columns, if encased properly. Tensile strength of the
ferrocement is more than 80 kg/cm2. So the confined concrete gets more compressive
strength. Many piers of irrigation aqueducts, bridges need jacketing. The old masonry piers
get more strength by just jacketing them with ferrocement. The cost of such jacketing is
much lower as compared to construction of a new structure. Such retrofitting and
strengthening works are frequent in PWD and WRD.
8.6 Special Purpose Structures: Characteristics of the ferrocement can be used to construct
special purpose structures with innovative designs.
48
A) Space Structures- Special shapes are possible in space structures. Domes, Shells,
HYPAR shapes, Wave type roofs, Roofs of big size halls are possible in ferrocement.
Some photos below fig 8.7 and fig 8.8 will show the variety in constructions.
B) Retaining Walls- Retaining walls built in RCC or masonry are quite bulky and have
bigger base widths. The cost can be curtailed by 40 % using ferrocement retaining
walls. The typical curved shape of the ferrocement wall can be designed with a
thickness of 50 to 70 mm only as shown in fig 8.9. Such wall is already constructed,
tested and found to be useful.
C) Petal Shaped Water tanks- Big size water tanks with plane walls in RCC are normally
constructed. The thickness of the tank wall is very large at the bottom. Ferrocement
petal shaped walls have constant thickness up to 80 mm but they are petal shaped. The
wall gets strength through the shape. A 12 lakh litre capacity ferrocement petal shaped
water tank is already built near Talegaon, District Pune as shown in fig 8.10.
49
Fig 8.10 Water tank near Talegaon, District Pune
D) Small dams and water retaining bandharas: The petal shape and the strong
ferrocement wall can be used for building dams. Such dams are already constructed in
Pune, Nashik, Aurangabad districts. The overflow water is allowed to pass over the
dam as shown in fig 8.11. No damage is seen in the constructed dams in last 3 years. In
water Conservation Departments such dams can be constructed in villages under the Jal
Yukt Shivar scheme. Many K T weirs are to be converted into overflowing dams. The
needles need frequent maintenance. As such needle free weirs are necessary.
Ferrocement walls can be constructed in place of the needles as shown in fig 8.12 and
fig 8.13.
9.4 Parameters of design: Various parameters and the methods of design based on
them are presented below.
1. Due to thorough and uniform dispersion of fine wires over the cross section and
strong bond between them, equivalent area concept can be utilized in deciding the
center of gravity, neutral axis and moment of inertia of the section.
2. Strong bond also justifies use of equivalent area concept in design of structures
subjected to direct compressive and tensile stresses.
3. Bond is measured in terms of specific surface (Sr) of the composite. Relationship
between Specific surface (Sr), Volume fraction of steel (Vr) and wire diameter (d)
can be established and used in design.
4. Specific surface and tensile strength of ferrocrete are related directly. For a
particular specific surface and mortar mix of known strength, tensile strength of the
composite can be obtained.
5. Specific surface also controls the crack widths and their spacing, in the zone of
multiple cracking. A relation between them can be determined analytically.
6. Limitations of the effects of specific surface can be understood with the concept of
influence zone of bond around the wires.
51
7. Relation between crack width and the stress in steel fibers can be established in
form of an equation, from which curves are plotted and used directly in design of
crack controlled structures.
8. Specific surface can be also related to the compressive strength of ferrocement,
because tension created by it, needs to be nullified, for which additional
compressive loads are required and so the compressive strength of composite also
gets increased with the increase in specific surface.
9. By using ‘Theory of Solutions’, equations for tensile and compressive stresses in
ferrocement in terms of the properties of the ingredient materials can be
determined analytically. Beauty of this method is this that the properties of the
ingredients, which can be easily tested and found in laboratory, are used in finding
the stresses of the final product.
10. In all the previous studies the properties of ferrocement are tried to be interpreted
in terms of the material properties of the ingredients with the help of mathematical
models. Bond between the ingredients is completely neglected in “Theory of
Mixtures’ used by them in their design. A new concept of ‘Theory of Solutions’ is
developed in which, the role of specific surface in calculating stresses in tension
and compression of the composite, is established.
11. As specific surface controls both tensile and compressive stress of the composite, a
method based on it can be used in design of flexural members. Being a
homogeneous material, the stress pattern in bending and shear on the cross section
of a member is altogether different than the one in RCC. The design gets simplified
due to it.
12. In stress-strain curve in tension for ferrocement, locations of first crack stress and
yield point stress can be ascertained by the equivalent stress method. The line
joining them defines ‘Chord Modulus of Elasticity’ of the composite for zone of
multiple cracking.
13. Based on this new concept, tensile stresses in ferrocrete for any particular strain
can be easily calculated. All the designs of ferrocement structures are made for
stresses in zone of multiple cracking, as the crack widths in this zone are negligibly
small, they are much less than those prescribed in limit state of serviceability
conditions of concrete structures.
14. From the area below stress-strain curve in tension of ferrocement, the work done in
straining the composite from the first-crack stress to the yield-point stress is
known. It is multifold in ferrocement than the one of RCC. This special property
can be used in design of ferrocement structures subjected to dynamic loads, like
earthquake resisting structures. This is a unique feature of ferrocement and designs
based on this concept are introduced for the first time in design of structures
subjected to dynamic loads.
15. In shaping a structure, the stress pattern over the section is changed from flexure or
hoop tension to direct compression or membrane stresses. With ferrocement it is
very easy to give different shapes to the structure and so this concept is used in
design of shaped structures in ferrocement.
16. Due to standardized method of construction, the strengths of ferrocement
composite, achieved through a particular mesh pattern in a mortar of known
strength, are assured. This idea is used in developing ‘Tension capsules’ and
‘Compression blocks’ of standard strengths in tension and compression, which can
be used for direct applications in field.
52
9.5 Behavior near to homogeneous: Thorough and uniform dispersion of the fine
wires over the cross section, defines the homogeneous behavior of the composite
physically.
1. In RCC the steel bars are placed in tension zone and if their equivalent area is
depicted on the cross section, It will be clearly seen that the spread of the area is
eccentric and its center of gravity and neutral axis passing through it will definitely
be controlled by area of steel (m As). More the steel, lower will be the neutral axis
(NA).
2. In ferrocement, the spread of fine wires is uniform and their projections, (mAs), if
shown on cross section will also very small and distributed uniformly over the
cross section. This clarifies the homogeneity of the material and its C.G. and N.A.
will always remain at half the depth of the section.
3. Even (a) for the equal meshes laid at the top and bottom of a beam or (b) for a
section in which the meshes are spread all around the periphery or (c) for a section
which is symmetrical about the vertical or horizontal axis, due to symmetry the
N.A. will always lie at half the depth of the section.
4. Thus the N.A. for such a homogeneous material will be at half the depth.
9.6 Strong bond between wires and mortar up to failure makes it special
1. When fine wire meshes are used in place of steel bar reinforcement, two factors
play an important role. The mesh reinforcement is continuous in both directions
and spread all over the section. Also it is strongly bonded with mortar. Hence in
pull-out test the mesh won’t get pulled out but may yield and then break. The bond
between wires and mortar is increased due to small diameter wires used in place of
large diameter bars. The area of contact between the mortar and steel gets
increased multifold. Due to this the bond between the two ingredients gets
increased enormously.
2. Suppose a 20 mm dia bar in RCC is replaced by one mm diameter wires,400 wires
will be required for the equivalent cross sectional area of bar and the contact area
will increase 20 times that of steel bar. Increase in contact area due to wires of
different gauges replacing bars of various diameters increases the bond strength to
such an extent that the test samples in tension fail when the wires yield. So, the
ultimate tensile strength of ferrocement becomes the yield strength of wires and
allowing for factor of safety, the permissible tensile stress works out to more than
10 MPa.
3. Strong bond upto yield point of steel means the strains in wires and mortar, are
same up to failure.
Automatically,
Stress in steel = m (stress in mortar) and Equivalent area of mortar = (A m +
mAs)
4. Equivalent area concept is used in design of structures subjected to direct stresses.
5. Equivalent stress principle is used in locating the points of first crack stress and the
yield point stress in the stress-strain curve of ferrocrete in tension. The line joining
them defines the ‘Chord Modulus of Elasticity’ of ferrocement.
53
9.7 Measure for specific surface: Bond can be measured in terms of the specific
surface (Sr), a parameter defined as, ratio of area of contact of wires, to the volume of
mortar, which is bound by them.
Its unit is contact area of wires / volume of mortar = A contact/Vm =mm2/mm3.
While calculating the volume of mortar, only the volume contained by the
meshes and cover on both sides is to be considered. Thickness of finishes in the form of
plaster is not to be taken into account. Thickness built by the skeletal steel, mesh layers
tied over it and a cover of 5 mm over them should be considered.
1. To find the volume of steel wires for meshes of different diameters and configurations
is very difficult. A simple method is
a. Find out the weight (W) in kg of mesh per m2.
b. Divide it by density of steel 7.85 kg/cm3. and you get the volume of steel wires
Vs in cm3 per m2 of area.
c. If this mesh is assumed to be embedded in one cm thick mortar, volume of mortar
will be 100x100x1=104 cm3 per m2 per cm thickness of mortar.
d. So Vr= (W)/ (7.85 x 104), for mesh laid in 1 cm thick of mortar per m2. If the
thickness of the mortar is increased to say 4 cm, this value will be multiplied by
1/4
e. If the weights of different types of meshes are known, their Vr values can be
calculated as shown above per cm thickness of mortar.
2. Volume fraction of steel (Vr) = Vs/Vm is many a time prescribed in percentage. Vr in
ferrocement may be 0.8 to 8.0 percent. If the wire diameter is measured in mm, 8
percent steel has Vr= 0.08 mm3/mm3
3. Relationship between Sr, Vr and wire diameter (d) can be established as follows:
Sr= contact area/ Vm = (3.14 d x 1)/ Vm. Per unit length of wire.
Vr= (steel volume)) / Vm = [( 3.14 d*2) /4] x 1 divided by Vm. Per unit length.
So Sr/Vr = 4/d
4. In ferrocement composite, there may be number of layers of meshes of different types
and diameters. Suppose the weights are W1, W2, W3 for meshes, Vr1, Vr2, Vr3 will be
their volume fractions and if the diameters of their wires are d1, d2, and d3, values of
Sr1, Sr2 and Sr3 can be separately calculated and added together to get the total Sr of
the composite.
9.8 Specific surface and tensile strength: Specific surface and tensile strength of
ferrocement are related directly. More the Sr, more will be the bond. More bond means
more adhesion between the particles which means higher strength in tension
1. Laboratory investigations of this property are already made and the curve showing
stresses at first cracking and at crack stabilization stage against specific surface in
tension test are given in curve by Antonie A. Naaman in his book.
2. The line joining the stress values at first crack and the stress at the crack
stabilization, defines the ‘Chord Modulus of Elasticity’. If we test a number of
samples with varying Sr values, measure stresses at first crack and at the points of
crack stabilization and plot their chord moduli, we will get permissible tensile
stress values of ferrocement for different specific surfaces
3. The bond stress is dependent on strengths of mortar and as bond is a major factor
influencing the first crack and stress at stabilization, the moduli will be different
for different mortar mixes.
4. Tables of permissible tensile stresses of ferrocement for various Sr values for
different mortar mixes can be prepared and used directly.
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5. By using ‘Theory of Solutions”, the values of first crack stress and the stress at
crack stabilization can be calculated analytically, from which the ‘Chord Modulus’
and the permissible tensile stress in tension and compression can be obtained
analytically also.
6. Experimental verification of this relation can be done by conducting tests on a
number of samples.
9.9 Relationship: Relationship between specific surface, bond length (Lb), number of
cracks in it (n), crack width (Cr) and their spacing (Lcr) can be established as follows:
1. Three phase behavior of ferrocement is an established fact. Upto the first crack the
composite behaves as elastic, after the first crack in the multiple cracking zone, the
composite starts behaving as an elasto-plastic material upto the yield point of
wires. In this zone crack width remains constant, but the number of cracks, go on
increasing as the tension in steel wires increases. At the yield point of steel wires
the cracks stabilize and after yielding of steel, the composite goes in plastic stage.
2. This cracking behavior can be interpreted as follows.
With the tension in wire, it starts getting extended in length. Due to strong bond
with mortar surrounding it, mortar also starts getting elongated. Due to elastic
property of steel, the steel can sustain the elongation but the mortar being brittle,
gets extended to a certain limit, beyond which it gets adjusted with the extension,
by forming a crack in it. Like this as the wire length gets extended the number of
cracks go on increasing. Average crack width of all these cracks is same and is
within the limits of design.
3. To evaluate the bond length Lb:
The total tension in steel wires is transferred to the mortar through certain
length called bond length.
Equating, the forces in steel wire and mortar, at the time of crack
stabilization, we get Force in wire = (3.14/4) d2 x fsy) where fsy is yield
point stress in steel.
And
force in mortar = contact area x fm spt.
But, the contact area is 3.14d X bond length (Lb) through which the tension is
transferred to mortar.
So we get fsy x d/4 = fm spt x Lb or
Lb = d/4 ( fsy/fm spt).
In this bond length, numbers of cracks are formed, with a spacing of Lcr between
them,
To determine number of cracks (n): At the stage of stabilization, the number of
cracks are formed (n) can be calculated as below:
Each crack of width Cr is formed with the spacing length Lcr.
With the mortar cover (t) over the wire near surface of the sample, strain in the
mortar at the surface of wire will be Cr/t while the cracking stress in mortar will be
fm spt for each crack. Stress in steel wire is fsy. When it is transferred to mortar its
equivalent will be (fsy/m) which is the total stress to be transferred to mortar.
One important fact to be noted is that when the yield in steel wires has reached the
stress in surrounding mortar may be fsy/m. But the stress at which the mortar
cracks, is fm spt. So fsy/m cannot exceed stress fm spt.The crack width will increase
if this value is exceeded. As the stress in wire increases, number of cracks, go on
increasing.
55
At point of stabilization, (number of cracks) X (cracking stress for each crack) will
be (fsy/m) i.e n x fm spt = fsy/m or n = (fsy/fmspt)/m
It can be seen that for a given mortar mix and type of meshes the crack
width depends on the properties of the ingredients of ferrocement and it can be
calculated analytically. This means that the crack width is in direct proportion of
volume fraction of steel, m value, yield stress of steel, strength of mortar and in
inverse proportion of specific surface, modulus of elasticity of steel and split
tensile strength of mortar. These equations confirm the observations made by
researchers in their earlier studies. The special feature of this equation is that the
crack width of the composite is evaluated from the properties of the wires and
mortar.
56
They will be in bond length of 28.71 mm.
So the crack spacing will be Lcr = 28.71 / 10.36 = 2.77 mm
58
6. It clearly shows that ferrocrete structures can be designed for higher permissible
stresses in steel which will reduce the area of steel to about 30 percent of the steel
used in RCC.
7. In addition, in design of such critical structures, the other unique properties of
ferrocrete like high strength-to-weight ratio, equal strength in two orthogonal
directions, water-tightness and the best weathering qualities play equally important
role.
60
6. There is a full choice in selecting the shape and size of the beam. It may be solid
rectangular, hollow rectangular, box section, I, T, L, Wide flange H beam etc.
7. The stress distribution in tension and compression is same as for the section of
homogeneous beam.
8. It is possible to use ferrocement of different Sr values in different zones of the
beam.
61
1. Stress strain behavior of ferrocement in tension is shown by Shah and Balaguru
(Ref: Ferrocement: Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium). In the
stress-strain curve the work done in stretching small length delta L. by the stress at
that strain will be shown by small area=(Stress x Delta L). The total work done in
straining the ferrocrete from first crack stress to yield point will be summation of
such small areas, which is the area below the curve.
2. Now (stress) x (strain) is [force/area] x [elongation/ length] which has unit
(kg/cm2)x(cm/cm), which works out to be (kgcm/cm3) , which gives work done in
straining per cubic cm of ferrocement.
3. This is the property of the material indicating, its work absorbing capacity in
straining the sample from first crack to yield point.
4. This capacity for RCC is only upto the first crack. For ferrocement it is multifold.
5. When a structure is subjected to dynamic loads, the dynamic force does some work
on the structure and causes bending or deflection in it. The dynamic force
multiplied by the displacement gives the work done on the structure by it. If the
material of the structure has got adequate capacity to absorb this work, the
structure can be designed for dynamic loads on the basis of this property.
62
PART B: DESIGN EXAMPLES
9.20 Guidelines for design of following structural elements are given below.
1) Plane walls in compression and tension.
2) Curved walls as compression members.
3) Hollow beams in form of channel sections.
63
Steps in design:
Steps in design
a) In the case of arches the load is transferred to the supporting structure as reactions
at the springing level of arch.
b) Find out the load, in the form of reaction, transferred directly to the support per
m run
c) The load transfer is through direct compressive stresses.
d) Find out the thickness of walls as
‘t’ = (Load per m run) / (permissible compressive stress in mortar mix used
e) Considering the mortar only, find out the thickness.
f) If ferrocement walling is used the stress will be still less.
64
9.21.1 Limit state method of analysis.
In design of ferrocement structures, members should be proportioned for
adequate strength in accordance with provisions specified in IS 456-1978, for partial
factors for material strengths and loads.
1. While selecting characteristic strengths of mortar on ferrocrete, it should be noted that
rich cement mortar will have very higher strengths even up to 60 MPa. In pressfill
method of casting, unless the mortar is of very thick consistency, the meshes will not
hold it. This automatically controls the strength. The probability of getting the
designed strength consistently is much increased. In future it may be possible to
reduce the partial safety factors for the mortar used.
2. While calculating characteristic strengths of mesh reinforcement global efficiency
factors and orientation of mesh will have to be taken in account. Secondly it should be
noted that yield strength and effective modulus of elasticity of wire meshes are
different than those of steel bars.
3. In calculating characteristic loads, the reduction in dead loads due to use of
ferrocement members will have to be noted.
4. All relevant limit states of collapse in flexure, tension, compression shear and torsion
should be considered to ensure adequate degree of safety. In general the structures
should be designed for most critical limit state and checked for the other limits. For
ensuring this objective, the design should be based on characteristic values of material
strengths and applied loads. Characteristic values should be based on statistical data,
if available. Otherwise they can be based on experience.
5. In ferrocement when such a data is not available for cement mortar, treating mortar as
micro concrete, characteristic values of concrete of the same grade can be safely used.
65
In case of elastic analysis requirements for RCC specified in IS 456-1978 can be
applied to ferrocement with the following modifications.
a) Modular ratios will change with mortar strengths. This will affect stiffness
calculations when the area of reinforcement is to be transformed into equivalent
mortar area.
b) According to strengths of mortars, the permissible stresses in tension,
compression and shear will vary.
c) Type of mesh reinforcement will affect the effective modulus of elasticity of
reinforcement.
d) Perfect bond between mortar and meshes in multiple cracking phase, will control
the crack width. When the design is based on permissible crack widths, higher
stresses in steel fibers can be used.
Permissible stresses in concretes, as given in IS 456-1978 should be used for
ferrocement as mortar is micro concrete.
In analysis, the relative stiffness of members may be based on moment of
Inertia of section determined on the basis of any one of the following
a) Gross section = The cross section of mortar ignoring reinforcement, or
b) Transformed section = The mortar cross section plus the area of reinforcement
transformed on the basis of modular ratios, or
c) for cracked section = Area of mortar in compression plus the area of steel
transformed on the basis of modular ratios.
9.21.3 Design recommendations.
For designing a ferrocement structure by limit state or working stress method,
the following recommendations are made by ACI in their code of practice.
a) The allowable tensile stress in steel reinforcement may be generally taken as
0.60fy,where fy is the yield strength measured at 0.0035 strain
b) Values recommended by ACI. for fy and Er should be used for mesh
reinforcement.
c) For water retaining and sanitary structures, it is preferable to limit the tensile
stress upto 200 MPa. Unless crack width measurements on test model indicate
that a higher stress would not affect the performance.
d) Allowable compressive stress in composite may be taken as 0.45 f’c, where f’c is
the specified compressive strength of mortar measured on test sample of 3”x
6”size cylinder.
e) The total volume fraction Vr in both directions shall not be less than 1.8 %. Total
specific surface of reinforcement Sr in both directions shall not be less than 0.80
cm2 / cm3. About twice these values are recommended.
f) The recommended average net cover of the reinforcement is about 2 mm. It is
also recommended that for thicknesses more than 12 mm, the net cover shall not
be more than 5 mm or o.25 x thickness.
g) It is recommended that the maximum crack width under working loads shall be
less than 0.10 mm for non corrosive environment and 0.05 mm for corrosive
environment or water retaining structures.
h) It should be noted that the crack widths of ferrocrete are much smaller than these
values.
i) For ferrocrete structures to sustain a minimum fatigue life of 2 million cycles, the
stress range in the reinforcement must be limited to 207 MPa. A stress range of
248 MPa may be used for one million cycles.
9.21.4 Two separate articles on the topic of Use of Ferrocement in Earthquake Resisting
Structures and Structural analysis and design of siphon using ANSYS have been
attached on Appendix 3 and 4 to this handbook for additional information.
66
CHAPTER 10
COST ESTIMATION OF FERROCEMENT STRUCTURES
10.3 Drawings: Drawings of the structure to be constructed are based on the designs.
The dimensions of all components and the details of the meshes, bars etc shall be
clearly shown in the drawings. Schedules showing the meshes shall be shown.
B. Labour required
The man-hours per unit of construction of ferrocrete items based on our
experience is given in table 10.1. The wages of the skilled and unskilled labour
will be as per the rates payable in that area. Labour component of ferrocrete items
is on higher side, may go upto 20 % sometime.
67
C. Contingencies
Generally the ferrocrete items are fabricated and tied in factory, and then
taken to the site for mortaring. Hence the cost of handling, transporting, hoisting
and erecting of the cage at site, octroi, water charges etc are considered under
contingencies. They vary from 5 to 8 %.
D. Overheads
The key to the best ferrocrete construction lies in its strict supervision. A
full time supervisor at site is a must. His charges will have to be considered in
addition to office and other expenses, while working out the overheads.
Overheads may be taken up to 8 to 10 %.
E. Profits
Ferrocrete construction is a specialized job and profit margins expected in
it are higher if the design is complicated.
68
Table 10.2 Quantity of material for ferrocrete partition wall
10.5.2 Specification
In specification studies, note the spacing of skeletal steel, types and number of
layers of mesh reinforcement and the mortar mix.
69
Longitudinal bars:
Number of bars = 2000/500 + 1 = 5 nos of 5.0 m length = 25.0 m
Cross bars:
Number of bars = 5000/500 + 1 = 11 nos of 2.0 m length = 22.0 m
Total length of bars
= 47.0 m. add 5% for wastage. So length = 49.35 m say 50.0 m
Weight of steel bars
@ 0.39 kg/m for 50 m length for 8 mm dia = 50.0 x 0.39 =19.5 kg.
b) Weld mesh, one layer of 100 x 100mm x 12 x 12g, = 10.0 sq m. Allow 5% for
wastage and overlaps. So area of weld mesh = 10.5 sq m.
c) Chickenmesh, 3 layers of 13 x 13mm x 24 x 24g. = 2 x 10.5 = 31.5 sq m.
d) Binding wire of 18g = 2.0 kg (from experience)
e) Welding rods on lump sum basis.
f) Cement mortar (1:3) mix by volume.
Thickness of wall 30 mm
Hence volume of wet mortar =10.0 x 0.03 =0.30 cubic m. = 300 liters.
(As a quick guide, it should be noted that for one cm thickness of wall, mortar
required is 10 liters per sq m of wall.)
For dry mortar mix add 33% more to wet mix.
So volume of dry mix = 1.33 x 300 = 400 liters.
As the mix is (1:3) by volume,
The volume of cement= 400/ (1+3) x 1 = 100 liters = 2.86 bags,
and the volume of sand will be equal to 400/ (1+3) x 3 = 300 liters.
Allowing 10% for bulking of sand = 330 liters.
10.5.5 Labour:
Workout the man-days required for each item of work from the table below for
10 sq m of walling.
70
10.5.6 Market rates for materials and labour in Pune, Nashik in September 2017 are as
follows:
Table 10.4 Market rates
Sr. Particulars Rate
No.
1 Tor steel bars 8 mm dia, Rs 45/- per kg
2 Weld mesh 100 x 100 x 12 x 12g Rs 55/- per sq m.
3 Chickenmesh 13 x 13 x 24 x 24g Rs 27/- per sq m.
4 Binding wire 18g Rs 55/- per kg.
5 Cement Rs 325/- per bag.
6 Sand (sieved) Rs 3.00 per litre.
7 Welder Rs 700/- per day
8 Fitter Rs 700/-per day.
9 Mason Rs 850/- per day
10 Helper Rs 550/- per day.
71
10.6 Specifications for Ferrocrete structures
How to draft specifications for ferrocrete, the points to be considered and
specimen specifications for some ferrocrete items are given here. Being a thin walled
structure, it needs accurate working and strict supervision. The specifications should
be drafted with due considerations to the following points.
a) a) Ferrocrete is used for applications in rural areas to intricate architectural forms.
Generally the locally available sand is used for it. Sand is a natural product and
we have no control on its quality. Hence for the local sand, strict quality control in
form of washing, sieving, grading etc should be imposed in the specifications and
strictly followed at site.
b) Relevant B. I. S. specifications for natural and artificially crushed sand should be
used.
c) The cement, steel bars and all types of mesh reinforcements should be according
to B. I. S. Specifications.
d) Giving correct form to the ferrocrete component is its basic requirement. Hence
the correct size, shape, capacity and geometry of the element must be accurately
specified and should be backed up by drawings, preferably in three dimensions.
e) Tying of mesh reinforcement tightly on the skeletal steel is a must, as no
formwork is used in ferrocrete construction. It should be insisted in specifications
and a thorough inspection of the mesh-tying item should be made compulsory.
f) Mortaring of mesh layers for their full penetration should be ascertained from
time to time during casting. The height of the mortar to be filled in at a time
should be prescribed. Hence a stage wise inspection of mortaring should be
insisted in the specifications.
As an illustration, specifications for some ferrocrete items are given below.
72
10.6.2 Specifications for ferrocrete double wall (cavity wall)
Fabricating and casting at site, 150 mm thick ferrocrete double wall, also
called cavity wall, consisting of two skin-wall elements of 25mm thick and an air-gap
of 100 mm as shown in fig 10.2, the two skin-walls being connected by 6mm dia
mild steel bars as connectors, spaced at 500mm c/c vertically and horinzontally, the
ferrocrete skin walls being built of skeletal steel bars spaced at 500mm c/c bothways,
on which single layer of weld mesh of 150 x 150mm x12 x 12g and two layers of
chickenmesh of size 13 x 13mm x24 x 24g are tied tightly on the outer faces, and
impregnated with cement mortar mix of (1:3) by volume, finishing the exposed
surfaces, smooth or rough as directed by the engineer-in-charge, the casting being
done by using sliding formwork, curing etc complete.
73
10.7 Increase in carpet area due to ferrocement walling
By building byelaws, all the external brick-walls must be of minimum 9
inches and internal walls of 6 inches thickness. A ferrocrete cavity wall of 6 inches
thickness for external and 2 inches thickness for internal walls will increase the carpet
area of building. This is illustrated by an example given below.
A building plan of an existing building in brickwork with the external
dimensions in feet units is given in fig 10.4.
In this plan all the external 9 inches brick walls are replaced by 6 inches thick
ferrocrete cavity wall and the internal walls 0f 6 inches thickness in brick are changed
to 2 inches ferrocrete partition walls.
Now the plan area of the building = 24.0 x 37.0 = 888.0 sft
A. For the brickwalls:
Area of all the external walls = 2 ( 24.0 + 37.0 ) (0.75)=91.5 sft
Area of all internal walls = (2 (24.0 ) + 25.0 + 13.0 ) (0.50 ) = 43.0 sft.
Total area of brickwall = 134.5 sft =15.14 % of built up area.
B. For ferrocrete walling.
Area of external walls = 2 (24.0 + 37.0 ) ( 0.50 ) =61.0 sft
Area of partition walls =( 86.0 ) (0.167 )= 14.3 sft.
Total area of ferrocrete wall = 75.30 sft = 8.48 % of built up area.
Hence the increase in carpet area is 59.2 sft = 6.66 % of built up area. So when
the house in this plan is to be sold on the basis of carpet area, the builder gets 6.66 %
more carpet area by use of ferrocement technology.
74
10.8 Estimation in Government departments
In PWD and WRD common schedule of rates or Regional schedules are
published for use of rates in estimation as shown in fig 10.5. Some ferrocement items
are available in CSR. Engineers can derive the rates for the field use by adding the
leads and lifts of material. They can add the percentage increase for the particular
location importance, say tribal area, hilly area, corporation area etc. After analysis of
the rates and finalization of measurements as per the design and drawings, one can
write abstract. Then additions for contingent charges, local taxes etc can be added as
application as per Government guidelines. Estimates and rate analysis has to be
sanctioned by competent authorities before floating tenders.
75
Fig 10.6 Typical estimate of ferrocement walling-1
76
Fig 10.7 Typical estimate of ferrocement walling-2
77
Fig 10.8 Typical estimate of ferrocement walling-3
78
CHAPTER 11
STANDARDIZATION OF FERROCEMENT TECHNOLOGY
11.1 Necessity of standardisation:
Up to 1970, ferrocement was used for small size water retaining structure. From
1980 onwards its use as a structural material for building large size structures like silos,
egg-shaped conduits, digesters, effluent treatment plants, space structures like
pyramids, domes and shells, multi-storeyed buildings, check dams, petal tanks, soil
retaining walls etc has started and many constructions are going on all over India.
Hence its standardization is necessary.
79
application. This guide is consistent with ACI Building Code Requirements for
Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318) except for the special characteristics of ferrocement,
such as reinforcement cover and limits on deflection.
Ferrocement is a form of reinforced concrete using closely spaced multiple layers
of mesh and/or small diameter rods completely infiltrated with, or encapsulated, in
mortar. The most common type of reinforcement is steel mesh. Other materials such as
selected organic, natural, or synthetic fibers may be combined with metallic mesh. This
guide addresses only the use of steel reinforcement in a hydraulic cement mortar
matrix.
Applications of ferrocement are numerous, especially in structures or structural
components where self-help or low levels of skills are required. Besides boats and
marine structures, ferrocement is used for housing units, water tanks, grain silos, flat or
corrugated roofing sheets, irrigation channels, and the like (see ACI 549R).
Guide for the Design, Construction, and Repair of Ferrocement by ACI
Committee 549 supplements two earlier publications (ACI 549R-82, State-of-the-Art
Report on Ferrocement, and SP-61, Ferrocement--Materials and Applications). It
provides technical information on materials and material selection, design criteria and
approaches, construction methods, maintenance and repair procedures, and testing. The
objectives are to promote more effective use of ferrocement in terrestrial structures,
provide architects and engineers with the necessary tools to specify and use
ferrocement, and provide owners or their representatives with a reference document to
check the acceptability of a ferrocement alternative in a given application.
80
Fig 11.1 IS code for ferrocement water tank
of capacity up to 10000 litres (IS 13356: 1992)
81
Fig 11.2 National Building Code of India
The Code was first published in 1970 at the instance of Planning Commission and
then first revised in 1983. Thereafter three major amendments were issued to the 1983
version, two in 1987 and the third in 1997. The second revision of the Code was in
2005, to which two amendments were issued in 2015.
The Code now published in the fourth version representing the present state of
knowledge on various aspects of building construction. The process of preparation of
the Code has thrown up a number of problems; some of them were answered fully and
some partially. Therefore, a continuous programme will go on by which additional
knowledge that is gained through technological evolution, users views over a period of
time pinpointing areas of clarification and coverage and results of research in the field,
would be incorporated in to the Code from time to time to make it a living document. It
is, therefore, proposed to bring out changes to the Code periodically.
Due to large scale changes in the building construction activities, such as change
in nature of occupancies with prevalence of high rises and mixed occupancies, greater
dependence and complicated nature of building services, development of
new/innovative construction materials and technologies, greater need for preservation
of environment and recognition of need for planned management of existing buildings
and built environment, there has been a paradigm shift in building construction
scenario. Considering these, a Project for comprehensive revision of the Code was
taken up under the aegis of the National Building Code Sectional Committee, CED 46
of BIS and its 22 expert Panels; involving around 1 000 experts.
National Building code also mentions ferrocement as a building material.
CPWD Manuals: Manuals published by CPWD namely “Integrated Green
Building”, handbook for repairs and rehabilitation of RCC buildings, guidelines for
sustainable habitats 2014, have mentioned ferrocement as useful and alternative low
energy material.
82
Fig 11.3 FS Code for ferrocement walling in 2014
83
CHAPTER 12
RESEARCH WORK
12.1 Research work of ferrocement in MERI, Nashik
The ferrocement subject was introduced in MERI in 1975. Some research was
already carried out by then officers in MERI.
MERI has conducted many tests and experiments on ferrocement. A water
tank and partition wall was constructed using ferrocement, which is still available for
observation. Though micro cracks are seen on the water tank, there is no water
leakage. 2 boats were constructed in MERI using ferrocement. The boats are still
available for inspection. The rain water is collected in one of the boats but there is no
leakage seen in these boats.
Technical Memorandum No. MT/146 Use of Ferrocement in Hydraulic
Structure (1991)- After taking many tests like flexural test, impact test, split tensile
test, direct tension test, compressive strength test etc., the then Director MERI, Er. P.
K. Nagarkar has observed that ferrocement is better suited for thin wall structure.
Technical Memorandum No. MT/215 Use of Ferrocement in construction
(1988)- Er. N. M. Dange then Director MERI has observed that there is no leakage
in water tanks even in the joints. He mentioned the simplicity of ferrocement
construction. Also ferrocement partition wall are of great use as they occupy less
floor area giving maximum place for dwelling.
In Canal Lining, ferrocement lining was taken on experimental basis in 2014-
15. Tapi Irrigation Development Corporation has executed 100 meter length of
Punand Right Bank Canal near Kalwan. The canal had heavy leakage in this portion.
After completion of the ferrocement lining the leakage was completely stopped.
(The report is under finalization)
85
12.4 Compressive strength of ferrocement
12.4.1 Aim of the experiment:-
To analyse the compressive strength characteristics of ferrocement.
150 mm
150 mm
150 mm
86
Table No. 12.1 Construction of specimen
Sr. Specification of Compressive Designation Layer of Figure
No. strength mould skeleton steel
Compressive strength mould with
ferrocement mortar only.
The Compressive strength mould is
1 CF0 --
filled with cement mortar in three
layers. Each layer is compacted
with the help of vibrating table.
Compressive strength mould with
skeleton steel layer.
Cement mortar is placed in the
mould upto a depth slightly more
than 75 mm & then
2 CF1 1
vibrated/compacted. After
compaction single skeleton steel
layer is placed on that compacted
mortar. Then Compressive strength
mould is filled with cement mortar.
Compressive strength mould with
two skeleton steel layers.
3 Above methodology is adopted for CF2 2
two skeleton steel layers.
100 mm
50 mm
600 mm
88
Beam with one skeleton steel layer.
Cement mortar is placed in the mould
upto a depth slightly more than 5 mm
& then vibrated/ compacted. Then one
skeleton steel layer is placed on that
2 BF1 1
compacted mortar. The beam mould
is then filled with cement mortar in
layers. Each layer is compacted with
the help of vibrating table.
50mm
800mm
1000 mm
Fig 12.3 Assembly for taking out core for permeability test
78 cm
2) As shown in following table no. 12.3, welded mesh and chicken mesh of
particular dimension are laid and tied on above mesh like structure to form the
steel skeleton.
Table No. 12.3 Permeability test Materials
Sr. Thickness of Welded mesh Welded Chicken mesh Chicken
No. ferrocement mesh mesh
core layer layer
1 30 mm 50mm x 50mm 1 ½ inch x ½ inch x 3
x 10 gauge 22 gauge
2 50 mm 25mm x 25mm 2 ½ inch x ½ inch x 4
x10 gauge 22 gauge
3) The welded mesh and chicken mesh of specific dimensions (dimensions are as per
aforesaid table no. 1 ) are laid and tied on the above mesh like structure as shown
in figure 12.5.
90
Fig 12.5 Lay and tie the welded mesh and chicken mesh on the mesh like
structure
4) The assembly then filled with cement mortar. Cement mortar is prepared by using
cement and sand in proportion 1:3 & keeping w/c ratio 0.45. Then cement mortar
was placed in the assembly up to a depth slightly more than 5 mm & then
compacted with the help of vibrating table to achieve uniform compaction. The
appearance of assembly is shown in following figure no.12.6.
Fig 12.6 Placing of steel skeleton above 5mm layer of cement mortar in the
assembly
5) Then a layer of fresh cement mortar is placed on this steel skeleton & vibrated
with the help of vibrating table. After 24 hours, ferrocement specimen is removed
from the assembly & then placed in a curing tank for 28 days. After 28 days
curing, specimen is removed from curing tank & kept for SSD Condition. The
appearance of ferrocement specimen after compaction is shown in figure 12.7(a)
and 12.7(b).
91
6) As shown in figure no.8, for comparative study of permeability test of
ferrocement specimen and plane cement mortar specimen, the assembly shown in
figure no.12.8 is filled with cement mortar only.
7) As shown in figure no.12.9, the cores of diameter 150 mm will be drilled from
ferrocement specimen by using core cutter.
CoreDia.150 mm
Fig 12.9 Permeability cores are taken out from ferrocement specimen
8) Clear the cores, thoroughly with a stiff wire brush to remove all mesh pieces
that comes out of cores as shown in fig 12.10.
30mm 50mm
150 mm 150 mm
92
Coarser Sand (Ennore Sand))
or sealing compound
150mm
150 mm
50 mm
30mm
150 mm
150 mm
150 mm
300 mm
Fig 12.12 Split tensile strength mould
93
12.7.4 Ferrocement core for split tensile strength:-
1) For comparison, cylindrical specimens having dimensions 150mm * 300 mm are
casted using cement mortar in 1:3 proportion keeping w/c ratio 0.45.
2) Welded mesh is cut in dimension 149.00 mm x 300.00 mm. This welded mesh is
laid with two layers of chicken mesh (cover the entire welded mesh) and tied to
form the steel skeleton.
3) This steel skeleton will be placed in cylindrical mould in a vertical position as
shown in table no. 4. Then cement mortar is prepared by using cement and sand in
proportion 1:3 & keeping w/c ratio 0.45. Mortar will be laid after the steel
skeletons are placed inside the cylinder.
4) For circumferential laying, make a cylindrical structure of chicken mesh of
diameter 145.0 mm and placed inside the core as shown in table no. 4. After that
mortar is laid. Likewise other cylindrical structure of diameter 140.0 mm will be
made and placed inside the core and mortar is laid.
Table no. 12.4 Construction of specimen
Sr. Designation of specimen Designation Fig
No. of specimen
1 Full mortar S0
94
CHAPTER 13
FERROCEMENT USE ON EXPERIMENTAL BASIS
13.1 Necessity of use of ferrocement
RCC, masonry in bricks, stones etc are already being used by field engineers in
government works. Ferrocement technology is going to add the options and creativity
for the planning and executing engineers. Considering different uses by PWD and
WRD engineers following are enlisted.
13.2 Ferrocement uses for PWD
1. Walls and shells, Dome shape roofs, pyramid shaped roofs.
2. Elevation treatment items like pergolas, fins
3. Curved portions of structure like hyperbolic paraboloid.
4. Staircases, precast steps.
5. Chajjas
6. Sandwich walls.
7. Gutter sections or lining.
8. Water tanks, septic tanks
9. Foot bridges
10. Bio gas plants
11. Silos
12. Swimming pools, tanks
13. Strengthening of old columns and beams
14. Water proofing of buildings.
15. Sign Boards
16. Watchman cabins
17. Common toilet blocks
18. Earthquake resistant buildings
19. Increasing fire resistance
20. Bunkers, blast resistant structures.
13.3 Ferrocement uses for WRD.
1. Foot bridges on canals
2. Lining to canals
3. Precast lining sections
4. Leakage proofing of the dam walls
5. Construction of small dams
6. Precast structures for CADA works
7. Raising heights of the K T Weirs.
8. Arch type bandharas.
9. Lining to tunnels
10. Retaining walls
11. Sign boards
12. Water proofing of buildings
13. Pontoons for reservoirs
14. Septic tanks and water tanks.
15. Lift Irrigation schemes, pipes, pump houses.
13.4 Though the list is shown here the uses are unlimited. Engineers can think of using
ferrocement where slim sections are required, where leakage is to be stopped, where
extra strength is needed, where earthquake forces are more and so many such special
situations.
95
CHAPTER 14
REFERENCES
1. UNHCR-Large ferrocement Water tank Manual July 2006
2. ‘State of art report on Ferrocement’ and ‘Guide for design, construction and repair of
ferrocement’ Reports by ACI Committee 549, No. 549-R-97.
3. Ferrocrete Technology-A construction Manual by Dr B N Divekar
4. Nervi, Pier Luigi. ‘Ferrocement, Its characteristics and potentialitis’ Library
translation No 60, Cement and Concrete Association London. July 1956. 17pp
5. ‘Ferrocement- Applications in developing countries’ National Academy of Science,
Washington D.C. Feb 1973, 90pp.
6. CPWD circular for crushed sand
7. Ferrocement: Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium
8. FS 2011- Proceedings of National Convention by Ferrocement Society, India
9. FS 2013- Proceedings of National Convention by Ferrocement Society, India
10. FS 2015- Proceedings of National Convention by Ferrocement Society, India
11. FS 2017- Proceedings of National Convention by Ferrocement Society, India
12. Divekar B. N. ‘Ferrocrete Technology- Developments in Pune region’ Souvenir,
Constro 87, Jan. 1987.Pune Construction Engineering Research Foundation, Pune
(India)
13. Morgan, Rowland G. Concrete (London) Vol 2 No 3, March 1968. p 128
14. Bezukladov, V.F. ‘ Ship hulls made of reinforced concrete’ Translation No 1118,
National Technical Information Service 1968.
15. 549-1R 93-Guide for the design, construction and repair of ferrocement.
16. B. I. S. ‘Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete’ IS 456:1978.
17. BIS Code of Practice for ferrocement water tanks IS- 13356:1992
18. FS Code No 001: 2014 Code for ferrocement walling.
19. Divekar B. N., ‘Spun Ferrocrete Pipes can replace Prestressed Concrete Pipes’
Workshop on Improvement in quality and productivity in cement concrete pipes. Jan
1991. Spun Pipe Manufacturer’s Association of Maharashtra.
20. Joseph, G.P., George. Z. Shreenath, H.G., ‘Ferrocement as substitute for timber’ Asia-
Pacific Symposium on Ferrocement Applications for Rural development- Roorkee
(India).April 1984.
21. Common Schedule of rates of Government of Maharashtra, WRD and PWD.
22. CPWD handbook on Repairs, Rehabilitation RCC building.
23. CPWD guidelines for sustainable habitats 2014.
24. Integrated Green Design-by CPWD
25. IS 383:1970 - Specification for coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources for
concrete
26. IS 432 : 1982 - Mild steel & medium tensile steel bars and hard drawn steel wires for
concrete reinforcement
27. IS 2386:1963 - Methods of test for aggregates for concrete
28. IS 456:2000 - Code of practice for plain and reinforced concrete
29. IS 516:1959 - Method of test for strength of concrete
30. IS 13356 : 1992 – Code of practice for Precast Ferrocement water tanks up to 10000
liter.
96
APPENDIX 1
LIST OF FERROCEMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS
(Maharashtra Government Water Resource Department
Miscellaneous-2014/(Case No. 163/2014)/NWS-3 Date:09/02/2017)
97
Special Invitee
Sr.No. Name Designation
1 Shri. D.R.Joshi Chief Engineer, WRD
2 Shri.D.B.Sale Superintending Engineer, WRD
3 Shri.S.D. Bhagat Superintending Engineer, WRD
4 Shri. Girish Sangle Retired Sectional Engineer, WRD and
Secretary of Ferrocement Society
5 Shri. Milind Kulkarni Principal Consultant and
Member of the Ferrocement Society
Vote of thanks
Sr.No. Name Designation
1 Shri. M.V. Patil Assistant Research Officer,
Material Testing Referral Laboratory, MERI, Nashik
2 Mrs. Y.G. Bagul Scientific Officer,
Material Testing Referral Laboratory, MERI, Nashik
3 Shri. D.C. Jadhav Assistant Engineer Gr.II
Material Testing Referral Laboratory, MERI, Nashik
4 Mrs. B.B.Shinde Assistant Engineer Gr.II
Material Testing Referral Laboratory, MERI, Nashik
98
APPENDIX 2
COST ESTIMATES OF FERROCEMENT ITEMS
In this appendix we have given sample estimates of retaining walls, water tank, canal lining,
staircase, dome and shell. The rates and costs for two cases are compared, viz. RCC and
ferrocement, considering the market rates for the same year.
[rates are based on the basis of market rates for the year 1996]
Sr No Item Rate Unit Quantities and costs for 4.50 m length for wall height of
1 Excavation 34.41 Cum 21.95 755.30 26.66 917.37 33.44 1150.67 37.73 1298.29
PCC (1:3:6) Cum 1.44 1388.20 1.74 1677.41 3.11 2998.13 3.51 3383.75
2 964.03
Cement used bags 6.64 0.00 8.02 0.00 14.33 0.00 16.18 0.00
RCC (1:2:4) Cum 10.00 19194.50 13.95 26776.33 20.94 40193.28 25.79 49502.62
3 1919.45
Cement used bags 64.80 0.00 90.40 0.00 135.70 0.00 167.11 0.00
4 Steel for RCC 17465.00 tonne 0.72 12574.80 1.21 21132.65 2.17 37899.05 3.22 56237.30
Murum Filling for 4.5 m 40.00 Cum 33.00 1320.00 36.00 1440.00 48.00 1920.00 51.65 2066.00
99
2.0 Cost details of Counterfort RCC retaining wall
[rates are based on the basis of market rates for the year 1996]
Sr No Item Rate Unit Quantities and costs for 4.50 m length for wall height of
1 Excavation 34.41 Cum 19.85 683.04 24.84 854.74 30.18 1038.49 33.62 1156.86
PCC (1:3:6) Cum 1.24 1195.40 1.91 1841.30 2.15 2072.66 2313.60 2230379.81
2 964.03
Cement used bags 5.72 0.00 8.80 0.00 9.91 0.00 11.06 0.00
RCC (1:2:4) Cum 8.49 16296.13 13.92 26718.74 20.34 39041.61 25.89 49694.56
3 1919.45
Cement used bags 55.01 0.00 90.20 0.00 131.80 0.00 167.76 0.00
4 Steel for RCC 17465.00 tonne 0.62 10828.30 1.21 21132.65 2.11 36851.15 3.10 54141.50
Murum Filling for 4.5 m 40.00 Cum 40.50 1620.00 56.80 2272.00 64.54 2581.60 75.36 3014.40
[rates are based on the basis of market rates for the year
1996]
Sr Height h Total Base Heal Area Stem Counterfort Total Area (unit
No (Unit Height 0.55H (unit Area 1.5 m c/c (unit Square meter)
meter) H (h+d) Square (unit Square meter)
meter) Square
meter)
1 3 4.00 2.20 9.90 18.00 17.60 45.50
2 4 5.00 2.75 12.38 22.50 27.50 62.38
3 5 6.00 3.30 14.85 27.00 39.60 81.45
4 6 7.00 3.85 17.33 31.50 53.90 102.73
Sr No Item Rate Unit Quantities and costs for 4.50 m length for wall height of
PCC (1:3:6) Cum 1.40 1349.64 1.59 1532.81 2.77 2670.36 4.34 4183.89
2 964.03 12.7
Cement used bags 6.45 0.00 7.33 0.00 7 0.00 20.00 0.00
10838.4 62.3 14085.4 81.4 18391.4 102.7 23196.4
3 225.80
Cement Mortar (1:3) Cum 48.00 0 8 0 5 1 3 3
62.3 10966.4 81.4 14318.9 102.7 18059.9
4 Mesh Layers 175.80 Sqm 48.00 8438.40 8 0 5 1 3 3
64.8 89.1 122.8
Murum Filling 40.00 Cum 45.50 1820.00 8 2595.20 0 3564.00 5 4914.00
22754.9 31499.1 41874.7 55158.7
5 Total Cost for 4.5 m wall 4 3 3 5
12257.5
Cost per running meter 5057.00 7000.00 9305.00 0
4.0 Cost comparison of different types of retaining walls per m run of wall
101
Ferrocement
Sr No Wall height (Unit meter) RCC Cantilever RCC Counterfort Counterfort
% % %
5.0 Cost and material consumption per sqm of walling of various types
Ferrocement
Sr No Wall height (Unit meter) RCC Cantilever RCC Counterfort Counterfort
Cost per Sqm 2610 2268 1685
1 3 Cement Bags 5.3 4.5
Steel in Kg 53.33 45.92
Cost per Sqm 2887 2934.5 1750
2 4 Cement Bags 5.47 5.5
Steel in Kg 67.22 67.22
Cost per Sqm 3732 3626 1861
3 5 Cement Bags 6.67 6.3
Steel in Kg 96.64 93.78
Cost per Sqm 4167 4086 2042
4 6 Cement Bags 6.79 6.62
Steel in Kg 119.26 114.81
Notes-
A For all the heights there is enormous saving in using ferrocrete counterfort wall.
B For height above 5.0 m, the ferrocrete wall costs less than 50% than RCC Counterfort wall
C For RCC Cantilever and RCC Counterfort walls there is not much difference in cost
D Per square meter of Ferrocrete Walling there is no much difference for heights from 3 to 6 m
102
6.0 Cost estimate of 75000 liter water tank:
A typical water tank having circular shape in plan, can be designed and constructed in RCC or
Ferrocement. The costs are compared here for both these cases.
Diameter of the tank = 26 feet Height of the tank is = 5 feet Capacity = 75000 liter
Ferrocement RCC
Qty Unit Rate Amount Qty Unit Rate Amount
1 Excavation 2662.32 Cft 15 39934.76 2595.29 Cft 15 38929.28
Bottom
2 Shahabad 414.09 Sft 60 24845.66 527.24 Sft 60 31634.40
3 Raft 14.70 Cum 7000 102900.00
Plastic Sheet
4 Below 414.09 Sft 10 4140.94 527.24 Sft 10 5272.40
Ferrocement
5 area 1181.86 Sft 225 265917.99 0.00
RCC Pardi 300
6 thick 63.00 Sqm 3500 220500.00
RCC
Reinforcemen
7 t steel 2564.10 Kg 65 166666.50
8 Ribs - Length 325.26 Rft 225 73183.77 0.00
RCC Slab at
9 top 31.36 Sqm 1750 54880.00
1 Plaster from
0 inside 1169.57 Sft 40 46782.89 1183.60 Sft 40 47344.00
1 Outside
1 Plaster 1206.49 Sft 60 72389.33 1060.51 Sft 60 63630.34
1 Carting out
2 soil 19.97 trips 1200 23960.86 19.46 Trips 1200 23357.57
Total 551156.20 755114.48
Design Design
Add Fee 27557.81 Fee 37755.72
578714.01 792870.20
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
Conclusions-
Amounts in Rupees
RCC RCC
119
APPENDIX 3
USE OF FERROCEMENT IN EARTHQUAKE RESISTING STRUCTURES
ABSTRACT
Earthquake resistant design is a challenge for mega projects.In design and analysis of structures which
can resist earthquake, all the codes prescribe ways and means of improving the gravity loaded structures
to withstand horizontal forces. Nowhere an effort is made to find a material and a system of construction
which will sustain gravity as well as horizontal forces equally well. A timber trelliswork with plywood
planks fixed over it on both sides will give an ideal system but for its strength and susceptibility to fire. In
ferrocement cavity wall construction, the same idea is developed further. Stiffened ferrocement plates are
put in place of plywood planks and three dimensional grid work of horizontal and vertical stiffeners in
form of joints act trellis work. An effort is made here to develop this idea and provide the best
earthquake resisting structure in ferrocement.
1.0: Earthquake effects on buildings:
The actual effect of earthquake on structures is understood by its action and the static and dynamic
effects.
120
While considering effects of dynamic loads on structures, not only the dynamic properties of material
but also the dynamic behavior of the structure is considered. The same dynamic load will produce
different effects on different structures.
121
Parapets, cornices, cantilevers and projections more than 750mm long should be avoided. For such
projections the ‘C’ value is multiplied by five.
2.5: Tall structures:
Chimney-like structures should be of RCC or steel and should be well tied with the main structures.
2.6: Rigid joints:
For rigidity all the masonry work should be done in cement mortar. A rigid member comes to rest
quickly and hence rigid joints are recommended.
2.7: Masonry walls:
All internal and external walls should be tied together at each floor level. A RCC band at window sill
level and lintel level will be an added advantage.
2.8: Diagonal braces:
The rigidity of the structures is effectively increased by providing diagonal braces.
2.9: Centre of gravity:
The centre of gravity of the whole structure should be as low as possible. While designing a building
it should be seen that the centre of gravity and the centre if rigidity coincide. Otherwise the horizontal
motion will cause a considerable torsion in the building. Having different parts of buildings to have
different heights or too much variation in areas of openings will lead to torsional bending.
2.10; Overturning:
The overturning moment of the structure due to seismic forces shall not exceed 50% of the moment of
stability, both calculated by using the same loads.
2.11: Adjacent buildings:
Adjacent buildings or the parts of the same building, which are different in mass and stiffness should
be separated by a gap or should be rigidly interconnected. This gap should be filled in with fragile
material. This separation should be taken up to the top of the foundation. Foundation of a group of
buildings may be continuous.
2.12: Pressure on foundation:
The maximum pressure on foundation from dead, live and seismic load should not exceed 1.10 times
safe bearing capacity of the supporting soil.
2.13: No uplift:
Moments due to seismic force should not cause uplift in any part of the foundation. The seismic force
increases with the mass of the structure and hence the roofs and the upper storeys of the buildings should
be lightweight.
2.14: Important buildings:
Buildings which are of post earthquake importance like hospitals, waterworks, fire-stations etc should
be designed with ‘C’ value 1.5 times the value recommended in the code.
2.15: Load bearing walls:
All buildings with load bearing walls in stone, brick or block masonry should be provided with
continuous bands of reinforced concrete all around external, internal and partition walls at levels of
plinth, window sill, lintel and below slab. Such bands should be for the full width of the walls and
minimum 150mm thick.
Height to width ratio of masonry wall should not exceed 1.50. Total height of load bearing wall
should not exceed 12.0 meters.
2.16: Hollow wall construction:
Two leaf walls with air gap are not advised in the seismic region.
2.17: Hollow block masonry:
122
The thickness of hollow block load bearing masonry walls shall not be less than 200mm for single
storeyed and not less than 300mm for two storeyed buildings.
2.18: Cross walls:
Cross walls should not be less than 2/3 thick of the external walls. Cross walls possess greater rigidity
than the frames put in the same direction.
2.19: Solid RCC walls:
Practically a wall of 125mm thickness can be cast in concrete. A 200mm thick RCC solid wall will
usually cover all the earthquake requirements. They should be built monolithic with the floor slabs.
Nominal reinforcement of 10mm dia. @ 300mm c/c vertically and 6mm dia @ 300mm c/c horizontally
will be adequate for practically all storeyheights.
2.20: Arch roofs:
Arched roofs of any type are not permitted as differential movement of any support will cause
complete collapse of the structure.
2.21: Gable ends:
No gable ends should be permitted and ends of the sloping roofs should be hipped.
2.22: RCC framed structure:
In this the full load is taken by the framework and no portion is transferred to the walls. The main
beams should be reinforced at top and bottom with minimum 0.7% of reinforcement on each side and
stirrups provided throughout the length.
Slenderness ratio of the columns should not exceed 15.0 and its main reinforcement should not be less
than 1.25 % of the effective area.
Floors and roofs should be cast integral with the supporting beams.
External columns should have diagonal bracings either of beams or by diagonal reinforcement in the
slabs.
2.23: Timber structures:
Small buildings of one or two storeys with built up area not exceeding 350 sq m with well braced
timber frames on sound foundations will withstand all earthquake forces. Only they should be protected
from fire.
124
The press-fill method of casting makes the mortar to penetrate fully the mesh layers and the mortar
gets completely encased in them. If a ferrocement member cracks or fails there is no possibility of
separation of mortar from the meshes.
In conventional constructions, the plaster, particularly of ceiling, gets separated easily
and falls down due to earthquake forces. This type of failure will never occur with ferrocement.
3.6: Plaster finish:
In ferrocement the cover is hardly 3 to 5 mm and is a part and parcel of the ferrocement wall. There is
no possibility of this finishing coat of plaster getting separated from the main structure. At the most there
may be surface cracks.
3.12:Shear walls:
Ferrocement can resist membrane stresses in direct compression and tension nicely, due to its two way
reinforcement, thorough dispersion of steel and homogeneous nature. So a ferrocement wall can resist
horizontal loads very easily as shear walls.
The integral working of stiffened ferrocement plates and the in-built framework helps in resisting
strongly the horizontal shear forces.
126
4.2: Continuity:
When the stiffened plates are erected and jointed by bolts or jointed by epoxy, to form cavity wall, a
boxlike formwork is automatically formed for the vertical columns. In multi-storeyed buildings this
boxlike formwork is continuous from floor to floor. Welded steel bar cage is put in this box formwork
and concrete is cast in it. Floor to floor continuity of reinforcement and concrete can thus be achieved.
At the top of cavity wall, a trough-like formwork is automatically formed due to ribs and edge
projections. Welded bar cage, as beam reinforcement, is put in it and concreted. The beams are
continuous over all the adjoining walls and hence continuity of reinforcement and concrete in beams is
maintained at floor level.
In hollow ferrocement floor slabs, a trough-like formwork is automatically formed when the precast
base-plates and the void-forming channel sections are laid. Reinforcement for the Tee beams and the
flange is welded and laid in this formwork and concreted. These Tee beams are continuous throughout
the floor slab. In case of larger spans for slabs, a grid beam floor can be introduced.
At the interconnections of columns, wall beams and the floor beams, one time casting of concrete will
provide rigid joints for the framework. Hence a continuity of the framework with rigid joints is achieved.
This will provide a continuous and uninterrupted path for horizontal and vertical loads.
4.3: Tying together:
The vertical stiffener columns, the wall beams and the Tee beams are interconnected and are tied
together with continuous reinforcement and concreted at a time..
The faces of ribs and edge projections of precast ferrocement walling plates, floor base plates and void
forming channel should be kept rough and unfinished. These rough surfaces of the formwork will provide
good bond with the concrete. If required the meshes on these surfaces may be kept open to have still
better bond of precast panels with concrete-in-situ.
Thus the connections between the precast panels and the in-situ-concrete will be perfect. Hence all the
members of the building, even with precast panels, will work as an integrally cast structure and will
resist earthquake loads as one single unit.
4.4: Box action:
When the three dimensional grid of columns, beams and Tee-beams along with the precast walling
and floor panels are connected together, every room in the building acts as a box unit and the whole
building consists of boxes tied together.
Hence the whole building acts as a big closed boxlike unit which is strengthened by individual boxes
of rooms.
127
provided. They hold together two skin walls as well as impart strength to them by reducing the effective
length of the compression member.
When precast walling panels are used, the panels themselves are stiffened by horizontal and diagonal
ribs. Two skin walls are bolted together and jointed by in-situ concrete. The spacing of ribs is calculated
to provide for the slenderness for different end conditions.
128
An earthquake resisting model house was constructed by the author in 1993 after the Latur earthquake
in Maharashtra. A report of this work was sent to Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee (India) for
their comments.
6.0: Conclusions:-
6.1 As a material of construction, ferrocement is a homogeneous and ductile material with enormous
capacity of energy absorption. It is an artificially formed timber and is an ideal material for earthquake
prone area.
6.2 Method of constructing structures by using ferrocement cavity walls and hollow floors within
built framework is the best system with stiffened shear walls and floors automatically formed in it. This
system can be used in form of precast or cast-in-situ method of construction.
6.3 For retrofitting structures damaged due to shock loading ferrocement is the only reliable
alternative.
Thus ferrocement as a material and construction method are ideal for building structures in
earthquake areas.
130
APPENDIX 4
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF SIPHON USING ANSYS
Abstract— Whenever two flow lines i.e. canal and the river or drain crosses each other, the CD work is
constructed. The siphon type of CD work is constructed in the field when the river or the drain flows
above and the canal flow is made underground below the river. The canal flow is taken below the ground
through the rectangular box section. Such box section has top slab to take the load of the river flow and
bottom slab to take the load of canal flow. Moreover, these two slabs are subjected to loads from top and
bottom surface. During the worst loading condition, the main reinforcement is required to be provided at
top and bottom of these slabs. This not only increases the thickness of the slab but also reduces the net
flow area and also disturbs the hydraulic functioning of CD-works.
Present work consists of replacing the R.C.C. box section of the canal flow with ferrocement box
section for reducing the thickness and increasing the cross sectional area for smooth hydraulic
functioning of the siphon.
The section in ferrocement is analyzed in ANSYS and subsequently optimized design is carried
out. Also, the comparison of structural performance between R.C.C. section and ferrocement section is
done.
The analysis and design concludes that the ferrocement section in the form of arch of the CD-work
proves to be efficient structurally and hydraulically.
Keywords:- ANSYS , ferrocement, Siphon.
1. Introduction:A cross drainage work is a structure which is constructed at the crossing of a canal and a
natural drain, so as dispose of drainage water without interrupting the continuous canal flow. Cross-
drainage works are necessary in irrigation projects.
There are many different types of CD works. The present subject deals with design and analysis of
siphon.
1.1 The field problem : In siphon type of CD work, the drain is taken over the canal such that the canal
water runs below the drain, the FSL of the canal is sufficiently above the bed level of the drainage trough,
so that the canal flows under siphoning action under the trough. Such structure is known as a canal
siphon or a Siphonas shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Siphon
In the siphon, the canal bed is depressed and a ramp is provided at the exit. The section of the canal
below the trough is constructed with reinforced cement concrete in the form of tunnel which acts as
siphon.
When siphon type of cross drainage work is constructed using reinforced cement concrete which
requires large amount of steel, cement, sand and aggregates and reinforced concrete sections have large
thickness .Due to large thickness of the slab, the area of flow reduces and as there is reduction in flow
area ,velocity of flow increases. Due to more velocity of flow, there is scouring on the downstream side
131
due to which the head loss increases. Using traditional reinforced concrete as a construction material for
siphon leads to the problems which can be summarized as --
(i) Main reinforcement is required on both the sides.
(ii) Thickness of slab is more.
(iii) Due to increased thickness, net flow area of the canal water reduces.
(iv) Reduced flow area leads to increase in the velocity of water.
(v) Increased velocity leads to more losses.
(vi) Dead weight of the structure is more.
(vii) Material required is more.
(viii)Cost of construction increases leading to uneconomic construction.
1.2 Loading conditions:Following worst loading cases may occur during functioning of for siphon
loading.
1.2.1 Nonexistence of water in the river and canal is full: In this case ,when there is no water in the
river and cannel is running full, canal water offers heavy upward pressure on the trough of the siphon as
shown in Figure 2
Canal Full River Dry
Upward pressure
Downward pressure
Figure 4: River full and canal dry
132
Figure 5: Reinforcement in slab
Due to the heavy water pressure on trough bottom, reinforcement requires concrete cover and
higher depth of the concrete slab to resist the water pressure on the trough of siphon as shown in Figure
5.
1.2.3 Combination of above two cases: From the above two worst conditions, due to heavy water
pressure from the both up and down sides, main reinforcement is required on both the sides of the trough
slab as shown in the Figure. This will increase the cross section of roof slab of siphon. Due to increasein
depth of section, net flow area will get reduced due to which there will be increase in the velocity of the
flow.
2 Solution proposed:Considering above field problem, there is need to reduce the thickness of the
section and economize the construction. The R.C.Csiphonsectionis proposed to be replaced by
usingferrocement so thatthe thickness of the section will be reduced and the construction will become
economical, as ferrocement requires less thickness as compared to reinforced cement concrete.Above
problems can be minimized and solved by adopting ferrocement for construction of siphon. By adopting
ferrocement following is achieved
• Thickness of the section will be reduced.
• Area of flow will be increased and the losses will be reduced.
• Less material and thickness will be required.
• Dead weight of the structure will be reduced.
3. The approach adopted:Structural design of trough slab of siphon is done for RCC and ferrocement.
RCC slab design is done using working stress method and for design of ferrocement slab method
recommended by ACI code is used.The design sections of RCC and ferrocement are modeled and
analyzed using ANSYS workbench.
3.1. R.C.C.Design of siphon trough: A field case study is considered as mentioned below for the
analysis. The field data of a siphon is obtained. From this data, the load and moment are calculated;the
obtained parameters are used for designing the equivalent ferrocement section. Couple of trials are
presented to get optimized ferrocement section.
Maximum sagging bending moment in slab due to downward load (no uplift)
133
Design of slab is done by usual method used for the design of RCC slab. Using M25 concrete and with
depth of 100mm and 8mm ø @ 80mm c/c.
where,
Mn= moment capacity of ferrocement section.
Vf= volume fraction of reinforcement.
b= width of ferrocement section.
h= thickness of ferrocement section.
f’c=compressive strength of mortar= 0.45 X 40 = 18MPa.
fy= yield strength of mesh reinforcement =0.6X450 = 270MPa.
ɳ = global efficiency factor of embedded reinforcement = 0.45.
Checking a ferrocement section of different thickness for the worst loading condition, using different
layers of 10 gauge (d=3.175mm) of welded wire mesh and mortar grade of M40 Trial. I: Thickness of
50mm, using 4 layers of mesh
Not ok
4.Software analysis: There are various FE analysis software packages available such as ANSYS,
Abaqus, Stad-pro, SAP, ADINA, Advance Design, Open Sees, COSMOL Multi physics etc.The ANSYS
is used for the analysis of siphon in present work.ANSYS is a general-purpose finite-element modeling
package for numerically solving a wide variety of structural problems. In general, a finite-element
solution may be broken into the following three stages.
a) Preprocessing:This involve defining of the problem and major steps in preprocessing are
(i) Define key points / lines / areas / volumes.
(ii) Define element type and material / geometric properties.
(iii) Mesh lines / areas / volumes as required.
134
The amount of detail required will depend on the dimensionality of the analysis, i.e., 1D, 2D, axis-
symmetric, and 3D.
b) Solution:This involves assigning loads, constraints, and solving. It is necessary to specify the loads
(point or pressure), constraints (translational and rotational), and finally solve the resulting set of
equations.
c) Post processing:This involves further processing and viewing of the results. At this stage,following
parameters can be obtained..
i)Lists of nodal displacements,
ii)Element forces and moments,
iii)Deflection plots,
iv)Stress contour diagrams or temperature maps.
ANSYS is used for the analysis of siphon in RCC and ferrocement, for different conditions as
i) Canal full and river full.
ii) Canal full and river empty.
iii) Canal empty and river empty.
4.1 Material properties:Material properties are required for the ANSYS analysis. Table 1, 2 and 3
shows these properties which were used.
Table 1 :Properties of concrete
Material properties M 25
Modulus of elasticity (E)
25000
MPa
Poisons ratio (µ) 0.18
5.Results:The specimens of experimental work were tested under Universal Testing Machine and the
results of various parameters are presented below
5.1 Defletions:From the analysis of reinforced concrete slab, ferrocement slab and ferrocement arch slab
total deformation are obtained. As the pressure is applied normal to the slab, deflection is along the
direction of the load applied. Total deformation of slab is as in Table 4.
Table 4 :Deflection
Deflection
Model
(mm)
135
RCC 0.3759
2 Mesh M40 0.2889
2 Mesh M35 0.3079
2 Mesh M30 0.3314
2 Mesh M25 0.3613
1 Mesh Arch
0.0287
M40
5.2 Maximum stress: In this maximum principal stress of the siphon trough slab for concrete,
ferrocement and arch slab are obtained. As the pressure is applied normal to the arch and opposite ends
are fixed, maximum principal stress occurs at the point below the application of load and maximum stress
is concentrated below the applied load. Maximum principal stress occurs in steel and the results are
shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Maximum principal stress
Maximum principal stress
Model (MPa)
Concrete/Mortar Steel
RCC 2.006 25.999
2 Mesh M40 10.396 27.378
2 Mesh M35 9.0585 37.29
2 Mesh M30 8.9742 38.548
2 Mesh M25 8.9555 39.43
1 Mesh Arch
0.2481 2.819
M40
5.3 Maximum principal elastic strain: In this maximum principal elastic strain of the siphon trough for
concrete, ferrocement and arch slab is obtained. As the pressure is applied normal to the slab and
opposite ends are fixed, maximum principal elastic strain occurs near the support. Maximum principal
elastic strain occurs in the concrete for R.C.C. and in mortar for ferrocement as in Table 6. Minimum
value of strain in ferrocement is 0.00035 as per ACI 549.
136
6. Validation: The above analytical results were validated with the experimental results. In order to
validate the analytical results, experimental casting and testing wasdone .
6.1 Experimental work: In the experimental work ,arch beams of dimensions as 1m span, 0.3m rise and
0.025m thickness were cast. These formworks were used for the casting of arch slab. In casting and
testing of arch slabs following steps were followed:
i)Install the welded wire mesh of 12guage and opening size of 14 x 14mm and place it properly in the
center of the mold and cast mortar of proportion 1:2, with w/c ratio 0.4.
ii)Pour the mortar in the wooden form and adjust the mesh.
iii)Remove the specimens from the wooden forms 24 hours after the casting and keep them
for the curing.
iv)After the curing period is complete the specimens were tested in the universal testing
machine (UTM) of 100kN capacity.
v)The specimens were placed for testing as shown in Figure 7
vi)The arch is supported as hinged supports on both sides and the load in the form of line load
is gradually applied.
6.2. Comparison of experimental and analytical results: Experimental and analytical results are
compared in the Table 7 on the basis of deflection criteria.
7. Discussions: From the experimental and analytical investigations, following observations were made
i) From the experimental setup, the arch acts as the two hinged arch and the load is gradually
137
applied on the top, the load gets transferred to the supports.
ii) The first crack is observed below the point of application of load.
iii) From the analytical observations, it can be observed that maximum stress is at the same
point where the first crack is observed as shown in Figure 8 and 9
iv) The experimental results endorse the location of the cracks on the top face of the arch
near support as seen in Figure 10 and 11.
139
APPENDIX 5
PHOTO SECTION: VARIOUS FERROCEMENT WORKS CONSTRUCTED
ACROSS INDIA
140
A boat built in MERI Nashik in 1980
141
Typical Ferrocement Staircases.
142
Ferrocement House built in Chenganasserry, Kerala.
143
Ferrocement house built in Village Gove, Dist.Satara, Maharashtra.
145
APPENDIX NO.6
Formulation of Panel for ferrocement
GOVERNMENT OF MAHARASHTRA महाराष्ट्र शासन
WATER RESOURCES DEPARTMENT
CHIEF ENGINEER जलसंपदा विभाग
CENTRAL DESIGNS ORGANISATION मख्
ु य अभभयंता,
मध्यवर्ती संकल्पचित्र संघटना,
Dindori Road, Nashik-422004
Phone No.: ( 0253) 2530621
Fax : (0253) 2530251
ददंडोरी मागग, नाभशक – ४२२००४
E-mail : [email protected]
“Please Visit to WRD Website -
CD फोन नं. : (०२५३) २५३०६२१
फॅक्स नं : (०२५३) २५३०२५१
https://wrd.maharashtra.gov.in”
Respected Sir,
The word ferrocement is now used worldwide as a construction method / construction material. In India,
its applications are in hydraulic structures particularly in storing, retaining and conveying water as well as in public
works department as building components, bridge components etc.
By the reference No.1, BIS has already published the IS code for Precast Ferrocement water tanks (Upto
10000 Liter capacity). In this code, shape and dimension of ferrocement water tank, materials required for
constructing the ferrocement water tank, design and construction procedures are given for the ferrocement water
tank. This code also covers testing procedures for the ferrocement water tank. While formulating this draft, much
knowledge and experience of construction field is discussed as well as scrutinized by BIS committee. The
committee for this IS code no. 13356: 1992 was Precast Concrete Products Subcommittee CED 2:9 under Cement
and Concrete Sectional Committee CED 2.
At state level, ferrocement committee is formed by Government of Maharashtra vide reference No. 2 to
prepare manual incorporating properties, applications as well as design philosophy of ferrocement technology to
our practicing engineers. So please provide the documents related to ferrocement materials, designs, applications,
quality control that used to finalize the draft of above said IS code. This will help this committee to a great extent
in formulating the manual.
It is therefore requested to provide the documents at the earliest.
Thanking You.
Yours
sd
Chief Engineer
Central Design Organization,
and Chairman ferrocement committee
146
भारतीय मानक ब्यरु ो
BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS
MINUTES
30 March 2017
147
For BIS Use Only CED 2/A2.25 - Minutes
5.2 Ferrocement
The Committee studied the suggestion received. Dr Bhupinder Singh, IITR
informed about literature of International Ferrocement Information Centre,
AIT Bangkok, which, he suggested may be utilized appropriately. Dr Subrato
Chowdhury mentioned that ferrocement is a system and should be named
suitably so as to avoid any possible confusion with cement. Dr Shashank
Bishnoi, IITD shared his experience of having inspected buildings constructed
using ferrocement technology, and highlighted about the problem of higher
rate of corrosion. Shri P. C. Sharma mentioned that SERC, Roorkee and IITR
had conducted a five year study on corrosion in ferrocement, and opined that,
if proper type of wire mesh (and not chicken mesh) is used, the corrosion can
be held in check. He went on to say that there were 40 to 45 years old water
tanks and roofing units which are still standing intact.
The representatives of Ferrocement Society and MERI mentioned that there
are a number of three storeyed buildings, silos and digestors which have been
successfully constructed, and the technology is suitable for large scale
application.
After detailed discussions, it was decided to formulate an Indian Standard
Code of Practice for Design and Construction using Ferrocement. To take up
the work, the following Panel was constituted:
Panel for Ferrocement Construction, CED 2:2/P9
Shri V. V. Arora, NCB (Convener)
Shri R. C. Wason, In personal capacity, New Delhi
Ferrocement Society, Pune
MERI, Nashik
CBRI, Roorkee
Shri P. C. Sharma, In personal capacity, Ghaziabad
Dr Ashok K. Jain, In personal capacity, Noida
NCB, Ballabgarh
SERC, Chennai
Subsequent to the meeting, the nomination from the Ferrocement Society was
received as Dr. Paramsivam and Shri Ranjit Sinha, as the principal and
alternate member respectively.
The Committee authorized the Panel to make other necessary cooptions as may
be necessary.
The Ferrocement Society agreed to send a detailed note and the proposed
contents for discussion in the first meeting of the Panel.
148
APPENDIX NO.7
LIST OF FIGURES
Sr.No. Name of figure Page no.
1.1 Construction of ferrocement structure 1
3.1 Welded mesh 9
3.2 Chicken mesh or hexagonal mesh 10
3.3 Expanded Metal 10
3.4 Crimped woven mesh 11
3.5 Gradation of sand 12
3.6 Press Spray method 15
4.1 Cutting, bending, welding the bar skeleton in ferrocement 17
4.2 Cutting pliers 17
4.3 Pliers, hooks needed to stretch the meshes 18
4.4 Mortar mixer 18
4.5 Trowels, Plumb, small vibrator to be fixed on plate trowel 18
4.6 Guniting machine and nozzle 18
4.7 Curing hose, small nozzle, and water pump. 19
4.8 Chain pulley system, tripod and hydra crane 19
5.1 Skeleton steel bars 20
5.2 Construction water testing kits 23
6.1 Sketch showing the test specimen 26
6.2 Mesh tensile tests and stress strain curve 27
6.3 Typical Stress Strain Curve of ferrocement in tension 27
7.1 Pencil shaft of staircase (Symbiosis school, Pune) 29
7.2 Masjid in Nashik 29
7.3 Ferrocement fins at Satara Hospital 30
7.4 Front elevation of a Banglow (Noida) 30
7.5 Steps using ferrocement built near Katraj, Pune 30
7.6 Jadhav Farm House Gowe, Near Satara 30
7.7 Nautilus House, Mexico 30
7.8 Oaxaca Building 30
7.9 Building in Kerala 30
7.10 Shell roofs (Pune) 31
7.11 Pyramidal roof 31
7.12 Domes at Udaipur 31
7.13 Bhalerao bungalow, Bhugaon near Pune 31
7.14 House in Jabalpur 32
7.15 Ferrocement retaining wall 33
7.16 Ferrocement counterfort retaining wall 33
Small Belizean village USA sculpture, The Beatles sculptures on display
7.17 34
at Adickes' Sculpture work in Houston, Texas.
149
Sr.No. Name of figure Page no.
7.18 Monumental structures 34
7.19 Sit outs 35
7.20 Pergolas 35
7.21 Swimming pools 35
7.22 Entrance gate 36
7.23 Earth houses 36
7.24 Compound walls 36
7.25 Plan of rectangular tank, circular tank, petal tank 37
7.26 Water tank near Talegaon Dabhade, Dist Pune 37
7.27 Ferrocement ribbed plate 38
7.28 Small ferrocement dam near Aurangabad 38
7.29 Foot bridges 39
7.30 Foot bridges in Sri Lanka 39
7.31 Outcoating of steel pipes 40
7.32 Jacketing the abutments and piers 40
7.33 Egg shaped conduits 41
7.34 Parabolic canal sections 41
7.35 Ferrocement solar flat plate collectors 42
A building for wireless system at Osmanabad Irrigation Colony, built
7.36 43
under the Chief Engineer, WRD. in 1995. (Still in tact)
7.37 Osmanabad District. Ferrocement canal works constructed in 1996 43
7.38 Botarwadi small ferrocement Bandhara near Pune (2013) 43
7.39 Canal or nalla closing by huge ferrocement pipe cast in Situ near Pune 44
7.40 Ferrocement boats and pontoons in Pune area 44
8.1 Ferrocement door shutters (BMTPC) 45
8.2 Ferrocement Water Tank 250 -10000 Litres. (BMTPC) 46
8.3 Ferrocement Roofing channels and mould (BMTPC) 46
8.4 Ferrocement panels and box sections 47
8.5 Ferrocement column and beam 47
8.6 Ferrocement canal lining at Kalwan, District Nashik in 2014 48
8.7 Space structure in ferrocement-1 49
8.8 Space structure in ferrocement-2 49
8.9 Retaining walls 49
8.10 Water tank near Talegaon, District Pune 50
8.11 Dams at Pune, India 50
8.12 Dam at Mexico 50
8.13 Dam at Dhule, India 50
9.1 Variation of crack width with tensile stress in wire 58
9.2 Stress-Strain curve of ferrocement in tension 61
10.1 Skeletal steel for 5m x 2m single wall 69
10.2 Cavity wall 73
10.3 Ferrocement hemisphere 73
150
Sr.No. Name of figure Page no.
10.4 Increase in carpet area. 74
10.5 Common schedule of rates for year 2016-17 75
10.6 Typical estimate of ferrocement walling-1 76
10.7 Typical estimate of ferrocement walling-2 77
10.8 Typical estimate of ferrocement walling-3 78
11.1 IS code for ferrocement water tank of capacity up to 10000 litres 81
(IS 13356: 1992)
11.2 National Building Code of India 82
11.3 FS Code for ferrocement walling in 2014 83
th
11.4 4 National Conventions on Ferrocement 83
12.1 Mould of compressive strength test 86
12.2 Mould of flexural strength test 88
12.3 Assembly for taking out core for permeability test 90
12.4 Mesh like Structure of mild steel bars of diameter 10 mm 90
12.5 Lay and tie the welded mesh and chicken mesh on the mesh like structure 91
12.6 Placing of steel skeleton above 5mm layer of cement mortar in the 91
assembly
12.7(a) Ferrocement permeability specimen for 30 mm thickness 91
12.7(b) Ferrocement permeability specimen for 50 mm thickness 91
12.8 Ferrocement permeability specimen for 50 mm thickness 92
12.9 Permeability cores are taken out from ferrocement specimen 92
12.10 Permeability cores 92
12.11 Permeability test specimen 93
12.12 Split tensile strength mould 93
151
APPENDIX NO.8
LIST OF TABLES
152