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The revised edition of Modern's abc+ of Physics for class XI, based on CBSE and state boards, will kindle a
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sense of exploration with the concepts in students and nudge them towards self-study. The concepts have
been explained in clear, simple and precise language. This book is a must-have for class XI students
PHYSICS
irrespective of their aspirations: Annual exams, competitive exams like NEET, JEE Main, JEE Advanced, or
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.
any other exams for engineering entrance or medical entrance.
The author has taken special care to make learning Physics scholastically rewarding and interesting.
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KEY FEATURES OF THE BOOK ARE:
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Spectrum of contents comprises well-connected topics with proper flow of precise information.
Detailed explanation of concepts, and components like Remember, Key Note, Watch Out, Learning
More, Competition Edge and Captivate Your Curiosity help students develop a deeper understanding of
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the subject and enhance their learning.
Topic-wise solved examples and practice problems help students check their command over concepts.
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Detailed solution of Practice Problems are available on https://mbdbooks.in/modern/
Summary section comprising Key Terms and Laws, Facts and Relations helps students revise basic
concepts and formulae simultaneously.
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Thought-provoking Tough and Tricky problems and questions on Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)
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PART-I
CLASS-XI
prepare students for competitive exams.
Detailed solutions of NCERT and NCERT Exemplar.
Revision exercises (with hints and solutions at the end of each chapter) help check retention of the
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concepts learnt in the chapter. Very Short Answer questions, Short Answer questions, Long Answer
questions and Numerical Problems.
Competition file comprising various types of objective questions with detailed solutions including
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previous years' questions of AIPMT/NEET, AIEEE/JEE Main (online and offline), IIT JEE/JEE Advanced to
aid and enhance students' understanding and application of concepts.
Uttam Narayan Tripathi

Tips and tricks from the author to help students perform and score better in entrance exams.
ISBN 9789389708479
PHYSICS
CLASS-XI PART-I
MODERN PUBLISHERS
STRICTLY ACCORDING TO THE NEW SYLLABUS
2002D0312A4077 An ISO 9001:2015 Certified Company 9 789389 708479 INDIA'S FIRST SMART BOOK Uttam Narayan Tripathi
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According to new syllabus prescribed by Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), New Delhi and State
Boards of Uttarakhand, Karnataka (Ist Year PUC), Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal,
Kerala, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Assam, Manipur and other States following CBSE & ISC curriculum.
PHYSICS
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Strictly e
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with the heme,
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Markin nd Syllabus
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Guidel sued by Uttam Narayan Tripathi
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N.C. E . R
Edited by
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Shardul (IIT Delhi Alumnus)

Shalini (IIT Kanpur Alumnus)
Nagesh (IIT Bombay Alumnus)
©
Nilu Kaplish
REVISED AND UPDATED EDITION 2020–2021
MODERN PUBLISHERS
(Producers of Quality Textbooks)
Price of Part I & II : ` 1270.00
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Preface & Acknowledgement
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This book, the revised edition of Modern’s abc + of Physics for class XI, has been a journey of dedication
and an intellectual endeavour. In this book, it has been my sincere effort to kindle a sense of exploration
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with the concepts in students and nudge them towards self-study.
I have used my experience in teaching to design the book such that it gives a classroom feeling to
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students: as if the concepts are being explained by their teacher. I have explained the concepts in
.
clear, simple and precise language. This book is a must-have for class XI students irrespective of their
aspirations: Annual exams, competitive exams like JEE Main, JEE Advanced and NEET or any other
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exams for engineering entrance, or medical entrance.
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Key Features of the Book:
 Spectrum of contents comprises well-connected topics with proper flow of precise information.
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 This book has been arranged in a very systematic and interesting manner. Along with detailed
explanation of concepts, the theory part also contains components such as Remember, Key Note,
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Watch Out, Learning & More, Competition Edge and Captivate Your Curiosity. These components
help students develop a deeper understanding of the subject and enhance their learning.
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 Plenty of solved examples and practice problems have been provided topic wise to help students
check their command over concepts.
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 A summary section has been provided at the end of the theory section. It has been arranged
systematically into three categories: Key Terms and Laws, Facts and Relations. These components
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help students revise all the basic concepts and the formulae simultaneously.
 Tough and Tricky problems and questions on Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) have been
provided in every chapter. These thought-provoking problems are application-based questions.
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Practising these questions after finishing the chapter would make one ready for competitive exams.
 Every chapter has detailed solutions of NCERT and NCERT Exemplar.
 Revision exercises along with hints and solutions at the end of each chapter help check retention
of the concepts learnt in the chapter. Very Short Answer questions, Fill in the Blanks, Short Answer
questions, Long Answer questions and Numerical Problems.
 Objective questions of various types along with previous years’ questions of AIPMT/NEET,
AIEEE/JEE Main (online and offline), IIT JEE/JEE Advanced of previous years have been incorporated
in Competition file. Students can enhance their understanding and application of concepts as they
go through the detailed solutions. I have also provided tips and tricks to help students perform and
score better in entrance exams.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my mother. She is my first teacher. She helped me grow
as a son, student and teacher, and now I have authored this book. I have been teaching since 1998; I have
been learning a lot, too, while teaching, which has only augmented my Bachelor’s Degree in Technology
in Mechanical Engineering from IIT, Kanpur. I have tried to incorporate my understanding of the
challenges students face with Physics into this book. I express my deep regards for the management of
MBD Group, for always encouraging me and taking keen interest in this project. My special thanks to
Mr Manik Juneja Director - Content & Production, who had faith in me and also the patience to make this
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project successful. Special thanks to Mr Debasish Subudhi and Mr B.S. Rawat for their consistent support.
I would also like to thank Mr Ankit Pasricha and my team who supported immensely in the production of
this book. I’d like to express deep gratitude to Mr Vishal Tanwar and Mr Jabi John who introduced me to
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MBD Group.
I would like to acknowledge the valuable contribution of MBD Group and academicians and certain
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individuals involved in the development of this textbooks for their commitment and dedication in
.
taking care of every aspect of production work.
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Dr. G.S. Patel, HOD Physics, SICA SS School, Indore, Dr. Sutanu Ghosh, Author, Prof. H.B. Shantharamu,
Retd Professor from National College, Bangalore, Prof. Sridhar Chithuri, PGT in Physics, Lakshmi
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Academy (MD) Anna Nagar, Chennai, K.D.S. Eswarrao, PGT in Physics, Hokimpet Secunderabad
(TS), Dr. Md. Shamim Alam, HOD Physics, G.J. College, Patna, Arjun Parsad Singh, Project S.D. Girls
School, Dhanarua, Patna, Jayanta Bhagawati, Shrimanta Sankar Academy, Guwahati, Satheesh Kumar,
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Department of Physics, Kochi Refinery School, Harsimranjit Singh, Panjab University, Chandigarh.
Naveen Garg, Krishna Academy, Faridkot Punjab. Amandeep Kaur, Lecturer Physics, Dashmesh
Mission Sen. Sec. School, Faridkit Pubjab.
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We welcome suggestions and comments from teachers and students; their valuable suggestions will be
analysed and incorporated in the next edition of the book.
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Syllabus
PHYSICS
CLASS XI (THEORY)
Time: 3 hrs. Max Marks: 70
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No. of Periods Marks
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Unit–I PHYSICAL WORLD AND MEASUREMENT
1. Physical World 10
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2. Units and Measurements
Unit–II KINEMATICS
23
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3. Motion in a Straight Line 24
4.
Unit–III
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LAWS OF MOTION
14
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5. Laws of Motion
Unit–IV WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
12
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6. Work, Energy and Power

Unit–V MOTION OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND RIGID BODY
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18 17
7. System of Particles and Rotational Motion
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Unit–VI GRAVITATION
12
8. Gravitation
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Unit–VII PROPERTIES OF BULK MATTER

9. Mechanical Properties of Solids
24
10. Mechanical Properties of Fluids
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11. Thermal Properties of Matter

Unit–VIII THERMODYNAMICS 20
12
12. Thermodynamics
BEHAVIOUR OF PERFECT GASES AND KINETIC
Unit–IX
THEORY OF GASES 08
13. Kinetic Theory
Unit–X OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES
14. Oscillations 26 10
15. Waves
Total 160 70

Unit–I PHYSICAL WORLD AND MEASUREMENT 10 Periods
1. Physical World: Physics-scope and excitement; nature of physical laws; Physics, technology and
society.
2. Units and Measurements: Need for measurement: Units of measurement; systems of units; SI units,
fundamental and derived units. Length, mass and time measurements; accuracy and precision of
measuring instruments; errors in measurement; significant figures.
Dimensions of physical quantities, dimensional analysis and its applications.
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Unit–II KINEMATICS 24 Periods
3. Motion in a Straight Line: Frame of reference, Motion in a straight line: Position-time graph,
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speed and velocity.
Elementary concepts of differentiation and integration for describing motion, uniform and
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non-uniform motion, average speed and instantaneous velocity, uniformly accelerated motion,
.
velocity - time and position-time graphs.
Relations for uniformly accelerated motion (graphical treatment).
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4. Motion in a Plane: Scalar and vector quantities; position and displacement vectors, general vectors
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subtraction of vectors, relative velocity, Unit vector; resolution of a vector in a plane, rectangular
components, Scalar and Vector product of vectors.
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Motion in a plane, cases of uniform velocity and uniform acceleration-projectile motion,
uniform circular motion.
Unit–III LAWS OF MOTION 14 Periods
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5. Laws of Motion: Intuitive concept of force, Inertia, Newton's first law of motion; momentum and
Newton's second law of motion; impulse; Newton's third law of motion.
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Law of conservation of linear momentum and its applications.

Equilibrium of concurrent forces, Static and kinetic friction, laws of friction, rolling friction,
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lubrication.
Dynamics of uniform circular motion: Centripetal force, examples of circular motion (vehicle on
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a level circular road, vehicle on a banked road).

Unit–IV WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 12 Periods
6. Work, Engery and Power: Work done by a constant force and a variable force; kinetic energy,
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work-energy theorem, power.

Notion of potential energy, potential energy of a spring, conservative forces: conservation of mechanical
energy (kinetic and potential energies); non-conservative forces: motion in a vertical circle; elastic and
inelastic collisions in one and two dimensions.
Unit–V MOTION OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND RIGID BODY 18 Periods
7. System of Particles and Rotational Motion: Centre of mass of a two-particle system, momentum
conservation and centre of mass motion. Centre of mass of a rigid body; centre of mass of a uniform
rod.
Moment of a force, torque, angular momentum, law of conservation of angular momentum and its
applications.
Equilibrium of rigid bodies, rigid body rotation and equations of rotational motion, comparison of
linear and rotational motions.
Moment of inertia, radius of gyration, values of moments of inertia for simple geometrical objects
(no derivation). Statement of parallel and perpendicular axes theorems and their applications.

Unit–VI GRAVITATION 12 Periods
8. Gravitation: Kepler's laws of planetary motion, universal law of gravitation. Acceleration due to
gravity and its variation with altitude and depth.
Gravitational potential energy and gravitational potential, escape velocity, orbital velocity of a satellite,
Geo-stationary satellites.
Unit–VII PROPERTIES OF BULK MATTER 24 Periods

9. Mechanical Properties of Solids: Elastic behaviour, Stress-strain relationship, Hooke's law, Young's
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modulus, bulk modulus, shear modulus of rigidity, Poisson's ratio; elastic energy.
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10. Mechanical Properties of Fluids: Pressure due to a fluid column; Pascal's law and its applications
(hydraulic lift and hydraulic brakes), effect of gravity on fluid pressure.
Viscosity, Stokes' law, terminal velocity, streamline and turbulent flow, critical velocity, Bernoulli's
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theorem and its applications.
.
Surface energy and surface tension, angle of contact, excess of pressure across a curved surface,
application of surface tension ideas to drops, bubbles and capillary rise.
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11. Thermal Properties of Matter: Heat, temperature, thermal expansion; thermal expansion of solids,
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of state - latent heat capacity.
Heat transfer-conduction, convection and radiation, thermal conductivity, qualitative ideas of
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Blackbody radiation, Wein's displacement Law, Stefan's law, Greenhouse effect.
Unit–VIII THERMODYNAMICS 12 Periods
12. Thermodynamics: Thermal equilibrium and definition of temperature (zeroth law of thermodynamics),
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heat, work and internal energy. First law of thermodynamics, isothermal and adiabatic processes.
Second law of thermodynamics: reversible and irreversible processes, Heat engine and refrigerator.
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Unit–IX BEHAVIOUR OF PERFECT GASES AND KINETIC THEORY OF GASES 08 Periods

13. Kinetic Theory: Equation of state of a perfect gas, work done in compressing a gas.
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Kinetic theory of gases - assumptions, concept of pressure. Kinetic interpretation of temperature;

rms speed of gas molecules; degrees of freedom, law of equi-partition of energy (statement only) and
application to specific heat capacities of gases; concept of mean free path, Avogadro's number.
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Unit–X OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 26 Periods

14. Oscillations: Periodic motion - time period, frequency, displacement as a function of time, periodic
functions. Simple harmonic motion (S.H.M) and its equation; phase; oscillations of a loaded
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spring-restoring force and force constant; energy in S.H.M. Kinetic and potential energies; simple
pendulum derivation of expression for its time period. Free, forced and damped oscillations (qualitative
ideas only), resonance.
15. Waves: Wave motion– Transverse and longitudinal waves, speed of travelling wave, displacement
relation for a progressive wave, principle of superposition of waves, reflection of waves, standing
waves in strings and organ pipes, fundamental mode and harmonics, Beats, Doppler effect.

Some Physical Constants
S. No. Quantity Symbol Value
1. Acceleration due to gravity on surface of Earth g 9.8 m s–2
2. Average distance of earth from Sun de-s 1.5 × 1011 m
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3. Average distance of Moon from Earth dm-e 3.8 × 108 m
4. Avogadro’s number N 6.02 × 1023 mol–1
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5. Absolute zero of temperature 0K – 273.15 °C
6. Atmospheric pressure on surface of Earth P 1.013 × 105 N m–2
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7. Atomic mass unit amu or u 1.66 × 10–27 kg = 931 MeV/C2
8. Boltzmann’s constant kB 1.38 × 10–23 J K–1
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9. Bohr’s radius of hydrogen atom a0 5.3 × 10–11 m = 0.53 Å
10.
11.
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Bohr magneton
Charge on electron
mB
–e
9.27 × 10–24 A m2
– 1.6 × 10–19 C
12. Charge on proton +e + 1.6 × 10–19 C
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13. Coulomb’s constant 1/4pe0 9.0 × 109 Nm2 C–2
14. Dielectric constant of vacuum K 1
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15. Dielectric constant of air Kair 1.005

16. Equatorial radius of Earth Re 6.378 × 106 m
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17. Mass of Sun Ms 2.0 × 1030 kg

18. Molar volume V 22.4 × 10–3 m3 mol–1
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19. Mass of Earth Me 5.98 × 1024 kg

20. Mass of Moon Mm 7.347 × 1022 kg
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21. Nuclear magneton mN 5.05 × 10–27 A m2

22. Permittivity of free space e0 8.85 × 10–12 C2 N–1 m–2
23. Polar radius of Earth Rp 6.357 × 106 m
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24. Permeability of free space m0 4π × 10–7 T m A–1

25. Planck’s constant h 6.62 × 10–34 Js
26. Rest mass of electron me 9.11 × 10–31 kg
27. Rest mass of proton mp 1.672 × 10–27 kg
28. Rest mass of neutron mn 1.674 × 10–27 kg
29. Radius of Sun Rs 6.95 × 108 m
30. Rydberg’s constant RH 1.097 × 107 m–1
31. Specific charge (Charge to mass ratio) of electron e/me 1.7588 × 1011 C kg–1
32. Solar constant S 1.366 × 103 W m–2
33. Speed of light in vacuum c 3.0 × 108 m s–1
34. Stefan’s constant s 5.67 × 10–8 W m–2 K– 4
35. Universal gas constant R 8.31 J mol–1 K–1
36. Universal gravitational constant G 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2
37. Wien’s constant b 2.898 × 10–3 m K

The Greek Alphabet Multiples and Prefixes For Metric Units
Letter Upper Lower Letter Upper Lower Multiple Prefix Abbreviation Pronunciation
15
10 peta P pet′a
Alpha A a Omega Ω ω
12
10 tera T ter′a
Beta B β Psi Ψ y
109 giga G ji′ga
Chi X χ Phi Φ φ 10 6
mega M meg′a
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Delta ∆ δ Pi P p 103 kilo k kil′o
2
10 hecto h hek′to
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Epsilon E e Rho P ρ
10 deka da dek′a
Eta H η Sigma Σ σ
10–1 deci d des′i
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Gamma Γ γ Tau Τ τ 10 –2
centi c sen′ti
.
Kappa Κ κ Theta Q q 10–3 milli m mil′li
–6
10 micro µ mi′kro
Lambda Λ l Upsilon Y υ
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10–9 nano n nan′oh
Mu Μ Xi
Nu
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µ
ν Zeta
Ξ
Z
ξ
ζ
10–12
10–15
pico
femto
p
f
pe′ko
fem′toe
SI Base Units
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Dimensional
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S. No. Physical quantity Unit Symbol

Symbol
1. Length metre m L
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2. Mass kilogram kg M
3. Time second s T
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4. Temperature kelvin K K
5. Electric current ampere A A
6. Charge coulomb C C
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7. Luminous intensity candela cd

8. Quantity of matter mole mol
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Some Non-SI Units

S. No. Physical quantity Unit / Symbol Value
1. Force kilogram force (kgf) 1 kgf = 9.8 N
2. Energy calorie 1 cal = 4.186 J
3. Energy kilowatt hour (kWh) 1 kWh= 3.6 × 106 J
4. Energy electron volt (eV) 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J
5. Length par sec (pc) 1 pc = 3.08 × 1016 m
6. Volume litre (l) 1 litre = 10–3 m3
7. Length light year (ly) 1 ly = 9.46 × 1015 m
8. Length Astronomical unit (AU) 1AU = 1.496 × 1011 m
9. Length angstrom (Å) 1Å = 10–10 m
10. Length fermi (fm) 1fm = 10–15 m
11. Pressure bar 1 bar = 105 Pa
12. Power horse power (hp) 1hp = 746 W

in Engineering and Medical
Objective Physics Objective Mathematics
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Objective Chemistry Objective Biology
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For For
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ain NEET
.
J E E- M Precise discussion of chapters,emphasising all
basic principles, definitions, diagrams,
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terms and analytical relations.
s ub Exclusive Numerical Problems (Solved).
Multiple Choice Questions with Miscellaneous
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MCQ's (with Hints and Solutions).
Fill in the Blanks and True or
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False Statements.
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Self Evaluation Tests.

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Coverage of previous years'

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objective and subjective questions of

various examinations.
©
All questions have been picked up from The most exhaustive books ever
the various entrance examinations. published.
Cover the most tricky and difficult Modern’s abc Series Always First
questions. with the Best.
MBD House, Gulab Bhawan, 6, Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg, New Delhi-110 002
Ph. : 23317931, 23318301, Fax : 011-23319471, website : mbdgroup.com

Contents
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.
0. Mathematical Tools 0/1 – 0/18
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1. Physical World 1/1 – 1/22
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2. Units and Measurement 2/1 – 2/100
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3. Motion in a Straight Line 3/1 – 3/94

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4. Motion in a Plane 4/1 – 4/124

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5. Laws of Motion 5/1 – 5/134

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6. Work, Energy and Power 6/1 – 6/127

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7. Systems of Particles and Rotational Motion 7/1 – 7/140
8. Gravitation 8/1 – 8/94
Hints and Solutions to Chapter Practice Tests PT/1 – PT/4
Nobel Prize Winners in Physics (i) – (ii)
Logarithmic and Mathematical Tables (i) – (vii)

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CHAPTER
0 MATHEMATICAL TOOLS
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1. INTRODUCTION
In order to do analysis of the physical situations we
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need the laws of physics and to apply the laws of physics the
In this chapter…
knowledge of basic mathematics is necessary. In this chapter Introduction 1
we shall study about the basic mathematics that we will use Algebraic Identities1
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in the analysis while applying the laws of physics. Quadratic Equations and Expressions1
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2. ALGEBRAIC IDENTITIES
1. (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 = ( – a – b)2

• Polynomial1
• Linear Equation
• Quadratic Equation
2
2
Arithmetical Progression2
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Geometrical Progression2
2. (a – b) (a + b) = a2 – b2 • Series3
Binomial Theorem and Expansion Series3
3. (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca • Binomial Theorem 3
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Exponential Expansion4
4. (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab (a + b) Logarithms and Series Expansion4
• Other Logarithm Definitions 4
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5. a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 – 3ab(a + b) = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2) • Standard Formulae of Logarithm 4

• Logarithmic Expansion 5
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6. a3 – b3 = (a – b)3 + 3ab(a – b) = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2) • Characteristic and Mantissa of

Common Logarithms 5
7. a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca) Trigonometry6

• Angle6
M
If a + b + c = 0 then a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc
• Trigonometric Ratios 7

• Trigonometric Identities 7
3. Q
UADRATIC EQUATIONS AND
• Signs and Trigonometry Formulas 8
EXPRESSIONS
• Inverse-Trigonometric Functions 8
©

• Trigonometric Series Expansions 9
3.1. Polynomial Coordinate Geometry9

• Geometry9

An expression of the form:
Differentiation10
f(x) = anxn + an–1 xn – 1 + ……… + a1x + a0,
• Function of a Variable 10

• Limit of a Variable 10
where x is a variable, n a positive integer and a is

• Derivative or Differentiation 10
constants.
• Differential Coefficients of Trigonometric
Functions14
(i)
Degree of Polynomial: The highest power of x in f(x) Application of Derivatives14
is called the degree of the polynomial f(x).
• Tangents and Normal 14

• Maxima and Minima 15
(ii)
Polynomial of degree 1, 2 and 3 are called linear, Integration15
quadratic and cubic polynomial respectively.
• Definite Integral 15

• Integrals of Trigonometric Functions 17
(iii) Forms of Polynomials

• Integration by Parts 17

• Indefinite Integrals 18
0/1
HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 1 1/31/2020 3:50:02 PM

0/2 MODERN’S abc + OF PHYSICS–XI
Degree Name of Polynomial Form of

Polynomial
SOLVED EXAMPLE
0 Constant polynomial f(x) = a, being a  Example 1.

constant
1 Linear polynomial Solve the equation 2x2 + x – 3 = 0.
f(x) = ax + b, a ≠ 0
2 Quadratic polynomial f(x) = ax2 + bx + e, Solution: Here a = 2, b = 1, c = −3
a≠0 D = b2 – 4ac ⇒ (1)2 – 4(2) (–3) = 25 > 0, so it has real
3 Cubic polynomial f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + ex + and unequal root that is
ed s.
d, a ≠ 0 − b± D − 5 ± 25
4 Biquadratic x = =
f(x) = ax4 + bx3 + ex2 + 2a 4
polynomial dx + e, a ≠ 0 −5±5
rv er
=
4
3.2. Linear Equation  −5 
Hence x =  , 0 ∈ (α, β)
se sh
 2 
The first degree equation of the form [bx + c = 0
.
(b ≠ 0)] is called linear equation.
• ax + by + c = 0 is also straight line and its 4. ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION
re li
graph on axis is straight line. A group of numbers in which the difference
s ub
• This equation has two variables x and y. We
must have at least two equations in order to
find their values.
between two consecutive numbers is constant is
known as arithmetic series. The constant difference
is called the common difference ‘d’.
General arithmetic progression is a, (a + d), (a + 2d),
ht P
3.3. Quadratic Equation (a + 3d) .... a + (n – 1) d.
The second degree (maximum power of x is (i) General term. an = a + (n – 1)d,
ig rn
called degree) equation of the form, ax2 + bx + c = 0 where an is the nth term, a is the first term, d
(a ≠ 0), is called quadratic equation. Here ‘a’ and ‘b’ the common difference and l is the last term
are called the coefficients of x2 and x respectively, ‘c’ n
lr e
(ii) Sum of n terms. Sn = [2a + (n – 1)d].

is a constant term. 2
Al od
• Roots of the equation. The value of the (iii) Arithmetic Means. A.M. between a and
variable ‘x’ that satisfies the equation is called a+b
b=
root of the equation. A quadratic equation has 2
two roots. The sum of n arithmetic means between a and b
M
• Solution of this quadratic is x = a, b  a + b

is n times 
 2 
D = b2 – 4ac
©
If D > 0, both roots are real and unequal that is 5. GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION
− b+ D − b− D A group of numbers in which every number is
x = α = ,β= obtained by multiplying the previous number by the
2a 2a
same constant quantity is called geometric series or
If D = 0, both roots are real and equal that is
progression (G.P). The constant quantity is called
−b −b common ratio ‘r’.
x= α= ,β=
2a 2a
General geometric progression is:
If D < 0, both roots are imaginary and unequal
a, ar, ar2, ar2 .... arn – 1
that is
(i) General nth term. anth = arn–1, where a is the
− b+i D − b−i D first term and r the common ratio.
x = α = ,β=
2a 2a
a(1 − r n )
• Quadratic equation in terms of roots (ii) Sum of nth terms. Snth = when r < 1
1− r
x2 + (a + b)x + ab = 0
a(r n − 1)
and Snth = when r > 1.
Sum of the roots = a + b = – b / a r −1
Product of the roots = ab = c / a (iii) Geometric Means. G.M. between a and b = ab.
HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 2 1/31/2020 3:50:04 PM

MATHEMATICAL TOOLS 0/3
The product of n geometric means between a (iv) When x is very very small as compared to 1. The
and b = ( ab)n . higher powers of x tend to zero or are negligible.
Hence the expansion may be written as:
a a
(iv) For five terms, take , , a, ar, ar2. (1 + x)n = 1 + nx
r2 r
(1 + x)–n = 1 – nx
(v) If G.P. is of infinite number of terms, then
a
Sn = if r < 1 SOLVED EXAMPLES
ed s.
1− r
5.1. Series  Example 1.

rv er
If the number of the sequence is connected Write the first three terms of the expansion (1 + q2)10.
together by sign of addition (+), we get a series. Solution: Here n = 10 and x = q2. Therefore:
se sh
.
Standard Results 10 (10 − 1) 4
(1 + q2)10 = 1 + 10 q2 + q
2!
n
n ( n + 1)
(i) ∑k = 1 + 2 + 3 + ..... + n =
re li
2
k=1 10 (10 − 1) (10 − 2) 6
(ii)
s ub
n
∑ k2
k=1
= 12 + 22 + 32 + ..... + n2 =
n ( n + 1) (2n + 1)
6
+
= 1 + 10 q2 + 45 q4 + 120 q6 + ..........
3!
q + .....
ht P
2
 n ( n + 1) 
n
 Example 2.

(iii) ∑ k3 = 
 2

The acceleration due to gravity at a height h is given
k=1
ig rn
2
 R 
by gh = g  , where g is the acceleration due
 R + h 
6. B
INOMIAL THEOREM AND EXPANSION
lr e
SERIES to gravity on the surface of earth. For h << R, find the
6.1. Binomial Theorem

Al od
value of g using the Binomial theorem.

Theorem. If n is a non-negative integral
exponent, then: R2
Solution: gh = g
M
( R + h)2
(x + y)n = nC0xn + nC1 xn – 1 y + nC2 xn – 2 y2 × ...
+ nCrxn – r yr + ... + nCnyn.  h
−2
= g 1 + 
©
 R
(i) General Term. ar + 1 = nCr xn – r yr.
Since h/R << 1, therefore using Binomial expansion,
n 2 n
(ii) (1 + x) = C0 + C1x + C2x + ... + Cnx
 2h 

gh = g  1 − 
 R
(iii) The Binomial’s theorem states that if x << 1
then,
n ( n − 1) 2
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x
2! PRACTICE PROBLEMS 1
n ( n − 1) ( n − 2) 3
+ x + ..... 1. Write the first four terms of the expansion
3!
(1 + q)–2.
where n is any number, positive, negative,
integer, or a fraction. 2. Evaluate (1003)1/3 upto five places of decimal.
12
Here n ! = n(n − 1) (n − 2) ..... 3 × 2 × 1.  2 
3. Find the value of g′ = g  1 − 
 291
It is read as n − factorial.
HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 3 1/31/2020 3:50:06 PM

7. EXPONENTIAL EXPANSION
(ii) log 1 n = – 1, i.e. logarithm of a number to its

The exponential function is defined as n
2 3 4 n reciprocal is –1.
x x x x
ex = 1 + x + + + + ... + (iii) loga1 = 0, i.e. logarithm of unity to any base

2! 3! 4! n!
is zero.
(i) If x << 1 then ex = 1 + x (basic constraints on number and base
x2
x 3
x 4 must be observed.)
(ii) e–x = 1 – x + − + ...
2! 3! 4! (e) a log n n = a is an identify for all n > 0 and a > 0;
ed s.
(iii) If x << 1 then e–x = 1 – x a≠1 [Example: 5 log 2 2 = 5]
(f) Whenever the number and base are on the same
rv er
Also this gives the value of ‘e’ by putting x = 1
side of unity then logarithm of that number to
1 1
e = 1 + 1 + + + ... = 2.718 the base is (positive), however if the number
2! 3!
se sh
and base are located on different sides of unity
.
then logarithm of that number to the base is
8. LOGARITHMS AND SERIES EXPANSION (negative).
Logarithm: Every positive real number n can be
re li
Example: (i) log10100 = 2

expressed in exponential form as
(ii) log1/10100 = –2
n = ax s ub …(1)
Hence logarithm of a number to some base is the
exponent by which the base must be raised in order
(g) For a non-negative number ‘a’ and n ≥ 2, n ∈ N
n
a = a1/n
ht P
to get the number. a is raised what power to get n.
8.1. Other Logarithm Definitions
KEY NOTE (i) Definition of Natural Logarithm (lnx):
ig rn
Logarithm of zero does not exist and logarithm of In this class of logarithms, the base is e, where
(negative) base is not defined in the system of real
1 1 1
numbers, where ‘a’ is also a positive real different than e= 1++ + + ... = 2.7182818
lr e
unity and is called the base and ‘x’ is called the exponent.
1! 2! 3!
Logarithm with a base of e are called natural
Al od
We can write the relation (1) in logarithmic form logarithms. It is customary to write logex as
as ln(x).
ax = n (ii) Definition of Common Logarithm (log x):
loga n = x
M
Logarithm with a base of 10 are called common

where n > 0, a ≠ 1 logarithm. It is customary to write log10 x as log x.
Important points: They are very useful in numerical calculations.
©
(a) Unity has been excluded from the base of the

The natural logarithm may be converted to
logarithm as in this case common logarithm using the following relation:
log1n: will not be possible and if n = 1 logea = 2.3026 log10a
log11:
will have infinitely many solutions and ln N = 2.3026 log10 N
will not be unique which is necessary in (iii) Discussion
the functional notation. (a) loga a = 1 because a1 = a
n
(b) aloga = n is an identify for all n > 0 and (b) loga 1 = 0 because a0 = 1
a > 0 and a ≠ 1 [Example: 3log 3 5 = 5] (c) Logarithm of a negative number is
meaningless, because it does not exist.
(c) The number n is called the antilog of ‘x’ to the
base ‘a’. 8.2. Standard Formulae of Logarithm
Hence if log3243 is 5 ⇒ antilog35 is equal to (i) loga (m × n × p × q) = loga m + loga n + loga p + loga q
35 = 243 (ii) loga(m/n) = loga m − loga n.
(d) Using the basic definition of log we have 3 (iii) loga mn =
n loga m.
important deductions: (iv) loga m = logb m × logab.
(i) lognn = 1, i.e. logarithm of a number to the
log e b
(v) logab = .
same base is 1. log e a
HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 4 1/31/2020 3:50:07 PM

8.3. Logarithmic Expansion 8.4.2.

Finding the Logarithm of the Given
1 2 1 3 Number
log (1 + x) = x − x + x ... (|x| < 1)
2 3 To obtain the logarithm of a given number n, we
find the characteristic by inspection and obtain the
x2 mantissa from the logarithm table. Then log10n is
If x << 1, then log (1 + x) ≈ x –
2 given by the characteristic as the integral part and
mantissa as the decimal part.
8.3.1. Logarithmic Function
Example: log10 2387400 = 6.3779. Here
ed s.
A function ‘ƒ’ defined by characteristic is 6 and mantissa is 3779.
ƒ(x) = log x, x > 0 is called a
Example: log (5438) = log(5.438 × 103)
rv er
logarithmic function.
The graph of the function is = log(5.438) + 3 …(1)
as shown in the adjoining figure.
se sh
Find the number at the intersection of the row
.
log c a log a ln a beginning with the first two digits(54) and the column
Change of Base: logb a = = = headed by the third digit(3) is 7348 in log table end
log c b log b ln b
of the book.
re li
8.4. C
s ub
haracteristic and Mantissa of Common
Logarithms
The logarithm of a number consists of two parts
Summation of mean difference column headed by
fourth digit(8) is 6.
Total value is 7348 + 6 = 7354 but it can be
ht P
as follows: written in way is 0.7354.
(i) Characteristic. It is the integral part of the So, we can write in such way of equation (1).
logarithm.
ig rn
log (5438) = log(5.438) + 3 = 0.7354 + 3 = 3.7354.

(ii) Mantissa. It is the decimal part of the logarithm.
lr e
Example: loga n = 3.2459. Then characteristic

is 3 and Mantissa is 0.2459. PRACTICE PROBLEMS 2
Al od
8.4.1. Important Points: Find the logarithm of the following number:

(i) The integral part or characteristic of the (i) 5438 (ii) 543.8 (iii) 54.38
logarithm may be positive, zero or negative.
M
(iv) 5.438 (v) 0.5438 (vi) 0.05438

(vii) 0.005438.
The decimal part or the mantissa of the
(ii)
logarithm is always positive.
Answers to Practice Problems
©
(iii) In case the logarithm of a number is negative,

then, we rearrange the characteristic and (i) 3.7354 (ii) 2.7354 (iii) 1.7354
mantissa in such a way as to make the (iv) 0.7354 (v) 1.7354 (vi) 2.7354
decimal part positive. Example: suppose log10n
= −1.2318. Then we can write it as: (vii) 3.7354
log10 n = – 1.2318 Note: 1.7354 = −1 + 0.7354 = −0.2646
= (− 1) + (− 0.2318) 2.7354 = −2 + 0.7354 = −1.2646
= (− 1 − 1) + (− 0.2318 + 1) = −2 + (0.7682)
8.4.3. Antilogarithm
Hence, characteristic is − 2 and mantissa is The number a whose logarithm is x is called
0.7682. antilogarithm of x. That is if
(iv) If the characteristic is negative, we denote it log a = x
with a bar. That is characteristic − 2 is denoted
as pronounced as 2 bar. Example: the logarithm Then a = antilog x
as expressed above may be written as: Since log 2387400 = 6.3779.
log10 n = 2.7682. Hence 2387400 = antilog 6.3779.
HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 5 1/31/2020 3:50:08 PM

8.4.4. Finding Antilogarithm Note that in 2.4362 , the characteristic is negative but
The antilogarithm is obtained from the table as the mantissa is positive.
follows. Suppose, we wish to find antilog 6.3779. We ∴ log x = 0.7079
proceed as described below: Hence x = antilog [0.7079]
Step 1: Leave the characteristic part and take the = antilog [0.7079] = 5.104 × 100
mantissa (M). Here mantissa is M = 3779.  Example 3.

Step 2: Locate the first two digits (in this case .37) of Find the value of y = (0.05246)1/8.
the mantissa in the first left-hand column of
Solution: Given y = (0.05246)1/8
ed s.
the antilog table.
Taking logarithm, we find
Step 3: Find the number at the intersection of the row
1 1
rv er
beginning with the first two digits and the log y = log (0.05246) = log (5.246 × 10−2 )
column headed by the third digit (viz. 7) of M. 8 8
Let it be q′. Here q′ for M = .3779 is equal to 1
= [0.7198 + (− 2)]
se sh
2382. 8
.
Step 4: Also find the number at the intersection of 1
the row beginning with the first two digits =
8
[− 1.2802] = −0.1600
re li
(here 37) and the mean difference column
= (− 1) + [1 − 0.01600]

s ub
headed by the fourth digit (9) of the mantissa.
Let it be r′. For M = .377(9), we find r′ = 5
Step 5: Add q′ and r′. Thus for M = 3779, we find
or log y = 1.8400
−1
∴ y = antilog 1.8400 = 6.918 × 10
ht P
q′ + r′ = 2382 + 5 = 2387.
Step 6: So this can be written as 2.387.
If the characteristic (c = 6) is positive, it
Step 7: PRACTICE PROBLEMS
ig rn
3
can be written as 2.387 × 106 antilog 6.3779
= 2.387 × 106. 12
1  981 
1. Find the value of 6500 × 0.024 
lr e
200  
SOLVED EXAMPLES 2. Evaluate: (0.0043)1/7
Al od

 Example 1. 17.6 × 0.51
3. Evaluate:
Find the value of antilog 3.8914. 0.02 × 3
M
Solution: Refer to table of antilog, at intersection of 2GM

4. Given that v = . Find log v.
row (0.89) and column (1) = 7780 R
Mean difference column headed by fourth digit (4) of 5. Write the following in common logarithms
mantissa = 7 W = RT loge V2 / V1
©
Thus, value can be added −λt

6. Expand the following N = N0 e .
x = 7787
( )
Antilog 3.8914 = 7.787 × 10–3 Answers to Practice Problems
 Example 2.
1. 81.51 2. 0.4591 3. 149.6
0.0273 1
Find the value of x = 22.89 × . 4. log v = [log 2 + log G + log M − log R]
58.3 × 0.0021 2
0.0273  V 
Solution: Given x = 22.89 × 5. W = 2.3026  RT log10 2 
58.3 × 0.0021  V1 
log x = log 22.89 + log 0.0273 − log 58.3 6. log N = log N0 − lt log e.
− log 0.0021
= log (2.289 × 10) + log (2.73 × 10–2)
9. TRIGONOMETRY
–log (5.83 × 101) − log 2.1 × 10–3)
9.1. Angle
= 1.3596 + 2.4362 − 1.7657 − 3.3222
Angle is the measure of the revolution of a line
= 1.3596 + [(− 2) + 0.4362] − 1.7657 – about a point. The sense of rotation is marked by
[(− 3) + 0.3222] the arrow. The angle is said to be positive if the line
= 0.7079 revolves in the anticlockwise direction and it is said
HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 6 1/31/2020 3:50:09 PM

to be negative if the line revolves in the clockwise 9.2. Trigonometric Ratios

direction.
∠MOP = θ, while DPOM = 360° − θ
Systems of measuring the angle
ed s.
rv er
Circular System. In the circular system, the p MP b OM
angle is measured as the ratio of the length of the arc sine θ = = cotangent θ = =
h OP p MP
and the radius of the circle described by the terminus
se sh
of the revolving line. b OM h OP
.
cosine θ = = secant θ = =
arc MP l h OP b OM
θ= =
OP r
re li
p MP h OP
The unit of the angle in circular measure is called tangent θ = = cosecant θ = =
b OM p MP
s ub
radian (symbol: rad).
The sine θ is abbreviated as sin θ, cosine θ as cos
θ, tangent θ as tan θ, cotangent θ as cot θ, secant θ
as sec θ and cosecant θ as cosec θ.
ht P
It is evident that:
sin θ cos θ 1
tan θ = ; cot θ = ; sec θ = ;
ig rn
cos θ sin θ cos θ

The radian is the angle subtended by an arc of 1
length equal to its radius. cosec θ =
sin θ
lr e
2π rad = 360°. Values of trigonometry ratios for certain angles

Al od
KEY NOTE are given in the table below:

It is customary to express angle in radian if there is
Angle 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180
numeric digits.
M
1 1 3 3 1 1
sin θ 0 1 0
Solid Angle: The unit of solid angle is Steradian. 2 2 2 2 2 2
One steradian is defined as the solid angle 1 1
−1 − 1
©
cos θ 1 3 0 3 −1
subtended at the centre of a sphere by an area (on the −
2 2 2 2 2 2
surface) equal to the square of radius of the sphere.
1 3 1 1
If A be the area on the surface of a sphere of radius tan θ 0 1 ∞ −1 − 0
3 − 3 3
R which subtends a solid angle ‘ω’ at the centre.
9.3. Trigonometric Identities

(i) sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1.
(ii) sec2 θ − tan2 θ = 1.
(iii) cosec2 θ − cot2 θ = 1.
(iv) sin (A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B.
A (v) cos (A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B.
w = 2 Sr
R
tan A ± tan B
(vi) tan (A ± B) = .
Note that the complete solid angle in space is 4π 1  tan A tan B
 4 π R2 
steradian  ω = = 4 π . From the above relations, putting B = A, we
2
 R  find:
HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 7 1/31/2020 3:50:13 PM

(vii) sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A. (x) sin (p − θ) = sin θ

2 2 2 2
(viii) cos 2 A = cos A − sin A = 2 cos A − 1 = 1 − 2 sin A. (xi) cos (p − θ) = −cos θ
2 tan A (xii) tan (p − θ) = −tan θ
(ix) tan 2 A = (xiii) sin (p + θ) = −sin θ
1 − tan 2 A
Also it can be proved that. (xiv) cos (p + θ) = −cos θ
(xv) tan (p + θ) = tan θ
(x) 2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A − B).
(xvi) sin (p− θ) = −sin θ
(xi) 2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A − B). (xvii) cos (p − θ) = cos θ
ed s.
(xii) 2 sin A sin B = cos (A + B) − cos (A − B). (xviii) tan (p − θ) = −tan θ
 C + D  C − D (xix) sin (p + θ) = sin θ
(xiii) sin C + sin D = 2 sin  cos  .
 2   2 
rv er
(xx) cos (p + θ) = cos θ
 C + D  C − D (xxi) tan (p + θ) = tan θ.
(xiv) sin C − sin D = 2 cos   sin  .
 2   2 
se sh
SOLVED EXAMPLE
.
 C + D  C − D
(xv) cos C + cos D = 2 cos   cos  .
 2   2   Example 1.

 C + D  D − C
re li
(xvi) cos C − cos D = 2 sin  sin  . Find the vlue of sin 120°.
 2   2  3
s ub
9.4. Signs and Trigonometry Formulas
The Cartesian coordinate axes divide the plane

Solution: = sin (90° + 30°) = cos 30° =

2

[Because sin (90 + θ) = cos θ]
ht P
into four parts, which are called quadrants.
90°
Quadrant II Quadrant I PRACTICE PROBLEMS 4
p/2
ig rn
Positive: Positive:
S All A 1. Find the values of the following allied angles:
sin, cos
0° (i) sin (–30°) (ii) cos 120° (iii) tan 210°
180°
lr e
p 2p 360° (iv) sin 300° (v) sin 330° (vi) sin 225°
(vii) cos 135°
Positive: Positive:
Al od
T C
tan, cot cos, sec
3p/2 Answers to Practice Problems
Quadrant III 270° Quadrant IV
1 1 1
(i) − (ii) − (iii)
M
For 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90°, we have the first quadrant. 2 2 3

For 90° ≤ θ ≤ 180°, we have the second quadrant. 3 1 1
(iv) − (v) − (vi) −
For 180° ≤ θ ≤ 270°, we have the third quadrant. 2 2 2
1
©
For 270° ≤ θ ≤ 360°, we have the fourth quadrant. (vii) −

2
Trigonometry Formulas
9.5. Inverse-Trigonometric Functions
(i) sin (− θ) = −sin θ
(i) Definition:
(ii) cos (− θ) = cos θ
The inverse-sine function is defined as:
(iii) tan (− θ) = −tan θ y = f–1 (x) = sin–1 x
π 
(iv) sin  2 − θ = cos θ  π π
iff x = sin y and y ∈ − , 
π   2 2
(v) cos  − θ = sin θ The graph of sin–1 x is as shown.
2 
 π 
(vi) tan  − θ = cot θ
2 
π 
(vii) sin  + θ = cos θ
2 
π 
(viii) cos  + θ = −sin θ
2 
π 
(ix) tan  2 + θ = −cot θ
HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 8 1/31/2020 3:50:15 PM

Principal Value Branch (b) Equation of a circle: It is stated as x2 + y2 = a2

Function
Domain Range
π π
(i) y = sin–1 x –1≤x≤1 − ≤ y≤
2 2
(ii) y = cos–1 x –1≤x≤1 0≤y≤p
π π
(iii) y = tan–1 x – ∞ < x < +∞ − < y<
2 2
where ‘a’ is the radius and centre is the origin of
ed s.
circle.
9.6. Trigonometric Series Expansions x 2 y2
(c) Equation of ellipse: It is stated as: 2 + 2 = 1
a b
rv er
x 3 x 5 x7
(i) sin x = x − + − + ....
3! 5! 7!
se sh
If x is small, i.e. x ≈ 10°, then sin x ≈ x

.
x 2 x 4 x6
(ii) cos x = 1 − + − + ..... where a = length of semi-major axis
re li
2! 4! 6!
b = length of semi-minor axis and centre
If x is small, i.e. x ≈ 10°, then cos x ≈ 1

s ub
(iii) tan x = x +
x3
+
2 5
x + ....
is the origin
(d) Equation of Parabola:
3 15
(i)
Symmetrical to X-axis; then equation is
ht P
y2 = kx where k is constant.
If x is small, i.e. x ≈ 10° then tan x ≈ x.

ig rn
10. COORDINATE GEOMETRY

(a) Equation of straight line: The equation is
lr e
stated as y = mx + c where m = tan θ = slope of

line; c = intercept on Y-axis. Symmetrical to Y-axis; then x2 = ky
(ii)
Al od
Further if c = 0 then y = mx is a line passing represents the equation of rectangular

through the origin and if θ = 45°, i.e. hyperbola:
line is equally inclined to axes, then y = x as
M
m = tan 45°
©
10.1. Geometry
1
(i) Area of a triangle = (base × height)
2
Slope-intercept form (ii) Area of a circle = p × (radius)2
(iii) Circumference of a circle
 − b  − c
y=  x+  = 2p × radius = p × diameter
 a  a
(iv) Area of a sphere (surface) = 4π × (radius)2
Slope of line (inclination with respect to X-axis)
(v) Volume of a sphere = 4/3π × (radius)3
 − b
is m =   (vii) Curved surface area of a closed cylinder = 2π
 a
(radius) × length + 2π (radius)2.
(viii) Volume of a cylinder = π × (radius)2× length.
(ix) Surface area of a cube = 6 × (length)2
(x) Volume of a cube = (length)3
(xi) Volume of a parallelopiped
= length × breadth × height

HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 9 1/31/2020 3:50:16 PM

1  sin x   tan x 
(xii) Volume of a cone = π (radius)2 × height (iii) Lt   = 1 (iv) xLt   =1
3 x→0  x  →0  x 
11. DIFFERENTIATION  a x − 1
(v) Lt  = loge a, a > 0
11.1. Function of a Variable x → 0 x 
A quantity, the value of which may change, is 11.3. Derivative or Differentiation
called variable. It may be denoted by x, y, z, t, etc.
If y = f(x), then limit of the quotient of the
If corresponding to one value of the variable x,
ed s.
increments of ‘y’ and ‘x’ as the increment of
there is one and only one value of the variable y, then ‘x’ approaches zero is called the differential
y is said to be a function of x. Mathematically, we co-efficient of y w.r.t. x.
rv er
represent this relation as:
dy
y = f(x) It is written as and also known as derivative
dx
of y w.r.t. x.
se sh
It is read as “y is a function of x”.
.
Here f(x) is an expression in x. That is, we may Differential co-efficient of y with respect to x
have:  δ y  dy
f (x) = Lt   =
re li
x2 + x − 2 δ x→ 0  δ x  dx
y = f ( x ) =
s ub x−1
When x = 2, y = 4 and when x = 3, then y = 5. Thus,
for every value of x, y has definite value. Here f(x) is a
The process of obtaining differential co-efficient
of a function is called differentiation. It means
we can study about the change in y when we can
composite expression. It is not the product of f and x. change x at very small level where our eyes are not
ht P
able to predict the change.
The small change in the value of the variable
is called increment of variable. If variable is x, we Physical meaning of differentiation:
ig rn
represent the increment in x by Dx or dx (read as

delta x). Similarly increment in y is represented as
Dy or dy.
lr e
KEY NOTE
Al od
Here Dx, dx, Dy, dy are all composite expressions and are
not to be taken simple multiplication of ∆ or δ with x or y.
M
The ratio of increments of two variables is called

quotient of increments. For example, the quotient of
increment of x and y is:
∆y δy
©
or Let y = f(x). If x and y represent the co-ordinates

∆x δx
of a point in the Cartesian plane, then by obtaining
values of y for different values of x, we can plot a
11.2. Limit of a Variable graph for y = f(x). The graph is shown in Let P(x1, y1)
If a variable x approaches a value ‘k’ in such and Q (x2, y2) be two points on the graph.
a manner as given in expression is less than any Slope of the line joining P to Q is:
positive number, however small, then k is said to be y − y1 δy
limit of x. We represent it symbolically as x → k. It is tan θ = 2 =
x2 − x1 δx
read as “x approaches k” or “x tends to k”.
If Q approaches P, the line PQ will tend to
The value of the function f(x) as the variable be tangent at P. In this process, x2 − x1 = dx and
approaches certain value, say k, is called limit of the y2 – y1 = dy, will also become very small and will
function. It is mathematically expressed as: finally tend to zero.
Limit f ( x) or Lt f ( x)
x→ k x→ k Hence in such a case we may write:
 δ y  dy
11.2.1. Limits tan θ = Lt   =
δ x→ 0  δ x  dx
(i) Lt (sin x) = 0 (ii) Lt cos x = 1 That is, differential co-efficient gives the slope of
x→0 x→0
the graph y = f(x).
HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 10 1/31/2020 3:50:18 PM

It also represents the rate of change of y w.r.t. x  Example 3.

at various points of the graph. −
1
dy
2
Given that y = x + 4x 2 − 3x −2 , find .
dx
11.3.1. Formulas of Differentiation −
1
1. The differential co-efficient of a constant is zero. Solution:

2
y = x + 4x 2 − 3 x −2
If ‘c’ is a constant, then = 0
d  − 2 d
1
dy
2. If y = u ± v ± ... where u and v etc. and y are the
dx
=
d 2
dx
x + ( )

dx 
4x  −
 dx
3 x −2 ( )
functions of x, then
ed s.
dy du dv dy  − 
3

dx
= ±
dx dx
± ..... or
dx
= 2 x + 4 ×  − 1 x 2  − 3 − 2 x −3
 2 
( )
3. If y = xn, where n is a real number, then
rv er
3
−
dy d
( ) = 2x − 2x + 6 x −3
2

= x n = nx n − 1
dx dx  Example 4.

se sh
4. If y = cu, where c is a constant and u is function
.
dy
of x, then Given that y = (3x2 + 7) (6x + 3). Find .
dy du dx
= c Note: This problem can be solved by using
re li
dx dx
Theorem 5.
5. If y = uv, where u and v are both functions of x,

then: s ubdy
dx
= u
dv
dx
+v
du
dx
Here u = 3x2 + 7 and v = 6x + 3.
Solution: y = (3x2 + 7) (6x + 3)
dy 2 d d
(3 x2 + 7)
= (3 x + 7) (6 x + 3 ) + (6 x + 3)
6. If y = f(u) and u = f(x), then: dx dx dx
ht P
dy dy du = (3x2 + 7) (6) + (6x + 3) (6x)
= ×
dx du dx = (18x2 + 42) + (36x2 + 18x)
ig rn
It is also called the chain rule. = 54x2 + 18x + 42.

7. If y = (ax + b)n, then:  Example 5.

dy d
lr e
n −1
= n (ax + b) × (ax + b) Obtain the derivative of 1 + x3 .
dx dx
Al od
u Solution: 1
8. If y = where u = f(x) and v = f(x), then:
v Let y= 1 + x3 = 1 + x3 ( ) 2
du dv
v −u Put 1 + x3 = u
dy
= dx 2 dx
M
dx v Then y = u1/2
If y = un, where u is function of x, then :

9. Now
dy
=
dy
×
du
dx du dx
dy d
( ) du
©
= un = nun − 1 1 1
dx dx dx dy = 1 − 2 1
( )
−
But u = 1 + x3 2
du 2 2
SOLVED EXAMPLES and

du
= 0 + 3x2 = 3x2
dx
 Example 1.
dy dy du
or = ×
2 dy dx du dx
Given that y = x , find .
dx 1
( ) 3 2
( )
−1 2 −1 2
= 1 + x3 3 x2 = x 1 + x3
Solution:
du d
=
dx dx
( )
x2 = 2 x2 − 1 = 2 x. 2 2
Alternative
 Example 2.
∴ y = (1 + x3)1/2
dy dy
Given that y = x5 + x4 + 7. Find 1
( ) d
( )
. −1 2
= 1 + x3 × 1 + x3
dx dx 2 dx
Solution: y = x5 + x4 + 7 1
( ) ( )
−1 2
= 1 + x3 × 0 + 3 x2 .

dy
dx
=
d
dx
( )
x5 +
d
dx
x4 +( )
d
dx
(7) 2
1
3 2
( )
−
= x 1+ x3 2
= 5x4 + 4x3 + 0 = 5x4 + 4x3. 2
HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 11 1/31/2020 3:50:23 PM

 Example 6.
1
14. Given that s = ut + at2 where u and a are constants.
2 2
x +1 dy
Given that y = , find ds
x−2 dx Obtain the value of .
Solution: This example can be solved using theorem 8. dt
Here 15. The area ‘A’ of a blot of ink is growing such that after ‘t’
u second.
y= and u = x2 + 1, v = x − 2 t
v A = 3t 2 + + 7
5
du dv
∴ = 2x and =1 Calculate the rate of increase of area after five seconds.
ed s.
dx dx [Hint: Obtain dA/dt and substitute t = 5]
du dv 16. The area of a circle is given by A = pr2, where r is the
v −u
rv er
dy dx dx radius. Calculate the rate of increase of area with
Now, =
dx v2 radius. [Hint: Calculate dA/dr]
( x − 2) 2 x − ( x 2 + 1) × 1 Note that dA/dr means increase in area per unit
se sh
.
= increase in radius.
( x − 2)2
x2 − 4 x − 1
=
re li
( x − 2)2
1. – 3x4
s ub 2.
7
2
5
x2

3. 20x3 + 9x1/2 + 9
ht P
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 5
4.
2ax + b
dy
1
ig rn
Obtain for the following: 5. 15x4 – 3 +

dx
–3
x2
1. y = x
6. 216x7 – 144x5 + 105x4 + 135x2 – 40
lr e
2. y = x7/2
3. y = 5x4 + 6x3/2 + 9x 7. (i) – 16x (3 – 4x2) (ii) x(3 + x2)–1/2
Al od

4. ax2 + bx + c 2
1 8. (i) – x–2 (ii) −
5. 3x5 − 3x – (1 + x)3
x
M
1 3
1 −2 −
6. (9x3 − 8x + 7) (3x5 + 5) 9. x (1 + x) 2
2
7. (i) (3 − 4x2)2 (ii) (3 + x )2
−
1
©
10. − x
2
1+ x 1
8. (i) (ii) (1 + x )2
x (1 + x)2
12.
2 (t + 1)
x2 + 2
8. −
1
x3 + 5 x 2
13.
1− x 14.
u + at
10.
1+ x 15.
30.2 per second
11. Given that x2 + y2 = 9 16. 2pr.
dy dx
show that . = 1.
dx dy
11.4. Differential Coefficients of Trigonometric
ds Functions
12. Given that s = t2 + 2t + 3. Find .
dt
d
dy (i) (sin x) = cos x
13. Given that y = 6t and x = 9t2. Find . dx
dx
 dy dy dt dy dx  d
(ii) (cos x) = − sin x
Hint. dx = dt ⋅ dx = dt dt  dx

HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 12 1/31/2020 3:50:26 PM

d Solution: Using the theorem

(iii) (tan x) = sec 2 x du dv
dx v −u
d  u dx dx
  =
d dx  v  v2
(iv) (cot x) = − cosec 2 x
dx dy d  sin x 
=
d dx dx  1 + cos x 
(v) (sec x) = tan x sec x
dx d d
(1 + cos x) (sin x) − (sin x) (1 + cos x)
ed s.
d = dx dx
(vi) (cosec x) = − cot x cosec x. (1 + cos x)2
dx
rv er
(1 + cos x) (cos x) − sin x (0 − sin x)
Note: If y = sin u, where u = f(x) =
(1 + cos x)2
dy du
se sh
Then = cos u
.
dx dx cos x + cos2 x + sin 2 x
=
(1 + cos x)2
Similarly if y = cos u, where u = f(x)
re li
cos x + 1
=
Then s ub
dy
dx
= –sin u
du
dx
=
(1 + cos x)2
1
1 + cos x
.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
ht P
 Example 5.

 Example 1.

Given x = a cos θ, y = b sin θ, find dy .
ig rn
Obtain the differential coefficient of sin 6x. dx

d dy
Solution: (sin 6 x) dy
= θ
d
lr e
dx Solution:
dx dx
…(i)
d dθ
=[cos 6 x ] (6 x) = [cos 6 x ] 6 = 6 cos 6x
Al od
dx
dy
Now = b cos θ
 Example 2.
dθ
M
Differentiate x2 cos x. dx
And = − a sin θ.
dθ
Solution: Using the theorem
Substituting in (i), we get
d du dv
(uv) = v +u
©
dy b cos θ b
dx dx dx = =− cot θ.
dx − a sin θ a
d d 2 d
( x2 cos x) = (cos x) × ( x ) + x2 (cos x)
dx dx dx
= (cos x) × 2x + x2 × − sin x
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 6
= 2x cos x − x2 sin x. Differentiate the following:
 Example 3.
1. (i) tan 6x (ii) sec (ax + b) (iii) cot x
Differentiate tan x. 4
2. (i) cos x (ii) sin (ax + b) (iii) sin (ax + b)2
2 2
d d 3. (i) x2 cos x (ii) (1 + x) sin x (iii) cos2 x sin x2

Solution: (tan 4 x) = 4 tan 3 x (tan x)
dx dx
4. (i) sin (x2 + 1) (ii) sin x3 (iii) sin (3x2 + 7)
3 2
= 4 tan x × sec x θ cos θ tan θ
= 4 tan3 x sec2 x. 5. (i) (ii) (iii)
tan θ θ + sin θ tan θ + sec θ
 Example 4.

dy
sin x dy 6. Given that x = a tan θ; y = b sec θ. Find .
Given that y = . Find . dx
1 + cos x dx
HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 13 1/31/2020 3:50:29 PM


1. (i) 6 sec2 6x
SOLVED EXAMPLES
(ii) a sec (ax + b) tan (ax + b)  Example 1.

1 dy
1 − Given that y = log (ax + b). Find .
(iii) − x 2cos ec 2 x dx
2 Solution: Using formula (v)
2. (i) − 2 cos x sin x dy d

dx
=
dx
[log (ax + b)]
(ii) 2a sin (ax + b) cos (ax + b)
ed s.
1 d
(iii) 2a (ax + b) cos (ax + b)2 = (ax + b)
ax + b dx
3. (i) 2x cos x − x2 sin x
rv er
a
= .
(ii) sin x + cos x + x cos x ax + b
 Example 2.

se sh
(iii) − 2 sin x cos x sin x2 + 2 x cos2 x cos x2 dy
.
Given that y = etan x, find .
2
4. (i) 2x cos (x + 1) 2
(ii) 3x cos x 3 dx
(iii) 6x cos (3x + 7) 2 Solution: Using formula (vi)
re li
dy d  tan x d
= e  = etan x (tan x)
s ub
5. (i) cot θ − θ cosec2 θ
(ii) − (θ sin θ + cos θ + 1)

(θ + sin θ)2

dx dx  
= etan x sec2 x
dx
ht P
(iii) sec θ
(tan θ + sec θ)2 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 7
b
ig rn
6. a sin θ.
Obtain the differential coefficient of the following:
1+ x
1. log 2. log (3x + 4)2
lr e
11.4.1. Differential Coefficients of Logarithmic 1− x

3. log (cos x) 4. log (tan x + sec x)
and Exponential Functions
Al od
log x
d 1 5.
(i) log a ( x) = log a (e) 1 + log x
dx x
(i) enx (ii) anx
6.
M
d 1 1
(ii) log e ( x) = log e (e) =
dx x x Answers to Practice Problems
Because loge (e) = 1
©
2 6
d 1. 2.
(iii) (a x ) = ax loge (a) 1 − x2 3x + 4
dx
3. − tan x 4. sec x
d x 1
(iv) (e ) = ex logx (e) = ex 5.
dx x (1 + log x)2
nx
(v) When u = f(x) 6. (i) ne (ii) nanx log a.
d 1 du
(log u) = 12. APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
dx u dx 12.1. Tangents and Normal
(vi) When u = f(x) (i) If y = f(x), then the slope of the tangent at
P(x = c) is
d u u du dy 
(e ) = e m = tan θ =
dx dx dx  x = c
KEY NOTE (ii) Equation of the tangent at P(x′, y′) to the
curve y = f(x) is
When base of the logarithmic function is not mentioned,  dy 
it should be treated as e. y – y′ =   ( x – x′).
 dx  P
HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 14 1/31/2020 3:50:33 PM

12.2. Maxima and Minima This process of summing up is called integration,

(i) Method to find absolute maxima and and ∫ is the mathematical symbol for integration.
minima values in a given interval. The expression f ′ (x) is called integrand.
dy From the above, we find that in differentiation
Step 1: Find all points when = 0. we obtain differential or an infinitesimal part of y
dx
corresponding to an infinitesimal variation in x and
ake end points of the interval like x = a,
Step 2: T
in integration we obtain summed up value of the
b, c ...
variable y.
ed s.
Step 3: At all these points, calculate values of y. Thus, integration is inverse of differentiation.
dy
Step 4: Take the maximum and minimum values That is if y = f (x) and = f ′ (x)
rv er
dx
out of these values that is f (a) f (b) and
f (c) Then y = f(x) = ∫ f ′( x)dx
se sh
(ii) If f(a) is an extreme value of f (x), then
.
f ′(a) = 0 Example, let y = xn + 1, then
(iii) Second Derivative Test. dy
= (n + 1) xn + 1 – 1
re li
dy dx
Step 1: Put y = f(x) and find , i.e. f ′(x).
dx = (n + 1) xn

s ub
Step 2: Put
dy
dx
= 0, i.e. f ′(x) = 0 and solve it for x
giving: x = a, b, c, ...
∴ dy = (n + 1)xn dx
∫ dy = ∫ (n + 1)x dx
n
or
ht P
d2 y
Step 3: Select x = a. Find , i.e. f ″(x) at x = a.
dx2
∫x
n
= (n + 1) dx
d2 y 
ig rn
If  , i.e. f ″(x) is negative, then f(x) is

dx2  x = a xn + 1
∫x
n
or = dx
maxima at x = a. n+1
lr e
d2 y  Why do we need to integrate within limit ?

If  , i.e. f ″(x) is positive, then f (x) is
dx2  x = a Note: Let y = x7 + c, where c is a constant, then
Al od
minima at x = a. dy
= 7x6 + 0 = 7x6
dx
13. INTEGRATION
M
\ ∫ 7 x 6 dx should be equal to x7 + c. However,

Integration is the inverse process of according to the mathematical formulae described
differentiation. Here we are given the derivative
of a function and we are to find the original earlier, we have
©
function. Such process is known as integration or

∫7 x
6
dx = x7.
anti-differentiation or anti-derivative.
That is, during integration the constant ‘c’ does
Let y = f(x), then differential co-efficient of y w.r.t.
not re-appear. It is because of the reason that the
x will be some other function of x. We may write,
differential co-efficient of the constant is zero.
dy Evidently, we cannot say definitely whether
= f ′ (x)...(i)
dx
∫ 7x dx is x7 or x7 + c. Such integration is called
6
From (i), we can write dy = f ′ (x) dx. Indefinite Integration. In fact, to all the integrals
Here ‘dy’ is the infinitesimal part of ‘y’ called the we have obtained so far, we should add ‘c’ a constant.
differential of y corresponding to a variation ‘dx’ in x. However, c may turn out to be zero. The value of ‘c’
If we sum up all the differentials (parts) we can depends upon the problem under consideration or
obtain y. That is: the boundary conditions (limit) of the problem.
Sum of all “dy” = y = sum of all [f ′ (x) dx]

13.1. Definite Integral
Mathematically, we use the symbol ∫ for denoting
the above sum, so we may write The integration may be carried out between
definite limits.
dy
y= ∫ dy = ∫ f ′( x)dx ...(ii) If y = f(x) and = f ′ ( x)
dx
HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 15 1/31/2020 3:50:35 PM

Then the value of y within limits x = a to x = b is [Note that in theorem 1, we have assumed
expressed as n ≠ – 1 for this reason]
b b
(vi) ∫ ex dx = ex
[ y ]x = a = ∫ f ′ ( x) dx
x=b
∫ dy = ax
a a (vii) ∫ ax dx =
b log e a
x=b
That is [ y]x = a = ∫ f ′ ( x) dx =  f ( x) x = a
x=b
eax + b
(viii) ∫ eax + b dx =
a a
= f(b) – f(a)
ed s.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
13.1.1. Area Under Simple Curve  Example 1.

rv er
To find the area, bounded by the curve y = f (x),
Find ∫ x7 dx.
X-axis the ordinates x = a and x = b.
Solution: Using theorem 1. Here n = 7
The required area is composed of a number
se sh
x7 + 1 x8
.
of thin vertical strips. Let the arbitrary strip be of ∫ x7 dx = = .
height y and width dx. 7+1 8
 Example 2.

Then dA, area of elementary strip = y dx, where
re li
Find ∫ (x6 + x – 6) dx
y = f(x).
s ub Solution:

∫ (x6 + x−6) dx = ∫ x6 dx + ∫ x– 6 dx
=
x6 + 1
+
x− 6 + 1
.
6+1 −6+1
ht P
x7 x −5
= −
7 5
 Example 3.

ig rn
Integrate the following:

∫ (7e5x + 7x + 3) dx.
Solution: ∫ (7e5x + 7x + 3) dx
lr e
This area is known as elementary area. =∫7e5x dx + ∫7x dx + ∫3dx

Al od
5x x
\ A is the total area of the region ALMB = 7 e + 7 + 3 x.
b 5 log e 7
 Example 4.

A= ∫ dA.
M
x=a Evaluate ∫ (5x + e5x) dx

x x
b b Solution: ∫ (5 + e5 ) dx = ∫ 5x dx + ∫ e5x dx
Hence, A = ∫ y dA = ∫ f ( x) dx 5x e5 x
x=a a = + .
©
= [ F ( x)] [ F (b) − F (a)]

x= b log e 5 5
x= a
=
13.1.2. Theorems of Integration PRACTICE PROBLEMS 8

(i) If n ≠ − 1, then
1. Obtain the following integrals:
xn + 1  d  xn + 1  
∫ x dx = n
   = xn  (i) ∫ x15 dx (ii) ∫ t7 dt (iii) ∫ x1/2 dx
n + 1  dx  n + 1  
(iv) ∫ x– 15 dx (v) dx.
(ii) ∫ (u ± v ± w) dx = ∫ udx ± ∫ vdx ± ∫ wdx 2. Integrate the following:
That is, the integral of sum or difference of (i) ∫ (3x–7 + x–1) dx (ii) ∫ (8 + x) dx.
a number of functions is equal to the sum 1
difference of their integrals. 3. Find ∫  x +  dx.
 x
(iii) ∫ cdx = cx, where c is a constant. 4. Evaluate ∫ e3x + 4 dx.
xn + 1
(iv) ∫ cxn dx = c where c is constant. 5. Find ∫ (e–5x + 3) dx.
n+1 6. Obtain the following integrals:
 d 1
(v) ∫ x– 1 dx = loge x  ( log e x ) =  (i) ∫ 6t dt (ii) ∫ (64 + 96) dx.
 dx x
HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 16 1/31/2020 3:50:37 PM

Answers to Practice Problems 13.3. Integration by Parts

x16
t 8
2x 3/ 2 Theorem: Integral of the product of the functions
1. (i) (ii) (iii)
16 8 3 = [ 1st function × integral of the second
1
x − 14 − − ∫(differential coefficient of 1st function
(iv) − (v) − 2 x 2
14 × integral of second) dx.]
1 −6 x2
2. (i) − x + log x (ii) 8 x + That is, if u = f(x) and v = f(x), then
2 2
x2  du 
ed s.
3. + log x ∫ uvdx = u ∫ vdx − ∫  × ∫ vdx  dx
2  dx 
e3 x + 4
4.
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3
e− 5 SOLVED EXAMPLE
5. − + 3x
5  Example 1.
se sh

6t
.
6. (i) (ii) (64 + 96)x ∫ x sin x dx.
log 6
Solution: Let u = x and v = sin x
re li
13.2. Integrals of Trigonometric Functions
 du 
(i) ∫ sin x dx = − cos x Then using ∫ uvdx = u ∫ vdx − ∫  × ∫ vdx  dx
s ub
(ii) ∫ sin (ax) dx = −
cos ax
a
 dx 
∫ x sin x dx = x ∫ sin xdx − ∫  ( ) × ∫ sin x dx  dx

d x 
(iii) ∫ cos x dx = sin x dx
ht P
 
sin ax = x(–cos x) − ∫ (–cos x) dx
(iv) ∫ cos ax dx =
a
= − x cos x + ∫ cos x dx
ig rn
2
(v) ∫ sec x dx = tan x
= − x cos x + sin x.
(vi) ∫ cosec2 dx = − cot x
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(vii) ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x

(viii) ∫ cosec x cot x dx = − cosec x.
Al od
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 9
SOLVED EXAMPLES
M
 Example 1.

(i) ∫ cos2 θ dθ (ii) ∫ tan2 θ dθ.
1.
1 1
∫ (sin 6x + cos 5x + sec2 x) dx 2. (i) ∫ 1 − sin x dx (ii) ∫ 1 − cos x dx
©
Solution: ∫ (sin 6x + cos 5x + sec2 x) dx

 1
= ∫ sin 6x dx + ∫ cos 5x dx + ∫ sec2 x dx 3. ∫  t − cos ωt +  dt
t
cos 6 x sin 5 x 4. Evaluate ∫ tan x dx.
= − + + tan x .
6 5
5. Find ∫ sin3 x cos x dx.
 Example 2.

Integrate the following: 6. Evaluate ∫ tan2 θ sec2 θ dθ.
1 4 x3 (ii) x .
∫ dθ 7. Integrate (i)
1 + sin θ
1 + x4 1 + x2
Solution:
1  1  1 − sin θ  8. Evaluate ∫ x3 sin x4 dx.
∫
1 + sin θ
dθ = ∫ 1 + sin θ  1 − sin θ  d θ
1 1
9. Integrate 3
cos 2 .
1 − sin θ 1 − sin θ x x
= ∫ 1 − sin2 θ dθ = ∫ cos2 θ
dθ
1 1
−
10. Evaluate sin θ 2 dθ.
= ∫ (sec θ − sec θ tan θ) dθ 2
∫θ 2
= tan θ − sec θ.
HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 17 1/31/2020 3:50:40 PM


PRACTICE PROBLEMS 10
θ 1  2 1 + cos 2θ 
1. (i) + sin 2θ.  Hint : cos θ = 
2 4 2 Evaluate the following:
2 2
(ii) tan θ − θ.[Hint. tan θ = sec θ − 1] π 2 ∞
2. (i) tan x + sec x (ii) − (cot x + cosec x) 1. (i) ∫ sin θ dθ (ii) ∫ x − 1 2 dx

0 0
 1 1 1 + sin x
Hint : 1 − sin x = 1 − sin x × 1 + sin x 6 π 2

2. (i) ∫ e dx
x (ii) ∫ cos θ dθ
ed s.
1 + sin x 1 + sin x 
= =  5 −π 2
1 − sin 2 x cos2 x 
∞
rv er
t 2 sin ω t GMm
3.
2
−
ω
+ log t. 3. Evaluate ∫ x2
dx
R
v
4. − log cos x.
se sh
4. Find the value of ∫ Mvdv
.
sin 4 x u
5. r2
4  q0 q 
5. Evaluate ∫  r − η  dr
re li
3
tan θ r1
r2 
6.
3
s ub
7. (i) log (1 + x4) (ii) log (1 + x2)
cos x4
6. Find
π 2
∫
0
(1 − cos θ)1 2 dθ
 2 θ 
8. − Hint : 1 − cos θ = 2 cos 2 .
ht P
4  
∞
1 1 dt
9. −
2
sin 2
x
7. Evaluate ∫ t
0
ig rn
1 T
10. − 2 cos θ 2 8. Evaluate (i) ∫ E0 I0 sin ω t sin (ω t + φ) dt

0
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13.4. Indefinite Integrals

T
Now the value of y between x = a and x = b is
Al od
(ii) ∫ I0 sin ω t dt
given by the value of y at x = b minus value of y at 0
x = a, that is:
T 2
[ y]xx == ba = (value of y at x = b) − (value of y at x = a) (iii) ∫ I0 sin ω t dt
M
= f(x) at ‘b’ − f(x) at ‘a’ 0
x=b
∴ ∫ f ′ (x) dx =  f ( x ) x = a = f ( b) − f ( a) Given that ω T = 2π.
©
Such an integral between definite limits is called

definite integral.
SOLVED EXAMPLE 1. (i) 1 (ii) ∞

6 5
2. (i) e − e (ii) 2
 Example 1.

Integrate the following: GMm
3.
6 R
∫ (u + at) dt where u and a are constants.
1
4. M (v2 − u2 )
3 6 6 6
2
Solution: ∫ (u + at) dt = ∫ udt + ∫ atdt
3 3 3 1 1
6
5. η qq0  − 
1 
= [ut ]3 +  at 2 
6  r2 r1 
 2 3 6. 2
1 1 
= [u × 6 – u × 3] +  a × 36 − a × 9 7. ∞
 2 2  2 I0
T
27 8. (i) E I cos φ (ii) Zero (iii) .
= 3u + a. 2 0 0 ω
2
HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 18 1/31/2020 3:50:44 PM

CHAPTER
1 PHYSICAL WORLD
ed s.
rv er
1. WHAT IS PHYSICS?
Curious nature of humans about everything around
se sh
.
them has led the world to the age of modern science and
In this Chapter…
technology. The word Science is derived from Latin word
 Understanding Text
Scientia which means “to know”. Science is a systematic way
re li
What is Physics? 1
to understand the natural phenomenon in detail so that the
Scope and Excitement of Physics 3
s ub
knowledge gained may be used to predict, modify and control
the phenomenon. Science starts from the exploration of
whatever we see around us. Exploration leads to the ideas to
Physics, Technology and Society
Fundamental Forces in Nature
Nature of Physical Laws 11
6
7
perform experiments and outcome of these experiments helps

ht P
Chapter Summary 14
us in developing theories to explain the nature. It all started
Conceptual Questions 15
with careful observation of physical environment. People
observed meaningful patterns in natural phenomenon so that NCERT File (Solved)
ig rn
tools may be developed to interact with the nature. Earlier  Textbook Exercises 16
progress in the field of science was very limited and slow. But
by the middle of the twentieth century people from various evision Exercises
R 20
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countries started making significant contributions leading to  Hints & Answers for Revision Exercises 21
rapid growth in the field of science. And today, science has
Al od
completely changed the way we are leading our lives.

The word Physics is derived from a Greek word “fusis”
which means nature. So we can say that physics is the part of
M
natural sciences like geology, chemistry and biology. Defining

physics precisely is difficult but in a broad sense we can say
that physics is the study of basic laws that govern and
©
control the nature and natural phenomenon. We know

that there is regular repetition of day and nights. We experience
different kinds of seasons and their regular repetition. There are
several other natural phenomena like rain, eclipse, volcanoes,
earthquakes, storms, tornadoes, rainbow, tides, etc. Humans
were always naturally curious about all these phenomena. This
curiosity and prolonged observation led people to predict eclipses
in those ancient times when we were deprived of technology.
There are two main aspects of science: one is theory and
the other is experimentation. Interrelation between theory and
experimental observations is key to the progress of science. No
theory of science can be declared as final theory because science
is always dynamic. Many times new experiments yield new
results and existing theory may or may not be able to explain the
new findings. Modification of an existing theory is often required
when it is unable to explain the new findings. Sometimes
modifications are minor and little changes and additions to the
existing theory may be enough to include new observations but
1/1
sometimes changes may be drastic. But often older theory exists
HFI_PHY_G11_Ch01.indd 1 1/31/2020 3:37:45 PM

KEY NOTE as a special case of new generalised theory. Let us take an example
of propagation of sound waves in gaseous medium. At first, Newton
The exploration of whatever we proposed that propagation of sound waves in gaseous medium is an
see around us scientifically uses isothermal process but experimental findings proved it wrong. Later,
scientific methods which involve another scientist named Laplace made correction to this idea and
interdependent steps like sys- told that propagation of sound waves in gaseous medium is adiabatic
tematic observations, controlled
process. Experimental results supported the Laplace correction.
experimentation, qualitative and
quantitative reasoning, mathe- Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a theory that the Sun is at the centre
and planets are moving around the sun in circular orbits. But when
ed s.
matical modelling, further predic-
tion, verification and falsification. Johannes Kepler analysed the data collected by Tycho Brahe, then he
concluded that orbits are not circular rather planets move around the
rv er
sun in elliptical orbits.
se sh
.
 Ptolmey did lot of observations and mathematical calculations and was
the first person to represent the most detailed geocentric model with
re li
earth as the centre of universe and other planets and the sun moving
s ub around it in circular orbits. The same model was used for over 1,500
years to prepare astrological charts and calendars.
ht P
ig rn
lr e
Al od
Ptolmey’s Geocentric model

 However in 1543, during scientific revolution Nicolaus Copernicus proposed
another theory of heliocentrism stating that the sun is the centre of
M
solar system with all the planets moving around it. This heliocentric
theory replaced the geocentric model given by Ptolmey.
Light is a wave phenomenon and wave theory of light was established

©
but discovery of photoelectric effect became a turning point. Wave theory

of light was unable to explain some aspects related to photoelectric
effect. Einstein explained photoelectric effect on the basis of particle
theory of light and finally dual character of light was established. It
was established that in certain situations light behaves as a wave but
Learning & More there are certain other situations when light behaves as particles. Light
particles are called photons. Photons carry momentum just like some
Ibn al-Haytham was a Muslim other moving matter particle and hence can apply force on the surface of
scientist, mathematician, philoso- incidence. Another scientist De-Broglie extended this concept of duality
pher and astronomer from Arab, for matter. De-Broglie introduced the concept of matter waves. Nature
who was also the first theoretical is found to be symmetric in many cases. Here we can see that as light
physicist. He was the first to give wave can behave like streams of particles in certain cases, similarly
the concept of scientific methods to matter can also behave like wave in certain situations. But for normal
prove any hypothesis. day-to-day objects, this wave character of matter is not pronounced.
He was the first to explain the Wave character of matter becomes more significant when we talk
vision in humans and stated that about atoms, molecules and subatomic particles. It was around the
we see the things due to reflection beginning of the twentieth century when it was realised that Newtonian
of light. mechanics is not able to explain some features of atomic phenomenon.

PHYSICAL WORLD 1/3
Later on, Quantum Mechanics was developed to deal with atomic and REMEMBER
molecular phenomenon. It is basically wave character of matter which
becomes significant when we talk about such small particles. Prediction Unification is an important
of behaviour of these particles on the basis of Newtonian mechanics only approach in physics which allows
us to explain the diversity of
becomes difficult. Quantum mechanics takes wave character of matter
physical phenomenon only in terms
also into account.
of a few rules and concepts.
It is not always true that only experimental outcomes help in
correcting theories but many times theoretical advancements can also
help to develop the idea for some experiments. For example, concept
ed s.
of antiparticle was developed theoretically by Paul Dirac but it was
confirmed two years later, when Carl Anderson made experimental
rv er
discovery of positron which is an antiparticle of electron.
Unification is an important approach in physics because we want
to explain diversity of physical phenomenon only in terms of a few rules
se sh
.
and concepts. Basically, we believe that there are only a few universal
laws which when applied in different domains and conditions can be
used to explain everything. We can further understand this approach
re li
of unification by taking an example of gravitational force. Same law of
s ub
gravitation can be used to explain the fall of an apple from a tree, motion
of the moon around the earth and also the motion of planets around
the sun. Similarly, there are some basic laws of electromagnetism and
we can explain all electromagnetic phenomena using them. Further
ht P
efforts are made to unify all fundamental forces that exist in nature.
Reductionism is another important approach used in physics. We
ig rn
know that ultimately there are only a few rules which create everything.
When same rule is applied repeatedly at different levels then complex
and bigger systems are created. So we can understand that by analysing
lr e
the behaviour and properties of smaller parts of some bigger system, we

can predict the behaviour and properties of bigger system also. Such
Al od
kind of approach is called reductionism. Here is one good example to

understand the approach of reductionism. In kinetic theory of gases we
explain temperature, energy, etc. in terms of properties of molecular
constituents of the bulk system and on the other hand in thermodynamics
M
we use same quantities like temperature or internal energy to predict

the behaviour of bulk system.
©
2. SCOPE AND EXCITEMENT OF PHYSICS

Scope of physics is extended to all domains of life. Even biological
and medical sciences depend on the knowledge of physics. We know
that physics talks about nature and so everything under the sun and
beyond the sun is directly or indirectly related to the physics. Scope
of physics can be understood by looking at its various sub-disciplines.
Broadly we can divide physics into two domains of interest. One is
macroscopic and the other is microscopic. In macroscopic domain we
talk about phenomenon at the laboratory, terrestrial and astronomical
scales. However, in microscopic domain we talk about atoms, molecules
and nuclear processes.
REMEMBER
Macroscopic phenomena are studied in Classical Physics.
Classical physics includes subjects like Mechanics, Thermodynamics, According to reductionism, by
Optics and Electromagnetism. When we talk about particles having analysing the behaviour and
linear dimension greater than 10–6m moving with speed less than properties of smaller parts of some
the speed of light, then classical physics can be considered as good bigger system, we can predict the
description of nature. Mechanics is based on Newton’s Laws of motion behaviour and properties of bigger
system also.
and law of gravitation. In mechanics we talk about the motion or

equilibrium of particles, general system of particles, rigid bodies and

deformable bodies. In thermodynamics we do not talk about motion
of bodies as whole but we are interested in the motion of microscopic
constituents of the system which is related to internal energy,
temperature, entropy, etc. In thermodynamics we talk about change in
internal energy of the system through external work or heat transfer.
In thermodynamics we talk about heat engines and refrigerators.
Optics is the study of phenomenon involving light. We study about laws
of reflection and refraction to predict the behaviour of light. We study
ed s.
about lenses and mirrors in optics which are building blocks of several
optical instruments like telescope, microscope, etc. Electromagnetism
rv er
talks about electrical and magnetic phenomenon. Electrons and
protons are two charged particles of opposite nature, available in
materials. Electric field is always present around the electric charge
se sh
whether the charge is in the state of rest or motion. But when the
.
charge moves then it also generates magnetic field around it. Basic
laws of electromagnetism were given by Coulomb, Oersted, Ampere
and Faraday. Maxwell formulated basic laws in terms of set of four
re li
equations collectively known as Maxwell’s equations. Using Maxwell’s
s ub equations we can explain any electromagnetic phenomenon.
In microscopic domain we study about phenomenon related to
atoms, molecules, nucleus and subatomic particles like electron, proton
ht P
and neutron. Basically we talk about constitution and structure of the
matter in terms of atoms and molecules. In microscopic domain we talk
about basic internal structure of atoms. We know that matter can exist
ig rn
like a wave or a particle. Wave character in matter is not appreciable

when we deal with macroscopic scales but it becomes very significant
when we deal with subatomic particles like electron, proton and neutron.
lr e
Classical physics does not account for wave nature and hence is unable
Al od
to explain phenomenon related to atomic scales. Quantum physics is

accepted widely as one proper framework for explaining microscopic
phenomenon.
We can now understand that the scope of physics is really vast. At
M
one end we learn about internal structure of an atom which involves

approximately 10-30 kg particles like electron and on the other end we
learn about the system of size of universe which involves a total mass
©
1055 kg, which is believed to be the mass of observable universe. We

can also talk in terms of range of length that we deal in physics. At
one end we study about phenomenon at atomic scale where we deal
with lengths as small as 10-14 m or even less, whereas at the other
end we talk about galaxies or entire universe which we have explored
to the length 1026 m. Similarly, we can divide length by speed of light
to get the range of time interval that we deal in physics and it turns
out lying in between 10-22 s and 1018 s.
A new domain of interest has emerged in between microscopic and
macroscopic, and the same is called mesoscopic. At the mesoscopic scale
we deal with a few tens or hundreds of atoms.
KEY NOTE There are many reasons to say that physics is one of the most
exciting subjects to study. Most exciting feature about physics is
Classical physics deals with the
universality of its basic theories and concepts. We can use same concepts
particles with linear dimension
greater than micrometres and in different contexts to understand wide variety of phenomenon taking
moving with speed much less than place around us. It is not only qualitative thinking but quantitative
speed of light. measurement is also possible since all the basic laws of nature can

PHYSICAL WORLD 1/5
be expressed in the form of mathematical equations. Mathematics

is the language of physics and it is really wonderful that such a vast
realm of nature can be understood with the help of some mathematical
equations. “The most incomprehensible thing about the universe
is that it is comprehensible”. The above statement was made by
Einstein and he was correct because there is always some logic behind
everything but we may or may not be aware of that logic. Many learners
of physics find experimentation as an exciting feature of physics. They
think about new experiments to unlock the hidden secrets of nature.
ed s.
Experiments are not only important for discovering new things but
also to verify the existing laws. Regarding his proposed theories,
rv er
Einstein said “No number of experiments can prove me right, a
single experiment can prove me wrong”. So we can say that an
existing law of physics may not be an eternal truth and thus continuous
se sh
.
verification is necessary with the help of new kinds of experiments. For
example, Newton’s laws of motion failed to agree for particles moving
with the speeds comparable to that of light and it was discovered on the
re li
basis of experiments. Einstein’s special theory of relativity is needed
s ub
to explain the behaviour of a particle moving at such a high speed.
Another exciting area of interest is Applied Physics. In this field we
apply physical laws to make devices which are important and useful for
humans but it requires a lot of ingenuity and persistence of efforts. Just
ht P
take an example of washing machine. At early stage washing machines
were developed as electromechanical device and human intervention
ig rn
was required to finish the task but with the advancement of technology
people are able to develop fully automatic washing machines which
require minimum human intervention. It is the hard work of people
lr e
that today we are trying to build a driverless car. There is no limit to

the progress and so there is no limit to the excitements of physics.
Al od
We know that there are some basic laws in physics and these laws are
universally applicable in many situations. We should understand that
any phenomenon we observe in nature is complicated manifestation of
M
the basic laws. But in a particular context everything may not be equally
important. So to understand the phenomenon we should recognise
essential features first. In first go, we can neglect the less important
©
features to discover the basic rules and then we can add further
corrections for the refinements in theory. We can take an example of free
fall under gravity. Due to attraction of earth, all objects near the surface
of earth fall with the same acceleration. Suppose you have to verify this
by comparing free fall of two objects. One object is feather and the other
object is a small stone. But in this case you will find that feather is taking
more time than a stone to fall through the same height. Here we need to
understand that presence of air resistance is complicating this situation
of free fall. Air resistance in case of feather is significant and hence is
also affecting its motion. If we can create a long evacuated tube so that
there is no air resistance inside it then we can see that feather and stone
are taking precisely the same time to fall through the same height. It is
not practical to consider all complexities in one go. As next step we can
study about air resistance to implement it along with the gravity so that
theory of free fall may be used in more realistic situation. Hence we get to
know that by separating important features of a phenomenon from less
important features, we can easily understand the phenomenon and can
manage the complexities involved in it.

3. PHYSICS, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

Knowledge of physics gives rise to the technology and the technology
is supposed to be used for the benefit and development of the society.
Albert Einstein was a theoretical Apart from a few bad examples like atom bomb, technology has always
physicist born in Ulm, Germany helped in improving human life. Today we are witnessing the era of high
in 1879. He is known as the technology and we should know that any field of science and technology
greatest physicist of all time for cannot sustain and make progress without using established concepts
his remarkable works in physics. and laws of physics. Need is mother of inventions and it can be easily
He explained the concept of understood.
ed s.
photoelectric effect using the
concepts of light quanta, photons. At the early stage of human civilisation, travelling from one place
to another was very difficult and time-consuming process. People were
rv er
He was given the Nobel Prize for
the same in year 1921. He explained using animals to commute from one place to other. Invention of wheel
Brownian motion and proposed the was the first major step to improve the travelling. But still animals
were used to pull the carts with wheels. People were still not satisfied
se sh
convincing picture of matter on
.
atomic level. He proposed his own with the results and slowly realised the need of some machine to help
version of theory of relativity, now move the vehicle with faster speeds and reliability. Heat engines were
known as The General Theory of developed and branch of thermodynamics arose from this need. Laws of
re li
Relativity. He further worked on thermodynamics were used to develop steam engine in England in the
his theory and proposed the matter-
energy s ubequivalence equation
(E = mc2). Some of his work also
includes topic like Plank’s body
eighteenth century. This development triggered industrial revolution
in England and greatly affected human civilisation. Today we have all
kinds of vehicles which can move on road, water or air. Today we have
supersonic planes which can move with a speed greater than that of
ht P
radiation, static model of universe,
analysis of quantum mechanics, sound. No one can deny the positive effect of reduced travel time on the
quantitative statistics of a gas of a human society.
massive boson, gravitational waves, Next important aspect for human progress is information
ig rn
etc. For his revolutionary scientific exchange. At an early stage written messages from one person to
ideas published in 1905 in forms of another were delivered physically by people. Process was again time
papers, year 2005 was declared as consuming and could not be afforded by everyone. Slowly several
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International Year of Physics.

types of vehicles were developed and travel time was reduced, so
Al od
organised postal services were started by governments and common

people also started using this facility. But this process of information
exchange was still time consuming and people were not satisfied
with it. Invention of telephone was like dream come true and slowly
M
telephone reached the common people. It was really wonderful for the
people to talk to the other person who is sitting far away. But there is
no end to the progress. In the nineteenth century, laws of electricity
©
and magnetism were discovered and the existence of electromagnetic

waves was established. It is not always easy to foresee the applications
of discovered physics. Very soon power of electromagnetic waves was
realised and it triggered the development in the field of wireless
communication. Earlier, telephone was a fixed device but today we
have mobile phones and can talk to people while on move. Silicon
chip is another great application of physics which triggered computer
revolution. Computer technology has developed very fast in the last
three decades of the twentieth century. Internet technology which is
driven by computers connected across the globe has become a boon
for the information exchange. Today we can find information on any
subject at any time by surfing the Internet.
Nothing seems impossible if we have great determination to
progress. It was during 1933 when great physicist Rutherford had
dismissed the idea of producing energy from atoms. But a few years later
in 1938, neutron-induced fission of uranium was discovered by Hahn
and Meitner. Nuclear power reactors and nuclear weapons are based on
this discovery. Still it is not very easy to handle a nuclear power reactor
and we are using fossil fuels. We should be aware that there is limited

PHYSICAL WORLD 1/7
amount of fossil fuels available and such resources are being consumed
very fast so there is an urgent need to develop alternate sources of energy
which are inexhaustible and cheap. There is a considerable progress
in this direction. For example, solar energy, wind energy, geothermal
energy, etc. are being used to produce electricity. But still a lot of scope
is there for further improvements.
From the above discussion we can understand the connection
between physics, technology and society. Physics is the study of nature
and natural phenomenon. Based on observations, experimentation and
ed s.
analysis, physicists try to discover basic rules and laws which govern
the natural world. To start with physics we must have an idea of
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fundamental forces existing in our nature.
Physics and Technology
se sh
.
Technology Scientific principle
Refrigerator Laws of Thermodynamics
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Computer Digital Logic
Radio
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Television
Nuclear Power Generation

Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic Waves
Controlled Nuclear Fusion
ht P
Sonar Reflection of Ultrasonic Waves
Optical Fibres Total Internal Reflection
Rocket Propulsion Newton’s Law of Motion
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Ship Archimedes Principle

Aeroplane Bernoulli’s Theorem
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Electric Generator Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Microscope Optics
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Electron microscope Wave Nature of Electrons

Electric Transformer Electromagnetic Induction
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Giant Metre Wave Radio Telescope (GMRT, Pune) Detection of Radio Waves
Photocell Photoelectric Effect
Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Optics
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Microwave Electromagnetic Radiation

Cell Phone Electromagnetic Waves
Global Positioning System (GPS) Electromagnetic Waves
CD Player Magnetism
4. FUNDAMENTAL FORCES IN NATURE

To understand the scientific concept of force we need to learn physics
but we already have intuitive notion about force. We mechanically
interact with surrounding objects by applying force on them and also
experience forces applied by those objects on us. When we try to walk
inside the swimming pool then we can feel the force applied by the water
molecules on our skin. Similarly we can visualise the force applied on us
by surrounding atmospheric air. We must have learned about pressure
in previous classes and force applied by liquid and gases is visualised
in terms of pressure. In mechanics we study about the scientific role
of force in motion or equilibrium of different types of objects. But on
intuitive level we are already expert in doing these things. Just watch
yourself that you move different objects including your own bodies in a

complicated fashion to live your daily life, by applying required force in

Learning & More a particular way. In later chapters of mechanics we shall learn about
the science behind all these phenomena. In subsequent chapters we will
It is believed that gravitational force learn about several types of forces. For example: Contact force between
arises due to exchange of particles bodies along the normal to their surface of contact, Friction which is
known as “graviton” between contact force between bodies parallel to their surface of contact, Tension
objects. For graviton, charge = 0,
applied by taut strings and ropes, Force of gravitation, Force applied
mass = 0, spin = 2. Gravitational
force is very weak force and due to
by springs, Force due to surface tension in liquids, Force of buoyancy,
this fact there is no experimental Force of viscosity, Force due to pressure applied by liquids and gases,
ed s.
evidence of this particle called Electromagnetic forces between charged particles, Nuclear forces
graviton. binding protons and neutrons together as nucleus, and so on.
rv er
Around the twentieth century it was realised that there are only
some fundamental forces in nature and the rest of the forces can be
explained in terms of these fundamental forces only. In this chapter we
se sh
shall not discuss about exact quantitative description of these forces.
.
These forces are introduced briefly in this chapter. According to present
stage of our understanding there are only four fundamental forces in
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nature and the same are described here.
s ub 4.1. Gravitational Force

Everything around us is made up of some kind of matter and mass
is one of the most important characteristic of matter. Gravitational
ht P
force is the force of mutual attraction between any two objects due to
their masses. Gravitational force is a universal force which means all
objects inside universe experience gravitational force due to each other.
ig rn
Gravitational force acts over long distance and is unaffected by the

intervening medium between objects. Magnitude of the gravitational
force is directly proportional to the product of masses of the objects and
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inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the objects.

But it is weakest among all fundamental forces. Magnitude of gravitational
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force is appreciable when at least one of the two objects has large mass.
For example, in our near surroundings, earth is the heaviest object and
hence force of gravitation applied by earth on all objects near its surface
M
is very much significant and is known as weight of the objects. In our day-
to-day life it is a good approximation to neglect gravitational force acting
between any two objects except that applied by earth on objects. Role of
gravitational force is observed in large scale phenomenon of the universe.
©
For example, gravitational force plays central role in: motion of the moon
around the earth, motion of man-made satellites orbiting around the
earth, motion of earth and other planets around the sun, formation and
evolution of stars and galaxies. We can see that gravitational force is
although weakest among all fundamental forces but with a long range of
application it is capable of holding the universe together.
4.2. Electromagnetic Force

Every material around us is made up of atoms. We have several
types of atoms in our nature and the same are listed in periodic table.
In space sciences, gravity assist is All atoms are assembly of three types of particles only which are known
a boon for a travelling spacecraft.
as electron, proton and neutron. Although internal structure of proton
It is used as a manoeuvre to gain
or reduce the speed of spacecraft
and neutron has also been discovered but for most of the discussions,
crossing the orbits of planets or we can still treat above stated three particles as fundamental particles
moons. Spacecraft Voyager 2 took behind all materials. Electron and proton are the two particles which
two gravity assist from Jupiter and have inherent property of charge. There is no charge in neutron. Charge
Saturn to escape the solar system. is known as electrical property and we call neutron as an electrically
neutral particle. As mass gives rise to gravitational force, charge gives

PHYSICAL WORLD 1/9
rise to the electromagnetic force. Hence, we can understand

that neutron cannot apply or experience the electromagnetic Kibble Balance
force with other particles. In a simple situation when charges

are at rest then they can apply only electric forces on each
other. Nature of charge on electron and proton is opposite,
although same in magnitude. This is something which makes
charge different from mass because mass is only of one type. 1kg
These two kinds of charges cancel the electrical effect of each
other when put together and that is why, as a convention,
ed s.
An electric current
electron is assigned negative charge and proton is assigned Electromagnet through the electromagnet
positive charge. Similar charges repel each other and opposite is increased until its pull
rv er
makes the two sides
charges attract each other with this electric force. Note that balanced
gravitational force is always attractive by nature. Coulomb
arrived at formula for electric force acting between charges.
se sh
BBC
Same as gravitational force, magnitude of electric force is
Source: National Physical Laboratory
.
proportional to the product of the two charges and inversely How an electromagnet can calculate the kilogram
proportional to the square of the distance between charges.
When charged particles are in a state of motion then they apply another
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type of force also on each other which is called magnetic force. This is in
s ub
addition to the electric force. Electrical effect is always there whether
the charged particle is in a state of rest or motion but magnetic effects
arise only when the charged particles are in a state of motion. We should
ht P
know that subatomic particles are always in state of motion and hence
both the forces are always in action when we talk about atoms. These
two forces play an important role in the formation of several types of Kilogram gets a new definition
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materials. Electric and magnetic effects are in general inseparable from • Currently, it is defined by the
each other and that is why we refer these forces as electromagnetic forces. weight of a platinum-based
Electromagnetic forces are also long range forces like gravitational force ingot called “Le Grand K” which
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and do not require any intervening medium between objects. But unlike is locked away in a safe in Paris.
gravity, intervening medium affects the electromagnetic force acting • Researchers meeting in
Al od
between the objects. Mechanism of magnetic force is different but electric Versailles voted to get rid of it
force is always compared with gravitational force. Electric force is much in favour of defining a kilogram
stronger than gravitational force and electric force between two protons is in terms of an electric current.
found to be 1036 times of gravitational force acting between them for the
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• In a world where accurate

same distance. But here one important point should be noted that atom measurement is now critical
in natural state is neutral due to equal number of electrons and protons in many areas, such as in drug
in it. So matter is electrically neutral in a normal situation and these development, nanotechnology
©
electromagnetic forces are not usually observed and thus we can see that and precision engineering.
gravitational force dominates terrestrial phenomenon, in spite of the fact How does the new system work?
that electromagnetic forces are much stronger than gravitational forces. • Electromagnets generate a
But electromagnetic forces are responsible for everything happening at force. Scrap-yards use them on
the atomic or molecular level. After a certain height in our atmosphere the cranes to lift and move large
air particles get ionised and we can see electrical effects like lightening or metal objects, such as old cars.
auroras in the sky. We should be aware of the fact that all the forces that The pull of the electromagnet,
we experience and apply in our daily life are basically electromagnetic the force it exerts, is directly
forces. Just take a simple example of someone holding the book against related to the amount of
gravity. It is electromagnetic interaction between the particles of hand electrical current going through
and book at the atomic and molecular level which manifests necessary its coils. There is, therefore,
a direct relationship between
force to hold the book. Similarly, we can take an example of frictional
electricity and weight.
force, and this force also arises due to electromagnetic interaction at
the atomic level between objects near their contact surfaces. A block of • So, in principle, scientists can
iron is solid and tough because there are strong electromagnetic forces define a kilogram, or any other
weight, in terms of the amount of
operating between iron atoms which hold them together strongly.
electricity needed to counteract
Electromagnetic forces between water molecules are small and hence the weight (gravitational force
it can flow and adapt the shape of a vessel in which it is poured. acting on a mass).
We can take an example of force of tension applied by tout strings and

this force of tension is also the result of electromagnetic interaction at

the atomic levels inside the material of string. So we can understand that
electromagnetic forces play a very important role in our life.
Here’s the tricky part
• There is a quantity that relates 4.3. Strong Nuclear Force
weight to electrical current, We should be aware of the very rough model of atom. Nucleus is
called Planck’s constant - named
very tiny volume located at the centre of atom and is responsible for
after the German physicist Max
most of the mass of the atom because electrons orbiting around the
Planck and denoted by the
ed s.
symbol h. nucleus are almost mass-less particles. Nucleus of hydrogen atom is
just one proton or else for other atoms, nucleus contains protons and
• But h is an incredibly small
neutrons. Strong nuclear force binds protons and neutrons inside the
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number and to measure it, the
research scientist Dr Bryan
nucleus. Strong nuclear force is the strongest among all fundamental
Kibble built a super-accurate set forces but its range of application is extremely small which is of the
order of 10–15m. It is almost 100 times stronger than electromagnetic
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of scales. The Kibble balance, as
.
it has become known, has an forces. One important characteristic about nuclear force is that it
electromagnet that pulls down is charge independent. Hence nuclear force acts equally between a
on one side of the scales and a proton and a proton, a neutron and a neutron, and a proton and a
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weight - say, a kilogram - on the neutron. And it is responsible for the stability of nucleus because
s ub
other.
• The electrical current going
through the electromagnet is
there is strong electric repulsion between protons inside the nucleus
but nuclear attraction between these particles is much stronger and
holds them together. We must know that electrons do not experience
increased until the two sides nuclear force.
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are perfectly balanced.
• By measuring the current 4.4. Weak Nuclear Force
running through the
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electromagnet to incredible Weak nuclear force was first revealed in radioactive beta decay.
precision, the researchers In beta decay a neutron is converted into a proton, an electron and an
are able to calculate h to an antineutrino. This force is much weaker than the strong nuclear force but
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accuracy of 0.000001%. is not as weak as gravitational force. According to present understanding,

protons and neutrons are composite particles and are made up of Quarks.
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Quarks exist in six “flavours”, which are known as up, down, top, bottom,
strange and charm. Weak interaction allows these quarks to swap their
flavours. This fundamental force is responsible for the decay process
M
whereas other fundamental forces are binding things together. Range

of weak nuclear force is of the order of 10–16 m. Hence, it acts only at
subatomic level and it has important role in creating different kinds of
elements and it also helps in the power generation in stars.
©
4.5. Unification of Fundamental Forces

We have already discussed about the basic idea of unification in
physics. We strongly believe that there are only some fundamental laws
which run the complete show of this universe. We can see that there are
only three basic particles known as electron, proton and neutron, which
create all kinds of materials we have. In 1687, Isaac Newton described
terrestrial and celestial mechanics in a unified manner. He explained
that same laws of motion and law of gravitation are applicable in both
the domains. However, the same laws were not sufficient to explain
atomic, molecular and subatomic phenomenon. Quantum mechanics
is required for the same which accounts for wave nature of particles.
In terrestrial and celestial domains, wave nature of matter is not at
all significant and hence Newton’s laws of motion and gravitation are
enough to explain everything.
Many times new discoveries in physics have helped in unifying
existing theories in several domains. In 1820, Oersted demonstrated
that there is magnetic field around current carrying wire. In 1830,

PHYSICAL WORLD 1/11
Faraday demonstrated that electric field can be created from magnetic

field. Soon it was realised that Oersted and Faraday both gave two
different aspects of the same entity. We got to know that Electric field
and Magnetic field are two inseparable entities and this way we achieved
unification of electricity and magnetism. Contribution of Maxwell was
very significant to unify electricity and magnetism. After unification the
term “Electromagnetism” came in use.
In 1873, James Clerk Maxwell proved that light is an electromagnetic
wave and all kinds of electromagnetic waves move with same speed as
ed s.
that of light. Hence, we can say that work of Maxwell unified the field
of electromagnetism and optics. Einstein tried to unify gravity and
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electromagnetic force but somehow could not succeed. But there are
some recent developments towards unification of forces that we must
be aware of. In 1979, Sheldon Glashow, Steven Weinberg and Abdus
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Salam showed that weak nuclear force and electromagnetic force are
.
basically two different aspects of same force and they called it with a
common name “electro-weak force”. Carlo Rubia and Simon Vander Meer
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performed experiments based on the theory of electro-weak force. The
theory was experimentally verified in 1984. People are still speculating
s ub
about the unification of electro-weak force and strong nuclear force.
People are also speculating about unifying force of gravitation with rest
of the fundamental forces. May be one day we shall be able to say that
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there is only one fundamental force which appears in different forms in
different contexts.
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5. NATURE OF PHYSICAL LAWS

There are many physical laws which can be expressed mathematically
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to understand and predict the phenomenon happening around us. But

if we think carefully then we can understand that not everything can
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be proved with physics and mathematics. Because at the most basic

stage, everything starts from certain hypothesis or assumptions which
are strongly supported by the range of observations, experiments and
data available. To understand this we can talk about law of gravitation.
M
Universal law of gravitation given by Newton is an example of hypothesis

or assumption. Newton observed several terrestrial and celestial
phenomena before proposing the law of gravitation. Newton proposed
©
that any two objects inside this universe attract each other with a force
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between the two. We cannot prove law of
gravitation mathematically but can always verify and substantiate law
of gravitation with the help of observations and experiments. Newton
successfully explained several natural phenomena using his law of
gravitation and finally it was established as universal law because it
was applicable for all particles and objects inside this universe. There
are many other physical laws which are based on assumptions or certain
assumed postulates. For example, Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom is
based on certain rules or postulates. These postulates were visualised
after analysis of large amount of spectroscopic data. Similarly,
Einstein’s special theory of relativity is also based on two assumptions.
First assumption is that speed of light in vacuum remains constant and
is independent of the source and observer. Second assumption is that
physical laws are valid in all inertial frames of reference. Hypotheses are
not only required in physics but are also applicable to mathematics. ‘Two
parallel lines never intersect each other’ is one example of hypothesis
used in geometry. So we can understand that physicists explore the

universe by analysing a wide range of phenomenon and then with the

help of facts of observation and experimentations try to discover the
laws which may summarise these observed facts. Established physical
laws then can be used to predict the outcome of certain phenomenon.
When we observe certain phenomenon then we associate several
physical entities to analyse them. In general, most of these associated
physical entities may change with time but some of the physical entities
remain constant with time and these entities are said to be conserved. There
are conservation principles related to such physical entities. Principle of
ed s.
conservation of energy is one important example. Use of conservation of
energy may be tricky in some cases since energy exists in many different
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forms and one form of energy can be converted into another form. When
all forms of energy (heat, mechanical energy, electromagnetic energy,
etc.) are taken into account then it can be demonstrated that energy is
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conserved. Let us take an example of some object falling towards the
.
earth. In this case when object falls then gravitational potential energy
of the system decreases and it results in increase of kinetic energy of the
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object. So here we can say that the total energy of the system is constant
and the lost gravitational potential energy appears as kinetic energy of
s ub the object. But if we do precise measurements then we can verify that
the kinetic energy gained by the object is less than the loss in potential
energy. Because when some object moves in atmosphere then air particles
ht P
resist its motion and some energy is lost as heat. Some part of this lost
energy is absorbed by the air molecules and remaining becomes internal
energy of the object which may change the temperature of the object.
ig rn
Loss of energy as heat may not be significant when object is falling near
the surface of earth but just think about a meteor falling towards the
earth. Meteors are burnt and many times get evaporated before hitting
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the earth’s surface. In these examples total energy of the object may not
be constant but total energy of the object plus surroundings remains
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constant. The general law of conservation of energy is true for all types of
forces and is valid even when the energy gets transformed from one form
into another. Most important is the fact that the conservation of energy
M
is uniformly applicable in all domains of nature, whether it is microscopic

or macroscopic. Conservation of energy is valid for all terrestrial and
celestial phenomena in broad sense. If we assume universe as ideally
isolated system then its total energy remains precisely constant in spite
©
of the fact that different kinds of phenomenon are continuously taking

place inside the universe. We should understand that concept of energy
is one of the key concepts of physics and many times we write energy
expressions to answer related questions.
Earlier it was believed that mass remains constant and law of
conservation of mass was considered as one of the basic conservation
law of nature. Einstein discovered that mass is not conserved and it can
be converted into energy and vice versa. According to Einstein’s theory,
when mass m is annihilated completely then amount of energy released
is E = mc2, where c is speed of light in vacuum. In nuclear fission process
some mass is lost and appears as energy. And this method is used to
generate energy in nuclear power plants and atom bombs. Note that
in nuclear processes only small change in mass is responsible for such
a huge amount of energy. Mass energy conversion happens only in
nuclear reactions and here energy involved is too large but when we
talk about exothermic or endothermic chemical reactions then in such
cases involved energy is too small and corresponding change in mass
cannot be measured and thus we can safely assume that in chemical

PHYSICAL WORLD 1/13
reactions total mass remains constant. Today we know that mass is not KEY NOTE
a conserved quantity but still it can be used as an important concept in
many situations like in case of chemical reactions. In chemical reactions In nuclear processes, huge amount
rearrangement of atoms takes place among different molecules. And of energy is produced by small
total mass of the products is same as total mass of the reactants. changes in mass.
According to Newton’s laws of motion we can derive that total linear

momentum and total angular momentum for an isolated system remains
conserved. These are two important conservation principles which are
valid even in situations where Newton’s laws are not valid, for example
ed s.
in subatomic domain. In 1931, Wolfgang Pauli predicted the existence
of a new particle (presently known as neutrino) emitted during b-decay,
rv er
using conservation laws of energy and momentum.
Physical laws do not change with time. Hence, you get the same
result from an experiment performed on two different times but under
se sh
.
the same set of conditions. Similarly, space is homogenous and there is
no preferred location in the universe; hence laws of nature remain same
for every location in this universe. For example, same law of gravitation
re li
can be used to find acceleration due to gravity near the surface of earth
s ub
or near the surface of the moon. However, acceleration due to gravity
on surface of the moon is one-sixth of that on surface of earth. Hence,
our observations may be different in different places and contexts but
physical law remains same everywhere.
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Name Country of origin Discovery
Archimedes Greece Principle of buoyancy and principle of lever
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Torricelli Italy Barometer

Galileo Galilei Italy Law of inertia
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G. Fahrenheit Germany Mercury thermometer

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Christiaan Huygens Holland Wave nature of light

Becquerel France Natural radioactivity
William Stanley USA Electric transformer
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Isaac Newton UK Laws of motion, Law of gravitation

Michael Faraday UK Laws of electromagnetic induction
James Clerk Maxwell UK Theory of electromagnetism, Proved that light is an electromagnetic wave
©
William Sturgeon UK Electromagnet

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz Germany Production of electromagnetic waves
J. C. Bose India Ultra short radio waves
W. K. Roentgen Germany X-rays
J. J. Thomson UK Electron
Marie Curie Poland Studies on natural radioactivity; Discovery of radium and polonium
Werner Heisenberg Germany Quantum mechanics; Uncertainty principle
Albert Einstein Germany Theory of relativity; Explanation of photoelectric effect
Victor Francis Hess Austria Cosmic radiation
R. A. Millikan USA Measurement of charge on electron
Ernest Rutherford New Zealand Nuclear model of atom
Niels Bohr Denmark Quantum model of hydrogen atom
C.V. Raman India Scattering of light by molecules
Louis Victor de Broglie France Wave nature of matter

M.N. Saha India Thermal ionisation

S.N. Bose India Quantum Statistics
Wolfgang Pauli Austria Exclusion principle
Enrico Fermi Italy Controlled nuclear fission
E. Lenoir France Internal Combustion Engine
Paul Dirac UK Quantum statistics; Relativistic theory of electron
Edwin Hubble USA Expanding universe
ed s.
Ernest Orlando Lawrence USA Cyclotron
James Chadwick UK Neutron
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Hideki Yukawa Japan Theory of nuclear forces
Homi Jehangir Bhabha India Cascade process of cosmic radiation
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.
Lev Davidovich Landau Russia Theory of condensed matter; Liquid helium
S. Chandrasekhar India Chandrasekhar limit, Structure and evolution of stars
John Bardeen USA Theory of superconductivity, Transistors
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C.H. Townes USA Maser; Laser
Kepler
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Abdus Salam Pakistan
Germany
Unification of weak and electromagnetic interactions
Laws of planetary motion
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James Watt Scotland Steam engine
Graham bell Scotland Telephone
G. Marconi Italy Wireless telegraphy
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W. D. Wright USA Airplane

Max Planck Germany Quantum theory
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John Bair Scotland Television

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Jacques Charles France Hydrogen balloon, Charles law of ideal gas

Robert Boyle Ireland Boyle’s law of ideal gas
Alessandro Volta Italy Electric cell, methane, volt, voltage, voltmeter
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Christian Doppler Austria Doppler Effect

©
Chapter Summary
Key Terms & Laws
 Science: A systematic attempt to understand natural phenomena around us and use the gained knowledge to
predict, control and modify the phenomena.
 Scientific Method: It involves interconnected steps - Systematic observations, controlled experimentation,
qualitative and quantitative reasoning, mathematical modelling, prediction and verification of theories.
 Physics: A basic discipline in the category of Natural Sciences, it is the study of nature and basic laws of nature
and their manifestation in different conditions and domains. In physics, wide variety of physical phenomena, events
and occurrences can be explained in terms of a few universal concepts and laws.
 Unification: It is an attempt to describe all the physical forces as a single (unified) set of mathematical relations.
Four forces governing all the phenomena are – Gravitational force, electromagnetic force, weak nuclear force and
strong nuclear force.

PHYSICAL WORLD 1/15
 Reductionism: It is an attempt to analyse and describe complex phenomena in terms of its simple and fundamental
parts.
 Conserved Quantities: Physical quantities that remain invariant with time in a process or phenomena are known
as conserved quantities.
 Hypothesis: It is a hypothesis based on observations and experiments, which cannot be proved but can be verified
and disprove by experimentation.
ed s.
 Unification and reductionism are two principal thrusts that can be applied to all domains of life – from
macroscopic level to microscopic level.
rv er
 Classical physics deals with macroscopic phenomena, including subjects like Mechanics, Electrodynamics,
Optics and Themodynamics.
A  Quantum theory is applicable to understand microscopic domains of physics, which includes structure of
se sh
.
matter at minute scales of atoms and nuclei and their interaction with elementary particles.
C
 The scope of physics is very vast, covering tremendous range of magnitudes of various physical quantities
like length, mass, time, etc.
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 Physics and Technology are closely related, both giving rise to new ideas and concepts in each other’s field.
T s ub Both have direct impact on the society.
 Conservation of energy, momentum, angular momentum, charge, mass, etc are considered as fundamental
S laws in physics. These laws are strong connections with symmetries of nature. Some conservation laws are
true for one fundamental force but not for the other.
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 Phenomena may differ from place to place in universe but laws of nature are same everywhere.
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C onceptual
Q uestions
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Al od
Q.1. Explain the scientific methods involved in deducing any scientific theory.
Ans. Scientific method involves following steps:
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• Systematic observation
• Controlled experiments
• Quantitative and qualitative reasoning
©
• Mathematical modelling
• Prediction
• Verification or classification of theory
Q.2. How do we know that Earth was not flat in early days?
Ans. There were so many observations which led to the conclusion that Earth is not flat. One among them was when ship
sails, its deck and then flag disappears one by one as if it is sinking and then suddenly whole ship disappears from
the shore. This is only possible when earth is curved. Since this phenomenon of ship sinking was observed in all the
directions, it is evident that earth is a sphere and not flat.
Q.3. How are microscopic domain and macroscopic domain in physics different from each other?
Ans. Microscopic domain in physics deals with the study of phenomena involving elementary particles like electrons,
atoms, molecules, etc. It contributes majorly to Modern physics. However, macroscopic domain deals with the study
of objects with finite size to large sizes in universe. For example, the span of galaxies, distance to stars, etc. This
domain majorly contributes to the classical physics.
Q.4. Mention a few inventions in physics which brought a revolution in industry and technology.
Ans. Invention of steam engine, communication, printers, wireless communication, radio broadcast, computers, nuclear
reactors, new modes of transportation like air bus, metro, trams, bullet trains, etc. are some of the few inventions
which brought the revolution.

Q.5. How is angular momentum of a gaseous nebula contracting under its own gravity is conserved?
Ans. The rotation inertia of the gaseous nebula which is contacting under its own gravity decreases and since its angular
momentum is conserved, its angular speed increases giving it a spiral shape.
Q.6. Arrange the four fundamental forces in physics in decreasing order of their strength.
Ans. Nuclear forces, electromagnetic forces, weak forces and gravitational forces.
Q.7. How is a hypothesis different from a model?

Ans. A hypothesis is basically a proposed theory in favour of an observation in absence of in-depth knowledge of the
ed s.
content mainly based on assumptions. It is a part of initial stage of a scientific method. However, a model is a
proposed theory explaining the observations with more knowledge and logical explanation.
rv er
Q.8. There are many scientific models proposed and failed. The corpuscular theory is an example of such
case. The corpuscular theory given by Newton was later replaced by Huygen’s wave theory of light.
This was further replaced by Plank’s quantum theory and finally by De-Broglie’s hypothesis. Comment
se sh
on the fact that despite failures in the above theories, we stress on the study of all the above given
.
theories.
Ans. The in-depth study of all the above theories and their failure gives us a detailed idea about the scientific methods
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involved. This also proves that new discoveries lead to the change in the theories or the new theories.
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NCERT Textbook Exercises

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1.1. Some of the most profound statements on (ii) Initially wave theory of light was given by
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the nature of science have come from Albert Young’s double slit experiment, it was a heresy.
Einstein, one of the greatest scientists of all But when quantum theory was given by Einstein
time. What do you think did Einstein mean then wave theory was considered as a dogma.
when he said: ‘‘The most incomprehensible 1.3. “Politics is the art of the possible.” Similarly,
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thing about the world is that it is “Science is the art of the soluble.” Explain this
comprehensible”? beautiful aphorism on the nature and practice
Ans. Millions of phenomena are occurring in our universe. of science.
As seen by a layman, physical world seems to be Ans. To win over the votes, a politician does anything
©
incomprehensible (it cannot be understood). But and everything possible without knowing anything
after many scientific discoveries it is concluded that about the problem. Therefore, Politics is the art of
all the physical phenomena varying from atomic the possible. However a scientist after making a
to astronomic ranges can be understood in terms of large number of observations comes to a conclusion
certain basic laws of physics and the physical world based upon certain facts. Thus Science is the art of
can be understood. Hence the most incomprehensible the soluble because a large number of processes can
thing in the physical world becomes comprehensible. be explained in terms of a few concepts.
1.2. “Every great physical theory starts as a heresy 1.4. Though India now has large base in science
and ends as a dogma.” Give some examples and technology, which is fast expanding, it
from the history of science of the validity of is still a long way from realising its potential
this incisive remark. of becoming a world leader in science. Name
Ans. The statement is true. some important factors which in your view
have hindered the advancement of science in
For example:
India.
(i) Ptolemy postulated the existence of geocentric
Ans. The important factors which hindered the
theory. According to him earth is at the centre
advancement of science in India are:
of universe and heavenly bodies revolve around
the earth. It is a heresy. But when Galileo (i) Poverty, due to which there is lack of resources
proved the heliocentric theory then Ptolemy’s in India.
geocentric theory was considered as a dogma. (ii) Insufficient funds for science and technology.

PHYSICAL WORLD 1/17
(iii) There is a lack of coordination between (ii) The discovery of blast furnace to convert iron
the industrialists and the scientists. Our into steel.
industrialists have to raise their confidence in (iii) Cotton gin which was used to separate the
the ability of our scientists so there is no need seeds from the cotton many times faster than
to import technology from developed countries. by the hand.
(iv) Lack of academic freedom given to the young (iv) The discovery of explosives, steam engines,
scientists and technologists for developments power looms brought the industrial
in the fields of science and technology. revolution.
1.5. No physicist has ever “seen” an electron, yet,
1.8. It is often said that the world is witnessing
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all physicists believe in existence of electrons.
now a second industrial revolution, which
An intelligent but superstitious man advances
will transform the society as radically as
this analog to argue that ‘ghosts’ exist even
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did the first. List some key contemporary
though no one has ‘‘seen” one. How will you
areas of sciences and technology, which are
refute his argument?
responsible for this revolution.
Ans. It is absolutely true that no physicist has ever seen an
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Ans. Following areas are responsible for this revolution:
.
electron but its existence is proved by large number
of experiments For example, flow of current due to (i) The development of information technology for
electrons, structure of atom consisting of protons, Internet, robots, satellite communications, etc.
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electrons and neutrons, but there is hardly any (ii) The development of superconducting materials
evidence for the existence of “Ghosts”. Hence, these at room temperature.
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two statements are entirely different from each other.
1.6. The shells of crabs found around a particular
coastal location in Japan seem mostly to
(iii) The development of IR detectors for remote
sensing, night vision.
(iv) Modern techniques for the development of
agriculture.
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resemble the legendary face of Samurai. Given
below are two explanations of this observed (v) The development in biotechnology.
fact. Which of these strikes you as a scientific (vi) The development in nanotechnology will
explanation? change the face of the world in coming years.
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(a) A tragic sea accident several centuries ago (vii) The development of genetic engineering.
drowned a young Samurai. As a tribute to 1.9. Write in about 1000 words a fiction piece
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his bravery, nature through its inscrutable based on your speculation on the science and
ways immortalised his face by imprinting technology of the twenty-second century.
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it on the crab shells in that area.

Ans. There was a time when we used animals to cover
(b) After the sea tragedy, fisherman in that large distances and it used to take significant amount
area, in a gesture of honour to their dead of time to move from one place to another. But soon
hero, let free any crab shell caught by them with the development of motorised vehicles we were
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which accidentally had a shape resembling able to move faster. Today we have airplanes and
the face of a Samurai. Consequently, the can cover very large distances in very less amount of
particular shape of the crab shell survived time. Development never stops. Today we are using
longer and therefore in course of time the supersonic planes for defense purposes only but with
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shape was genetically propagated. This is an the advancement of technology appropriately high
example of evolution by artificial selection. speed planes will also be available for public usage.

[Note: This interesting illustration taken from Breakthrough discovery or invention is about to
Carl Sagan’s ‘The Cosmos’ highlights the fact that happen in the field of electricity production and by the
often strange and inexplicable facts which on the twenty-second century cost of electricity will go down
first sight appear supernatural actually turn out drastically. People will stop using petrol or diesel to
to have simple scientific explanations. Try to think drive the vehicles. Because at that time all vehicles
out other examples of this kind.] including airplanes and ships will be electricity
Ans. The explanation (b) seems more as a scientific driven. By the twenty-second century we would be
explanation. able to make super-efficient rechargeable batteries to
store large amount of electricity to be used for vehicles.
1.7. The industrial revolution in England and Charging time for these batteries will be very small.
Western Europe more than two centuries People would be able to charge their vehicles at home
ago was triggered by some key scientific and and at the same time charging points will also be
technological advances. What were these available for public like we have petrol pumps at
advances? present. We already know that displacement current
Ans. Following were the key scientific and technological is a kind of wireless electricity which flows between
advances which brought scientific revolution: the plates of capacitor during charging in spite of the
(i) One of the major discoveries was the discovery fact that both the plates of capacitor are kept apart.
of electricity by designing dynamos and motors. So we can today visualise electricity flowing without

the metallic wires from one place to another. Wireless arrangement of these particles. In future computer
form of electricity will save lot of energy that is lost software will develop digital copy of many of the
during transmission from power station to the point products available in the market. When you select a
of use. It will also enable us to set up charging points certain product then attached hardware will be able
in air so that air vehicles may also be charged on to make that product on the spot using particles
the way. By the twenty-second century we shall be from the atmosphere.
able to develop super-efficient materials to absorb Discovery of electromagnetic waves was a major
solar energy. Transportation vehicles will be made breakthrough in the history of science. Result of
in such a way that it will be able to tap solar energy this discovery is wireless communication we are
also to charge its battery. These super-efficient solar
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using today. Mobile telephony has completely
panels will be able to fulfil most of the electricity revolutionised the way we communicate with each
requirement of vehicles. Alternate way of charging other. By the twenty-second century we might be
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will help during rainy season. Today we have bullet able to develop a machine which will help to transfer
trains based on magnetic levitation and by the holographic projection of a person to a remote location.
twenty-second century we shall get rid of existing Holographic projection will be perfectly synchronised
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railway network to replace it with advanced bullet with the brain of the person. Hence the person will be
.
trains. These trains will be moving at very high speed able to control the holographic projection at remote
and at the same time it will be safe for the humans. location as he or she can control his or her own body
So we can understand that travel time is going to be using the brain. Hence we can attend the meetings
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reduced very drastically. and interact with the people around the globe without
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Today we are witnessing that machines are slowly
entering in our lives to ease our lives. Washing
machine, dish washer, vacuum cleaner are some of
physically going there. Note that these holographic
projections will be just optical image which can talk
and walk like a real person but would not be able to
the examples. By the twenty-second century people interact physically with the people otherwise it will
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will be able to develop much more advanced and create law and order problems in the society.
sophisticated machines to take care of humans. For Now we can understand that our material life will
example, wireless vacuum cleaner will be able to clean become far easier than it is today. But there may
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your house without human intervention. We know that be some downsides of these technical developments.
today people are developing driverless cars and by the Due to lack of physical activities many humans
twenty-second century it will be highly advanced and might turn lazy and it will affect their health in
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nowhere humans will be driving the cars. Complete undesirable way. Equipment of war will be highly
traffic will consist of driverless vehicles and with the developed. Even today we have already developed
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advancement of technology, accidents will be a thing some air vehicles which do not require any human
of past attributed to human drivers. Vehicles will be pilot. These airplanes can carry large ammunition
able to understand your command just like a human to destroy the target. By the twenty-second century
driver. What I am talking about is called machine we shall develop war equipment which will be
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learning. Artificial intelligence is one of the most controlled remotely. War will be just like a computer
important parts of machine learning. So ultimately it game but never forget that killings would be real.
is the appropriately intelligent computers in various
forms which will control the machines. By the twenty- 1.10. Attempt to formulate your ‘moral’ views on the
©
second century we shall be able to control intelligent practice of science. Imagine yourself stumbling
household equipment even if we are somewhere else. upon a discovery, which has great academic
We are heading towards completely mechanised life interest but is certain to have nothing but
where all our works will be handled by computerised dangerous consequences for the human society.
machines. In production factories all works will be How, if at all, will you resolve your dilemma?
done by machines and humans will be just monitoring Ans. Science is a journey towards truth. A scientific
and taking key decisions. discovery may have both good or adverse effects for
There was a time when we were forced to go to the human society. If any discovery has great academic
market to buy something needed. But Internet- interest but dangerous consequences for the human
based e-commerce is totally changing the way we society, the information must be made public.
used to shop. Today we can get almost everything It is the responsibility of the scientist to spread
we need to be delivered at our door step. Today we awareness about its truth and the ways to stop its
may not be satisfied with the delivery time for the misuse. For example, discovery of nuclear fission
product we order. Experiments have already started reaction to produce tremendous energy is of great
to use drones for delivery. By the twenty-second interest for the society but nuclear energy should be
century such systems will be fully developed and used for peaceful purposes only.
functional. Just think about one fact that everything 1.11. Science, like any knowledge, can be put to
around us is made up of three elementary particles good or bad use, depending on the user.
only which are known as electron, proton and Given below are some of the applications of
neutron. Anything we can visualise is only special science. Formulate your views on whether the

PHYSICAL WORLD 1/19
particular application is good, bad or something in the capability of a woman in work, intelligence
that cannot be so clearly categorised: and best use of mind. There are large numbers of
(a) Mass vaccination against small pox to successful women in our country who excelled in
curb and finally eradicate this disease their fields. Sarojini Naidu, Lata Mangeshker,
from the population. (This has already Margret Thatcher, Indira Gandhi, Kalpna Chawla
been successfully done in India.) had done great jobs in their respective fields. Hence
we can say that women are on par with men.
(b) Television for eradication of illiteracy
and for mass communication of news and 1.14. “It is more important to have beauty in
ideas. the equations of physics than to have them
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agree with experiments.” The great British
(c) Prenatal sex determination
physicist P.A.M. Dirac held this view. Criticise
(d) Computers for increase in work efficiency this statement. Look out for some equations
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(e) Putting artificial satellites into orbits and results in this book which strike you as
around the Earth beautiful.
(f) Development of nuclear weapons Ans. The given statement is partially true. Any equation
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(g) Development of new and powerful in physics which agrees with experiment is not
.
techniques of chemical and biological always simple and beautiful. For example, the
warfare. mass-energy relation E = mc2, Newton’s equation
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(h) Purification of water for drinking F = ma are simple and beautiful. But the equations
(i) Plastic surgery involved in the theory of relativity or in higher
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(j) Cloning.
Ans. (a) good (b) good (c) bad (d) good (e) good (f) bad (g) bad
(h) good (i) good (j) good, only if done for healthy
physics are not simple and beautiful.
1.15. Though the statement quoted above may
be disputed, most physicists do have a
feeling that the great laws of physics are
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reasons.
at once simple and beautiful. Some of the
1.12. India has had a long and unbroken tradition of notable physicists, besides Dirac, who have
great scholarship—in mathematics, astronomy, articulated this feeling, are: Einstein, Bohr,
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linguistics, logic and ethics. Yet, in parallel with Heisenberg, Chandrasekhar and Feynman.
this, several superstitious and obscurantistic You are urged to make special efforts to get
attitudes and practices flourished in our society access to the general books and writings by
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and unfortunately continue even today—among these and other great masters of physics.
many educated people too. How will you use Their writings are truly inspiring !
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your knowledge of science to develop strategies

to counter these attitudes? Ans. The books written by these scientists are interesting
and inspiring. Students should go to a good library
Ans. In spite of so much development, there are and consult these books of great masters of physics.
several superstitious and obscurantistic attitudes
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G. Gamow book of ‘Foundations and Frontiers’,

flourished in our Indian society. Education is the Feynman book ‘The Pleasure of Finding Things
best way to get rid of these superstitious attitudes Out’, EM Rogers book ‘Physics for the inquiring
and practices. Factors responsible for it are mind’. These writings are truly inspiring and having
illiteracy, lack of scientific knowledge, poverty, etc.
©
immortal values.
To get rid of these, parents should be encouraged to 1.16. Textbooks on science may give you a wrong
send their wards to school where teachers can take impression that studying science is dry and
the responsibility to counter these attitudes. The all too serious and that scientists are absent-
media like newspapers, television, radio, Internet minded introverts who never laugh or grin.
can play a major role to spread awareness among This image of science and scientists is patently
society to eradicate these superstitions. false. Scientists like any other group of humans
1.13. Though the law gives women equal status in have their share of humorists, and many have
India, many people hold unscientific views led their lives with a great sense of fun and
on a woman’s innate nature, capacity and adventure, even as they seriously pursued
intelligence, and in practice give them a their scientific work. Two great physicists of
secondary status and role. Demolish this view this genre are Gamow and Feynman.
using scientific arguments, and by quoting Ans. The given statement is true. There are many
examples of great women in science and other scientists like any other group of humans who
spheres and persuade yourself and others have led their lives with a great sense of fun and
that, given equal opportunity, women are on adventure. There are many great scientists who have
par with men. their share of humorists alongwith being physicists,
Ans. A woman is not inferior to a man in any sphere of e.g. Feynman, Gamow, Bohr, Einstein, Dr. C.V.
life. Although there is a small difference in the Raman, APJ Kalam, Homi Jahangir Bhabha are
anatomy of man and woman but there is no difference great scientists as well as jovial, fun loving.

28. Which of the following statements is false regarding

Very Short Answer Questions Carrying 1 mark the gravitational force?
1. What is the principle behind working of sonar? (a) It is conservative force
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2. What is the scientific principle behind production of (b) It is central force
ultra high magnetic fields? (c) It obeys inverse square law
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3. Who discovered the neutron? (d) It is the strongest force in nature
4. Define Science. 29. Which of the following concepts has no contributions
5. Define Physics. by Einstein?
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(a) General Theory of relativity
6. What do we mean by unification?
.
(b) Photoelectric effect
7. Explain the reduction as one of the principal thrusts
(c) Quantum model of hydrogen atom
in physics.
(d) Quantum theory
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8. Name the five branches of physics.
30. Fusion test reactor (Tokamak) is based on
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9. What do we study in electromagnetism?
10. What is the role of physics in Astronomy?
11. What is the contribution of physics to our society?
(a) Interference
(b) Photoelectric effect
(c) Magnetic confinement of plasma
12. What is the basic law behind the rocket launch? (d) Motion of charged particles in electric and
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13. Who is credited for giving the law of inertia? magnetic field
14. Who discovered the electron?
Fill in the Blanks Carrying 1 mark
15. Name the Indian physicist who gave the theory of
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inelastic scattering of light by molecules. 1. The country of origin of Archimedes is .................... .

16. Who proposed the theory of expanding universe? 2. The field particle of gravitational forces is known
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17. Which among the fundamental forces is weakest in as .................... .

nature? 3. .................... are based upon the controlled nuclear
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18. Define the gravitational force. chain reaction.

19. What are electromagnetic forces? 4. The basic principle behind the computers is
20. Arrange the fundamental forces in decreasing order .................... .
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of their magnitude of strength.

5.
The country to which Niels Bohr belongs is ........... .
21. Who is credited for the discovery of absolute
temperature? 6.
The law of force between two charges is given by
.................... .
22. Define the law of conservation of energy.
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23. Define the law of conservation of angular momentum.

Short Answer Questions Carrying 2 or 3 marks
24. What is law of conservation of charge?
25. Who received the Nobel prize for photo electricity? 1. Name some basic scientific methods.
2. Name the fundamental forces in nature.
Additional Questions Carrying 1 mark 3. What is the role of physics in biological sciences?
4. How is physics and technology related?
26. Computers work on the principal of
5. Write the expression for (i) Newton’s law of gravitational
(a) Superconductivity force (ii) Coulomb’s law.
(b) Digital logic 6. How can we say that charge is quantised?
(c) Magnetic confinement of plasma 7. Write a brief note on electromagnetic forces.
(d) Electromagnetic induction 8. Give an example in support of law of conservation of
27. Which of the following statements is correct regarding momentum.
the strong nuclear forces? 9. Write a short note on Satyendranath Bose.
(a) It is a central force 10. Write about the life of C.V. Raman and his
(b) It is a conservative force contribution towards science.
(c) It obeys the inverse square law 11. Arrange all the fundamental forces in increasing
(d) It has shortest range order of their range.

PHYSICAL WORLD 1/21
Long Answer Questions Carrying 5 marks 4. Write some salient features of electromagnetic forces.
5. What are the important conservation laws in classical
1. Write some main features of gravitational force. physics? Explain them.
2. Write a short note on different branches of physics. 6. How is physics related to other branches of science,
3. What are the fundamental forces? Give example of i.e. chemistry, medicine, astronomy and mathematics?
each force.
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Very Short Answer Questions 17. Gravitational force is the weakest of all the
fundamental forces.
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1. Sonar works on the principle of reflection of ultrasonic
.
waves. 18. Gravitational force is the force of attraction between
any two objects by the virtue of their masses.
2. It is based on concept of superconductivity.
19. Electromagnetic forces are forces associated with
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3. James Chadwick discovered the neutron. stationary or moving charged particles.
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4. Science is the understanding of natural phenomena
around us in depth and to learn predicting them.
5. Physics is the study of basic laws of nature and its
20. Nuclear force, electromagnetic force, weak nuclear
force and gravitational force.
21. Lord Kelvin is credited for the discovery of absolute
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manifestation in different laws. It gives the basic temperature.
laws which can be implemented universally.
22. Law of conservation of energy states that energy can
6. Unification is the method of explaining diverse neither be created nor can be destroyed. It is totally
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physical phenomenon using some basic laws. conserved and can be only transformed from one
7. Reductionism is one of the principal thrusts in science. form to another.
It is the method of explaining or understanding more 23. According to the law of conservation of angular
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complex phenomena in physics using the science momentum, the net angular momentum of a system
involved in its simplified subpart phenomena. remains same if there is no external torque acting on
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8. Mechanics, Heat and thermodynamics, Theory of the system.

relativity, Electromagnetism and Quantum mechanics 24. Law of conservation of charge states that charges
are five branches of physics. can never be created or destroyed. It can be only
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9. Electromagnetism is the study of behaviour of transferred from one body to another.

charged particles and magnetic materials under the 25. Einstein
influence of magnetic and electric field.
Additional Questions
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10. In astronomy, telescopes, binoculars, solar telescopes

and radio telescopes, etc. are used to observe and 26. The correct answer is option (b)
study space in detail.
27. The correct answer is option (d)
11. Physics is involved in a lot of development including
28. The correct answer is option (d)
the invention of telephone, telegraph, Internet,
satellite communication, radio, televisions, etc. 29. Quantum model of hydrogen is explained by Neils
It is involved in development of every field like Bohr. Thus the correct option is (c).
transportation, communication, safety, defense,
30. Fusion test reactor (Tokamak) is based on magnetic
medical equipments, etc. There are numerous
confinement of plasma. Thus the correct option is (c).
contributions of physics in welfare of society.
12. Rocket launch is based on Newton’s laws of motion. Fill in the Blanks
13. Galileo Galilei is credited for Law of inertia. 1.
Greece
14. J.J. Thomson discovered electron. 2.
graviton
3. Nuclear reactors
15. C.V. Raman gave the theory of inelastic scattering of
light by molecules. 4.
digital logic
5. Denmark
16. Edwin Hubble proposed the theory of expanding
universe. 6.
coulomb

Short Answer Questions indirectly proportional to the square of distance

between them and is given as:
1. Some basic scientific methods are 1 q 1q 2
F =
(a) Careful observation 4pε0 r2
6. Charge present on a body is always integral multiple
(b) Experiments
of e. or q = ne, where n is an integer, and – e is charge
(c) Qualitative and quantitative reasoning of an electron and + e is charge of proton.
(d) Mathematical modelling 7. Electromagnetic forces are associated with stationary
(e) Prediction or moving charged particles. They can be repulsive
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or attracting in nature depending on the nature of
(f ) Verification of a theory charge. They follow inverse square law and are
2. The fundamental forces in nature are gravitational conservative in nature.
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forces, weak nuclear forces, electromagnetic force 8. Recoiling of gun on firing involves conservation of
and strong nuclear forces. linear momentum. The linear momentum of the
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3. From treatment of diseases like cancer with radio system is zero before firing. When gun is fired the
.
isotopes to basic microscope, electron microscope, momentum of bullet is in forward direction and
X-rays and other basic tools used in medical sciences gun gains equal momentum in opposite direction.
involve some or more physics in it. Thus the net momentum of the combination is
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zero.
4. Physics is the study of nature and natural phenomena.
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Technology is the implying these laws of physics for
practical purposes. For example, optical fibres are
based on total internal reflection. Rocket launches
Long Answer Questions
1. Some features of gravitation forces are:

can be explained by Newton’s law of motion. (a) It is always attractive in nature
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(b) Weakest force in nature
5. (i) According to Newton’s law of gravitation, the force
of attraction between two objects with mass m1 (c) It also acts on large distances.
and m2 kept at a distance r m can be expressed as:
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(d) It is central force.

Gm1m2 (e) It is conservative in nature.
F = , here G is gravitational constant.
r2 (f) It obeys the inverse square law of distance. Thus
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(ii)
Coulomb’s law states the force between two gravitational force between two bodies is inversely
charges q1 and q2 kept at a distance r is directly proportional to the square of distance between
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proportional to the product of charges and is them.

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CHAPTER
UNITS AND
2 MEASUREMENT
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1. INTRODUCTION
Physics is the science of measurement and whenever
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.
we define a physical quantity then there has to be a way In this chapter…
to determine the magnitude of that physical quantity.  Understanding Text
To begin the chapter let us take an example of distance Introduction 1
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between two points. Suppose your friend’s home is near The International System of Units 2
Measurement of Length 4
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your home and you have to tell the distance of your
friend’s home from your home. How will you describe this
distance to others? What you can do is just walk from your
Measurement of Mass
Measurement of Time
Accuracy, Precision of Instruments
10
10
home to friend’s home, observing uniform steps and count
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and Errors in Measurement 13
the number of steps. Now you can tell others that it is
Significant Figures 23
300 steps (say) away from your house. Now try to
Dimensions of Physical Quantities 28
understand what you have done. You were aware of the
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Dimensional Formula and

fact that you cover almost same distance in every step
Dimensional Equation 33
you take forward. You have used distance covered in each
Dimensional Analysis and its
step as standard unit distance and described the required
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Applications 36
distance as 300 times of this unit distance. Hence, for
Chapter Summary 46
measurement we need to first define unit for a physical
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quantity and then we can compare the given amount Conceptual Questions 48
of physical quantity with this unit to know how many Tough & Tricky Problems 50
times of the unit is total amount. And that is how we can NCERT File (Solved)
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determine the magnitude of given amount of physical  Textbook Exercises 51

quantity in terms of described unit. To describe the  Additional Exercises 57
magnitude of a physical entity we write a number followed  NCERT Exemplar Problems (Subjective) 59
by unit to measure it (Q = nu, Here n is the number and OTS & Advanced Level Questions
H
©
with Answers 62
u is unit of measurement). Let us now again take the
same example of distance and now we can ask some other evision Exercises
R 63
person to measure the number of steps between your  Hints & Answers for Revision Exercises 66
home and your friend’s home. This time we might get ompetition File
C
different number of steps as the distance between these  Additional Useful Information 70
two points. Hence, unit to express the distance here  MCQs72
 Competitive Examination Qs
is subjective and it changes from person to person. But
AIPMT/NEET & Other State Boards for
in physics we need consistent and invariable units for
Medical Entrance 73
measurements. These units must be objectively defined so
JEE (Main) & Other State Boards for
that these remain constant. One more important point to
Engineering Entrance 76
be noted here is that we can have more than one type of unit
JEE (Advanced) for IIT Entrance 78
for a particular physical quantity and when we measure
 NCERT Exemplar Problems (Objective) 84
a given amount of the same physical quantity then in  Hints & Solutions for Difficult Qs 85
different units we shall get different numbers to describe
Chapter Practice Test 100
the magnitude but we know that actual magnitude is same
(Q = n1u1 = n2u2).
2/1
HFI_PHY_G11_C02A.indd 1 1/31/2020 3:40:08 PM

REMEMBER If different people are using different units for the measurement
of a physical quantity then understanding one another will become

A measurable quantity in terms a great problem. Hence, we can say that measurement of a physical
of which general laws of physics quantity requires comparison with certain basic, arbitrarily chosen,
can be described is a physical internationally accepted reference standard which is known as unit.
quantity. And magnitude of the physical quantity is expressed as number followed

An internationally accepted by unit of measurement.
arbitrary standard measurement
In physics we define many physical quantities but these physical
of any physical quantity is called
quantities are interrelated with one another. And we need only a limited
ed s.
unit.
number of units to express all the physical quantities. There are a few
fundamental or base physical entities and corresponding units are called
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fundamental or base units. Units of remaining physical entities can be
expressed in terms of these fundamental units. Units of these physical
entities are known as derived units. The complete set of fundamental
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units and derived units is called system of units. It is essential to
.
develop common system of units based on international agreements for
global progress.
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s ub 2. THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
If we talk about the early stage of development then scientists
of different countries were using different systems of units
ht P
for measurement. But when people across the globe started
communicating with each other, in terms of technology exchange then
soon it was realised that there has to be some common agreement on
ig rn
international level for units of measurement that we use to describe

something.
Internationally accepted system of units for measurement is the
lr e
International System of Units abbreviated as SI. The SI was developed in

1971 by General Conference on Weights and Measures for international
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usage in scientific, technical, industrial and commercial work. SI is

prevalent in today’s time and we use decimal system in it and hence
conversions within the system have become convenient.
M
There are seven base units (refer to Table 1) and two supplementary
units in SI to measure corresponding physical entities.
Table 1. SI Units
©
SI units
Base quantity Year
Name Symbol
Length Metre m 1983
Mass Kilogram kg 1889
Time Second s 1967
Electric Current Ampere A 1948
Thermodynamic Kelvin K 1967
temperature
Amount of substance Mole mol 1971

Luminous Intensity Candela cd 1979
Two supplementary units are made for measuring plane angle

and solid angle. Plane angle (dq) as shown in Fig. 2.1 in geometry is
defined as arc length (ds) divided by radius. SI unit for the plane angle
Fig. 2.1. Plane angle. is radian and is written as rad in symbolic form. Solid angle is defined

UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 2/3
as area divided by square of the radius. If r is the radius of a spherical

surface and dA is its surface area, then solid angle subtended by area
dA
dA will be dΩ = 2 steradian (refer to Fig. 2.2). SI unit for the solid
r
angle is steradian and is written as sr in symbolic form. Note that plane
angle and solid angle both are dimensionless quantities.
There are standard definitions for seven base units and some of Fig. 2.2. Solid angle.
these are improved over the period of time. Latest definitions of these
ed s.
standard physical units are given as follows:
One metre is the distance travelled by light in vacuum during the
rv er
time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second.
One kilogram is equal to the mass of the international prototype Triple point of water is the
of the kilogram. This prototype is a cylinder made of platinum-iridium temperature with value 273.16 K
se sh
.
alloy, kept at international bureau of Weights and Measures, at Sevres, at which water co-exists in form
near Paris, France. of ice, water and water vapours
simultaneously.
One second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of electromagnetic
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radiation emitted due to the transition between the two hyperfine levels
s ub
corresponding to ground state of cesium-133 atom.
One ampere is the amount of constant current flowing in two
parallel conducting wires of negligible cross section and infinite length
Prefix
Table 2. Metric Prefixes
Power Symbol
yocto 10 -24 y
ht P
which would produce a force of 2 × 10-7N per metre of length, between
zepto 10-21 z
wires, when placed in vacuum.
One kelvin is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic atto 10-18 a
ig rn
temperature of the triple point of water. femto f

10-15
One mole is the amount of substance which contains as many
pico 10-12 p
elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12.
lr e
These elementary entities may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, etc. nano 10-9 n
Al od
One candela is the luminous intensity of a source in a given micro μ

10-6
direction that emits monochromatic electromagnetic radiation of
frequency 540 × 1012 Hz having radiant intensity of 1/683 watt per milli 10-3 m
steradian, in the same direction.
M
centi 10-2 c
Before the advent of SI, scientists from different countries were
deci 10-1 d
using different systems of units for measurement. Three most popular
systems in use were the CGS, the FPS and the MKS. FPS is also known deca 101 da
©
as British system. Base units for length, mass and time in these systems hecto 10 2
h
are as follows: 3
kilo 10 k
CGS: centimetre, gram and second. 6
mega 10 M
FPS: foot, pound and second.
giga 109 G
MKS: metre, kilogram and second 12
tera 10 T
In Table 2 metric prefixes are given that are commonly used. 15
peta 10 P
18
exa 10 E
SOLVED EXAMPLE zetta 10 21
Z
24
 Example 1:
yotta 10 Y
The density of iron is 7.87 g/cm3. Express it in SI units.

Solution: 1 g cm-3 = 103 kg m-3
\ 7.87 g cm-3 = 7.87 × 1000 kg m-3
= 7870 kg m-3

3. MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH
There are several ways to measure distance and the device needed to
make the measurement depends on the range of length to be measured
and requirement of the level of accuracy. If we take an example of
a metre scale then divisions on scale are made at a separation of
1 mm. Hence, the minimum distance it can measure accurately is 1
mm or 10-3 m. Similarly, minimum length that vernier calipers can
measure accurately is 0.1 mm or 10-4 m. Minimum length that the
screw gauge and spherometer can measure accurately is 0.01 mm or
ed s.
10-5 m. You must have seen that a metre scale is used to measure the
cloth and tailor uses measuring tape to measure the body dimensions
rv er
hence many times choice of measuring device depends on what you
want to measure. For example, vernier caliper is suitable to measure
the diameter of rod or small ball, etc. If we want to measure the
se sh
.
diameter of a thin wire then screw gauge is an appropriate choice. In
all above cases we are talking about direct measurement where object
is available for the direct measurement. But think about situations
re li
where you want to measure distance of the moon from the surface of
earth or diameter of the moon, then obviously direct measurement
s ub is not possible. Similarly, think about measuring the size of atom of
certain material or measuring the size of proton then in such cases
also direct measurement through some device is not possible. Hence,
ht P
we need to develop special indirect methods to measure the distances
beyond the normal range.
ig rn
3.1. Measurement of Large Distances

As we know that it is not possible to measure distance of a distant star
lr e
or a planet using normal methods. Some special methods are required

to estimate such a large distance. Several methods are developed over a
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period of time and accuracy in measurements has also improved with the
development of science and technology. In today’s time, one of the most
commonly used approach is transit-time method. In this method signals
are sent to distant object and then same signals are received back after
M
reflection from that object. Time gap (Dt) is measured between sending
and receiving of the signal. Let x be the distance of the object then total
distance covered by the signal in round trip becomes 2x. If v is the speed
©
of the signal, we can write the following equation to calculate distance

of object from the point of measurement:
2x v∆t
∆t = ⇒x=
v 2
Here v is the speed of light. Transit-time method is also used
in radio navigation systems for aircrafts and ships, etc. Radar and
GPS are examples where transit-time method is used to calculate the
distances.
Parallax method is an important method for measuring large
distances. To understand parallax, hold one pencil vertically in front
of you facing towards a plane wall. Try to hold it at one place and
now look at it through left eye, by closing the right eye. After some
time look at it through right eye, by closing the left eye. When you
switch over between left eye and right eye then you will observe an
apparent shift in the position of pencil with respect to the wall. Both
of our eyes are located at different positions and hence both of them
need to look at different angles to see the same object and due to
this we observe the apparent shift in the position of object. This is

called parallax. When we observe some object normally with both eyes
open then these two streams of information received from two eyes
are processed through brain and we get rough idea of the relative
distance of objects from us and thus both eyes are needed for correct
3d vision of surroundings. When we talk about parallax method to
measure distance of distant object, then we need to select two points of
observation to look at the same distant object. Distance between these
two points of observation is called basis. For example, separation
between our eyes is basis when we look at same object through left
ed s.
and right eyes separately. Using some arrangements we measure the
angle between two directions along which the same object is observed
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from two different points of observation. This angle is called parallax
angle or parallactic angle.
Refer to Fig. 3.1 to understand parallax method. In this figure S
se sh
is one distant star. P and Q are two locations on earth from where the
.
same star is observed. As we know that distance between these two
points in parallax method is called basis. Let a be the distance between
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points P and Q and so a is the basis for this calculation. Let D be the
distance of star and it is same for both the points P and Q. We can see
s ub
that star is observed along two different directions from points P and
Q. Angle between these two directions is called parallax angle and here
q is assumed as parallax angle. With the help of optical devices we can
ht P
measure q. Basis a is already known to us. Thus we can calculate the
distance of star D.
Note that D >> a, and hence we can treat a as the length of arc and
ig rn
assume D as the radius to apply formula as follows:

arc
Angle =
lr e

radius
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a a
⇒ θ= ⇒D=
D θ
We can use the above method to measure the distance of the moon Fig. 3.1. Parallax angle.
M
or any planet from earth (D) and then using the same distance we
can measure the diameter of the moon or that planet also. We look
at two diametrically opposite points of planet or the moon from same
©
location on earth. Telescope is needed to get aligned along two different

directions to observe those two diametrically opposite points. Let a be
the angle between these two directions. We have already measured the
distance D of planet or the moon and let d be its diameter then we can
use the same formula as follows:
arc
Angle =
radius
d
⇒ α= ⇒ d = αD
D
FORMULAE USED
We should be aware of the fact that parallax method is suitable for
measuring distances less than 100 light years only. We have Copernicus arc
Angle =
method to measure the distance of inferior planets from the sun. Inferior radius
planets are Venus and Mercury where radius of orbit around the sun is a
less than that for the earth. Planets with orbital radius around the sun, q= ,
D
more than that for the earth are called superior planets. Kepler’s third Here a is the length of arc and D
law method is used to measure the distance of superior planets from is the radius.
the sun.

SOLVED EXAMPLES
 Example1. b 1.276 × 107
A man wishes to estimate the d= = × 60 × 180
θ 57 × π
distance of a nearby tower
from him. He stands at a = 7.696 × 108 m
point A in front of the tower
 Example 3.
C and spots a very distant
The sun’s angular diameter is measured to be 1920′′. The
object O in line with AC. He
ed s.
distance D of the sun from earth is 1.496 × 1011 m. What
then walks perpendicular
is the diameter of the sun? [N.C.E.R.T. Solved Example]
to AC up to B, a distance of
Solution: Given, Angular diameter of the sun,
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100 m, and looks at O and
C again. Since O is very 1920 π
q = 1920″ = × = 9.3 × 10-3 rad
distant, the direction BO is 60 × 60 180
se sh
practically the same as AO;
Distance of the sun from the earth,
.
but he finds the line of sight
of C shifted from the original line of sight by an angle d = 1.496 × 1011 m
θ = 40° (θ is known as parallax. Estimate the distance Linear diameter of the sun is
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of the tower C from his original position A.) D = θ × d = 9.3 × 10-3 × 1.496 × 1011
[N.C.E.R.T. Solved Example]

s ub
Solution: Given, parallax angle, θ = 40°
From the figure,

 Example 4.
≈ 1.39 × 109 m
A planet revolves around the sun with half as fast

AB as the earth revolves around the sun. Determine its
ht P
tan q =
AC orbital size as compared to that of the earth.
AB 100 m 100 m Solution: Let Tp and Te are periods of revolution of the
⇒ AC = = = ≈ 119 m planet and the earth, respectively. Then,
ig rn
tan θ tan 40° 0.839

Tp = 2Te
 Example 2. Orbital size of earth, ae = 1 AU

The moon subtends an angle of 57 minutes at two
lr e
Orbital size of planet, ap = ?

diametrically opposite points on earth. Calculate the
From Kepler’s law of periods, we have
Al od
distance of the moon from the earth.

Given, diameter of earth = 1.276 × 107 m Tp2 ap3
=
Solution: Given, parallactic angle, Te2 ae3
57 π
M
2 2
q = 57′ = × rad  Tp  3  2T  3
60 180
∴ ap =   × ae =  e  × AU
Basis, b = diameter of earth = 1.276 × 107 m T
 e  Te 
The distance of the moon from the earth is = 1.59 AU
©
3.2. Estimation of Very Small Distances

As we are aware that measuring large distances like in astronomy is not
possible with conventional measuring instruments, similarly measurement
of distance at the atomic or molecular level is also not possible with these
measuring instruments. We might think about employing high resolution
microscopes to help in measuring small distances but there is a limitation
to resolution to which an optical microscope can be used. The minimum
size which can be resolved by the microscope is comparable to wavelength
of light used in microscope. In normal cases we use visible light for optical
microscopes and wavelength of the visible light ranges from 4000 Å to 7000
Å. Hence, we can understand that optical microscope cannot resolve particles
of sizes smaller than 4000 Å. Limit imposed by light to the resolution of
microscope is due to the wave nature of light. We can enhance resolution
of microscopes to a great extent by using electron beam in place of light
beam. In electron microscopes beam of accelerated electrons is used as a
source of illumination. We should know that wave character becomes very
much prominent in particles like electrons and moreover wavelength of an
electron as a matter wave can be as small as some fraction of an angstrom

and this is much shorter than the wavelength of visible light. Hence, electron
microscopes have a much higher resolving power than optical microscopes
which use visible light. Electron microscopes with a resolution of 0.6 Å
are available and such electron microscopes can almost resolve atoms
and molecules in a sample of some material. A transmission electron
microscope has been developed which has resolution better than 0.5 Å.
Electrostatic and electromagnetic lenses have been developed to control
the electron beam just like light is focused by glass lenses in optical light
microscope to form the image of object. We know that electron is a charged
ed s.
particle and can be controlled by electromagnetic fields. Electrostatic and
electromagnetic lenses are designed analogous to glass lenses that we use in
rv er
optical light microscopes. Hence, we can understand that the electron beam
is used to illuminate object and electron beam reflected from that object
is focused with special electromagnetic lenses to form highly magnified
se sh
and well-resolved image. It helps in revealing detailed structure of smaller
.
objects. Limit of resolution is further enhanced with the development of
scanning tunneling microscopes (STM). A very sharp metal wire tip is used
to scan the surface. This metal tip is brought very close to the surface to be
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scanned and electric voltage is applied to the tip. Further arrangements are
s ub
there to form image of the surface up to an extremely large scale. We can
resolve individual atoms using this method. Quantum mechanical effect
of tunneling and piezoelectric effect is used to develop scanning tunneling
ht P
microscopes. Hence, in recent time resolution limit has become better than
an angstrom and today it is possible to estimate the sizes of small particles
like molecules.
ig rn
Several other special methods are also possible to determine the

distances at molecular level. Let us take an example of determining the
molecular size of oleic acid. Oleic acid looks like some soap dissolved in
lr e
liquid. Size of the molecule of oleic acid is of the order of 10-9m. There is
a very simple method to estimate the size of a molecule of oleic acid. In
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this method we form a mono-molecular layer of oleic acid on the surface

of water. With the help of simple measurements and calculations we can
get thickness of this layer which is nothing but the diameter of molecule
M
of oleic acid. Following steps are observed while forming mono-molecular

layer of oleic acid on water surface.
First we take 1 cm3 of oleic acid and dissolve it in sufficient amount
of alcohol to make total volume of 20 cm3. From this solution we take
©
only 1 cm3 and then again dissolve it in sufficient alcohol to make total
1
volume of 20 cm3. Hence, in this final solution we have cm3 of
3
20 × 20
oleic acid per cm volume of solution.
Now, we put water in a large trough and sprinkle some lycopodium
powder on the water surface. A few drops of prepared solution of oleic acid
is poured on water surface and oleic acid present in this solution spreads
into a thin large and nearly circular film of molecular thickness. We
then measure diameter of this oleic acid film to calculate area (A) of the
deposited film. Using some precise method we need to determine volume
of each drop of solution. Let V cm3 be the volume of each drop and n is
number of drops of solution used to form the film on the surface of water.
Total volume of solution used to make the film = nV cm3
1
Total volume of oleic acid present in this solution = nV cm3.
20 × 20
Now we can divide this volume by calculated area of film to get
thickness t of the film.
nV
t = 20 × 20 A cm

We know that deposited film is mono-molecular layer of oleic acid

and hence above calculated thickness of film is equal to diameter of
molecule of oleic acid. If we make careful measurements then we get
the thickness of film to be of the order of 10-9 m.
SOLVED EXAMPLE
 Example 1. = 1.067 × 10-7 cm
ed s.
A drop of olive oil of radius 0.20 mm spreads as a
Assuming that the film has one molecular thickness,
film on the water surface. Calculate the molecular
molecular size of olive oil = 1.067 × 10-7 cm.
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size of the olive oil if the film is
Volume of oil drop
(i) circular, with a radius of 10 cm (ii) Thickness of olive oil film =
Area of the film
(ii) rectangular, with size 20 cm × 10 cm
se sh
.
Solution: Radius of oil drop = 0.20 mm 4
π × (0.020)3 cm 3
= 3
Volume of oil drop
(i) Thickness of olive oil film = (20 × 10) cm 2
Area of the film
re li
4 4 (20)3

s ub = 3
π × (0.020)3 cm 3
π × (10) 2 cm 2

=
3
π×
2
× 10−11 cm
= 1.674 × 10-7 cm
4 −11
3
= × (20) × 10 cm ∴ Molecular size of olive oil = 1.674 × 10-7 cm
ht P

3
ig rn
Table 3. Range of Lengths 3.3. Range of Lengths

At one end size of the proton is of the order
lr e
Object Size or Distance Order of

Length (m) of 10-15 m and at the other end boundaries of the
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observable universe are extended up to a distance of

Diameter of neutron 10-15 1026 m. So in physics we come across a wide range
Diameter of nucleus 10-14 of lengths. Along with the standard SI units we
often require different units to be used in different
M
Diameter of hydrogen atom 10-10 contexts for convenience. Some of such special units
Length of a virus 10-6 are as follows:
Wavelength of visible light Astronomical Unit (AU): The average distance

10-7
©
between the earth and the sun is called 1 AU.

Size of white blood cells 10-5 1 AU = 1.496 × 1011 m.
Thickness of a tracing paper 10-4 Light Year (ly): One light year is the distance
Height of a man 10 0 travelled by light in one year with a speed of 3 × 108 m/s.
1 ly = 9.46 × 1015 m.
Height of Kanchenjunga mountain 104
above sea level Parallactic second (parsec): One parsec is
the distance at which average radius of earth’s orbit
Diameter of the Earth 107
subtends an angle of 1 arc second. 1 parsec = 3.08 ×
Diameter of Sun 109 1016 m.
Distance between Moon and Earth 108 1 fermi (f) = 1 f = 10-15 m. It is often used to
Distance between Sun and Earth 1011 describe the radius of nucleus.
Distance between Sun and Pluto 1013 1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10-10 m.
21
Span of Milky way galaxy 10 1 micron = 1 µm = 10-6 m.
22
Distance between Andromeda and Milky 10 Table 3 depicts the order of the lengths and
way galaxies distances between some objects.
Farthest observed astronomical object 1026

SOLVED EXAMPLES
 Example 1. d+x
How many parsec are there in one metre? For ∆PQS, cot 30° =
h
Solution: 1 parsec = 3.08 × 1016 m
d+x−x d
1 cot 30° - cot 60° = =
\ 1m= = 0.325 × 10-16 parsec h h
3.08 × 1016
ed s.
= 3.25 × 10-17 parsec d 60
\ h = =
cot 30° − cot 60° 1
3−
rv er
 Example 2. 3
What is the average distance of earth from the sun,
expressed in (i) light year (ii) parsec. 60 3 60 3
se sh
= =
3−1
.
Solution: 2
Average distance of earth from the sun = 1 AU

= 30 3
re li
= 1.496 × 1011 m
= 51.96 m
\
s ub
(i) 1 light year = 9.461 × 1015 m
R=
1.496 × 1011
ly = 0.158 × 10-4 ly
 Example 4.
If the size of the nucleus (in the range of 10-15 to 10-14 m)
9.461 × 1015 is scaled upto the tip of a sharp pin (10-5 m), what
ht P
roughly is the size of the atom? Assume tip of the pin to
= 1.58 × 10-5 ly
be in the range 10-5 m to 10-4 m.
(ii) 1 parsec = 3.08 × 1016 m [N.C.E.R.T. Solved Example]
ig rn
1.496 × 1011 Size of the tip of sharp pin

R= parsec = 0.486 × 10-5 parsec Solution: Magnification =
3.08 × 1016 Size of nucleus
lr e
= 4.86 × 10-6 parsec

10−5
Al od
= = 1010
10−15
 Example 3.
The difference in length of shadow for a tower standing
We know that, actual size of atom = 1 Å = 10-10 m
on a level ground in 60 m when the sun’s altitude is 30°
M
and 60°. Calculate the height of the tower. This is now scaled upto a factor of 1010
Solution: \ Apparent size of atom = 10-10 × 1010 = 1 m
©
 Example 5.
If the observable universe (1026 m) is shrunk to the size
of the earth (107 m), how large would be milky way on
this scale?
Size of earth
Solution: Magnification =
Size of observable universe
107
= = 10-19
1026
Actual size of Milkyway = 1021 m
Apparent size of Milkyway = 1021 m × 10-19

x
For ∆PRS, cot 60° =
h = 100 m

Table 4. Range of Mass 4. MEASUREMENT OF MASS
Object Order of In physics we talk about objects and systems whose masses may vary
mass (kg) over a wide range. In physics at one side we discuss about particles like
electrons with mass of the order of 10-30 kg and at another side about the
Electron 10-30 known universe with total estimated mass of about 1055 kg. Mass of the
Neutron 10-27 moon is of the order of 1023 kg, mass of earth is of the order of 1025 kg and
mass of the sun is of the order or 1030 kg. Mass is a basic property of matter
Nucleus 10-27 and is independent of location of object in space and physical conditions like
temperature and pressure. SI unit for measurement of mass is kilogram
ed s.
Hydrogen atom 10-27
(kg). Prototypes of international standard kilogram are developed by the
White blood cell 10-13 International Bureau of Weights and Measures. These prototypes are made
rv er
Dust particle 10-9
available in different laboratories belonging to different countries. In India,
prototype of kilogram is kept at National Physical Laboratory (NPL), New
Dew drop 10-6 Delhi. Mass of most of the objects of our daily life can be measured using a
se sh
.
Mosquito 10-5
common balance that we can see in several shops. Special balances are used
by jewellers to measure the mass of valuables like gold more precisely. Mass
Raspberry 10-3 spectrograph is used to measure the mass of atomic and subatomic charged
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Human 102 particles. When a charged particle is projected inside uniform magnetic
field then it follows circular path. Radius of the trajectory followed by such
Car
Aircraft
s ub 103
108
charged particles in electromagnetic field is proportional to the mass of
particle. And thus by measuring the radius of trajectory for a given speed of
Moon 1023 particles, we can estimate the mass of these particles. We can understand
ht P
that direct measurement of mass is not possible at atomic or subatomic
Earth 1025
level and similarly direct methods cannot be used to measure the mass of
Jupiter 1027 some planet or the moon. We can use gravitational methods to measure the
ig rn
Sun 1030 mass of celestial objects. For example, time period of revolution of a planet
Milky way galaxy 1041 around the sun depends on mass of the sun and thus we can estimate mass
of the sun by using time periods of planets. Similarly, estimate of the mass
lr e
Observable Universe 1055 of the planet can be done with the help of time period of the moon orbiting
around it. Table 4 depicts the order of masses.
Al od
SOLVED EXAMPLES
M
 Example 1. Solution:
If mass of an electron is 9.11 × 10-31 kg, how many Given mass of the neutron star, M = 2 × 2.0 × 1030 kg
electrons will weigh 2 kg?
= 4.0 × 1030 kg
©
Solution: Number of electrons in 2 kg

M
Total mass Density of neutron star = = 2.7 × 1017 kg m-3
= 4 3
πr
Mass of one electron 3
2 kg 4 3 M
= = 2.2 × 1030 ⇒ πr =
9.11 × 10−31 kg 3 2.7 × 1017
 Example 2.
4 × 1030
Density of a neutron star is 2.7 × 1017 kg m-3. Assume = m3
2.7 × 1017
the star to be spherical, calculate the radius of the
neutron star if its mass is twice the mass of the sun. ⇒ r3 = 3.527 × 1012 m3
30
Take mass of the sun = 2.0 × 10 kg ⇒ r = 1.52 × 104 m = 15.2 km
5. MEASUREMENT OF TIME
There are many natural periodic phenomena taking place around us.
For example, day and night, seasons, etc. these events give us a feeling of
passing time. We have developed so many types of clocks and watches to
keep a track of time. At present we have achieved tremendous accuracy

in the measurement of time using atomic standard of time. This atomic KEY NOTE
standard of time is based on periodic electromagnetic vibrations produced
in a cesium atom. These cesium atomic clocks are used in various countries Information of order of magnitude
to maintain national standards of time. In case of quartz wristwatch we of measured quantities is required
use small quartz crystal and watch is driven by the vibrations produced when we make comparison between
by quartz crystal. Similarly, cesium clocks are regulated by the vibrations them. We can determine the order of
produced by caesium atom. In a caesium atomic clock, second is defined magnitude of a measured quantity
as the time interval needed to complete 9,192,631,770 vibrations of the in following ways:
electromagnetic radiation corresponding to transition between two A. Firstly, the measured quantity
ed s.
hyperfine levels of the ground state of caesium-133 atom. These clocks is expressed in the scientific
are very accurate and portable standard of time. We have such clocks notation, i.e. in the form a × 10b,
rv er
in National Physical Laboratory (NPL), New Delhi, which has the where 1 ≤ a < 10.
responsibility for the maintenance and improvements of several physical B. (i) If a < 10 (= 3.162), the order
standards which includes time and frequency also. Four caesium atomic of magnitude is equal to b.
se sh
clocks are used to maintain the standard of time and frequency. Indian
.
(ii) If a > 10 (= 3.162), the order
Standard Time (IST) is linked to this set of atomic clocks. These atomic of magnitude of the measured
clocks are so accurate that they lose or gain not more than 3 µs in one year. quantity is equal to b + 1.
re li
In physics we deal with wide range of time. Life span of most
unstable particle is found to be 10-24 s, which is such a small period of
s ub
time. Similarly, at the other end estimated age of universe is believed to
be 1017 s, and this time interval is so large. Table 5 shows the order of
average time interval for various phenomena.
ht P
Table 5. Range of Time
Event Order of time interval (s)

ig rn
Life-span of Higgs particle 10-22

Time period of X-rays 10-19
lr e
Time period of atomic vibrations 10-15

Al od
Time period of light wave 10-15

Life time of an excited state of an atom 10-8
M
Time period of radio wave 10-6

Period of a sound wave 10-3
Wink of eye 10-1
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Time between successive human heart beats 100

Time taken by light from moon to reach earth 100
Time taken by sunlight to reach earth 102
Time period of a satellite 104
Rotation period of the earth 105
Rotation period of the moon 106
Revolution period of the moon 106
Revolution period of the earth 107
Travel time for light from proxima centauri star 108
Average human life 109
Age of Egyptian pyramids 1011 FORMULAE USED
Time since extinction of dinosaurs 1015 Fractional error in measurement
Difference in time ( ∆t )
Age of the earth 1017 of time =
time interval ( t )
Age of the universe 1017

SOLVED EXAMPLES
 Example 1.  Example 3.
Write the order of magnitude of the given measurements: Two atomic clocks are allowed to run for 100 years and
(i) 57 they differ by 0.1 s only. What will be the accuracy of
standard atomic clock in measuring 1 s?
(ii) 1001
Solution:
(iii) 879000
Given, time, t = 100 years

ed s.
(iv) 0.04
(v) 38750000 = (100 × 365 + 24) days
rv er
(vi) 0.00000681 (24 days added due to 24 leap years in 100 years)
Solution: E
xpressing each number in terms of nearest \ t = 36524 days = 36524 × 86400 s
power of 10, we get Also, Dt = 0.1 s
se sh
.
(i) 57 = 0.57 × 102 m
Fractional error in measurement of time
0.5 < 0.57 < 5
∆t 0 .1
Order of magnitude = 2 = = = 0.32 × 10-10
re li
t 36524 × 86400
(ii) 1001 = 1.001 × 103
s ub
0.5 < 1.001 < 5
Order of magnitude = 3
Accuracy shown by atomic clock is 0.32 × 10-10 part in
1 s.
(iii) 879000 = 0.879 × 106  Example 4.

ht P

0.5 < 0.879 < 5 The age of the universe is about 1010 years whereas
Order of magnitude = 6 the mean life for human existence is 106 years. Find
the physical meaning of the time interval which is
(iv) 0.04 = 4 × 10-2
ig rn

approximately half way between these two on a
0.5 < 4 < 5 logarithmic scale.
Order of magnitude = -2
lr e
Solution: Mean life of human existence

(v) 38750000 = 3.875 × 107
t1 = 106 years
Al od

0.5 < 3.875 × 5
Mean life of universe, t2 = 1010 years
Order of magnitude = 7
If t is the time interval, which is half way between t1
(vi) 0.00000681 = 0.681 × 10-5
and t2, then
M

0.5 < 0.681 < 5 1
log t = [ log t1 + log t2 ]
Order of magnitude = -5 2
 Example 2. 1
= log 106 + log 1010 
2
©
A human heart beats once in 0.8 s. How many times it

will beat in the life of 70 years of a man?
1
Solution: Life span of man = 70 years =
2
[6 + 10] = 8
Period of heart beat = 0.8 s
70 × 365.25 × 24 × 60 × 60 t = 108 years
Total number of heart beats =
0.8 which is equal to the travel time for light from the
= 2.76 × 109 times nearest star.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS 1
1. (a) 8.71 × 10-2 rad
(b) 1.45 × 10-3 rad 1. Convert the angle of (a) 5° (degree) (b) 5′ (arc min) (c) 5″ (arc min) in
(c) 2.4 × 10-5 rad. radian.
2. 103 kg/m3, 1 g/cc 2. Find the density of water at 4°C (in g/cc and in kg/m3).
27
3. 3 × 10 3. How many protons weigh 5 kg? The mass of a proton is 1.67 × 10-27 kg.
2
4. 353.57 cm 4. Calculate the surface area of a cylinder of diameter 5 cm and height 20 cm.

5. What is the average distance of the sun from earth in (i) light years
(ii) in parsec?
6. A huge circular container is observed from two diametrically opposite
position X and Y on the earth. The angle subtended by the two directions of
observations is 1°26′4″. The diameter of earth is about 1.27 × 107 m. What is
the distance of container from earth?
7. What will be the diameter of an oil molecule if twenty drops of olive oil
of radius 0.12 mm are spread on the surface of water, so that they form a Answers to Practice Problems
circular film of radius 25 cm.
ed s.
5. (i) 0.16 × 10-4 light year
8. Calculate the linear magnification of a square of side 2 mm, which when
(ii) 0.49 × 10-5 parsec
projected on a screen, gives an image of a square of side 2 cm.
rv er
6. 5.08 × 108 m
9. How much is the empty space in 1 mole of Helium gas at STP if the radius
of helium molecule is about 0.98 Å? 7. 73.7 × 10-9 m
8. 10
se sh
10. A pole is standing on a levelled ground.
.
9. 99.98%
The shadow of a pole is 30 m longer when the sun’s altitude is 45° than when
it was 60°. Calculate the height of the pole. 10. 231 m
re li
6. A s ub
CCURACY, PRECISION OF INSTRUMENTS AND ERRORS
IN MEASUREMENT
Physics is the science of measurement and in case of such experimental
ht P
science, measurement is most important. We have several measurement
techniques which involve direct or indirect measurement of a certain
physical quantity. There are several measuring instruments which are
ig rn
used to measure certain physical quantities. Some uncertainty is always

associated with the result that we get from the measuring instruments.
Uncertainty in the result of measurement is called error. Many times some
lr e
physical quantity depends on some other measured physical quantities

Al od
and thus error is propagated in the final result of calculations.

Accuracy and precision are two terms which are often used. We
should be clear about the difference between the two. If measured result
is close to the true value of the physical quantity then it is said to be
M
more accurate. Hence, accuracy is a measure of how close the measured

value is to the true value of the quantity. However, precision is to what
resolution or limit the quantity is measured. Vernier caliper can measure
©
a minimum distance of 0.1 mm accurately and a screw gauge can measure

a minimum distance 0.01 mm accurately. Hence, screw gauge is more
precise in measurement than vernier caliper. Note that although screw
gauge is more precise in measurement but measurement taken from
vernier caliper may be more accurate because accuracy of result of
measurement may depend on several other factors including resolution
of the measuring instrument. Let the true value of a certain physical
quantity be 4.589 mm. When it is measured by an instrument of resolution
0.1 mm then the measured value is found to be 4.4 mm. Again when the
same quantity is measured by another instrument of resolution 0.01 mm
then the measured value is found to be 4.23 mm. Here, first measurement
is closer to the true value of quantity and hence the first result is more
accurate although it is less precise. However, second measurement is less
accurate but more precise. We can easily understand that precision in the
measurement depends on the instrument but accuracy may depend on
the person performing measurement and several other factors. We can
understand now that error is always an integral part of the measurement.
Error analysis is very important part of the experiment. We can classify
errors as systematic errors and random errors.

Systematic errors
Systematic errors always tend to deviate the result in one particular
direction either positive or negative. In other words measured result
will be greater than or less than the actual value. Systematic errors
may be generated from the number of sources and some examples are
as follows:
1. Instrumental errors
Faulty design, calibration error and zero error in the instrument
ed s.
can be a source of systematic error. Simplest example we can take is
one metre scale whose ends are worn off, it will always read less than
rv er
the actual value. Similarly, think about one barometer which has its
scale little bit shifted and it reads 74 cm when actual height is 76 cm.
Similarly zero mark on vernier scale may not coincide with zero mark of
se sh
main scale and this initial shift will be reflected in the readings. Similar
.
zero error can appear in screw gauge which can be either positive or
negative and hence in other words it may increase or decrease the final
re li
result. The systematic error can be minimised by zero correction and
improving the instruments.
s ub 2. Imperfection in experimental procedure
Some experiments are affected by external physical conditions like
ht P
temperature, pressure, humidity, etc. and these factors may affect
the result of the experiment systematically. For example, we want
to measure the speed of sound using some standard experimental
ig rn
procedure then we should know that increase in humidity increases

the speed of sound. Hence, result of the experiment can be affected by
the changing humidity level of the environment. Similarly, procedure
lr e
of measurement can also affect the result. For example, we normally

place the thermometer under the armpit to measure the temperature
Al od
of the person. But we should know that temperature measured in

such a manner will always be less than the actual temperature of
the body of the person. Another example in this category may be the
measurement of potential difference between two points in an electric
M
circuit. Voltmeter is connected in parallel between those two points

and to perform measurement voltmeter draws a little current from the
circuit. And due to this potential difference between those two points
©
changes. Hence reading of the voltmeter will be different from the

actual reading. Again to measure current in a circuit we connect an
ammeter in series with the branch where current is to be measured.
But we know that there is some resistance of the ammeter and it affects
the current in the circuit and hence the measured value of current
becomes slightly different from the actual value.
3. Personal errors
This is very subjective kind of error and depends on the person
performing the experiment. Person may be careless about following
the proper procedure while performing the experiment. Person may
not observe proper precautions while performing experiment. If the
apparatus is not properly set for the experiment then it may become a
source of error in the experiment. So we can understand that there is
an endless scope for the number of reasons behind the personal errors
in the experiment. While reading the position of needle on scale of
some metre, person might look at it a little far from left side or right
side and then there are chances for the error in the assessment due to
parallax. Similarly, suppose you want to measure the time period for

40 oscillations using some stopwatch, then there are chances to make

slight errors in timing to start and stop the stopwatch.
From the given description about systematic errors we can
understand that systematic error is a kind of error whose source and
outcome in the result are predictable. Hence, it is possible to minimise
systematic errors in the measurements. Selection of better quality
instruments for the measurement is first step towards minimising
systematic error due to faulty instruments which are not properly
calibrated for the measurement. If you want to measure some dimension
ed s.
using vernier caliper or screw gauge then you should first check its zero
error. Sometimes it is possible to remove the zero error but sometimes
rv er
it is not. If it is not possible to remove the zero error then we should
first note down the zero error to be adjusted later in the final result. For
better measurements we need to think about ways to minimise personal
se sh
.
bias as far as possible.
Random errors
re li
We know that everything cannot be predicted. For example, there
are random and small fluctuations in temperature and pressure of
s ub
the surroundings. If certain experiment is too sensitive for these
parameters then these changes will affect the measured result
randomly. Suppose you are performing some electrical experiment.
ht P
Voltage supply is one important part of the experiment. Random
fluctuations in voltage can affect the experimental results. Person
can also be a source of random error in the readings. Suppose one
ig rn
person is assigned to note down temperature shown by thermometer

every one minute, in a certain temperature-sensitive process. Then
every time person notes down the temperature, he or she is likely
lr e
to make some mistake in the reading, hence person can also add
random error in the measurement. Hence random errors are those
Al od
errors which affect the result irregularly in terms of sign and size.
The random errors can be reduced by taking more sets of readings
of the measurement. The mean of these results will be closer to the
M
actual reading. Thus to avoid random errors repeated measurements

or readings should be taken.
Least count error
©
Least count of a certain measuring instrument is the smallest

value of the corresponding physical entity that can be measured
by the measuring instrument. It is often referred to as the resolution
of that instrument. Smaller least count of an instrument means that
instrument is more precise. For example, least count of vernier caliper
is 0.1 mm and that for screw gauge is 0.01 mm; hence screw gauge is
more precise than vernier caliper in measuring length. If some value is
less than the least count of instrument then given instrument cannot
measure it correctly. Let us take an example of metre scale in which
graduations are made at a regular spacing of 1 mm. Hence, 1 mm is
least count of metre scale. Now assume some length is 10.1 mm and you
are using metre scale to measure it then you can measure it correctly
only up to 10 mm. For the remaining you cannot say anything for sure.
Without guessing anything, what best you can say is that given length
is between 10 mm and 11 mm. So you can imagine that least count of
an instrument is maximum possible uncertainty in the results obtained
from that instrument. Thus, it can be said that the least count error can
be minimised by using an instrument with higher resolution or smaller
value of least count.

6.1. E
rror Analysis – Absolute Error, Relative Error and
Percentage Error
To obtain the best possible result from an experiment we often repeat
the same experiment several times and list the results obtained in every
attempt. We have already discussed about several types of sources to
the errors in an experiment. Sometimes we may overestimate the result
and some other time we may underestimate the result, so mean value
is often considered as final result of the experiment. But a little error
analysis can be done to estimate uncertainty or possible errors in the
ed s.
outcome of the experimental result.
Let x1, x2, x3,….., xn be the measured values of given amount of
rv er
physical entity when measurement is repeated n times. As explained
earlier we take arithmetic mean value as the best possible value of given
physical entity under given conditions of measurement and it can be
se sh
.
calculated as follows:
x1 + x2 + x3 + ...... + xn
xmean =
re li
n
s ub Or,
i= n
∑ xi
ht P
i =1
xmean =
n
We can now treat xmean as the true value of given physical quantity.
ig rn
Magnitude of the difference between true value and the individual

measured value is called absolute error for that measurement.
Absolute errors in measurements can be written as follows:
lr e
∆x1 = x1 − xmean
Al od
FORMULAE USED
M
.
x1 + x2 + x3 + .... + xn
(i) xmean = .
n
.
©
i= n
∑ xi
∆xn = xn − xmean
i =1
xmean =
n
Note that the difference of individual measurement from the mean
(ii) Mean absolute error Dxmean
value may be positive or negative because mean value is somewhere in
∆x1 + ∆x2 + ... + ∆xn the middle of those values but absolute error is always taken as positive;
=
n hence just the magnitude of difference of individual measurement with
i= n the mean or true value of that physical quantity.
∑ ∆xi Arithmetic mean of these absolute errors is called mean absolute
i =1
= error for the measured physical quantity. Mean absolute error can be
n
calculated as follows:
where |Dx1| = |x1 – xmean|,
|Dx2| = |x2 – xmean| and so on. ∆x1 + ∆x2 + ∆x3 + ...... + ∆xn
∆xmean =
(iii) Fractional error/Relative error n
∆xmean
= Or,
xmean
i= n
∆x
(iv) Percentage error = mean × 100 ∑ ∆xi
xmean i =1
∆xmean =
n

Now the final result of measurement can be written as: xmean ± ∆xmean
If x is some measured value of the given physical quantity then it
will lie in an interval as follows:
xmean − ∆xmean ≤ x ≤ xmean + ∆xmean
Here Dxmean is the mean absolute error but sometimes we write error
as relative error and percentage error.
The ratio of mean absolute error to that with mean value of the
ed s.
measured physical quantity is called relative error or fractional
error.
∆xmean
rv er
Relative error =
xmean
se sh
When relative error is expressed as percentage then it is called
.
percentage error.
∆xmean
Percentage error = × 100
xmean
re li
s ub SOLVED EXAMPLES
ht P
 Example 1.
The diameter of a wire measured in an experiment was (iii) Absolute errors =
∑ ∆di
6
0.022 cm, 0.023 cm, 0.026 cm, 0.025 cm, 0.024 cm and
ig rn
0.025 cm find 0.002 + 0.001 + 0.002 + 0.001 + 0 + 0.001

=
(i) the mean value of diameter 6
lr e
(ii) absolute error in a each measurement = 0.0012 = 0.001

(iii) Percentage error (Rounded off to 1 significant figure)
Al od
Solution: (i) Mean diameter Absolute error

Percentage error = × 100
0.022 + 0.023 + 0.026 + 0.025 + 0.024 + 0.025 dm
dm = 0.001
6 = × 100
M
0.024
= 0.02416 cm
dm = 0.024 cm [Rounded off to 2 significant figures] = 4.2% ≈ 4%
(Rounded off to 1 significant figure)
(ii) Absolute errors in the different measurement are
©
Dd1 = dm - d1  Example 2.
Refractive index of a flint glass (µ) was measured in
= 0.024 - 0.022
an experiment and was found to be 1.655, 1.667, 1.655,
= 0.002 cm 1.659, 1.669 and 1.654. Find
Dd2 = dm - d2
(i) the mean value of m
= 0.024 - 0.023
(ii) mean absolute error
= 0.001 cm
(iii) Relative error
Dd3 = dm - d3
(iv) Percentage error
= 0.024 - 0.026
= -0.002 cm Solution: Given, m1 = 1.655, m2 = 1.667, m3 = 1.655
Dd4 = dm - d4 µ4 = 1.659, µ5 = 1.669, µ6 = 1.654
= 0.024 - 0.025 (i) Mean value of µ is
= -0.001 cm µ + µ2 + µ3 + µ4 + µ5 + µ6
mm = 1
Dd5 = dm - d5 6
= 0.024 - 0.024 = 0 1.655 + 1.667 + 1.655 + 1.659 + 1.669 + 1.654
=
Dd6 = dm - d6 6
= 0.024 - 0.025 = 1.6598
= −0.001 cm = 1.660 (Rounded off to 4 significant figures)

(ii) Absolute errors in the different measurements are 0.005 + 0.007 + 0.005 + 0.001 + 0.009 + 0.006
=
Dm1 = μm - m1 6
= 1.660 - 1.655
=0.0055 ≈ 0.006
= 0.005 (Rounded off to 1 significant figure)
Dm2 = 1.660 - 1.667 = −0.007
(iii) Relative error
Dm3 = 1.660 - 1.655 = 0.005
∆µ 0.006
Dm4 = 1.660 - 1.659 = 0.001 Dµ = = = 0.0036
µm 1.660
ed s.
Dm5 = 1.660 - 1.669 = −0.009
Dm6 = 1.660 - 1.654 = 0.006 = 0.004
Mean absolute error ∆µ
rv er
(iv) Percentage error =
× 100% = 0.4%
∆µ =
∑ ∆µ i µm
6
se sh
.
6.2. Combination of Errors
re li
When there is involvement of measurements of several entities in
s ub an experiment then several calculations may be required to perform
among these measured values. So it is essential to learn how errors are
propagated in the final results. We can take an example of determining
acceleration due to gravity at some location using simple pendulum.
ht P
Acceleration due to gravity in terms of time period (T) and length of
thread (l) of pendulum can be written as follows:
ig rn
4π 2l
g=
T2
lr e
Here, we measure the length of thread and the time period of

oscillation. Error is associated with measurement of both the quantities.
Al od
We need to learn to evaluate combined error in calculated value of g. One

point that we need to keep in mind is that we are required to calculate
maximum possible error in the final result.
M
a) Error of sum or a difference

Let A and B be two physical quantities with measured values A ± ∆A
and B ± ∆B respectively. Here ∆A and ∆B are absolute errors in the
measurements of A and B respectively. Let Z represent the sum of A and
©
B and DZ represent absolute error in Z.

Z=A+B
⇒ Z ± DZ = (A ± ∆A) + (B ± ∆B)
⇒ Z ±D Z = (A + B) ± ∆A ± ∆B
⇒ ± DZ = ± ∆A ± ∆B
From above we can see that maximum possible value of
DZ = ∆A + ∆B
Similarly assume Z represents the difference of A and B and DZ
represents the absolute error in Z.
Z=A-B
⇒ Z ± DZ = (A ± ∆A) - (B ± ∆B)
⇒ Z ± DZ = (A - B) ± ∆A ± ∆B
⇒ ± DZ = ± ∆A ± ∆B
From above we can see that maximum possible value of
DZ = ∆A + ∆B

Hence we have got the same result as we got in case of finding the
sum of A and B. Hence, the rule can be written as follows:
When two similar physical quantities are added or subtracted
then absolute error in the final result is equal to the sum of
absolute errors in the individual physical quantities.
For example, let temperature θ1 = 20 °C ± 0.5 °C and temperature
θ2 = 30 °C ± 0.25 °C then difference of temperature can be written as
Dq = θ2 - θ1 = 10 °C ± 0.75 °C. Similarly, let time t1 = 2 s ± 0.1 s and time
ed s.
t2 = 3 s ± 0.05 s then total time can be written as t = t1 + t2 = 5 s ± 0.15 s.
Hence, in both the cases of sum or difference, absolute errors are always
added for the final result.
rv er
b) Error of a product or a quotient
se sh
and B ± ∆B. Let Z be equal to AB and DZ is absolute error in Z.
.
Z = AB
⇒ Z ± DZ = (A ± ∆A)(B ± ∆B)
re li
⇒ Z ± DZ = AB ± ∆AB ± A∆B ± ∆A∆B
s ub
Since ∆A and ∆B are small numbers hence we can ignore their
product to rewrite the above equation as follows:
⇒ Z ± DZ = AB ± ∆AB ± A∆B
ht P
Dividing the above equation by Z = AB we get the following:
∆Z ∆A ∆B
ig rn
1± =1± ±
Z A B
Hence, maximum possible relative error in the value of Z can be
lr e
written as follows:
Al od
∆Z ∆A ∆B
= +
Z A B
Now for the division also we can proceed as follows:
M

and B ± ∆B. Let Z be equal to A/B and DZ is absolute error in Z.
©
A
Z=
B
 ∆A 
A 1 ± 
A ± ∆A  A
⇒ Z ± ∆Z = =
B ± ∆B  ∆B 
B 1 ± 
 B
−1
A ∆A   ∆B 
⇒ Z ± ∆Z = 1 ±  1 ± 
B A  B
Here ∆B/B is a small number and hence we can use binomial

approximation to rewrite the expression as follows:
A ∆A   ∆B 
⇒ Z ± ∆Z =  1 ±   1 ± 
B A B
A ∆A ∆B ∆A ∆B 
⇒ Z ± ∆Z = 1 ± ± ± 
B A B A B

Since ∆A and ∆B are small numbers and hence we can neglect the
term with product of both of them to rewrite the equation as follows:
A ∆A ∆B 
⇒ Z ± ∆Z = 1 ± ± 
B A B
Dividing the above equation by Z = A/B we get the following:
∆Z ∆A ∆B
⇒ 1± =1± ±
Z A B
ed s.
∆Z ∆A ∆ B
⇒ ± =± ±
Z A B
rv er
We can see that the maximum value of relative error in Z can be
written as follows:
se sh
∆Z ∆A ∆B
.
⇒ = +
Z A B
Note that we are getting the same result for multiplication and
re li
division both. Hence the rule for error in product and division can be
written as follows:
s ub When two physical entities are multiplied or divided then
relative error of the final result is equal to sum of the relative
errors in individual physical entities.
ht P
c) Error due to power raised on measured quantity
Let A be a physical quantity with measured value A ± ∆A and another
ig rn
entity Z is equal to An. Let DZ be absolute error in Z.

Z = An
lr e
⇒ Z ± ∆Z = ( A ± ∆A) n
n
Al od
 ∆A 
⇒ Z ± ∆Z = An  1 ± 
 A
Since ∆A/A is small number and hence we can use binomial
M
approximation to rewrite the above equation as follows:

 ∆A 
⇒ Z ± ∆Z = An  1 ± n 
 A
©
Dividing the above equation by Z = An, we get the following:

∆Z ∆A
⇒ 1± =1±n
Z A
∆Z ∆A
⇒ =n
Z A
Hence relative error in Z is equal to n times of relative error in A.
d) Error due to combination of product, division and power
We can combine the rules learned above. Relative errors of all
measured quantities in case of product and division are added to calculate
the relative error in the final result. If in an equation a physical quantity
is raised to some power then that power is multiplied to the relative
error for the quantity before adding it with others for final result.
Let us randomly assume following relation for a hypothetical
physical entity Z in terms of measured quantities A, B and C.
A l Bm
Z= = A l Bm C − n
Cn

Combining all rules we can write relative error of Z as follows:

∆Z ∆A ∆B ∆C
=l +m +n
Z A B C
Note that there is always positive sign between the terms
irrespective of the fact that raised power is negative or positive.
Remember that we always calculate maximum possible error in the
measurement so errors are always added together.
Let us take another hypothetical relation for some physical quantity
ed s.
Z as follows:
A 2 B2 / 3 FORMULAE USED
rv er
Z=
CD1 / 4 (i) If Z = A + B or Z = A - B
Relative error in Z can be written as follows: then DZ = ±DA ± DB
se sh
.
∆Z  ∆A  2  ∆B   ∆C  1  ∆D  Maximum value of
= 2 + + +
Z  A  3  B   C  4  D  DZ = DA + DB
(ii) If Z = AB
re li
We can take another example of acceleration due to gravity at point
∆Z ∆A ∆B 
that can be written in terms of time period and length of thread of simple
s ub = ±  + 
pendulum as follows: Z  A B 
4π 2l A
g= 2 Also for Z =
T B
ht P
∆Z ∆A ∆B 
Here 4π2 is constant and let Dl and DT are absolute errors in the = ±  + 
Z  A B 
measurement of length and time period of pendulum. Relative error in
ig rn
g can be written as follows: (iii) For Z = An
∆g ∆l ∆T ∆Z n∆A
= ±
= +2 Z A
lr e
g l T
Al od
SOLVED EXAMPLES
M
The temperature of two bodies measured by a V
The resistance R = , where V = 100 ± 5V and I = 10 ±
thermometer are t1 = 20 °C ± 0.5 °C and 50 °C ± 0.5 °C. I
Calculate the temperature difference and the error 0.2 A. Find the percentage error in R.
©
therein. [N.C.E.R.T. Solved Example] (N.C.E.R.T. Solved Example)

Solution: Temperature difference: 5
Solution: Percentage error in V = × 100 = 5%
Dt = t2 - t1 100
= (50 °C ± 0.5 °C) - (20 °C ± 0.5 °C) 0 .2
Percentage error in I = × 100 = 2%
= 30 °C ± 1 °C 10
V
R=
I
 Example 2.
Two resistances of values 150 ± 2 Ω and 250 ± 5 Ω are ∆R ∆V ∆I
× 100 = × 100 + × 100
connected in series. Find their equivalent resistance. ⇒ R V I
Total percentage error in R is
Solution: Given, R1 = 150 ± 2 Ω
∆R
R2 = 250 ± 5 Ω × 100 = 5% + 2%
R
Equivalent resistance
= 7%
R = R1 + R2 = (150 ± 2 Ω) + (250 ± 5 Ω)
 Example 4.
R = (150 + 250) ± (2 + 5) The error in measurement of side of a cube is 2%. Find
= (400 ± 7) W the error in the volume of the cube?

Solution: Given, percentage error in side length a is = (100 ± 3) Ω + (200 ± 4) W

∆a = (100 + 200) ± (3 + 4)
× 100 = 2%
a = (300 ± 7) W
Volume of cube is, V = a3 (b) For the parallel combination, equivalent resistance
∴ Percentage error in volume of cube is: of the combination is:
∆V  ∆a  1 1 1
× 100 = 3   × 100 = 3 × 2% = 6% = + ...(i)
V  a
R′ R1 R2
ed s.
 Example 5. R1 R2 100 × 200 200
⇒ R′ = = = = 66.7 W
The length, breadth and height of a rectangular block R1 + R2 100 + 200 3
are found to be 15.12 ± 0.02 cm, 7.86 ± 0.01 cm and
rv er
On differentiating equation (i) we get
4.16 ± 0.02 cm, respectively. Compute the percentage
error in the volume of the block. ∆R′ ∆R1 ∆R2
Also, 2 =
+ 2
R′ R12 R2
se sh
Solution: Given, length, l = 15.12 ± 0.02 cm
.
Breadth, b = 7.86 ± 0.01 cm 2 ∆R1 ∆R2
⇒ DR′ = ( R′ ) + ( R′ 2 )
Height, h = 4.16 ± 0.02 cm R12 R22
re li
Volume of rectangular block is 2 2
 R′   R′ 
⇒ AR′ =   ∆R1 +   ∆R2

s ub V=l×b×h
The percentage error in the volume is given by

R  1
 66.7 
= 
R 
2
 66.7 
×3+ ×4
2
∆V  ∆l ∆b ∆h 
× 100 =  + +  100   200 
 × 100
ht P
V  l b h
= 1.8 W
 0.02 0.01 0.02 
=  + + × 100 \ R′ = 66.7 ± 1.8 W
 15.12 7.86 4.16 
ig rn
 2 1 2   Example 8.
=  + + × 100
 1512 786 416  A physical quantity Y is expressed as
lr e
= 0.1323 + 0.1272 + 0.4808 = 0.7403% p2  q 

3
Y =
Al od
= 0.74% r  s 
(Rounded off to 2 significant figures)
If the percentage error in the measurement of p, q, r
 Example 6. and s are 4%, 2%, 1% and 3% respectively, calculate the
M
Find the relative error in Z, if percentage error in Y.

3
Z = A4B1/3/CD3/2 p2  q 
Solution: Given, Y =
(N.C.E.R.T. Solved Example) r  s 
©
Solution: The relative error in Z is

∆p ∆q
∆Z × 100 = 4%; × 100 = 2%
 ∆A  1  ∆B   ∆C  3  ∆D  p q
= 4 + + +
Z  A  3  B   C  2  D 
∆r ∆s
× 100 = 1%; and × 100 = 3%
 Example 7. r s
Two resistors of resistance R1 = 100 ± 3 ohm and
\ The percentage error in Y is
R2 = 200 ± 4 ohm are connected (a) in series, (b) in parallel.
Find the equivalent resistance of the ∆Y
× 100
Y
(a) series combination
(b) parallel combination  ∆p   ∆q  ∆r
= 2  × 100 + 3  × 100 +
 p   q  r
Use for (a) the relation R = R1 + R2 and for (b)
1 1 1 ∆R′ ∆R1 ∆R2 3  ∆s 
= + and 2 = + 2 × 100 +  × 100
R′ R1 R2 R' R12 R2 2 s 
(N.C.E.R.T. Solved Example) 3

= 2 × 4% + 3 × 2% + 1% + × 3%
Solution: (a) For the series combination, equivalent 2
resistance is R = R1 + R2 = (8 + 6 + 1 + 4.5)% = 19.5%

7. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
From the previous sections we have understood that every
measurement involves errors due to finite resolution of instrument
and several other factors. Results of scientific measurements are
always written in a way that it may indicate accuracy involved in the
measurement. When we measure certain physical entity then certain
digits in the measured value are reliably correct. While reporting
the measured value we should include all digits which are reliably
correct plus one digit which is uncertain. In the measured value,
ed s.
all reliable digits plus first uncertain digit are known as significant
digits or significant figures. If we include more uncertain digits while
rv er
reporting the measured value then it will give false impression about
the precision of measurement. So it is important to include only one
uncertain digit. If someone measures the time interval of certain
se sh
.
phenomenon as 2.57 s then here 2 and 5 are reliable digits whereas 7
is first uncertain digit and hence there are total three significant digits
in this measured value. Similarly if someone writes length of object as
re li
256.7 cm then here 2, 5 and 6 are reliable digits but 7 is uncertain digit
and there are total four significant digits in the reported value.
s ub
Finally, we know that the significant figures in reported value
indicate precision of measurement and which in turn depends on the
least count of the measuring instrument. We can refer to the following
ht P
rules to determine the number of significant digits in a reported value
of measurement.
1. All the non-zero digits are significant. For example, 52.49 has four
ig rn
significant figures.
2. All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. If there
lr e
is decimal point in the reported value even then this rule is not
affected. For example, 2006 has four significant digits and 3050.08
Al od
has six significant figures.

3. If reported value is less than 1, then zeros to the right side of the decimal
point up to first non-zero digit are not considered as significant. For
M
example, in 0.003048, first three zeros are not significant and hence
total number of significant digits is four in this case.
4. If there is no decimal point in the reported value then all terminal or
©
trailing zeros are not considered as significant digits. For example,

in 12800, there are only three significant digits.
5. If there is decimal point in the reported value then all trailing zeros
are counted as significant figures. For example, 2.300 has four
significant figures. Similarly, combining rule-3, we can understand
that 0.05400 has four significant digits.
6. If there is some exact number which is not a measured value
then it has infinite number of significant digits. For example,
p = 3.1415926…. has infinite significant digits.
7. We know that physical quantities are measured in terms of some
standard units. If we change the units of reported value then it has
no effect on number of significant digits. For example, some length
is reported to be equal to 1.207 cm, then we can understand that
there are four significant figures in this reported value. We can write
the same result as 0.01207 m, then also we can see that there are
four significant figures. We can write the same result as 12.07 mm,
then also we can see that there are four significant figures. Let us
try even smaller unit like µm then we can write the same result as

12070 µm, and number of significant digits is still four because last
zero we know is not counted as significant figure as per rule-4.
Let us take another example of length which is reported as 1.500 m.
We can use rule-5 to understand that number of significant digits
reported in this case is four. Now let us write it in mm, then the
measured value becomes 1,500 mm. Now rule-4 can mislead us
to believe that there are only two significant digits, but we know
that there are four significant digits in the reported value. We
know that by changing units, number of significant digits are not
ed s.
supposed to be affected. In order to avoid this kind of confusion
in some cases, it is better to write the value in scientific notation.
rv er
In scientific notation we write the number as a × 10b, here a is
a number between 1 and 10, and b is any positive or negative
power of 10. For example, above measured value can be written as
se sh
follows:
.
1.500 m = 1.500 × 102 cm = 1.500 × 103 mm
Clearly, we can see that in all cases number of significant figures is
re li
four. Power of 10 does not affect the number of significant figures.
s ub But note that all zeros in base number of scientific notation are
significant. Hence, there is no confusion related to the trailing
zeros in base number because these zeros are always significant.
ht P
8. If the number is less than 1 then we conventionally put a zero to the
left of decimal point and this zero is never considered as significant
figure, but zeros at the end of such numbers are considered as
ig rn
significant. For example, 0.1760 has four significant digits.

lr e
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Al od
Specify the number of significant figures in the following State the number of significant figures in the following
measurements: measurements:
M
(i) 5.000 kg (i) 1.60 × 109 kg

(ii) 3500 m (ii) 7.036 J
©
(iii) 0.070 s (iii) 0.0003 s

Solution: (i) Four: 5, 0, 0, 0 are all significant Solution: (i) Three: 1, 6 and 0
(ii) Four: 3, 5, 0, 0 are all significant (ii) Four: 7, 0, 3 and 6
(iii) Two, only 7 and 0 after it, are significant (iii) One: 3 only
7.1. Rules for Arithmetic Operations with Significant Numbers

Many times final result of some experiment is dependent on more
than one measured quantities and in such cases calculations are
involved to arrive at the final result. We can easily understand that
accuracy in measured quantities will affect the accuracy of final result.
Hence, now the question is that how to decide accuracy for the final
result. We should understand one fact that final result of calculation
can never be more accurate than the measured values from which it is
calculated. So generally we can say that number of significant digits in
the final result cannot be more than number of significant digits in the
measured values from which it is calculated. Suppose we have
measured time period of 40 oscillations and the measured value is

89.75 s. Now the time period for single oscillation can be written as
89.75
T= s = 2.24375 s, but time period reported this way will indicate
40
superficial accuracy in measurement with more number of significant
digits than the original measured value from which it is calculated.
While reporting the final result we must ensure that accuracy of the
final result is consistent with the accuracy in measured values from
which it is calculated. To ensure this consistency we can observe the
ed s.
following rules:
1. In case of multiplication and division, number of significant digits
in the final result should be equal to the minimum number of
rv er
significant digits in all measured values which are involved.
Example: Suppose we have measured mass and volume of a

se sh
given sample of material and it is required to calculate density of
.
material. Given mass = 3.126 g and Volume = 1.75 cm3.
mass 3.126 g
re li
3
Density = volume = 1.75 cm 3 = 1.78628 g/cm
s ub
But we know that significant digits in one of the measured values
are four and for the second measured value it is three; hence
final result of density must be reported up to three significant
ht P
digits only, and the number must be rounded off accordingly.
Hence, Density = 1.79 g/cm3.
ig rn
2. In case of addition and subtraction rule is stated in terms of decimal

places instead of number of significant figures. When two or more
numbers are added or subtracted then number of decimal places
lr e
in the final result should be same as the number with the least
decimal places.
Al od
Example: What should be the result of addition of numbers 536.16 g,

284.2 g and 0.107 g?
If we follow the simple arithmetic then:
M
536.16 g + 284.2 g + 0.107 g = 820.467 g.

We can see that one of the numbers 284.2 g is correct only up to one
decimal place; hence final result must also contain only one decimal
©
place and must be rounded off accordingly. In above example final

result should be rounded off as 820.5 g.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
 Example 1. Here, 8.31 has least number of decimal place (two).
Add the numbers 8.31, 13.151 and 0.0039 and express So, the result is also rounded off up to second place of
the result to an appropriate number of significant decimal.
figures.
 Example 2.
Solution:
8.31
Subtract 4.5 × 104 from 7.9 × 105 and express the result
13.151
to an appropriate number of significant figures.
0.0039
Solution:
21.4649
7.9 × 105 - 0.45 × 105 = 7.45 × 105
= 21.47
= 7.5 × 105

7.2. Rounding Off the Uncertain Digits

As we have seen above that final result which is based on some
measured values must be consistent in terms of accuracy with these
measured values, and in this process many times rounding off the digits
is required. By convention if the insignificant digit to be dropped is more
than 5 then preceding digit is raised by 1 and in case it is less than 5 then
preceding digit is left unchanged. For example, 2.157 can be rounded off
to 2.16 whereas 2.153 can be rounded off to 2.15.
ed s.
If insignificant digit to be dropped is equal to 5 then we follow the
following convention.
rv er
If the preceding digit is even then it is left unchanged and if it is odd
then preceding digit is raised by 1.
For example, 5.665 can be rounded off to 5.66 whereas 5.655
se sh
can also be rounded off to 5.66 because preceding digit is odd in this
.
case.
In scientific calculations we retain one digit more than significant
re li
digits for intermediate steps so that at the end it may be rounded off to
s ub proper significant digits.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
ht P
 Example 1. 3.51 × 10 −4 × 2.71 × 107
Round off the following numbers up to 3 digits: (iii)
0.5562
ig rn
(i) 17.65
(ii) 14,958 Solution: (i) 65.5 × 135.1 × 0.61 = 5397.9205
lr e
(iii) 3,49,338 = 5400

[Rounded up to two significant figures]
(iv) 11.652
Al od
Solution: (i) 17.6 4.23 × 25.68

(ii) = 0.165040 = 0.165
658.2
(ii) 15,000
[Rounded off to 3 significant figures]
M
(iii) 3,49,000
(iv) 11.6 3.51 × 10−4 × 2.71 × 107
(iii) = 17.102 × 103
0.5562
 Example 2.
©
Subtract 2.5 × 10-5 from 8.0 × 10-3 with regards to = 17.1 × 103
significant figure.
Solution: Here, a = 2.5 × 10-5
= 0.000025 (2 significant figures)  Example 4.
Calculate the area of a circle of diameter 1.05 m
b = 8.0 × 10-3 = 0.0080 (2 significant figures) and express the result to an appropriate number of
b - a = 0.0080 - 0.000025 significant figures.
= 0.007975 Take π = 3.14
-3
= 7.975 × 10 Solution: Given, diameter of the circle, d = 1.05 m
-3
= 8.0 × 10  d
2
(rounded off to two significant figures) Area of the circle, A = π  

 2
 Example 3.
πd 2 3.14 × (1.05) 2
Solve the following expressions and express the result to = =
an appropriate number of significant figures: 4 4
(i) 65.5 × 135.1 × 0.61 = 0.8655

4.23 × 25.68 = 0.866 m2
(ii)
658.2 [Rounded off to 3 significant figures]

 Example 5. = 311.299254 m2
Each side of a cube is measured to be 7.203 m. What
= 311.3 m2
are the total surface area and the volume of the cube to
appropriate significant figures? [Rounded off to 4 significant figures]
[N.C.E.R.T. Solved Example] Volume, V = a3
Solution: Given, side of the cube, = (7.203)3 = 373.714754 m3
a = 7.203 m = 373.7 m3
Total surface area is
ed s.
S = 6a2
= 6 × (7.203)2 m2
rv er
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
se sh
2
.
1. Add 2.535 × 102 cm to 1.415 × 103 cm (with regard to significant figures)
re li
2. Which of the following mass measurements is most accurate and why?
(i)
3. Solve
s ub
5.00 kg (ii) 5.004 kg (iii) 5.01 kg
7.92 − 4.6 with regard to significant figures.
4. Calculate the perimeter of a rectangle within error limits. The sides of the
ht P
rectangle are (7.5 ± 0.2) cm and (3.5 ± 0.2) cm.
5. While determining the time period of oscillation of a simple pendulum, the
readings from various measurements are 1.73 s, 1.62 s, 1.52 s, 1.45 s and 1.83 s.
ig rn
Calculate the values of mean value of time period, absolute error, mean
absolute error and relative error.
6. A potential of V = (10 ± 0.1) volt is applied across a resistance of (5 ± 0.2)
lr e
ohm. Find the value of current within error limits.

Al od
7. Calculate the percentage error in value of R if V = (50 ± 5)V and I = (5 ± 1)A

8. A physical quantity P can be calculated from the relation.
a3b3
M
P= . What will be the percentage error in P when percentage errors in

cd
measurement of a, b, c, d are 2, 3, 1, 2 respectively.
1. 1.668 × 103 cm
9. What will be uncertainty in the density of a cube if uncertainty in mass and
©
2. The observation (ii) has least

length is 2% and 3% respectively?
fractional error and hence,
10. While performing Searle’s experiment, a weight of 50 N is suspended from a more accurate
wire. The extension produced is 0.121 cm and is measured by a micrometer
3. 1.8
of least count 0.001 cm. The diameter of the wire is 0.700 cm, measured by a
screw gauge of least count 0.001 cm. The length is 100 cm measured with the 4. (22 ± 0.8) cm
help of scale of least count 0.1 cm. Calculate the Young’s modulus of material 5. 1.63 s, 0.12 s, ± 0.074
FL
of wire, given by Y = where F is weight, L is length of wire, A is area of 6. (2 ± 0.1) A
Al
wire and l is extension produced. 7. ±30%
11. Two resistances R1 = (15 ± 0.5)Ω and (20 ± 0.7)Ω are connected in parallel. 8. 16.5%
Calculate the total resistance of the combination and maximum percentage 9. ±11%
error.
10. Y = (1.07 × 109 ± 0.013 × 109) N/m2
12. What will be focal length of a spherical mirror if distance of object 60
from the mirror is (30 ± 0.5) cm and distance of image from the mirror is 11. RP = Ω, 3.5%
7
(10 ± 0.2) cm?
12. (7.5 ± 0.10) cm
13. What will be the error in the measurement of kinetic energy, if the error in
measuring momentum is 100%? 13. 200%

8. DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

In several chapters of physics we shall learn about many physical
quantities. We have already learned that there are seven fundamental or
base quantities and there are seven corresponding fundamental units for
their measurements. When unit of a certain physical quantity is written
in terms of these fundamental units then that is called a derived unit.
So we can understand that physical quantities which are described by
derived units can be represented as combination of seven fundamental
or base quantities. Usually the combination of fundamental quantities,
ed s.
which represents a physical quantity, is expressed in symbolic form and
is called dimensional formula for given physical quantity. To write
rv er
dimensional formula of a physical quantity, we represent fundamental
quantities with standard symbols which are listed as follows:
Length - L, Mass - M, Time - T, Electric current - A,
se sh
.
Thermodynamic Temperature - K, Luminous intensity - cd,
Amount of substance - mol.
To write dimensional formula conventionally, these above described
re li
symbols are written inside square brackets [ ]. When we use square
s ub brackets around a physical quantity then it means we are talking about
dimensions of that physical quantity.
Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers which
ht P
are raised to fundamental quantities in order to represent
that physical quantity. Note that all fundamental quantities may
not be involved to represent a given physical quantity. For example,
ig rn
in mechanics all the physical quantities can be expressed in terms of

Length, Mass and Time only. When some fundamental quantity does
not appear in dimensional formula of a certain physical quantity then we
lr e
can say that corresponding dimension is zero for that physical quantity.
Let us take an example of area.
Al od
= Length × breadth
Area
We know that both are length hence dimensional formula of area
can be written as follows:
M
= [L] × [L] = [L2]

[Area]
Hence, we can see that area has 2 dimensions in length. We already
know that area is independent of mass and time; hence it has 0 dimension in
©
mass and time. Dimensional formula of area can also be written as follows:
= [M0L2T0]
[Area]
Similarly we can write the following dimensional formula for the volume:
[Volume] = [L3]
Hence, volume has three dimensions in Length.
To express a given physical quantity in terms of fundamental
quantities we can take help of unit of given physical quantity. For
example, SI unit of velocity is m/s; hence velocity can be expressed as
length divided by time:
Velocity = Length/Time
[L ]
[Velocity] =
[T]
⇒ [Velocity] = [LT-1]
Hence we can see that velocity has dimension of length equal to 1, and
dimension of time is -1. Note that speed and velocity are equivalent in this
context.

We know that unit of acceleration is m/s2; hence acceleration can be

expressed as follows:
Acceleration = Length/(Time)2
[L ]
⇒ [Acceleration] =
[T2 ]
⇒ [Acceleration] = [LT-2]
Hence acceleration has 1 dimension in Length and -2 dimensions
ed s.
in Time.
Let us now take an example of force, which is defined as mass
rv er
multiplied with acceleration of object.
Force = Mass × Acceleration
⇒ Force = Mass × Length/(Time)2
se sh
.
[L ]
⇒ [Force] = [M ]
[T2 ]
re li
⇒ = [MLT-2]
[Force]
s ub
Hence, force has 1 dimension in Mass, 1 dimension in Length and -2
dimensions in Time.
We know that work done and hence energy can be represented as
ht P
force multiplied with the displacement and displacement has dimension
of length. So dimensional formula for energy can be written as:
[Energy] = [ML2T-2]
ig rn
Hence energy has 1 dimension in Mass, 2 dimensions in Length and

-2 dimensions in Time.
lr e
In this way we can write dimensional formula for several other

physical quantities as shown in Table 6.
Al od
Table 6. Dimensional Formulae and SI units of Physical Quantities

M
S.No. Physical quantity Relation with other physical Dimensional SI unit

quantities formula
1 Length - [L] m
©
2 Mass - [M] kg
3 Time - [T] s
4 Electric current - [A] A
5 Thermodynamic - [K] K
Temperature
6 Amount of Substance - [mol] mol
7 Luminous intensity - [cd] cd
8 Angle arc Dimensionless rad
radius
9 Area length × breadth [M0 L2 T0] m2
10 Volume length × breadth × height [M0 L3 T0] m3
11 Frequency 1 [M0L0 T-1] s-1 or Hz (hertz)
time period
12 Specific volume volume [M-1L3 T0 ] m3 kg -1
mass


quantities formula
13 Density mass [M L-3 T0] kg m-3
volume
14 Specific gravity density of a material Dimensionless —
(Relative density) density of water at 4 °C
15 Linear velocity or speed displacement or distance [M0 L1 T-1] m s-1
ed s.
time
16 Linear acceleration velocity [M0 L T–2] m s-2
rv er
time
17 Angular velocity angle [M0 L0 T-1] rad s-1
se sh
time
.
18 Angular acceleration angular velocity [M0 L0 T-2] rad s-2
time
re li
19 Centripetal acceleration linear velocity [M0 L T-2] m s-2
20
s ub
Linear momentum
radius2
mass × velocity [M L T–1] kg m s-1
21 Force mass × acceleration [M L T–2] N (newton)
ht P
22 Tension force [M L T-2] N
–1
23 Impulse force × time [M L T ] Ns
ig rn
24 Work force × distance [ M L2 T–2] J (joule)

25 Energy (mechanical, heat, work [M L2 T-2] J
lr e
light, etc)
Al od
26 Kinetic energy 1 [M L2 T-2] J

× (mass) × (velocity) 2
2
27 Power work [M L2 T-3] W (watt)
M
time
28 Moment of force force × perpendicular distance [M L2 T–2] Nm
29 Torque or couple force × perpendicular distance [M L2 T-2] Nm
©
0 0 –1
30 Angular frequency 2π × frequency [M L T ] rad s-1
31 Angular momentum Moment of inertia × angular velocity [M L2 T–1] kg m2 s-1
32 Angular impulse torque × time [ML2T-1] kg m2s-1
33 Radius of gyration Distance [M0 L T0 ] m
2 0
34 Moment of Inertia mass × (radius of gyration) 2 [M L T ] kg m2
35 Rotational kinetic energy 1 × (moment of inertia) × (angular velocity)2 [ML2 T-2 ] J
2
36 Gravitational constant [M-1 L3 T-2] N m2 kg-2
force × (distance)2
mass × mass
37 Acceleration due to gravity (Gravitational constant) × (mass of earth) [M0 L T–2] m s-2
(distance from the centre of earth) 2
38 Gravitational potential energy mass × (acceleration due to gravity) [ M L2 T-2] J
× height
39 Escape velocity 2gR [M0 L1 T–1] m s-2


quantities formula
40 Hubble constant velocity of recession [M0 L0 T-1] s-1
distance
41 Stress force [M L-1 T-2] N m-2
area
42 Strain change in dimension Dimensionless —
ed s.
original dimension
43 Coefficient of elasticity stress [M L-1 T-2] N m-2
rv er
strain
44 Force constant force [ML0 T-2] N m-1
increase in length
se sh
.
45 Thrust force [M L T-2] N
46 Pressure force [M L-1 T-2] N m-2 or Pa
re li
area (pascal)
47
48
s ub
Pressure gradient
Velocity gradient
pressure
distance
velocity
[M L-2 T-2]
[M0 L0 T-1]
N m-3
s-1
distance
ht P
49 Reynold number density × diameter × velocity [M0L0T0] —
coefficient of viscosity
ig rn
50 Rate of flow volume [M0L3T-1] m3s-1

time
lr e
51 Surface Tension force [M L0 T-2] N m-1

length
Al od
52 Surface energy energy [M L0 T-2] J m-2

area
M
53 Coefficient of viscosity force [M L-1 T-1] daP (decapoise)

area × velocity gradient
54 Temperature gradient temperature [M0 L-1 T0 K] K m-1
©
distance
55 Coefficient of thermal change in dimension [M0 L0 T0K-1] K-1
expansion dimension × temperature
56 Specific heat capacity quantity of heat [M0 L2 T-2K-1] J kg-1 K-1
mass × temperature
57 Latent heat quantity of heat [M0 L2 T-2] J kg-1
mass
58 Wavelength length of a wave [M0 L T0] m
59 Wavenumber 1 [M0 L-1 T0] m-1
wavelength
60 Electric charge current × time [M0 L0 T A] C (coulomb)
61 Surface charge density charge
0
[M L -2
TA] C m-2
area
62 Volume charge density charge [M0 L-3 TA] C m-3
volume


quantities formula
63 Electric potential work [ML2 T-3 A-1] V (volt)
charge
64 Electric field intensity force [MLT-3 A-1] N C-1
charge
65 Electric flux electric field × area [ML3T-3A-1] N m2 C-1
ed s.
66 Electric capacitance charge [M-1L-2 T4A2] F (farad)
potential difference
rv er
67 Electric dipole moment charge × length [M0L TA] Cm
–1 –3 3 2
68 Conductivity 1 [M L TA] S m–1 or Ω–1m–1
se sh
resistivity
.
69 Resistivity resistance × area [ML3 T-3A-2 ] Wm
length
re li
70 Electric resistance potential difference [ML2T-3A-2] Ω(ohm)
71
s ub
Electric conductance
current
1 [M-1L-2 T3A2] S(siemen) or
resistance Ω–1(mho)
ht P
72 Faraday constant Avogadro number × e [M0L0 TA mol-1] C mol-1
73 Electric current density current [M0 L-2 T0 A] A m-2
ig rn
area
74 Inductive reactance ωL [ML2 T–3A–2] W
lr e
0 –1 0
75 Intensity of magnetisation magnetic moment [M L T A] A m-1 or N m-2
volume T-1
Al od
76 Magnetic pole strength [M0 L T0A] Am

4 π × force × distance2
µ0
M
77 Magnetic dipole moment pole strength × distance [M0 L2 T0A] A m2

78 Magnetic induction µ 0 × current [M L0 T-2 A-1] N m-1 A-1 or
2 π × distance tesla (T)
©
79 Magnetic flux B × area [M L2 T-2 A-1] N m A-1 or

weber (Wb)
80 Permittivity of free space charge × charge [M-1 L-3 T4A2] C2 N m-2
force × distance2
81 Permeability of free space 2 π × force × distance [ML T-2A-2] N A-2 or Wb
current 2 × length A-1 m-1
82 Coercivity H (opposing) [M0L-1T0A] A m-1 or N m-2

T-1
83 Retentivity I (residual) [M0L-1 T0 A] A m-1 or N m-2
T-1
84 Coefficient of self induction (L) emf × time [ML2T-2A-2] H (henry)
or mutual induction (M) current
85 Capacitive reactance (XC) 1 [ML2T-3A-2] W

ωC


quantities formula
86 Coefficient of self inductance (L) magnetic flux [ML2T-2A-2] H (henry)
or mutual inductance (M) current
87 Quality factor (Q) ω0 L [M0L0T0] No unit
R
88 Power factor (cos φ) Trigonometric ratio Dimensionless No unit
ed s.
89 Planck’s constant energy [ML2T-1] Js
frequency
rv er
90 Resonant angular frequency 1 [M0L0 T–1] Hz
(w0) LC
se sh
91 Refractive index Dimensionless No limit
.
speed of light in vacuum
speed of light in medium
92 Rydberg’s constant mass × charge4 [M0L-1 T0 ] m-1
re li
8 ε02 × h 3 × velocity
93 s ub
Solar constant energy emitted by the sun
area × time
[M L0 T-3] W m-2
94 Work function energy [M L2T-2] J

ht P
95 Decay constant 0.693 [M0 L0 T-1] s-1
half-life
ig rn
96 Packing fraction mass defect [ML0T0] kg nucleon-1

atomic number
lr e
9. D
IMENSIONAL FORMULA AND DIMENSIONAL
Al od
EQUATION
We have already learned that all physical quantities can be
expressed in terms of seven fundamental quantities. The expression
M
which represents physical quantity in terms of fundamental quantities

in symbolic form is called dimensional formula of that physical quantity.
We know that fundamental quantities are represented using standard
symbols and dimensional formula is written inside square brackets. For
©
example, dimensional formula of area is [M0L2T0], dimensional formula

for acceleration is [M0LT-2], dimensional formula for force is [MLT-2],
and dimensional formula for the energy is [ML2T-2] and so on.
We can also write dimensional equations by equating physical
quantity with its dimensional formula. And these dimensional
equations can be obtained from equation which represents relationship
between physical quantity and other physical quantities. We can write
dimensional equation for above described physical quantities as follows:
[A] = [M0L2T0]
[a] = [M0LT-2]
[F] = [MLT-2]
[E] = [ML2T-2]
There is a wide variety of physical quantities which are used in
physics. You may already be aware of some of them but there are many
physical quantities which are to be introduced in their corresponding
chapters. Hence, at this stage you may not be able to determine the
dimensional formulae for all quantities but at a later stage when you

will learn about these physical quantities then you can easily determine
dimensional formula for that quantity with the concepts learned in this
chapter.
Dimensional analysis can be helpful in many ways. And for illustration
purpose we shall refer some formulae of later chapters from Table 6. But
still you can understand the concepts that are given here.
From the analysis of dimensional formulae of physical quantities in
given table, these physical quantities can be categorised as:
ed s.
Dimensional constants: These are the physical quantities which
have constant value and have dimensions. Speed of light in vacuum,
rv er
Planck’s constant and universal gravitational constant are some
dimensional constants.
Dimensionless constants: These are the physical quantities which
se sh
have constant values but are dimensionless. Mathematical constants
.
like π, 1, 2, etc. are all dimensionless constants.
Dimensional variables: These are the physical quantities which
re li
have variable values and have dimensions. Physical quantities like
s ub velocity, acceleration, force, etc. are dimensional variables.
Dimensionless variables: These are the physical quantities which
have variable values but are dimensionless. Physical quantities like
angle, strain, etc. are dimensionless variables.
ht P
SOLVED EXAMPLES
ig rn
 Example 1. (iv) Bulk modulus

lr e
Name the physical quantities which have dimensional (v) Force constant
formulae as given below:
Al od
Solution:
(i) ML2T-2 (iii) ML2
Longitudinal stress
2 -3
(ii) ML T (iv) MLT-1 (i) Young’s modulus =
Longitudinal strain
Solution:
M
F /A F l

(i) ML2T-2 = MLT-2 L = = ⋅
∆l / l A ∆l
= Force × distance
[MLT −2 ][L ]
= Work
©
\ [Y] =
[L2 ] ⋅ [L] = [ML-1T-2]
(ii) ML2T-3 = ML2T-2 T-1
Energy (ii) Coefficient of viscosity,
=
Time Force
= Power h=
Area × Velocity gradient
(iii) ML2 = Mass × (Distance)2
Force Distance
= Moment of Inertia = ×
Area Velocity
(iv) MLT-1 = M LT-1
= Mass × Velocity [MLT −2 ] ⋅ [L ]
\ [h] =
= [ML-1T-1]
[L2 ] ⋅ [LT −1 ]
= Linear momentum or Impulse
Force
 Example 2. (iii) Surface tension, s =
Length
Deduce the dimensional formula for the following

physical quantities: −2
\ [s] = [MLT ] = [ML0T-2]
(i) Young’s modulus [L ]
(ii) Co-efficient of viscosity Pressure applied
(iv) Bulk modulus =
(iii) Surface Tension Relative decrease in volume

P P 2 −2
= = ⋅V = [ML T ]
∆V /V ∆V [K ]
Force V [MLT −2 ] ⋅ [L3 ] = [ML2T-2K-1]
= ⋅ =
Area ∆V [L2 ] ⋅ [L3 ] (vi) Universal gas constant
= [ML-1T-2] Pressure × Volume

=
No. of moles × Temperature
Force
(v) Force constant = PV
Displacement =
ed s.
nT
[MLT −2 ] −1 −2 3
=
[L ]
= [ML0T-2] = [ML T ][L ]
rv er
[ mol.] ⋅ [K ]
 Example 3. = [ML2T-2K-1 mol-1]
Deduce the dimensional formulae for the following
se sh
 Example 4.
.
physical quantities:
By the use of dimensions, show that angular momentum
(i) Specific heat has the same physical units as the Planck’s constant.
(ii) Entropy Solution: Angular momentum, L = mvr
re li
(iii) thermal conductivity \ [L] = [M] [LT-1] [L]

s ub
(iv) Stefan’s constant
(v) Boltzmann’s constant

Now, Planck’s constant, h =

= [ML2T-1]
E
ν
ht P
(vi) Universal gas constant
[ML2T −2 ]
Solution: (i) \ [h] = = [ML2T-1]
[ T −1 ]
Heat
ig rn
Specific heat = Hence proved.

Mass × Temperature
Work  Example 5.
=
lr e
Taking work, charge and frequency as the fundamental

Mass × Temperature
quantities, find the dimensions of resistance.
Al od
Force × distance [MLT −2 ][L ] Solution: Let dimensions of charge, work and
= =
Mass × Temperature [M ][K ] frequency be q, W and ν, respectively.
= [M0L2T-2K-1] Potential difference
Resistance, R =
M
Current
Heat 2 −2
(ii) Entropy = = [ML T ] Work
Temperature [K ]
Charge Work × Time
= =
= [ML2T-2K-1] Charge [Charge]2
©
(iii) Thermal conductivity Time

Work
Heat × Distance =
=
Area × Temperature × Time (Charge)2 × Frequency
\ [R] = [Wn-1q-2]
[ML2T −2 ] ⋅ [L ]
=
[L2 ] ⋅ [K ] ⋅ [ T ]  Example 6.
Taking velocity of light, density and frequency as
= [MLT-3K-1] fundamental quantities, find the dimensions of surface
Energy tension.
(iv) Stefan’s constant =
Area × time × ( temperature )
4 Solution: c = LT-1, r = ML-3 and n = T-1
Solving M, L and T terms of c, r, and ν, we get
[ML2T −2 ] T = ν-1, L = cν-1 and M = rc3ν-3
= 2
[L ] ⋅ [ T ] ⋅ [K ]4 Force −2
Surface Tension = = [MLT ]
= [ML0T-3K-4] Length [L ]
Energy = MT-2 = [rc3ν-3][ν+2]
(v) Boltzmann’s constant =
Temperature = [rc3ν-1]

10. DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

We have several physical quantities in physics and these quantities
are interrelated with each other. There are some physical quantities
which do not have any unit of measurement and such quantities are called
dimensionless quantities, and for the rest, there is always some unit
of measurement. Unit of measurement for a physical quantity may not be
same as one of the units of fundamental quantities. But many times units
of more than one fundamental quantities are required to represent the
unit for a given physical quantity. Such types of units are called derived
ed s.
units. We know that any derived unit can be represented in terms of units
corresponding to the fundamental quantities. When we write derived unit
rv er
of a physical quantity in terms of units of fundamental quantities, then in
symbolic form we can write the dimensional formula for the same physical
quantity. Physical quantities having same unit of measurement will also
se sh
.
have same dimensional formulae. We know that physical quantities having
same units can be added or subtracted and hence we can say that physical
quantities having same dimensions can be added or subtracted. Division
re li
and multiplication is possible between physical quantities having different
units of measurement. In such a case of multiplication and division, units
s ub are treated like ordinary algebraic symbols. Identical units in numerator
and denominator can be cancelled and similarly we can treat the
dimensions of a physical quantity. Dimensional analysis can be helpful
ht P
in checking derivations, dimensional consistency or homogeneity
of mathematical expressions representing relationships among
physical quantities.
ig rn
10.1. Dimensional Consistency of Equations

We know that physical quantities having same dimensions can only
lr e
be added or subtracted from each other or we can say that only similar
quantities can be added or subtracted from each other. For example, we
Al od
cannot add or subtract length with area. And similarly we cannot add or
subtract force with velocity or volume with temperature. This simple concept
is called principle of homogeneity of dimensions in an equation.
M
One can check the correctness of an equation with the help of principle of
homogeneity of dimensions. If dimensions of all the terms in an equation are
not same, the equation is certainly wrong. For example, suppose we have
written force in terms of several other physical quantities. In such a case
©
when individual dimensions on the other side of expression are simplified

following algebraic rules then final remaining dimension must be that of the
force. If some equation is describing speed in terms of some other physical
quantities then dimensions on both the sides of the equation must be [LT-1].
Let us understand this concept with the help of some example.
In circular motion we shall define centripetal force (F) in terms of
mass (m), speed (v) and radius of the circle (r) as follows:
mv2
F=
r
Here for the dimensional consistency dimensions of right-hand side
must be same as that of the force.
Dimensional formula of force can be written as:
[F] = [MLT-2]
Dimensional formula for the right-hand side term can be determined
as follows:
 mv2  [M ][LT −1 ]2 [ML2 T −2 ]
 r  = = = [MLT −2 ]
  [ L ] [ L ]

We can see that dimensions of right side of the above equation is

same as that for the left side which is basically dimensions of force; hence
above written equation for centripetal force is dimensionally correct.
If an equation is written as addition of subtraction of more than one
terms then dimensions of each term must be same on both the sides of
the equation.
Let us take an example of equation describing displacement (S) for
a particle moving with constant acceleration (a), in terms of its initial
ed s.
velocity (u) and time (t). Equation is written as follows:
S = ut + ½ at2
rv er
For dimensional consistency all the terms must have same
dimensions on both the sides of the equation. Dimensions of each term
in above equation can be written as follows:
se sh
.
[S] = [L]
[ut] = [LT-1] × [T] = [L]
1 2
re li
-2 2
 2 at  = [LT ] × [T ] = [L]
 
s ub
We can see that all the terms of above specified equation have same
dimensions and hence the equation is dimensionally correct.
Checking dimensional consistency is just one preliminary test
ht P
for the correctness of equation. If a given equation is dimensionally
inconsistent then it is for sure that given equation is wrong, but we
should be aware of the fact that if equation is dimensionally consistent
ig rn
then it is not a guarantee that equation is correct. We should be aware

of the limitations behind this method.
Let us take an example of above specified equation of displacement:
lr e
S = ut + ½ at2. If we look at the equation from dimensional consistency

then S = ut is also correct, S = ½ at2 is also correct and S = ut + ½ at2 is
Al od
correct too. But we know that only relation S = ut + ½ at2 is correct.

One more point here should be noted that constants multiplied in
the equation are dimensionless and hence we cannot say anything about
M
the constants (if any) used in the equation. For example, dimensionally
mv2 7mv2
F= is correct but F = is also correct because nothing can be
r r
©
FORMULAE USED
said about the presence of constants in the equation. So we should
Principle of homogenity of
always remember that if a certain equation fails the test of dimensional dimensions is used to check the
consistency, then we can always say that given equation must be wrong correctness of equations. This
but reverse is not true. If some equation passes the test of dimensional principle is obeyed if
consistency then it is not a guarantee for the equation to be correct. Dimensions of M, L, T on L.H.S.
Dimensionally wrong equation is certainly wrong, but = Dimensions of M, L, T on R.H.S.
dimensionally correct equation may not be the correct equation.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
 Example 1. Solution: (i) [S] = [L]
Check the dimensional consistency of the relations:
1 2 [ut] = [LT-1] [T] = [L]
(i) S = ut + at
2
1 2  -2 2
1  2 at  = [LT ][T ] = [L]
(ii) mv 2 = mgh  
2

Dimensions of all the terms in the given equation are Solution:

same. So, the given equation is dimensionally correct. (i) [LHS] = [T] = [T]
1 2 
1
(ii)  mv  = [M][LT-1]2 = [ML2T-2] ρr 3 
 = [ML ][L ]
−3 3 2
 2  [RHS] = K  
 S  −2
[mgh] = [M][LT-2][L] = [ML2T-2]   [MT ] 
The equation is dimensionally correct. = [T2]1/2 = [T] = [LHS]
The relation is dimensionally correct.
 Example 2.
(ii) [LHS] = [n] = [T-1]

The Poiseuille’s equation:
ed s.
1
π Pr 4 1 T 1  MLT −2  2
V= [RHS] =   =  
8 ηl  2l m  [L ]  ML−1 
rv er
ives the rate of flow (V) of a liquid flowing through a
g = 1 ⋅ [LT −1 ] = [ T −1 ] = [LHS]
[L ]
pipe of radius r and pressure gradient (P/l).
se sh
The relation is dimensionally correct.
.
Calculate the dimensions of coefficient of viscosity η.
(iii) [LHS] = [d] = [L]

Solution: Here,  mg l3 
re li
Volume [RHS] =  3 
V = Rate of flow of liquid =  4 bd Y 
Time
\
s ub [V] =
[L3 ]
[T]
= [L3T-1]
= [M ][LT −2 ][L ]3
[L ][L ]3 [ML−1T −2 ]
= [L ] = [LHS ]
P Pressure The equation is dimensionally correct.

ht P
= Pressure gradient =
l Length
 Example 4.
P −1 −2
[ML T ] = [ML-2T-2] The equation given below is the Vander Wall’s equation
\ l =
ig rn
  for a gas
[L ]  a
 P + 2  (V − b) = RT
r = Radius V
lr e
\ [r] = [L] here P is the pressure, V is the volume, R is the

w
universal gas constant and T is the temperature. Find
Al od
 π Pr 4  the dimensions of a/b.

Now, [h] =  
 8 lV   a
Solution: [P] =  2 
V 
−2 −2 4
= [ML T ][L ]
M

( only quantities of similar dimension can be added or
[L3T −1 ]
subtracted)
= [ML-1 T-1]
\ [a] = [PV2]
©
 Example 3. = [ML-1T-2] [L3]2

Check the dimensional correctness of the following = [ML5T-2]
equations:
ρr 3 [b] = [V] = [L3]
Similar,
(i) T = K where r is the density, r is the radius
S  a  ML5T −2  2 -2
\  b  =  L3  = [ML T ]
and S is the surface tension and K is a    
dimensionless constant and T is the time period of
oscillation.  Example 5.
Rule out or accept the following formula for displacement
1 T
(ii) n = , when n is the frequency of vibration, y of particle undergoing periodic motion on the basis of
2l m dimensional arguments:
l is the length of the string, T is the tension in the (i) a sin 2pt/T
string and m is the mass per unit length.
(ii) a cos vt
mgl 3 (iii) a sin (wt – kx)
(iii) d = , where d is the depression produced
4bd 3Y
where a = maximum displacement of the particle
in the bar, m is the mass of the bar, g is the
T = time period of motion
acceleration due to gravity, l is the length of the
bar, b is its breadth and d is its depth and Y is the t = time interval
Young’s modulus of the material of the bar. v = speed of particle

w = Angular speed of particle  Example 6.

k = displacement constant Find the dimensions of a × b in the given equation:
Solution: (i) y = a sin 2pt/T a t2

P= −
[LHS] = [y] = [L] bx b
On [RHS], [a] = [L] here P is the power, x is the distance and t is the
w
Also, for dimensional correctness, argument of sine time.
function should be dimensionless. Solution: [P] = [ML2 T-3]
 2πt  [T]
ed s.
0 0 0
 T  = [ T ] = [M L T ]  t2 
 
  = [P]
∴ [RHS] = [a] = [L] = [LHS] b
rv er
The formula is dimensionally acceptable for displacement.
⇒ [ T]2 = [ML2 T-3]
(ii) y = a cos vt
[ b]
se sh
[LHS] = [y] = [L]
.
[RHS] = [a] = [L] [ T ]2
-1 ⇒ [b] = = [M-1L-2 T5]
[vt] = [LT ] [T] = [L] 2
[ML T ] −3
re li
In this case, argument of the cosine function is
s ub
not dimensionless and hence the formula is not
acceptable.
(iii) a sin(wt - kx)
Also,
a
 bx  = [P]
 
[wt] = [T-1] [T] = [M0L0T0] ⇒ [a] = [P] [bx]

ht P

-1 0 0 0
[kx] = [L ] [L] = [M L T ] = [ML2 T-3] [M-1L-2 T5][L]
The argument of sine function is dimensionless. = [M0 L1T2]
ig rn
Also,
\ [a × b] = [M0 L1T2] [M-1L-2 T-5]
[RHS] = [a] = [L] = [LHS]
= [M-1L-1 T-3]
The formula is dimensionally acceptable.
lr e
Al od
10.2. Deriving Relation Among Physical Quantities

In some situations we can take help of method of dimensions to
formulate the relation among physical quantities. If we are aware that a
M
particular physical quantity is dependent on some other physical quantities

then we can follow the method of dimensional consistency to arrive at the
relation. But number of physical quantities must not be greater than
three. We need to take some example to understand this procedure.
©
In later chapters we shall learn that a net force named as centripetal

force (F) is required to move a particle of mass m, with speed v, in a
circle of radius r. We can easily guess that centripetal force required
must be somehow dependent on mass, speed and radius of the circle. To
start, let us assume the following equation:
F ∝ ma v b r c
Here a, b and c are the exponents or powers raised on mass, velocity
and radius, respectively to express the relation. Using the method of
dimensional consistency we need to calculate a, b and c to finalise the
relation. We can rewrite the above relation as follows:
F = k ma vb r c
Here k is a dimensionless constant and limitation of this method
is that we cannot say anything about k. Let us now write the above
specified equation in terms of dimensions.
[M1L1 T −2 ] = [M1 ]a [L1 T −1 ]b[L1 ]c
1 1 −2 a b+c − b
⇒ [M L T ] = [M L T ]

We can now equate dimensions on both the sides of the equation to

get the following equations:
a = 1 ...(1)
b + c = 1 ...(2)
-b = -2 ⇒ b = 2 ...(3)
Now using above equation (2) and (3), we get the following:
2 + c = 1 ⇒ c = -1
ed s.
Hence we can write the relation of force as follows:
F = k m v2 r-1
rv er
mv2
⇒ F = k
r
se sh
Here the value of k is 1, but proportionality constant like k, can
.
never be determined using method of dimensions. After using the value
of k we can write the above relation as follows:
re li
mv2
F=

s ub r
Let us take another simple example of time period of simple pendulum.
Time period (T) of the simple pendulum is given to be dependent on mass (m)
ht P
of the bob, length (l) of the thread and acceleration due to gravity (g).
Let us assume the following equation:
T = k malbgc
ig rn
Here k is proportionality constant, as used in the previous example

and a, b and c are the powers raised on physical quantities on which it is
lr e
dependent. Let us write this equation in terms of dimensions.

[M0L0T1] = [M1]a [L1]b [L1T-2]c
Al od
⇒ [M0L0T1] = [MaLb+c T-2c]

We can now equate the dimensions on both the sides of equation to
get the following relations:
M
a = 0 ...(1)
b + c = 0 ...(2)
©
-2c = 1 ⇒ c = -1/2...(3)
Substituting equation (3) in (2) we get
b + (-1/2) = 0 ⇒ b = 1/2.
Hence the relation of time period can be written as follows:
T = k l1/2g-1/2
l
⇒ T=k
g
Here also we cannot say anything about the value of k using method
of dimensions. In this case value of k is 2p and after knowing its value
we can write the relation of time period as follows:
l
T = 2π

g
Hence, method of dimensions can be helpful in formulating
relationship among physical quantities but there are limitations and
this method cannot be reliably used for this purpose. For example,

dimensional method cannot distinguish between physical quantities

having same dimensions. If we would have provided radius (r) of bob
instead of length of thread of pendulum then we would have got r instead
of l in the final result which would give an incorrect result. Apart from
this we already know that this method cannot tell anything about the
proportionality constant and moreover we cannot deal with more than
three physical quantities in the perspective of mechanics. Because in
mechanics all quantities can be expressed only in terms of M, L and
T and hence we cannot formulate more than three equations. But still
ed s.
method of dimensions becomes useful in many situations.
rv er
SOLVED EXAMPLES
se sh
.
 Example 1. \ T = Km0l1/2 g-1/2
A particle of mass m is moving with a velocity v in a
circle of radius r. Find an expression for the centripetal l l
= K = 2π [K = 2p]
re li
force F acting on it. g g

Then
s ub
Take dimensionless constant K = 1
Solution: Let F = kmavbrc = mavbrc [k = 1]  Example 3.
A planet revolves around the sun in a nearly circular
orbit. Assuming that its time period of revolution ‘T’
ht P
M1L1T-2 = [M]a[LT-1]b[L]c depends upon radius ‘r’ of the orbit, mass ‘M’ of the sun
= [MaLb+c T-b] and the gravitational constant ‘G’. Show that square of
‘T’ varies with the cube of the radius r.
ig rn
Comparing the exponents of M, L and T on both sides,

we get Solution: Let T = KraMbGc...(i)
a = 1, b + c = 1 where K is a dimensionless constant
lr e
b=2 Taking dimensions on both sides of equation (i), we get

[M0L0T1] = [L]a[M]b[M-1L3T-2]c
Al od
⇒ c = 1 - b = 1 - 2 = -1
mv2 Comparing the exponents of M, L and T on both sides,
\ F=
r we get
b - c = 0, a + 3c = 0, -2c = 1
M
This is the required expression.

−1
 Example 2. ⇒ c=
2
Consider a simple pendulum, having a bob attached
−1
©
to a string, that oscillates under the action of the force

b=c=
of gravity. Suppose that the period of oscillation of the 2
simple pendulum depends on its length (l), mass of
 −1 3
the bob (m) and acceleration due to gravity (g). Derive a = -3c = −3 ×   =
 2 2
the expression for its time period using methods of
dimensions. [N.C.E.R.T. Solved Example] ∴ T = Kr3/2 M-1/2 G-1/2
a b c
Solution: Given, T ∝ m l g
K 2r 3
or T = K malbgc...(i) or T2 =
MG
where K is a dimensionless constant = 2π (from
experiments) ⇒ T2 ∝ r3
Taking dimensions on both sides of equation (i), we get Hence proved.
[M0L0T1] = [M]a[L]b[LT-2]c
 Example 4.
= MaLb+c T-2c The surface tension ‘S’ of a liquid rising in a capillary
Comparing the exponents of M, L and T on both sides, tube is supposed to depend upon mass ‘m’ of the liquid,
we get pressure ‘p’ of the liquid and radius ‘r’ of the capillary
a = 0, b + c = 0, -2c = 1 or c = −1/2 tube. Obtain an expression for ‘S’ using the method of
1 dimensions.
b = -c =
2 Take dimensionless constant K = 1/2

Solution: S = Kmapbrc...(i) Comparing the exponents of M, L and T on both sides,

Force we get
Surface tension, S =
Length a + b = 1 ...(ii)
−2
\ [S] = [MLT ] = [MT−2] -b + c = 0 ...(iii)
[L ]
-2b = -2...(iv)
Force
Pressure, p= From (iv) b=1
Area
\ [p] = [MLT ] = [ML−1T−2]
−2 From (ii) a=1-b=1-1=0
ed s.
[L2 ] From (iii) b=c⇒c=1
[r] = [L] \ S = Km0p1r1
rv er
Taking dimensions on both sides of equation (i), we get
1
[M1L0T-2] = [M]a[ML-1T-2]b [L]c = pr
2
se sh
= [M]a+b [L]-b+c [T]-2b
.
10.3. Conversion of Unit from One System to Other
re li
While converting value of a certain physical quantity from one
s ub system to other, we must be aware of the fact that values in different
system of units are representing same amount of given physical entity.
Mathematically we can write it as follows:
Q = n1u1 = n2u2
ht P
Here u1 and u2 represent two different systems of units and n1 and
n2 are corresponding numbers to represent given amount of physical
ig rn
quantity. One simple example is 1 m = 100 cm, or 1 kg = 1000 g.

Suppose n1 is given for system of unit u1 and we have to calculate n2
for another system of unit u2. We observe the following method:
lr e
Here, u1 and u2 are written in terms of dimensions according to the

Al od
given physical entity. To differentiate between two different systems

of units we can use M1, L1, and T1 to represent fundamental units for
system 1 and M2, L2, and T2 for system 2. We can then proceed for the
calculation of n2 as follows:
M
u
n2 = n1 1 .
u2
M, L and T used in dimensional formula represent fundamental units
©
for mass, length and time respectively according to the system of unit.
For example, in case of MKS system, M represents 1 kg, L represents 1 m
and T represents 1 s. Similarly, for CGS system, M represents 1 g, L
represents 1 cm and T represents 1 s.
Let us learn this concept of conversion of units by taking an
example of energy. In previous classes you must have learned that
joule is MKS unit of energy and ergs is CGS unit of energy. We want
to convert 1 joule into equivalent value in ergs. We need dimensional
formula of energy for this conversion and earlier we have already
evaluated it as [ML2T-2].
Let u1 represent MKS system and u2 represent CGS; hence we shall
use subscript 1 to represent fundamental units of MKS system and 2 for
the CGS system.
n1u1 = n2u2
We want to calculate value of 1 joule in ergs and hence n1 = 1 and n2
is to be calculated. We can write the above equation as follows:
2 −2 2 −2
⇒ 1[M1L1 T1 ] = n2[M 2L 2 T2 ]

2 −2
M  L  T 
⇒ n2 =  1   1   1 
 M 2   L 2   T2 
2 −2
1 kg   1 m  1 s 
⇒ n2 =     
 1 g  1 cm  1 s 
2 −2
1000 g  100 cm  1 s 
⇒ n2 =     
ed s.
 1 g   1 cm  1 s 
⇒ n2 = (1000) × (100)2 = 107
rv er
Hence, 1 joule = 107 ergs
Let us take another example of force. We know that in MKS system
se sh
.
force is measured in Newton and in CGS system force is measured in
dynes. We want to calculate how many dynes are there in 1 newton.
We need dimensional formula of force for this conversion. Dimensional
re li
formula of force is [MLT-2]. Let us again assume that u1 represents
MKS and u2 represents CGS. We can proceed with the following
equation:

s ub n1u1 = n2u2
We have to calculate 1 Newton in Dynes hence, n1 = 1 and n2 is to be
ht P
calculated. We can write the above equation as follows:
1[M1L1 T1−2 ] = n2[M 2L 2 T2−2 ]
ig rn
−2
M  L  T 
⇒ n2 =  1   1   1 
 M 2   L 2   T2 
lr e
FORMULAE USED
−2
Al od
1 kg   1 m  1 s  For conversion of one system of

⇒ n2 =    
 1 g  1 cm  1 s  units into another we use
−2 nu
1000 g  100 cm  1 s  n2 = 1 1
M
n2 =  u2
⇒   
 1 g   1 cm  1 s  a b
 M   L  T 
c
5 n2 = n1  1   1   1 
⇒ n2 = (1000) × (100) = 10  M2   L2   T2 
©
Here u1 and u2 represent two

Hence, 1 newton = 105 dynes. different system of units.
For the conversion of units from one system to other we need n1 is the number for system of
dimensional formula of the corresponding physical quantity. unit u1.
Fundamental units of one system are related to the fundamental units of
n2 is the number for system of
other system and we need to know the conversion factors. For example, unit u2.
1 kg is same as 1000 g, or 1 m is same as 100 cm.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
 Example 1. m1, m2 = mass of two bodies exerting gravitational
The value of universal gravitational constant is
force on each other
6.6 × 10-11 Nm2 kg-2 in SI units. Find its value in the r = distance between the bodies
CGS system. Fr 2
mm \ G=
Solution: We know, F = G 1 2 2 m1m2
r
[MLT −2 ][L2 ]
⇒ [G] = = [M-1L3T-2]
where F = gravitational force [M ]2

Comparing with [MaLbTc], we have Force

(ii) Surface Tension =

a = -1, b = 3 and c = -2 Length
SI units CGS units MLT −2

= = MT-2
L
n1 = 6.6 × 10-11 n2 = ?
∴
a = 1, b = 0, c = -2
M1 = 1 kg M2 = 1 g = 10-3 kg
L1 = 1 m L2 = 1 cm = 10-2 m CGS units SI units
ed s.
T1 = 1 s T2 = 1 s n1 = 72 n2 = ?
rv er
M1 = 1 g M2 = 1000 g
a b c
M  L  T 
\ n2 = n1  1   1   1  L1 = 1 cm L2 = 100 cm
 M 2   L 2   T2 
se sh
.
T1 = 1s T2 = 1s
= 6.6 × 10−11[103 ]−1[102 ]3[1]−2
a b c
re li
= 6.6 × 10-11 × 10-3 × 106 M  L  T 
\ n2 = n1  1   1   1 
 M 2   L 2   T2 
s ub
 Example 2.
= 6.6 × 10-8 dyne cm2 g-2

1
 1   1  1 
= 72 
0 −2
Express the value of following quantities in their SI     

1000  100  1 
ht P
units.
(i) Power of electric lamp = 2 × 109 erg s-1 = 72 × 10-3 = 0.072
(ii) Surface tension of water = 72 dyne cm-1 ∴ Surface tension = 0.072 N m-1
ig rn
(iii) Stefan’s constant = 5.67 × 10-5 erg s-1 cm-2 K-4 (iii) Dimensional formula of Stefan’s constant
Energy = ML0 T-3 K-4 a = 1, b = 0, c = -3

lr e
Solution: (i) Power =

Time a
M  L  T 
b c
n2 = n1  1   1   1 
Al od

[ML2T −2 ]  M 2   L 2   T2 
= = [ML2T-3]
[T] 1 0 −3
 1 g   1 cm  1 s 
⇒ n2 = 5.67 × 10-5       K −4
M
∴
a = 1, b = 2, c = -3 1 kg  100 cm  1 s 
1
CGS units SI units  1g  −4
⇒ n2 = 5.67 × 10-5 1000 g  [1][1]K
 
©
n1 = 2 × 109 n2 = ?
M1 = 1 g M2 = 1 kg = 1000 g ⇒ n2 = 5.67 × 10-8

⇒ s = 5.67 × 10-8 Js-1 m-2 K-4
L1 = 1 cm L2 = 1 m = 100 cm
 Example 3.
T1 = 1 s T2 = 1 s If the units of force, energy and time are 20 N, 100 J and
10 s, find the units of mass and length.
a
M  L  T 
b c
Solution: [F] = [MLT-2] = 20 N ...(i)
\ n2 = n1  1   1   1  2 -2
 M 2   L 2   T2  [E] = [ML T ] = 100 J ...(ii)
[T] = 10 s ...(iii)
1 2 −3
9  1   1  1 
100
= 2 × 10       Dividing (ii) by (i), [L] = =5m
1000  100  1  20
= 2 × 109 × 10-3 × 10-4 [F ] 20 × (10) 2

Also, M= −2
=
[L ][ T ] 5
= 200
\ Power in SI units = 200 W
= 400 kg

PRACTICE PROBLEMS 3
1. How will you convert S.I. unit of energy (Joule) to C.G.S. unit of energy
(erg)?
2. A pebble is dropped into water by a boy. He observes that ripples are formed
in water. Velocity of ripples formed depends on the density of water (ρ),
 F
wavelength (λ) and surface tension  T =  . Derive the formula for velocity
 l
ed s.
of ripples.
3. Find the units of mass and length if the unit of force is Mega Newton, unit
rv er
of power is watt and unit of time is 1 microsecond.
4. The depth to which a bullet can penetrate inside a human body d which
 F
se sh
depends on the coefficient of elasticity  η =  and kinetic energy (E).
 A
.
Derive the relation between d, η and E.
5. Calculate the value of 1 Joule/sec. in a system having 10 g, 10 cm and 1 min.
re li
as fundamental units.
s ub
6. Assume that the mass of a stone moved by a river depends on the velocity,
density and acceleration due to gravity. Derive the dependence of mass on
these factors.
7. Assume that the frequency of a oscillating drop depends on the factors:
ht P
density (ρ), radius of drop (r) and surface tension (T) of liquid. Derive the
relation between these quantities.
ig rn
8. Check the accuracy of relation

p = ρ v n-3
p is linear momentum, ρ is density, v is velocity, n is frequency.
lr e
9. Check the accuracy of the relation

Al od
π Pr 4 Answers to Practice Problems

h=
8 lV
1. 1 J = 107 ergs
Here, P is pressure, V = rate of flow of liquid through a pipe, η is coefficient
M
T
of viscosity of liquid. 2. V=
λρ
10. Find the dimensions of resistance in terms of mass, length, time and current.
11. Check whether the following formula is correct or incorrect. 3. M = 106 Kg; L = 10-12 m
©
1
1
1 K −1 / 3  E 3
v= 3 4. d ∝ η E 3 or  
 η
λ d2
λ = wavelength, K is coefficient of volume elasticity, d is density of medium, 5. 216 × 106
v is the velocity of longitudinal wave. 6. m ∝ v6rg-3
12. The critical velocity (v) of flow of liquid through a pipe depends on the T
7. Frequency =
coefficient of viscosity of liquid (η), density (r) and radius of pipe (r). ρr 3
Derive the relation between these physical quantities. 8. The given equation is incorrect.
1
13. Find the dimensions of I, if the rotational kinetic energy is given by Iw2,
2 9. The relation is correct.
where w is angular velocity.
10. [ML2T-3I-2]
14. If velocity (V), force (F) and time (T) are taken as fundamental quantities,
find the dimensions of mass in terms of these quantities. 11. Incorrect
η
15. Check by the method of dimensions whether the given equation is correct or 12. v =
incorrect: ρr
1 mgl 13. I = [ML2]
n=
2π I
14. [F T V-1]
where n is the frequency, m is the mass, l is the length and I is the moment
of inertia. 15. The given relation is correct.

16. The distance covered by a particle in time t is given by

x = at + bt2 + ct3 + dt4
a c
Calculate the dimensions of and .
b d
17. Find the value of p in the relation
YLp
t=
cos θ
ed s.
where Y is the Young’s modulus, τ is torque and L is the length.
rv er
18. Find the dimensions of V in the equation
x 
y = A sin ω  − k
se sh
V 
.
19. Calculate the dimensions of x in the relation
re li
IFV 2
16. [T], [T] x=
Wl3
s ub
17. p = 3
18. [V] = [LT-1]
where W is work, l is length, F is force, V is velocity and I is moment of
inertia.
19. [MT-2]
ht P
20. Show that e0E2 has dimensions of pressure.
ig rn
Chapter Summary
lr e
Al od
Key Terms & Laws

M
 Unit: An internationally accepted reference standard of a quantity, which is of the same nature as the physical quantity
being measured is known as unit.
©
 Fundamental Units: Seven quantities, which are independent from each other, are required to express all the other
physical quantities. These are known as fundamental or base quantities and they are defined and expressed in terms of
a certain basic reference standard, known as fundamental or base units.
 Derived units: Quantities which can be expressed in terms of fundamental quantities are known as derived quantities
and their units can be expressed as a combination of fundamental units. Such units obtained for the derived quantities
are known as derived units.
 System of Units: A complete set of both the fundamental and derived units is known as system of units.
 SI system of units: An internationally accepted and universally used system of units, which is rational, coherent,
consistent and the most convenient system for scientific, technical, industrial and commercial work, in all branches of
science.
 Accuracy: Accuracy is the measure of degree or extent to which a measurement is close to the true value of the
measured quantity.
 Precision: Precision is the measure of limit or resolution to which a physical quantity is being measured by a measuring
device.
 Error: The uncertainty present in every measurement by any measuring instrument is known as error.
 Least Count: It is the value of smallest division on the scale of a measuring device that can be measured by that
device.

 Length, Mass, Time, Electric Current, Temperature, Amount of Substance and Luminous Intensity are
fundamental quantities, having metre, kilogram, second, ampere, Kelvin, mole and candela as their
respective fundamental units.
 SI system consists of seven base units, which are well defined on international standards. These are metre
(m), kilogram (kg), second (s), Ampere (A), Kelvin (K), mole (mol) and Candela (Cd).
 Apart from base units, certain derived SI units are expressed by SI units with special names. E.g. pascal
F (unit of pressure), newton (unit of force), farad (unit of capacitance), watt (unit of power), etc.
 For very small and large quantities, physical measurements are usually expressed in scientific notation,
ed s.
A
having power of 10. Scientific notations and prefixes simplify measurement notation and numerical
computation, which gives clear indication of the precision of the measured values.
rv er
 The size of objects we came across in universe vary over a wide range from 10−15 m (size of a neutron) to 1026 m
C (size of observable universe).
 Like sizes of objects, masses also vary over a wide range from 10−30 kg (mass of an electron) to 1055 kg (mass
se sh
T
.
of known universe).
 Every measurement of physical quantities is approximate due to experimental uncertainties or errors
S in measurement. Basically, errors can be classified as Systematic errors (errors that tend to be in one
re li
direction) and Random errors (errors that occur irregularly).
s ub
 For proper recording and computation of data, accuracy of measurement and precision of measuring
instrument, along with errors involved in measurements must be taken into account before expressing the
final result for the measured value.
ht P
 To describe the nature of physical quantities, dimensions of base quantities and their combinations are
used. With the help of dimensional analysis, one can check the dimensional consistency of equations, derive
relations among the physical quantities etc.
ig rn
RELATIONS
lr e
 Special units of length:

Al od
1. 1 fermi = 1 f = 1 × 10−15 m
2. 1 Angstrom = 1 Å = 1 × 10−10 m
3. 1 astronomical unit = 1 AU = 1.496 × 1011 m. It is the average distance of the sun from the earth.
M

4. 1 light year = 1 ly = 9.46 × 1015 m. It is the distance travelled by light in one year, with a velocity of 3 × 108 m/s.
5. 1 parsec = 3.08 × 1016 m. It is the distance at which average radius of earth’s orbit subtends an angle of one arc
second.
©
 1 unified atomic mass unit = 1 u = (1/12) of the mass of an atom of carbon-12 isotope including the mass of electrons
= 1.66 × 10−27 kg.
 Errors in Measurement: If a physical quantity is measured N times and measured values obtained are a1, a2, a3,
……, aN, then arithmetic mean of the measurement is
N
am = ∑ ai / N
i=1
1. Absolute error: For measurement a1, absolute error is given by
∆a1 = am − a1
It can be calculated similarly for other measurements.
2. Mean absolute error: For absolute errors, a1, a2, a3, ….aN in N measurements, mean absolute error is given by
N
∆a1 + ∆a2 + ........ + ∆aN
∆am = = ∑ ∆ai / N
N i=1
3. Relative error: It is given by:

∆am
δa =
am

4. Absolute error of a Sum or difference: For two measured quantities A and B with absolute errors ∆A and ∆B as
their respective absolute errors, error in a sum or difference is
± ∆X = ± ∆A ± ∆B
5. Relative error of a product or a quotient:
∆X  ∆A   ∆B 
= +
X  A   B 
6. Relative error in case of a measured quantity raised to a power:
ed s.
If X = AmBn/Cr, then
∆X  ∆A   ∆B   ∆C 
= m + n + r
X  A   B   C 
rv er
C onceptual
se sh
.
Q uestions
re li
s ub
Q.1. Length is one of the fundamental quantities. Justify this statement.
Ans. The length of an object is measured in metres. One metre is equal to the length of path travelled by light in vacuum
in time interval 1/299,792,458 of a second. Since the value is always same, it is a fundamental quantity.
ht P
Q.2. Mention some ways to keep a track of time.
Ans. Time can be measured with the help of some periodic phenomenon or events like oscillations of a pendulum, motion
of earth around the sun, motion of earth on its axis, etc.
ig rn
Q.3. How is one second measured?

Ans. It is measured as the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of radiation emitted during the transition in cesium 133
atom between two hyperfine levels. It is measured this way to assure accuracy and also the method is independent
lr e
of the external conditions like, place, temperature and pressure.

Al od
Q.4. Standard international units are coherent system of units. Comment.

Ans. S.I. system of units consists of all the fundamental units which can derive all the other physical units by multiplication
and division only. Thus it is coherent system of units.
Q.5. Mention some characteristics of standard international units.
M
Ans. (1) Standard international units are coherent systems of units.

(2) The system is also rational and only one unit is used in a particular type of physical quantity.
(3) Its multiple can be expressed in the power of 10.
©
Q.6. The distance between the sun and earth is one astronomical unit. Find the time taken by the sunlight
to reach the earth.
Ans. One astronomical unit = 1.5 × 1011 m

distance 1.5 × 1011 m
Time = = = 500 s = 8.33 min
speed 3 × 108 m/s
Q.7. What is Chandrasekhar limit?
Ans. It is the largest possible value of mass of a white dwarf star and is equal to nearly 1.4 times the mass of the sun.
Q.8. How solar day is different from sidereal day?
Ans. Solar day is the time interval between successive passage of the sun crossing the meridian in the sky. However, the
sidereal day is the time interval between successive passage of any star crossing the meridian or any other fixed
point in the sky.
Q.9. Why angular diameter of the sun and the moon in the sky is same?
d
Ans. Angular diameter of any object in the sky can be measured as: α =
D

Here d is the diameter of object and D is the distance between object and the earth.

In case of the moon and the sun, by coincidence, the ratio d : D is same for both and hence their angular diameter is
same in the sky.

Q.10. How many radians are there in one second?

Ans.  π 
1° = 60′ = 3600′′ = 
 180 
 π 
⇒ 1′′ =  = 4.8 × 10−6 rad
 3600 × 180 
Q.11. What is one light year?

Ans. One light year is a unit of distance and is equal to the distance travelled by light in one year.
ed s.
Q.12. Arrange the following units in increasing order of their value: One light year, one astronomical unit,
one parsec.
Ans. one astronomical unit < one light year < one parsec.
rv er
Q.13. How can we measure distance of star which is nearly 50 light years away from us? Can we measure the
distance from a star 150 light years away using the same method?
se sh
Ans. We can measure the distance of a star that is 50 light years away using parallax method. The star will be observed
.
from two different locations on earth and by measuring the distance between both the locations and angle subtended
by the star on both positions, the star distance can be calculated. This method cannot be used to measure a star
which is more than 100 light years as the accuracy of the result is not achieved. Thus, we cannot measure the star
re li
150 light years away from us using the same method.
s ub
Q.14. How are large time intervals measured?
Ans. Large time intervals are measured using carbon dating method. The time is measured by determining the ratio of
decayed radioactive atoms to remaining undecayed atoms.
ht P
Q.15. What is the smallest mass in our knowledge till date?
Ans. Electron is the elementary particle with smallest mass observed till date, i.e. of the order 10-30 kg.
Q.16. Mention the uses of dimensional equations.
ig rn
Ans. Dimensional equations are used to check the correctness of various relations or formulas.

These are also used to derive relations between physical quantities and converting one system of units to other.
lr e
BC 2
Q.17. In expression A = , the dimensions of A and C are [ ML−1T −2 ] and [ MLT −3 A −1 ] respectively. Find the
2
Al od
dimensions of B and identify it.

Ans. Here the dimensions of B can be calculated as:
M
BC 2
A=
2
⇒
2A
B= 2
C
©
⇒ [ML−1T −2 ]
[ B] = = [M −1L−3T 4 A 2 ]
[MLT −3 A −1 ]2
We can see that the B is the electric permittivity of free space.

Q.18. All the constants are not dimensionless. Explain.
Ans. The given statement is correct, all the constants are not dimensionless. Constants like gravitational constant,
Planck’s constant, etc. have dimensions.
Q.19. What is the dimension of Reynold number?
Ans. It is a dimensionless quantity.
Q.20. How can we reduce least count error of any instrument?
Ans. It can be reduced by increasing the resolution and avoiding the errors during experiments.
Q.21. How can we reduce the random errors in an experiment?
Ans. Random errors can be decreased by increasing the number of times the reading is taken. Taking many readings and
using their mean in the final calculation can reduce the random errors in a result.
Q.22. How accuracy and precision in an experiment are different?
Ans. Accuracy is the measure of the closeness of the measured value to the standard value. However, precision in
any experiment depends on the least count of the instrument used and refers to the closeness of two or more
measurements to each other.

abz2
Q.23. In the given expression X = , which physical quantity should be measured more accurately to give
h3
the most accurate answer?
Ans. Since the power of h is highest, it should be measured most accurately to give accurate answer.
Q.24. How many significant digits are in 71450000?
Ans. There are four significant digits only.
abz2
Q.25. A physical quantity, U can be measured as U = . Write the expression for finding the relative error
h3
ed s.
in U.
∆U ∆a ∆b ∆z ∆h
Ans. Relative error in U can be measured as: = + +2 +3
U a b z h
rv er
Q.26. Which is more accurate 8.0 or 8.00?
Ans. Since 8.00 is correct to second place of decimal as compared to 8.0, which is correct only to first place of decimal, 8.00
se sh
is more accurate.
.
Q.27. How many significant digits are there in 0.008?
Ans. One
re li
Tough & Tricky
s ub PROBLEMS
ht P
Problem 1. What is the value of G in CGS system Problem 3. A Vernier caliper is used to measure
if it is 6.67 × 10-11 in MKS system? the diameter of a cylindrical rod. Zero of the
Solution Dimensional formula of G = [M-1L3T-2] Vernier scale is found to lie between 4.15 cm and
ig rn
4.20 cm of the main scale. Vernier scale has 50

Let n1 and n2 are the values of G in MKS and CGS divisions which are equivalent to 2.45 cm. The 36th
system and let u1 and u2 represent MKS and CGS division of Vernier scale matches with one of the
system, respectively.
lr e
main scale divisions. What is the diameter of rod?

n1u1 = n2u2 Solution It is given that zero of Vernier scale lies
Al od
⇒ n1[M1−1L31T1−2 ] = n2[M 2−1L32T2−2 ] between 4.15 cm and 4.20 cm. Hence, length of one main
scale division can be written as follows:
1 3 2
M  L  T  1 MSD = 4.20 - 4.15 = 0.05 cm
⇒ n2 = n1  2   1   2 
 M1   L 2   T1 
M
50 divisions of Vernier scale is equivalent to 2.45 cm.

1 3 2 Hence, length of one Vernier scale division can be written
⇒  1 g  100 cm  1 s 
n2 = (6.67 × 10−11 )       as follows:
1000 g   1 cm  1 s 
1 VSD = 2.45 = 0.049 cm
©

⇒ n2 = (6.67 × 10 −11
) × 10 3 50
Least count is defined as difference in length of main
⇒ n2 = 6.67 × 10 −8 scale and Vernier scale division.
Problem 2. Dimensions of length are expressed LC = 1 MSD - 1 VSD = 0.05 - 0.049 = 0.001 cm.
as Gacbhc. Find the values of a, b and c. Zero of the Vernier scale lies between 4.15 cm and 4.20 cm.
Solution Hence, main scale reading (MSD) is 4.15 cm. It is given
that 36th division of Vernier scale matches with some
[M0LT0] = [G]a[c]b[h]c
division of main scale. So, reading of the Vernier caliper
⇒ [M0LT0] = [M-1L3T-2]a[LT-1]b[ML2T-1]c can be written as follows:
⇒ [M0LT0] = [M-a+cL3a+b+2cT-2a-b-c] d = MSR + VSR × LC

On comparing dimensions on both sides.
⇒ d = 4.15 + 36 × 0.001 = 4.186 cm
-a + c = 0 …(i)
Problem 4. The potential energy of a particle
3a + b + 2c = 1 …(ii)
-2a - b - c = 0 …(iii) depends on its x-coordinates as U = A x , where
On solving the equations (i), (ii) and (iii) we get the x2 + B
following: A and B are dimensional constants. What will be
a = ½, b = - / and c = ½.
32 the dimensional formula for A/B?

Solution zeroes are added after it which do not affect number

of significant digits.
A x
U= Hence, we can write the number as 2500.
x2 + B
(b) We can simply drop last two digits after decimal
In denominator, B is added with x2. So, dimensions of B point so that only two significant digits are retained.
must be same as that of x2. Hence, we can write the number as 76.
[B] = [x2] = [L2] (c) We need to drop last digit which is 5 to retain two
Further we can write the following: significant digits and the preceding digit is 7 which
ed s.
[A x] is an odd number hence it will be increased by one.
[U ] =
[ x 2 + B] Hence, we can write the number as 3.8.
rv er
(d) We need to drop last digit 5 to retain two significant
⇒ [ A ][L1 / 2 ]
[ML2T −2 ] = digits and the preceding number is 6 which is an
[L2 ] even number; so it will remain the same.
se sh
⇒ [ A ] = [ML7 / 2T −2 ]
.
Hence, we can write the number as 16.
Hence, we can write dimensions of A/B as follows: Problem 6. N divisions on Vernier scale match
 A with N – 1 divisions on mains scale. If one main
re li
3/ 2 −2
 B  = [ML T ]
  scale division (MSD) is of x units, then find least
s ub
Problem 5. Round off the following numbers up
to 2 significant digits.
count of the instrument.
Solution Let 1 MSD be x
 N − 1
One Vernier scale division (VSD) =  x
 N 
ht P
(a) 2462 (b) 76.14 (c) 3.75 (d) 16.5
Solution Least count (LC) = 1 MSD -1 VSD

(a) Digits to be dropped are 6 and 2. Hence, the  N − 1 x
ig rn
⇒ LC = x −  x=
preceding digit 4 should be increased by one and two N  N
lr e
Al od
M

©
2.1. Fill in the blanks: A = 2pr2 + 2prh = 2pr (r + h)

(a) The volume of a cube of side 1 cm is equal r = 2 cm =20 mm, h = 10 cm = 100 mm
to ........ m3. 22
∴ A = 2 × × 20 (20 + 100)
(b)
The surface area of a solid cylinder of 7
radius 2.0 cm and height 10.0 cm is equal = 15086 mm2
to ........... (mm)2.
≈ 1.5 × 104 mm2
(c) A vehicle moving with a speed of 18 km/h
covers ......... m in 1s. 18 × 1000
(c) 18 km h-1 = = 5 m s-1
(d)
The relative density of lead is 11.3. Its 60 × 60
density is ......... g cm-3 or ............. kg m-3. The distance covered by the vehicle in 1 second
Ans. (a) As length of the side = 1 cm =5m
The volume of a cube of side 1 cm is equal to (d) The relative density of lead = 11.3.
= 1 × 1 × 1 cm3 density =11.3 g cm-3 or 11300 kg m-3.
1 g = 10-3 kg, 1 cm = 10-2 m
3
 1  ∴ 11.3 g cm-3 = 11.3 (10-3 kg) (10-2 m)-3
= 1 ×  m 3 = 10-6 m3.
 100  = 11.3 × 10-3 × 106 kg m-3
(b) Total surface area of a solid cylinder, = 11.3 × 103 kg m-3 = 1.13 × 104 kg m-3

2.2. Fill in the blanks by suitable conversion of 2.4. Explain this statement clearly:
units: “To call a dimensional quantity ‘large’ or ‘small’
(a) 1 kg m2 s-2 = .......... g cm2 s-2 is meaningless without specifying a standard
for comparison”. In view of this, reframe the
(b) 1 m = .......... ly
following statements wherever necessary:
(c) 3.0 ms-2 = .......... kmh-2
(a) atoms are very small objects
(d) G = 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2 (kg)-2 = .... (cm)3 s-2 g-1 (b) a jet plane moves with great speed
Ans. (a) 1 kg m2 s-2 = 1 (103 g) (102 cm)2 s-2 (c) the mass of Jupiter is very large
= 107 g cm2 s-2. (d) the air inside this room contains a large
ed s.
(b) As 1 light year = 9.46 × 10 15
m, therefore, number of molecules
(e) a proton is more massive than an electron
1 m = 1/9.46 × 10 15
= 1.057 × 10-16 light year
rv er
(f) the speed of sound is much smaller than
10-16 light year
the speed of light.
−2 Ans. The statement is true because a quantity can be
se sh
 1  1 
(c) 3 ms-2 = 3  km  hr
.
 1000   (60 × 60)  small or large only in comparison to some standard.
(a) Atoms are very small objects of the order of 10-10
= 3.888 × 104 km h-2 m and the size of atom is less than the sharp tip
re li
= 3.9 × 104 km h-2 of a pin.
(d)

s ub G = 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2 (kg)-2
G = 6.67 × 10-11 (105 dyne) (100 cm)2
(1000 g)-2
(b) A jet plane moves with great speed even faster
than the superfast train.
(c)
The mass of Jupiter is many times large as
compared to the mass of earth.
ht P
-8 2 -2
= 6.67 × 10 dyne cm g
-8
(d) The air inside this room contains larger number
= 6.67 × 10 g cm s-2 cm2 g-2 of molecules than in one mole of air.
= 6.67 × 10-8 cm3 s-2 g-1. (e) The statement is already correct. A proton is
ig rn
2.3. A calorie is a unit of heat or energy and it 1840 times massive than that of an electron.
equals about 4.2 J where 1 J = 1 kg m2 s-2. (f) The statement is already correct.
Suppose we employ a system of units in which
lr e
2.5. A new unit of length is chosen such that the

the unit of mass equals a kg, the unit of length
speed of light in vacuum is unity. What is the
equals b m, the unit of time is g s. Show that a
Al od
distance between the Sun and the Earth in

calorie has a magnitude 4.2 a-1 b-2 g+2 in terms
terms of the new unit if light takes 8 min and
of the new units.
20 s to cover this distance?
Ans. Let n1, n2 be the numerical values when the
Ans. As speed of light in vacuum, c = 1 new unit of length
M
fundamental units are (M1, L1, T1) and (M2, L2, T2)
× s-1
respectively, then
Time taken by light to cover the distance between
n1 u1 = n2 u2 the sun and the earth, t = 8 min and 20 s = 500 s
n1[M1a L1b T1c] = n2[M2a L2b T2c]
©
Hence the distance between the sun and the earth =

where a, b, c are the dimensions of C in terms of d = c × t = 1 new unit of length × s-1 × 500 s = 500 new
mass, length and time respectively. unit of length
As 1 cal = 4.2 J = 4.2 kg m2 s-2 2.6. Which of the following is the most precise
device for measuring length:
∴ a = 1, b = 2, c = -2
(a)
a vernier callipers with 20 divisions on
M1 = 1 kg, L1 = 1 m, T1 = 1 s the sliding scale.
M2 = a kg, L2 = b m, T2 = g s (b)
a screw gauge of pitch 1 mm and 100
(Units in new system) divisions on the circular scale.

Here, n1 = 4.2 (c)
an optical instrument that can measure
length to within a wavelength of light?
a b c
M  L  T  Ans. The device having minimum least count is the most
n2 = ? n2 = n1  1   1   1 
 M 2   L 2   T2  precise device for measuring length
(a) Least count of vernier callipers
1 2 −2
 1 kg   1 m   1 s  = 1 M.S.D. - 1 V.S.D.
= 4.2 
 α kg   β m   γ s 
 19 
=  1 −  MSD
n2 = 4.2 a -1 -2 +2
b g  20 
Hence the result follows. = 0.005 cm

(b) Least count of screw gauge (c) Yes, it is true that when we take a large number
of observations say (100) and then take their
pitch
= mean value for the result, the random errors are
total number of divisions on the circular scale greatly reduced as compared to the case when
= 0.001 cm we take only five observations and then take
(c) Wavelength of light l = 10-6 cm = 0.000001 cm their mean. Therefore, the result is more reliable
when we take a set of 100 measurements than a
Hence, an optical instrument that can measure set of 5 measurements only.
length to within a wavelength of light (which
is approx. equal to 10-6 m) is the most precise 2.9. The photograph of a house occupies an area
of 1.75 cm2 on a 35 mm slide. The slide is
ed s.
device for measuring length.
projected on to a screen, and the area of the
2.7. A student measures the thickness of a house on the screen is 1.55 m2. What is the
rv er
human hair by looking at it through a linear magnification of the projector-screen
microscope of magnification 100. He makes arrangement?
20 observations and finds that the average Area of image
width of the hair in the field of view of the Ans. Magnification of area =
se sh
Area of object
.
microscope is 3.5 mm. What is the estimate
of the thickness of hair? 1.55 × 100 × 100
=
Ans. Magnification = observed width/real width 1.75
re li
observed width = 3.5 mm = 8857
s ub
Magnification = 100
real width =
3.5 mm
= 0.035 mm.
Linear magnification = 8857 = 94.1
2.10. State the number of significant figures in the
following:
100
ht P
(a) 0.007 m2
Hence, thickness of hair = 0.035 mm.
(b) 2.64 × 1024 kg
2.8. Answer the following:
(c) 0.2370 g cm-3
ig rn
(a) You are given a thread and a metre scale.

How will you estimate the diameter of this (d) 6.320 J
thread? (e) 6.032 Nm-2
lr e
(b) A screw gauge has a pitch of 1.0 mm and (f) 0.0006032 m2

200 divisions on the circular scale. Do
Al od
you think it is possible to increase the Ans. (a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 4 (e) 4 (f) 4.
accuracy of the screw gauge arbitrarily by
2.11. The length, breadth and thickness of a
increasing the number of divisions on the rectangular sheet of metal are 4.234 m, 1.005 m
circular scale? and 2.01 cm respectively. Give the area and
M
(c) The mean diameter of a thin brass rod is to volume of the sheet to correct significant
be measured by vernier callipers. Why is a figures.
set of 100 measurements of the diameter Ans. Length (l) = 4.234 m, Breadth (b) = 1.005 m,
expected to yield a more reliable estimate Thickness (t) = 0.0201 m
©
than a set of 5 measurements only?

Area = 2 (lb + bt + tl)
Ans. (a) The diameter of the thread is very small and
cannot be measured by a metre scale. Wind the = 2 (4.234 × 1.005 + 1.005 × 0.0201 +
thread in close turns on the metre scale. These 0.0201 × 4.234)
turns are closely touching each other. Count the = 2 [4.255 + 0.0211 + 0.0889]
number of turns. Find the average length of the
As area can contain maximum of three significant
coiled thread on the metre scale. Divide this
figures
average length by the number of turns.
∴ Area = 8.73 m2
Average length
Thus, diameter of the thread = . Volume of the sheet = l × b × t
Number of turns
= 4.234 × 1.005 × 0.0201
(b) Yes, the accuracy of the gauge can be increased
by increasing the number of divisions on the = 0.0855 m3
circular scale because when number of turns As volume can also contain maximum of three
increases, the least count of the instrument significant figures
becomes less.
∴ Volume = 0.0855 m3
Because, Least count
2.12. The mass of a box measured by a grocer’s
Pitch balance is 2.300 kg. Two gold pieces of
=
Number of division on the circular scale masses 20.15 g and 20.17 g are added to the

box. What is (a) the total mass of the box, (b) (a) The relation is correct because 2pt/T = T/T = 1
the difference in the masses of the pieces to (dimensionless) and the dimensions of y and a
correct significant figures? are same.
Ans. (a) Total mass of box = 2.300 + 0.02015 + 0.02017 (b) Dimensions of vt = [L1 T-1 × T1] = [L1]. But vt
= 2.34032 kg = 2.3 kg should be dimensionless. Therefore, the relation
(correct up to one decimal place) is wrong.
(b) Difference in the masses of pieces (c) The relation is not correct because y and
= 20.17 - 20.15 = 0.02 g (a/T) have different dimensions and t/a is not
(correct upto one decimal place) dimensionless.
ed s.
2πt
2.13. A physical quantity P is related to four (d) Here the angle is dimensionless and the
observables a, b, c and d as follows: T
rv er
a 3 b2 dimensions on both sides of the equation are
P = equal  Therefore, it is dimensionally correct.
cd
2.15. A famous relation in physics relates ‘moving
se sh
The percentage errors of measurement in a,
mass’ m to the ‘rest mass’ m0 of a particle in
.
b, c and d are 1%, 3%, 4% and 2% respectively.
terms of its speed v and the speed of light, c.
What is the percentage error in the quantity
P? If the value of P calculated using the above (This relation first arose as a consequence
re li
relation turns out to be 3.763, to what value of special relativity theory due to Albert
should you round off the result? Einstein.) A boy recalls the relation almost
Ans. As
s ub P =
a3b2
c1 / 2 d
correctly but forgets where to put the constant c.
He writes:
m0
∆P 3∆a 2∆b 1 ∆c ∆d m=
. Guess where to put the missing c.
ht P
= + + + (1 − v2 )1/ 2
P a b 2 c d
∆P  3∆a 2∆b 1 ∆c ∆d  Ans. According to the principle of homogeneity
∴ × 100 =  + + +  × 100
 a d
ig rn
P b 2 c The dimensions on left side of an equation = The

∆a 1 ∆b 3 ∆c 4 ∆d 2 dimensions on the right side of an equation.
= ; = , = , =
a 100 b 100 c 100 d 100 Hence, to make the dimensions on both the sides of
lr e
∆P 1 equation equal, the denominator must be

So × 100 = 3 + 2 × 3 + ×4+2 dimensionless, ∴ instead of (1 − v2 )1/2 factor at the
P 2
Al od
denominator, there should be v2/c2.

 ∆a 
  × 100 = 1 and so on m0
a  ∴ m = 1/ 2
 v2 
= 3 + 6 + 2 + 2 = 13
M
 1 −
 c2 
∴ Percentage error in P = 13%
As the result (13%) have only 2 significant figures, 2.16. The unit of length convenient on the atomic
therefore, if P = 3.763, then the result should be scale is known as an angstrom, and is denoted
©
rounded off to 3.8. by Å : 1 Å = 10-10 m. The size of a hydrogen

atom is about 0.5 Å.What is the total atomic
2.14. A book with many printing errors contains four volume in m3 of a mole of hydrogen atoms?
different formulas for the displacement y of a
particle undergoing a certain periodic motion: Ans. Volume of 1 atom of hydrogen
2πt = 4/3 pr3 = 4/3 × 3.14 × (0.5 × 10-10)3
(a) y = a sin
T As one mole of hydrogen has 6.02 × 1023 atoms
(b) y = a sin vt ∴ Total atomic volume = 6.02 × 1023 × 4/3 × 3.14 ×
(c) y = (a/T) sin t/a 0.125 × 10-30
(d) y = (a 2 ) (sin 2pt/T + cos 2pt/T.) ∴ Atomic volume = 3.151 × 10-7 m3 ≅ 3 × 10-7 m3
[a = maximum distance of the particle, v =
2.17. One mole of an ideal gas at standard
speed of particle. T = Time period of motion]. temperature and pressure occupies 22.4
Rule out the wrong formulas on dimensional litres (molar volume). What is the ratio of
grounds. molar volume to the atomic volume of a mole
Ans. According to the principle of homogeneity, of hydrogen? (Take the size of hydrogen
molecule to be about 1 Å). Why is this ratio so
The dimensions on left side of an equation = The large?
dimensions on the right side of an equation. Also
Ans. Molar volume = 22.4 litres = 22.4 × 10-3m3
the argument of sine or cosine function must be
dimensionless dimensionally. (1 litre = 10-3 m3)

4 3 As l = 1.5 × 1011 m
Volume of 1 atom of hydrogen = pr
3 l
θ =
4 d
= × 3.14 × (0.5 × 10-10)3
3 l
d =
4 θ
= × 3.14 × 0.125 × 10-30 m3
3 1.5 × 1011
=
Volume of 1 mole of hydrogen atoms π / 180 × 3600
ed s.
4 d = 3.09 × 1016 m
= 6.02 × 1023 × × 3.14 × 0.125 × 10-30 m3
3 1 parsec is equal to 3.09 × 1016 m
rv er
4 2.20. The nearest star to our solar system is 4.29 light
= 6.02 × 0.125 × × 3.14 × 10-7 m3
3 year away. How much is this distance in terms
of parsec? How much parallax would this star
= 3.1 × 10-7 m3
se sh
(named Alpha Centauri) show when viewed
.
Molar volume from two locations on the Earth six months
∴
Atomic volume of a mole of hydrogen apart in its orbit around the sun?
Ans. As distance, d = 4.29 light years
re li
22.4 × 10 −3 m 3
=  7.2 × 10 4 = 4.29 × 9.46 × 1015 m
s ub 3.1 × 10 −7 m 3
This ratio is so large because inter-atomic separation
in a gas is much larger than the size of a atom.
=
4.29 × 9.46 × 1015
3.00 × 1016
parsec
ht P
2.18. Explain this common observation clearly: If = 1.317 parsec 1.32 parsec
you look out of the window of a fast-moving A parsec distance subtends a parallax angle of 1′′
train, the nearby trees, houses, etc. seem to for a base equal to radius of earth's orbit around the
move rapidly in a direction opposite to the
ig rn
sun. In present case, base is the distance between

train’s motion, but the distant objects (hill two locations of earth six months apart, i.e. l = 2AU
tops, the Moon, the stars, etc.) seem to be
Parallax angle subtended by 1 parsec distance = 2
stationary. In fact, since you are aware that
lr e
you are moving, these distant objects seem to second (by definition)
move with you. Parallax angle subtended by the star at given base,
Al od
θ = 1.32 × 2 = 2.64′′
Ans. Apparent distance moved by objects opposite to
motion of train is proportional to the visual angle 2.21. Precise measurements of physical quantities
are a need of science. For example, to
formed by two positions of object on our eyes. This
ascertain the speed of an aircraft, one must
M
visual angle is smaller for distant objects and thus

have an accurate method to find its positions
objects very far off from observer seem stationary.
at closely separated instants of time. This
2.19. The principle of ‘parallax’ in Section 3.1 (Refer was the actual motivation behind the
to Fig. 3.1) page 5 is used in the determination discovery of radar in World War II. Think of
©
of distances of very distant stars. The role of different examples in modern science where
distant object O there is now taken by nearby precise measurements of length, time, mass
distant stars. The baseline AB is the line joining etc. are needed. Also, wherever you can,
the earth’s two locations six months apart in give a quantitative idea of the precision
its orbit around the Sun. That is, the baseline needed.
is about the diameter of the earth’s orbit = 3 × Ans. (a) Precise measurements of length are made while
1011 m. However, even the nearest stars are so finding the thickness of cornea for curing eye
distant that with such a long baseline they show problems, another example is measurement of
parallax only of the order 1′′ (second) of arc or
fringe system to Michelson-Morley experiment
so. A parsec is a convenient unit of length on
(∼ 10-6 m).
the astronomical scale. It is the distance of an
object that will show a parallax of 1′′ (second) (b) Precise measurements of time are done in
of arc from opposite ends of a baseline equal cesium clock, and we can use these clocks to
to the distance from the Earth to the Sun. How measure time taken by an electron to complete
much is a parsec in terms of metres? an orbit around the nucleus (10-15 s).
Ans. l = Distance between the sun and earth = length of (c) Precise measurements of mass is done in
baseline AB= 1 AU = 1.5 × 1011 m measuring the masses of isotopes, mass of an
electron, etc. Mass spectrometry is a technique
1° π 1 used to measure mass of charged particles.
θ = Parallax angle = 1′′ = = × radian
3600 180 3600
2.22. Just as precise measurements are necessary
d = 1 parsec = ? in science, it is equally important to be able

to make rough estimates of quantities using Suppose the wind starts blowing towards right,
rudimentary ideas and common observations. the balloon shifts to position Q in one second.
Think of ways by which you can estimate Let q be angle of shift.
the following: (where an estimate is difficult
h = height of balloon from ground
to obtain, try to get an upper bound on the
quantity). ∴ Distance travelled by wind in 1 sec. = PQ = x = hq
(a) the total mass of rain-bearing clouds over This is wind speed.
India during the Monsoon
(d) Let area of our head = A
(b) the mass of an elephant
ed s.
Let thickness of hair = 2t (diameter)
(c) the wind speed during a storm
\ area of cross section of hair = pt2
(d)
the number of strands of hair on your
rv er
head No. of strands of hair, n
(e)
the number of air molecules in your total area
=
classroom. area of cross section of each hair
se sh
.
Ans. (a) Let the average rainfall recorded during A
monsoon = h = 100 cm = 1 m =
πt 2
Let Area of our country = A
re li
(e) Let volume of room = V
Volume = V = A × h
Let one mole of air occupy a volume of 22.4 litres
s ub
density of water = r
Here, A = 3.3 million sq km
6 2 12 2
= 22.4 × 10-3 m3
No. of molecules in 22.4 × 10-3 m3 = 6.023 × 1023
= 3.3 × 10 km = 3.3 × 10 m
ht P
6.023 × 1023
r = 1000 kg/m 3 No. of molecules in V m3 = ×V
22.4 × 10−3
\ Mass of rain-bearing clouds = Arh
= 2.68 × 1025 V
ig rn
= 3.3 × 1012 × 1000 × 1

2.23. The Sun is a hot plasma (ionised matter)
= 3.3 × 1015 kg with its inner core at temperature exceeding
(b) To find the mass of an elephant, take a boat of 107 K, and its outer surface at a temperature of
lr e
area A. about 6000 K. At these high temperatures no

substance remains in a solid or liquid phase.
Al od
Let depth of boat in water = d1 In what range do you expect the mass density
\ Volume of water displaced by boat V1 = Ad1 of the Sun to be? In the range of densities
of solids and liquids or gases? Check if your
Let the elephant moves in the boat
guess is correct from the following data:
M
Now, depth of boat inside water = d2 mass of the Sun = 2.0 × 1030 kg, radius of the
Volume of water displaced by boat and elephant Sun = 7.0 × 108 m.
= V2 = Ad2 Ans. Radius of the sun = 7.0 × 108 m.
©
Volume of water displaced by elephant Volume = 4/3 pr3

= V = V2 - V1 = 4/3 × 3.14 × (7.0 × 108)3
= A(d2 - d1) = 4/3 × 3.14 × 49 × 7 × 1024
density of water = r Mass of the sun = 2.0 × 1030 kg
Mass of elephant = Ar(d2 - d1) M 2.0 × 1030 × 3
Density = =
(c) The wind speed during a storm can be calculated V 4 × 3.14 × 49 × 7 × 1024
by using a gas filled ballon.
3000 × 103
=
2 × 3.14 × 49 × 7
= 1.393 × 103 kg m-3

= 1.4 × 103 kg m-3

Mass density of the sun should be 1.4 × 103 kg m-3.
The mass density of the sun is in the range
of densities of solids and not gases. This high
density of the hot plasma arises due to inward
Let OP = Normal position of balloon when there gravitational attraction on outer layers due to
is no wind. layers of the sun.

2.24. When the planet Jupiter is at a distance of Distance of Jupiter from earth
824.7 million km from the earth, its angular = 824.7 million km
diameter is measured to be 35.72 s of arc.
Calculate the diameter of Jupiter. = 824.7 × 106 km
D
Ans. Angular separation, a = 35.72 s a =
d
= 35.72 × 4.85 × 10-6 rad D = 173.2 × 10-6 × 824.7 × 106
-6
= 173.24 × 10 rad. = 1.428 × 105 km
ed s.
NCERT Additional Exercises
rv er
2.25. A man walking briskly in rain with speed v 4
must slant his umbrella forward making an = × 3.14 × (2.5 × 10-10)3
se sh
3
.
angle q with the vertical. A student derives
the following relation between q and v : tan q 4
= × 3.14 × 15.63 × 10-30 m3
= v and checks that the relation has a correct 3
re li
limit, as v → 0, q → 0, as expected. (We are
Mass of 6.02 × 1023 atoms of sodium = 23 × 10-3 kg
assuming there is no strong wind and that the
s ub
rain falls vertically for a stationary man). Do
you think this relation can be correct? If not,
guess the correct relation.
Mass of 1 atom of sodium =
Density =
M
23 × 10−3
6.02 × 1023
kg
Ans. Because L.H.S. is dimensionless V

ht P
whereas R.H.S. = v = [M0LT-1] 23 × 10−3 3
= ×
Dimension of L.H.S. is not equal to dimension of R.H.S 6.02 × 1023 4 × 3.14 × 15.63 × 10−30
ig rn
To make the relation correct 69 × 104

= kg m-3
v 6.02 × 4 × 3.14 × 15.63
We should have tan q =
lr e
u
≈ 0.6 × 103 kg m-3
Here u is speed of rainfall.
Al od
The two densities are not of the same order due to

2.26. It is claimed that two cesium clocks, if interatomic spacing in crystalline phase of sodium.
allowed to run for 100 years, free from any
disturbance, may differ by only about 0.02 s. 2.28. The unit of length convenient on the nuclear
What does this imply for the accuracy of the scale is a fermi, 1 f = 10-15 m. Nuclear sizes
M
standard cesium clock in measuring a time- obey roughly the following empirical relation
interval of 1 s? r = r0 A1/3 where r is the radius of the nucleus,
A is its mass number and r0 is a constant equal
Ans. Total time = 100 years
to about 1.2 f. Show that the rule implies that
©
= 100 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 s nuclear mass density is nearly constant for

Error in 100 years is 0.02 s different nuclei. Estimate the mass density of
sodium nucleus. Compare it with the average
0.02 mass density of a sodium atom in Q 2.27.
Error in 1 sec. is
100 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 Ans. Radius of nucleus, r = r0 A1/3
4 4
= 6.34 × 10-12 Volume of the nucleus, V = pr3 = pr03 A
3 3
Therefore, the accuracy of cesium clock in 1 part is 1012
According to Avogadro’s hypothesis,
2.27. Estimate the average mass density of a
sodium atom assuming its size to be about Mass of 6.02 × 1023 atoms of sodium = A g
2.5 Å. (Use the known values of Avogadro’s = A × 10-3 kg
number and the atomic weight of sodium). A × 10−3
Compare it with the density of sodium in its Mass of 1 atom of sodium = kg
6.02 × 1023
crystalline phase; 970 kg m-3. Are the two
densities of the same order of magnitude? If mass
so, why? Density of nucleus =
volume
Ans. Size of atom = 2.5 × 10-10 m
A × 10−3
4 = kg m-3
4
Volume of atom = pr3 23 3
6.02 × 10 × πr0 A
3 3

10−3 = 9 × 365 × 24 × 36 × 1016

= kg m-3
4 −15 3 = 2.8 × 1022 km
6.02 × 1023 × π (1.2 × 10 )
3 2.32. It is a well-known fact that during a total solar
= 0.3 × 10 18 -3
kg m . eclipse the disc of the moon almost covers
the disc of the sun. Find the approximate
This is independent of mass number, hence mass diameter of the Moon.
density is same for different nuclei.
Ans.
Mass density of sodium nucleus = 0.3 × 1018 kg m-3
mass density of sodium atom = 0.6 × 103 kg m-3
ed s.
Mass density of sodium nucleus/mass density of
0.3 × 1018 kg m −3
rv er
sodium atom =  0.5 × 1015
0.6 × 103 kg m −3 Distance (ME) of earth from the moon = 3.8 × 108 m

2.29. A LASER is a source of very intense, Distance (SE) of earth from the sun = 1.496 × 1011 m
se sh
monochromatic and unidirectional beam of Diameter of the sun = PQ = 1.38 × 109 m
.
light. These properties of a laser light can During solar eclipse, the disc of the moon completely
be exploited to measure long distances. The covers the disc of the sun.
distance of the Moon from the Earth has been
re li
already determined very precisely using a  PQE and RSE are similar to each other.
laser as a source of light. A laser light beamed
s ub
at the Moon takes 2.56 s to return after
reflection at the Moon’s surface. How much is
the radius of the lunar orbit around the Earth?

PQ
RS
1.38 × 109
=
SE
ME
1.496 × 1011
=
ht P
8 -1
Ans. Velocity = 3 × 10 ms RS 3.8 × 108
Total time, 2t = 2.56 s
2.56 1.38 × 109 × 3.8 × 108
t = = 1.28 s ⇒ RS =
ig rn
1.496 × 1011
2
Distance travelled in 1.28 s = 3 × 1.28 × 108 m = 3.50 × 106 m
8
= 3.84 × 10 m
lr e
2.33. A great physicist of this century (P.A.M. Dirac)

Radius of the lunar orbit around the earth loved playing with the numerical values of
Al od
fundamental constant of nature. This led him

= 3.84 × 108 m.
to an interesting observation. Dirac found that
2.30. A SONAR (sound navigation and ranging) uses from the basic constants of atomic physics (c,
ultrasonic waves to detect and locate objects e, mass of electron, mass of proton) and the
under water. In a submarine equipped with
M
gravitational constant G, he could arrive at a

a SONAR the time delay between generation number with the dimension of time. Further,
of a probe wave and the reception of its echo it was a very large number, its magnitude
after reflection from an enemy submarine is being close to the present estimate on the age
found to be 77.0 s. What is the distance of the
©
of the universe (∼15 billion years). From the

enemy submarine? (Speed of sound in water table of fundamental constants in this book,
= 1450 m s-1). try to see if you too can construct this number
Ans.  = 1450 m s-1 (or any other interesting number you can
think of). If its coincidence with the age of the
vt 1450 m s −1 × 77.0 s
d = = universe is significant, what would this imply
2 2 for the constancy of fundamental constants?
= 55810 m = 55.8 km
e4
2.31. The farthest objects in our Universe discovered Ans. As the quantity has the dimension
2
16π ε 0 mp me 2 c3G
2
by modern astronomers are so distant that light
emitted by them takes billions of years to reach of time. Therefore
the Earth. These objects (known as quasars) t = (1.6 × 10−19 ) 4 × (9 × 109 ) 2 × 1
have many puzzling features which have not −27
yet been satisfactorily explained. What is the 1.67 × 10 × (9.1 × 10−31 ) 2 (3 × 108 )3 × 6.67 × 10−11
distance in km of a quasar from which light
takes 3.0 billion years to reach us? 530.84 × 10−58
=
Ans. Speed of light, c = 3 × 105 km s-1 24905 × 10−76
t = 3 billion years = 3 × 109 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 s = 0.02 × 1018

Distance in km, = 2 × 1016 sec
d = 3 × 105 × 3 × 109 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 This time is of the order of age of universe.

NCERT Exemplar Problems

Subjective Questions
Objective Questions (2.1 to 2.18) from Exemplar Ans: The function f(q) is the sum of various powers of q.
Note: So, q has to be dimensionless as raising it to powers
Problems are given in Competition File page 84.
can change the dimensions of the quantity and
Very Short Answer Type Questions quantities having different dimensions cannot be
ed s.
added or subtracted.
2.19. Why do we have different units for the same
physical quantity? 2.24. Why length, mass and time are chosen as base
rv er
quantities in mechanics?
Ans: When we measure a physical quantity, its measured
value may have a wide range in order of magnitude. Ans: This is because all other quantities in mechanics
For example, size of a nucleus is of the order of can be expressed in terms of these quantities
se sh
1 f = 10-15 m, interatomic separations are of the through simple relations.
.
order of 1 Å = 10-10 m and distance between the
sun and earth is of the order of 1 AU = 1011 m. Short Answer Type Questions
re li
So, it is convenient to have different units for the
2.25. (a) The earth-moon distance is about 60 earth
same physical quantity as it makes the expression
s ub
of magnitude easier and more understandable.
2.20. The radius of atom is of the order of 1 Å and
radius. What will be the diameter of the
earth (approximately in degrees) as seen
from the moon?
radius of nucleus is of the order of fermi.
(b) Moon is seen to be of (½)° diameter from
ht P
How many magnitudes higher is the volume
the earth. What must be the relative size
of atom as compared to the volume of
compared to the earth?
nucleus?
(c) From parallax measurement, the sun is
ig rn
Ans: Given, Radius of atom, R1 =1 Å = 10-10m

found to be at a distance of about 400 times
Radius of nucleus, R2 = 1 f = 10-15m the earth-moon distance. Estimate the
ratio of sun-earth diameters.
lr e
4
Volume of atom, V1 = π R13
3 Ans: (a) Considering the given data, we have
Al od
4
Volume of nucleus, V2 = π R23
3
M
3 3
V R   10 –10 
⇒ 1 =  1  =  –15  = 1015
V2  R2   10 

2.21. Name the device used for measuring the mass
©
of atoms and molecules. Diameter of earth, Dearth

\ q=
Ans: Mass spectrograph is the device used for measuring Distance between earth and moon, rmoon
the mass of atoms and molecules.
2 Rearth 1
2.22. Express unified atomic mass unit in kg. = = rad
60 Rearth 30
1
Ans: 1 u = × ma ss of an atom of carbon– 12 isotope 6C12,
12 1 180 º
= × = 1.9º = 2°
including the mass of electrons. 30 π
1 12 g Thus, the diameter of the earth as seen from the
= ×
12 6.023 × 1023 moon is 2º.
= 1.66 × 10-24 g (b) Now, for moon, we have
-27
= 1.66 × 10 kg
2.23. A function f (θ) is defined as:
θ2 θ3 θ4
f (θ) = 1 − θ + − + ...
2! 3! 4!
Why is it necessary for q to be a dimensionless Dmoon 2 Rmoon Rmoon
Now, q = = =
quantity? rmoon 60 Rearth 30 Rearth

1 π π 2.28. The vernier scale of a travelling microscope

= × rad = rad has 50 divisions which coincide with 49 main
2 180 360
scale divisions. If each main scale division is
Dmoon Rmoon 30 π π 0.5 mm, calculate the minimum inaccuracy in
1
\ = = = = 0.26 = the measurement of distance.
Dearth Rearth 360 12 4
Ans: Given,
Dearth 50 VSD = 49 MSD
or = 4 …(ii)
Dmoon
 49 
⇒ 1 VSD =   MSD
ed s.
So, the earth is approximately four times the  50 
moon.

Minimum inaccuracy in the measurement of
rv er
rsun Distance of sun from earth distance = least count of the travelling microscope.
(c) =
rmoon Distance of moon from earth = 1 MSD - 1 VSD
se sh
= 400...(iii)  49  1 1
.
= 1 MSD -   MSD = MSD = × 0.5 mm
The sun and the moon both appear to be of  50  50 50
the same angular diameter as seen from the
= 0.01 mm
earth.
re li
2.29. During a total solar eclipse the moon almost
Dsun D
∴ s ub
D r
θ =
rsun
= moon
rmoon
entirely covers the sphere of the sun. Write
the relation between the distances and sizes
of the sun and the moon.
or sun = sun = 400 ...(iv) Ans: From the figure, we find that
ht P
Dmoon rmoon
But from equation (ii), we have
Dearth
ig rn
= 4 ....(v)
Dmoon
Dividing equation (iv) by (v), we get

lr e
Dsun 400
= = 100
Al od
Dearth 4
2.26. Which of the following time-measuring devices

is most precise?
M
(a) A wall clock. Radius of the sun = Rs

(b) A stop watch. Diameter of the sun = 2 Rs = Ds
(c) A digital watch. Distance of the sun from earth = Rse
©
(d) An atomic clock. Radius of the moon = Rm

Give reason for your answer.
Diameter of the moon = 2Rm = Dm
Ans: Atomic clock is the most precise with precision
Distance of the moon from earth = Rme
of 1 part in 1013, i.e. the atomic oscillations of an
atomic clock are repeated with a precision of 1 s in Using property of similar triangles we can write the
1013s. following:
2.27. The distance of a galaxy is of the order of 1025 Ds R
m. Calculate the order of magnitude of time ∴ = se
Dm Rme
taken by light to reach us from the galaxy.
Ans: Given, distance of galaxy = 1025 m Rs R
or = se
Time taken by light to reach us from galaxy is Rm Rme
Distance of galaxy 2.30. If the unit of force is 100 N, unit of length is 10 m

t = and unit of time is 100 s, what is the unit of mass
Speed of light
in this system of units?
1025 m Ans: [F] = [MLT-2] = 100 N
= ≈ 3.3 × 1016 s
3 × 108 m/s = 10 m
[L]
The order of the time taken is 1016 s. = 100 s
[T]

Ans: Given, y = A sin (ωt - kx)

[ F] [ MLT −2 ]
∴ M = =
Argument of any trigonometric function is
[ L ][T ] [ L ][T ]–2
dimensionless
100
= Here, both ωt and kx are dimensionless
10 × (100)−2
∴ [ωt] = 1
100 × (100)2 1
= ⇒ [ω] = = [T ]−1
10 [t]
= 105 kg
ed s.
= [ M 0 L0T –1 ]
2.31. Give an example of
Also, [kx] = 1
rv er
(a) a physical quantity which has a unit but
no dimensions.
1 −1
(b) a physical quantity which has neither unit [k] = = [L ]
[ x]
se sh
nor dimensions.
.
0 −1 0
(c) a constant which has a unit. = [M L T ]
(d) a constant which has no unit. 2.35. Time for 20 oscillations of a pendulum is
re li
Ans: (a) Solid angle/Planar angle measured as t1 = 39.6 s; t2 = 39.9 s; t3 = 39.5 s.
What is the precision in the measurements?
s ub
(b) Relative density/Efficiency
(c) Universal gravitational constant/Planck’s constant
What is the accuracy of the measurement?
Ans: Given, no of oscillations, N = 20
(d) Reynold’s number
ht P
Time taken for 20 oscillations;
2.32. Calculate the length of the arc of a circle of
radius 31.0 cm which subtends an angle of t1 = 39.6 s, t2 = 39.9 s and t3 = 39.5 s
π The precision in the time measurement is equal to
ig rn
at the centre.
6 the least count of measuring instrument which is
0.1 s.
Ans: Radius, r = 31.0 cm
lr e
Mean value of time per 20 oscillations is

π
Angle, θ = rad
6
Al od
t1 + t2 + t3
t mean =
3
Length of arc, L
Since, θ =
Radius, r 39.6 + 39.9 + 39.5 s
=
M
\ L = θr 3
π π = 39.7 s
= r= × 31.0 cm
6 6 Absolute error in each measurement is
©
= 16.2 cm Dt1 = tmean - t1

2.33. Calculate the solid angle subtended by the = 39.7 - 39.6 = 0.1 s
periphery of an area of 1cm2 at a point situated
Dt2 = tmean - t2
symmetrically at a distance of 5 cm from the
area. = 39.7 - 39.9 = −0.2 s
2
Ans: Area, A = 1 cm Dt3 = tmean - t3
Radius, r = 5 cm = 39.7 - 39.5 = 0.2 s
A Mean absolute error is
Solid angle = 2
r
∆t1 + ∆t2 + ∆t3
Dtmean =
1 cm 2 1 3
= 2 = sr
(5 cm) 25
0 .1 + 0 .2 + 0 . 2
=
= 4 × 10 -2
sr 3
2.34. The displacement of a progressive wave is = 0.17 s
represented by y = A sin(wt - kx), where x is
= 0.2 s (1 significant figure)
distance and t is time. Write the dimensional
formula of (i) ω and (ii) k. \ Accuracy of measurement = ± 0.2 s

HOTS Higher Order Thinking Skills &

Advanced Level QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
Q.1. If velocity (V), acceleration (A) and force (F) are On solving above equations we get the following:
assumed as fundamental quantities in place of
a = -5/6, b = ½, and c = 1/3.
ed s.
mass (M), length (L) and time (T) respectively,
what will be the dimensional formula of Young’s Q.3. If energy E, velocity V and time T are taken
modulus? as fundamental units, then what will be the
rv er
dimensional formula of surface tension? Note
Ans. Let Young’s modulus is expressed as follows:
that surface tension is defined as force per unit
a b c
Y ∝ V A F length.
se sh
[ML-1T-2] = [LT-1]a [LT-2]b [MLT-2]c Ans. Let surface tension (S) is written as follows:
.
-1 -2 c a+b+c -a-2b-2c
[ML T ] = [M L T ] x y z
S ∝ E V T
Comparing dimensions on both the sides we get the
re li
following: [S] ∝ [E]x [ V ]y [ T ]z
⇒

s ub c = 1
a + b + c = -1
…(i) [ML0 T −2 ] = [ML2T −2 ]x [LT −1 ]y [ T ]z
⇒

[ML0 T −2 ] = [M x L2x + y T −2x − y +z ]

⇒ a + b + 1 = -1
⇒

ht P
⇒
a + b = -2…(ii) On comparing dimensions on both the sides we get
-a - 2b - 2c = -2 the following equations:
ig rn
⇒ -a - 2b - 2 = -2
x = 1
⇒
a + 2b = 0 …(iii) 2x + y = 0 ⇒ y = -2x ⇒ y = -2
lr e
Subtracting equation (ii) from equation (iii) we get -2x - y + z = -2 ⇒ - 2 + 2 + z = -2 ⇒ z = -2

b = 2 …(iv)
Al od
Hence, the dimensional formula for surface tension is:

Substituting equation (iv) in equation (ii) we get
[S] = [EV-2T-2]
a = -4…(v)
Q.4. In a new system of units, value of speed of
light (c = 3 × 108 m/s), Universal gravitational
M
Using values of a, b and c we can write the dimensional

formula for Young’s modulus as follows: constant (G = 6.67 × 10-11) and acceleration due
to gravity (g = 9.8 m/s2) are found to be unity.
[Y] = [V-4A2F1]
What are the units of mass, length and time in
Q.2. An object kept inside the water starts oscillating
©
this new system of units?

with time period T when an explosion occurs
inside water. It is found that T ∝ Pa ρbEc. Ans. Let M1, L1 and T1 represent fundamental units in
What are the values of a, b and c? P is MKS system and M2, L2 and T2 represent the same
pressure, r is density of water and E is energy in new system of units. Let us assume that M2 = x
of explosion. M1, L2 = y L1 and T2 = z T1.
Ans.
a b c
T ∝ P ρ E Dimensional formula for speed of light is LT-1. Let
n1 and n2 be the values for speed of light in MKS and
a b c
⇒
[ T ] = [P ] [ρ] [E] new system respectively.
0 0 −1 −2 a −3 b 2 −2 c
⇒ [M L T ] = [ML T ] [ML ] [ML T ]
n1u1 = n2u2
0 0 a + b + c − a − 3 b + 2c −2a − 2c −1 −1
⇒ [M L T ] = [M
L T ] ⇒ (n1 )[L1T1 ] = (n2 )[L 2T2 ]

On comparing individual dimensions we can write
the following equations:  L   T −1 
⇒ (n1 ) = (n2 )  2   2−1 
a + b + c = 0 …(i)  L1   T1 
-a - 3b + 2c = 0 …(ii)  L 2   T1 
⇒
(n1 ) = (n2 )    
-2a - 2c = 1 …(iii)  L1   T2 
HFI_PHY_G11_C02B.indd 62 1/31/2020 12:54:45 PM

8  1 1
⇒
(3 × 10 ) = (1)( y)   ⇒
(9.8) = (1)( y)  2 
z z
y y
⇒
= 3 × 108 …(i) = 9.8 …(iii)
z ⇒

z2
Dimensional formula for Gravitational constant is
M-1L3T-2. Let n1 and n2 be the values for gravitational On dividing equation (iii) from equation (i) we get
constant in MKS and new system respectively. the following:
n1u1 = n2u2 3 × 108
ed s.
z =
−1 3 −2 −1 3 −2
⇒ (n1 )[M1 L1T1 ] = (n2 )[M 2 L 2T2 ]
9 .8
rv er
7
 M −1 L3 T −2  ⇒
z = 3.06 × 10 …(iv)
⇒
(n1 ) = (n2 )  2−1 32 2−2 
 M1 L1 T1  Substituting the value of z from equation (iv) in
equation (i) we get the following:
se sh
3 2
 M1   L 2   T1 
.
⇒
(n1 ) = (n2 )      y
 M 2   L1   T2  = 3 × 108
3.06 × 107
 1 1
re li
−11
⇒ (6.67 × 10
) = (1)   ( y3 )  2  ⇒

15
y = 9.18 × 10 …(v)
 x z 
⇒

s ub y3
xz
−11
2 = 6.67 × 10 …(ii)
Now substituting the values of y and z from equation
(iv) and (v) in equation (ii) we get the following:
(9.18 × 1015 )3
ht P
Dimensional formula for acceleration due to gravity x=
LT-2. Let n1 and n2 be the values for acceleration due (6.67 × 10−11 )(3.06 × 107 ) 2
to gravity in MKS and new system respectively. 773.62 × 1045
⇒
=
ig rn
n1u1 = n2u2 (6.67 × 10−11 )(9.364 × 1014 )
⇒
(n1 )[L1T1−2 ] = (n2 )[L 2T2−2 ] ⇒
x = 12.4 × 10
42
…(vi)
lr e
Now from results in equations (iv), (v) and (vi) we

 L T −2 
⇒
(n1 ) = (n2 )  2 2−2  can describe the new system of units as follows:
Al od
 L1 T1 
Unit of mass = 12.4 × 1042 kg.
2
 L 2   T1  Unit of length = 9.18 × 1015 m.
⇒
(n1 ) = (n2 )    
M
 L1   T2  Unit of time = 3.06 × 107 s.

©
11. What are different systems of units used for

Very Short Answer Questions Carrying 1 mark measuring all kinds of physical quantities?
1. What are physical quantities? 12. Why are units required?
2. Define unit. 13. What is the smallest measured mass?
3. What are fundamental units and derived units? 14. Why are SI units required?
4. Is it possible for a body to have zero mass? 15. Define one light year.
5. What is length? What is its SI unit? 16. What is one astronomical unit? Why is it required?
6. Define SI unit of luminous intensity. 17. Define one parsec.
7. Define SI unit of thermodynamic temperature. 18. How many astronomical units are equal to one light
year?
8. What is one Ampere?
19. How many radians are there in one minute?
9. Define Chandrasekhar limit.
20. What is angular diameter of the sun and the moon as
10. How is one second measured? seen from earth?

21. A rectangle has an area equal to 7.654 cm2. If its breadth (c) One light year (d) One light minute
is 2.3 cm, then calculate the length in accordance with 54. Dimensional formula for Joule’s mechanical
the rules of significant figures. equivalent of heat is
22. What is an electron microscope? −1 −3 4 2
(a) [M L T A ] (b) [M L T A ]
0 0 0 0
23. How many unified atomic mass units are there in one −1 −1 −1 −1 4
kg? (c) [M LTA ] (d) [M L T ]
24. What is radioactive dating?
Fill in the Blanks Carrying 1 mark
25. What is an atomic clock? How does it work?
26. What is the accuracy of a cesium clock? 1. Planck’s constant is a quantitiy which has dimensions
ed s.
27. Express giga in terms of femto. ……….. .
28. Define error in a measurement of any physical quantity. 2. The coefficient of elasticity has dimensions of ……….. .
3. Momentum per unit volume has same dimensions as
rv er
29. Define random errors.
the …………. .
30. What are systematic errors?
4. The percentage error in the determination of g =
31. What are instrumental errors? How can they be
4π2l/T2 is ………… % when l and T are measured
se sh
reduced?
with 2% and 3% errors respectively.
.
32. How can we reduce systematic errors?
5. On adding 2.375 to 1.23, the correct result with
33. What is least count error? How can we reduce it? regard to significant figures is ……… .
34. Round off 1.00876 to four significant digits.
re li
6. ………….. errors are those errors which occur
35. Define gross errors. Give example. irregularly and by ………. .
s ub
36. How can we define fractional and percentage error?
37. How is absolute error different from mean absolute
error?
7. 8.0505 grams of a substance occupies a volume of
2.3 cm3. The density of the substance with regard to
significant figures is ……….. .
38. What do we mean by accuracy?
ht P
8. Device used for measuring the mass of atoms and
39. Define precision. molecules is ………….. .
40. Which of the following physical quantity should be 9. Accuracy of screw gauge can be increased by
h 2 y3 z ……………… the number of divisions on circular scale.
ig rn
measured more accurately in the expression X = 10. The number of significant figures in 0.080 is
b
for most accurate results? ………….. .
lr e
41. How many significant digits are there in 0.007?

42. How many significant digits are there in 82450000? Short Answer Questions Carrying 2 or 3 marks
Al od
43. Which of the two readings is more accurate -7.0 or 1. What are some basic characteristics of standard
7.00? units?
44. How can we reduce least count of any instrument? 2. Mention some advantages of SI system of units.
M
45. Can we reduce the permissible error in a result using 3. Mention drawback of C.G.S. system of units?
same instrument?
4. Derive a relation between one parsec and one light
46. What are dimensions of physical quantities? How do year.
we represent them?
©
5. Calculate the number of light minutes in one

47. How is dimensional formula related to dimensional metre?
equation?
6. Why is length a fundamental unit?
48. What is the dimension for Reynold number?
7. How many light minutes are there in one AU?
49. Is it possible for a constant to have dimensions?
8. Mention some important conventions to be followed
50. What is the dimensional formula of electric while writing a unit.
permittivity of free space?
9. What is parallax method? How is it used to measure
large distances?
Additional Questions Carrying 1 mark
10. Why angular diameter of the sun and the moon in
51. The number of significant digits in 0.002 is the sky is same?
(a) 1 (b) 2 11. Convert 1° and 1′ to radians.
12. Length, mass and time are fundamental units.
(c) 3 (d) 4
3 Explain.
52. In expression m = 3 zx , the significant figures in
13. How many microseconds are there in milliseconds?
factor 3 are 14. How many femto metres are there in one A.U.?
(a) 0 (b) 1 15. Give one example of the following:
(c) 2 (d) ∞ (a) Physical quantity that is dimensionless but has a
53. Which of the following has largest value unit
(a) One astronomical unit (b) One parsec
(b) A constant having dimensions

16. Explain three types of errors observed in measurement. distance 1.27 × 107 m and angle subtended by both
17. Write mathematical expression for absolute error the points at star is 0.80″, calculate the distance
and mean absolute error. between earth and the star.
18. Two identical resistors of resistance (2 ± 0.1) Ω are 3. The diameter of the moon is 3474 km and is 384,400
connected in series. Calculate the effective resistance km away from the earth. Calculate the angular
along with the percentage error. diameter of the moon in arc minutes.
19. The diameters of two cylinders are d1 = (2.02 ± 0.01) 4. In an experiment, the time period measurements for
cm and d2 = (3.21 ± 0.03). Find the difference between an oscillating simple pendulum are 2.10 s, 2.12 sec,
their diameters along with the error limits. 2.23, 2.61 sec and 2.91 sec. Find the relative error
ed s.
20. Differentiate between precision and accuracy with an and absolute error in the experiment.
example. 5. In Ohm’s law experimental verification, the reading
of voltage and resistance are (120 ± 5) V and (2 ± 0.1)
rv er
21. Solve the following with regard to significant figures.
Ω respectively. What is the percentage error in the
(a) 781 + 0.5321 (b) 9.0 - 0.521
value of current obtained?
22. Compute the following with regard to significant
6. Two identical resistors of resistance 100 ± 5 ohm
se sh
figures.
.
are connected parallel. Calculate the equivalent
0.8851 × 1.23
(a) 5.2 × 0.135 (b) resistance of the combination.
1.985 1 7. The diameter of two cylinders are found to be
re li
gh 2 I d1 = (2 ± 0.01) cm and d2 = (3.1 ± 0.03) cm. Find the
23. For physical quantity z, given by expression z = ,
mx3 difference between both the diameters along with
s ub
write the expression for relative error in it.
24. How can we minimise the random errors in an
experiment?
the error limits.
8. Gravitational force between two objects with mass
m1 and m2 kept r distance apart is given as FG =
Gm1m2
ht P
25. Define dimensional equations and give their uses. , where G is gravitational constant. Express
26. Express Newton in terms of dyne. r2
27. Check the dimensional consistency of the equation
the relative error in FG.
ig rn
l 9. Calculate the volume of 2.101 cm cylinder with

t = 2π , where t, l, g are time period, length and radius 1.123 cm in appropriate significant figures.
g
10. Check the dimensional consistency of the equation
lr e
acceleration respectively.
mV 2 Gm1m2
28. Find the dimensions of Z in the given expression = .
Al od
2C r r2
Z = 2 . Given dimension for C and A are [ML−1T −2 ]
A 11. An oil drop of radius 0.10 mm spreads on a circular
film of diameter 20 cm. Calculate the molecular size
and [MLT −3 A −1 ].
of the oil drop on the film.
M
12. Calculate the percentage error in the volume of a cube

Long Answer Questions Carrying 5 marks if error in the measurement of its each side is 12%.
13. State the number of significant figures in the
1. Write a short note on standard international units.
©
following measurements:
Mention their importance.
(a) 2.80 × 108 (b) 8.034
2. How do we measure the standard unit for mass,
(c) 0.0009
length and time? Explain why they are also called
fundamental units. 14. Round off the given numbers up to 3 significant
digits.
3. Describe some methods to measure time of different
ranges. (a) 18.65 (b) 429253
4. What are some limitations of dimensional analysis? (c) 13.653
5. Write a short note on applications and uses of 15. Deduce the expression for centripetal force F acting
dimensional analysis. on an object of mass m moving with velocity v in a
circle of radius r.
6. Define error in measurement. What are different a t2
types of possible errors which occur in experiments? 16. For a given expression of power, P = − .
bx b
7. Briefly explain the causes of systematic errors. Determine the dimensions of a and b. Here, x and t
are distance and time respectively.
Numerical Problems 17. For a planet of mass M, moving around the sun in
an orbit of radius r, time period T depends on its
1. Express the given angles into radian. radius (r), mass M and universal gravitational
(a) 1° (b) 12 sec K xry
2. A distant star is observed from two diametrically constant G and can be written as: T2 = . Find
MG
opposite points on earth. If both the points are at the value of y.


Very Short Answer Questions 13. Smallest measured mass is the mass of an electron
(≈10−31 kg).
1. A physical quantity is a quantity or a physical property 14. SI units are required in order to maintain a
in physics that can be quantified or measured. For consistency in international usage of units for
ed s.
example, mass, volume, force, electric current, etc. scientific, technical, industrial and commercial work.
2. A basic and internationally accepted reference standard Also, the system is quite simple and convenient and
rv er
for a physical quantity is known as unit. Measurement allows hassle-free conversions.
of a quantity is expressed by a numerical value 15. The distance travelled by the light in 1 year, with a
accompanied by a unit. For example: 5 kg of mass, where velocity of 3 × 108 m/s, is known as one light year. It
5 is the numerical value and kg is the unit of mass. is equal to 9.46 × 1015 m.
se sh
.
3. Very few physical quantities (independent of each 16. It is equal to the average distance of the sun from the
other) are used to express all the other physical earth and is equal to 1.496 × 1011 m. It is required to
quantities. These are known as fundamental or base express interstellar distances conveniently.
re li
quantities. The units for the fundamental quantities 17. One parsec is the distance at which average radius of
are known as fundamental units. For example: Mass,

s ub
length and time with kg, m and s as their units.
The units of all the other physical quantities (derived
quantities) can be expressed in terms of fundamental
earth’s orbit subtends an angle of 1 arc second. It is
equal to 3.08 × 1016 m.
18. 1 light year has approximately 6.3 × 104 AU.
19. 180° degrees = p radians or 1° = p/180 rad. 1 minute
ht P
quantities. These units are known as derived units. For (1’) = 1/60 degrees = 1/60 × p/180 rad = p/10,800 rad
example: Velocity is a derived quantity with unit m/s.
20. Angular diameter of the sun from earth = 0.5° = 30
4. No arc minute. Angular diameter of the moon from earth
ig rn
5. Length is generally a measured dimension of an is similar to that for the sun = 0.5°.
object or distance between two points. Its SI unit is 21. 3.3
metre (m). 22. An electron microscope is a microscope with high
lr e
6. The SI unit of luminous intensity is candela (cd). It is resolving power and magnification and uses a beam
defined as the luminous intensity, in a given direction of electrons to create an image of a specimen.
Al od
of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of 23. 1 kg = 6.02 × 1026 u

frequency 540 × 1012 Hz and has a radiant intensity
24. It is a technique which is used to compare the
in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.
abundance ratio of a radioactive isotope of an element
M
7. The SI unit of thermodynamic temperature is kelvin to a reference isotope in order to determine the age of
(K). It is defined as the fraction 1/273.16 of the a rock or material.
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. 25. An atomic clock is the clock which uses atomic
8. One ampere is defined as that constant current frequencies of atoms (particularly caesium -133)
©
which, if maintained in two straight parallel as its resonator. They are the most precise time-
conductors of infinite length, negligible circular cross measuring instruments so far.
section and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would 26. It has an accuracy of about 1 second in 1.4 million
produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 years.
× 107 Newton per metre of length.
27. 1 giga = 109 a and 1 femto = 10−15 a, where a is a
9. It is the largest possible value of mass of a white dwarf reference standard. So 1 giga = 109/10−15 = 1024
star which is equal to nearly 1.4 times the mass of the femto.
sun. 28. The uncertainty in measurement of any physical
10. One second is measured as the duration of quantity by any instrument is known as error.
9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding 29. Random errors are those errors which occur
to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of irregularly and hence are random with respect to
the ground state of the caesium-133 atom. sign and size.
11. SI system of units, CGS system of units, MKS system 30. Systematic errors are the unidirectional errors
of units and FPS system of units. which are either positive or negative. They include
12. Measurement of a quantity is significant only if there errors due to instrument, personal errors while
is some reference with which you can compare the measurement, least count error, etc.
measured value. Without units, all the numerical 31. Instrumental errors are associated with the
statements for a physical quantity are insignificant. instrument due to its design or calibration. It can
A unit is thus required to act as a reference standard be reduced by replacing the instrument by more
for a quantity to be measured. accurate instrument or by using zero correction.

32. Systematic errors can be reduced by using instruments Short Answer Questions
with less error, adapting efficient or errorless techniques
and by minimising possible personal errors. 4. 1 parsec = 3.08 × 1016 m
33. Least count error is associated with the resolution 1 light year = 9.46 × 1015 m

of the instrument used in measurement. It can 15
be reduced by replacing the instrument with a \ 1 Parsec = 9.46 × 10 = 3.26 light year

higher resolution instrument and adapting better 3.08 × 1016
experimental techniques. 5. Speed of light = 3 × 108 ms-1
34. 1.009 time = 1 minute = 60 sec.

ed s.
35. Gross errors are those which occur due to carelessness
\ One light minute = 3 × 108 × 60 m

of the observer. These errors include false methods
or set ups, wrong readings, ignoring other sources of
= 1.8 × 1010 m
rv er
errors, etc. 7. 1 A.U. = 1.5 × 1011 m
36. Fractional error is ratio of mean absolute error of
1 light minute = 1.8 × 1010 m
a quantity to mean value of the quantity. It can be \
1 A.U. = 8.33 light minutes
se sh
further expressed into percentage and is then known
.
as percentage error. 15. (a) Angle, it has no dimensions but it has unit, radian
37. Absolute error is the magnitude of the difference Velocity of light in vacuum, c = 3 × 108 m/s,
(b)
dimensional formula: [LT-1 ]
re li
between the measured value and the original
value. However, the mean absolute error is the 18. Given R1 = (2 ± 0.1) W
s ub
mean of magnitudes of the absolute errors in all the
measurements throughout the experiment.
38. Accuracy is the measure of the closeness of the
R2 = (2 ± 0.1) W

R′ = R1 + R2 (series connection)

measured value to the original value. \ R′ = 2 + 2 = 4 W

ht P
39. Precision in any experiment depends on the least
DR′ = ±(DR1 + DR2)
count of the instrument used and refers to the ⇒
DR′ = ±(0.1 + 0.1) = ± 0.2
closeness of two or more measurements to each other.
Percentage error = ± 0.2 × 100
ig rn

40. y has the highest power, thus it should be measured 4
accurately for most accurate results.

= ±5%
41. one
lr e
\ R′ = (4 ± 0.2)Ω = (4Ω ± 5%)

42. four
19. Given, d1 = (2.02 + 0.01) cm
Al od
43. 7.00 is measured to two decimal places and hence is

more accurate than 7.0
d2 = (3.21 ± 0.03) cm
44. To reduce least count, we can increase the resolution
d = d2 - d1 = 3.21 - 2.02 = 1.19 cm
of scale.

Dd = ±(Dd1 + Dd2) = ±(0.01 + 0.03)
M
45. No, they can be only decreased by changing

instrument with less error.
= ±0.04 cm
46. Dimensions are the powers to which the unit of mass,
% age error = ± 0.04 × 100 = ± 3.36%
length and time are raised to represent the physical 1.19
©
quantity. \ Difference in diameters = (1.19 ± 0.04) cm

47. Dimensional formula of a physical quantity is
or (1.19 cm ± 3.36%)
representation of mass, length and time of the
quantity. Dimensional equation contains equated Numerical Problems
dimensional formula and physical quantity.
48. it is a dimensionless quantity. (a) We know, (2π) rad = 360°
1.
49. yes, gravitational constant has dimensions. \
1° =  π  rad
 
−1 −3
50. [M L T A ] 4 2 180 
⇒
1° = 1.74 × 10-2 rad
Additional Questions
1° = 60′ = 3600′′
(b)
51. (a) 52. (d) 53. (b) 54. (b) ⇒ 1′′ = 1°

3600
Fill in the Blanks  1 °
⇒
12′′ = 12 × 
1. [M1L2T-1] 2. stress or force/Area 3. Pressure  3600 
4. 8 5. 3.61 s 6. Random, chance ⇒
12′′ = 12 × 1 × 1.74 × 10-2 rad
7. 3.5g/cm3 8. Mass spectrometer 9. increasing 3600
10. 2 @ 5.8 × 10-5 rad


2.
Given, q = 0.80″ = 0.80 × 4.85 × 10-6 rad
Thus, T = 2.3 ± 0.2
(using 1″ = 4.85 × 10
-6
rad)
Relative error can be calculated as:

q = 3.88 × 10-6 rad
dT = 0.2 × 100% = 8.69%
Distance between both points, d = 1.27 × 10 m
7 2 .3
\ Distance between earth and star can be calculated

5.
I = V ⇒ ∆I = ∆V + ∆R
as: R I V R
7
D = d = 1.27 × 10
5
θ −6 Percentage error in V =
× 100% = 4.17%
ed s.
3.88 × 10
120
⇒
D = 0.327 × 1013
Percentage error in R = 0.1 × 100% = 5%

rv er
= 0.33 × 1013 m

2

D = 3.3 × 1012 m

Percentage error in value of current will be
se sh
Given diameter of the moon, d = 3474 km
3.
4.17% + 5% = 9.17%

.
distance between earth and the moon, D = 384, 400 km

6. Given, R = (100 ± 5) W
angular diameter of the moon, α = d = 3474

In parallel combination
re li
D 384400

1 = 1 1 = 2
⇒

s ub a = 9.03 × 10-3 rad
1 rad =
 1 
 2.91 × 10−4 
′

or
R′
+
R R
∆R′ = 2∆R
R
 
( R′) 2 R2
ht P
−3 ′
\
a =  9.03 × 10  \
∆ R′ =
( R′) 2 × 2 × ∆R
 −4 
 2.91 × 10  ( R) 2
ig rn
\
a = 3.103 × 10′ 2
 R

= 31.03′   × 2∆R
⇒
∆ R′ =  2 
lr e
4.
Given readings are: ( R) 2
Al od

T1 = 2.10 s 2
 100 

T2 = 2.12 s   ×2×5
2 
⇒
∆ R′ =

T3 = 2.23 s (100) 2
M

T4 = 2.61 s
⇒
∆ R′ = 2.5

T5 = 2.91 s
(T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 ) \
R′ = 100 ± 2.5
Mean time period of T =

©
5 2
⇒
R′ = (50 ± 2.5) ohm
⇒
T = (2.10 + 2.12 + 2.23 + 2.61 + 2.91)
5 7.
Given, d1 = (2 ± 0.01) cm

d2 = (3.1 ± 0.03) cm
⇒
T = 11.97 = 2.394 s = 2.39 s
5 ′ = d2 - d1 = 3.1 - 2 = 1.1 cm
difference, d

The errors in each time period will be
Dd1 = ±(Dd2 - Dd1) = ±(0.01 + 0.03)
DT1 = T1 - T = 2.10 - 2.39 = -0.29

Dd1 = ±0.04
DT2 = T2 - T = 2.12 - 2.39 = -0.27

\ Percentage error = ± 0.04 × 100 = 3.636%

DT3 = T3 - T = 2.23 - 2.39 = -0.16
1 .1
DT4 = T4 - T = 2.61 - 2.39 = 0.22
Thus difference between diameter = (1.1 ± 0.04) cm

DT5 = T5 - T = 2.91 - 2.39 = 0.52
= 1.1 cm ± 3.64%

Mean of absolute errors can be calculated as: Gm1m2
8.
Here, FG =
r2
∆Tmean = (0.29 + 0.27 + 0.16 + 0.22 + 0.52)

5
⇒
∆F = ∆m1 ∆m2  ∆r 
+ + 2 
∆Tmean = 0.29 s
F m1 m2
 r 

Volume of cylinder, V = pr2h

9.
Comparing the exponents of M, L and T on both
sides, we get

here r = 1.123 cm

a = 1, b + c = 1 and b = 2

h = 2.101 cm
⇒
c = 1 - 2 = -1

V = 3.14 × (1.123)2 × 2.101

= 8.31984 mv2
\
F =
r
⇒
V = 8.31984 cm3 = 8.320 cm3
(four significant digits)
This is the required expression for centripetal
ed s.
10. Dimensions of L.H.S. are force.
[M] [LT-1]2 [L]-1 = [MLT-2]

16.
As we know, dimensions of power can be given as:
rv er

Dimensions of R.H.S. are
[P] = [ML2 T-3]
[L3M-1T-2] [M] [M] [L-2]

 t2  a
  = [P] and   = [P]
se sh
-2 -2 Also,

= LMT = [MLT ] b  bx 
.
 

Since the L.H.S. dimensions are equal to the R.H.S.
dimensions, the given equation is dimensionally
⇒

[T ]2 = [ML2 T-3]
re li
consistent. [b]
s ub
Given, radius of oil drop, r = 0.10 mm = 0.010 cm
11.
Radius of film, R = 10 cm

Volume of oil drop
⇒
[b] = [ T ]2
2
[ML T ] −3
= [M-1L-2 T5]
Thickness of oil film =

ht P
Area of the film
a
And,   = [P]

4  bx 
π × (0.010)3 cm 3
ig rn

= 3
π × (10) 2 cm 2 ⇒
[a] = [P] [bx]
= [ML2 T-3] [M-1L-2 T5][L]

4
lr e
3 −11

= × (10) × 10 cm = [M0L1T2]

3
Al od
\
[a] = [M0L1T2] and [b] = [M-1L-2T5]

= 1.33 × 10-8 cm
Consider time period, T = KraMbGc. Here, K is
17.

Considering the film with one molecular thickness,
dimensionless constant. Equating dimensions on
the molecular size of the drop will be 1.33 × 10-8 cm.
both the sides, we get
M
Given, percentage error in its each side = 12%

12.
[M0L0T1] = [L]a[M]b[M-1L3T-2]c

∆a

or × 100 = 12%
Comparing the exponents of M, L and T on both
a
©
3 sides, we get
Volume of cube, V = a

⇒
b - c = 0,
∴ Percentage error in volume of the cube is

⇒ a + 3c = 0,

∆V  ∆a 
× 100 = 3 
× 100 = 3 × 12% = 36%
and -2c = 1
V  a 
−1
13. Number of significant digits in 2.80 × 108 is
(a) ⇒
c =
three, i.e. 2, 8 and 0. 2

(b) Number of significant digits in 8.034 is four, i.e. −1

b = c =
8, 0, 3 and 4. 2

(c) Number of significant digits in 0.0009 is one, i.e. 9.  −1 3

and a = -3c = −3 ×   =
14.
(a)
18.6 (b) 429000 (c) 13.6  2 2
Consider centripetal force F = kmavbrc, here k is
15.
proportionality constant and is dimensionless. \
T = Kr3/2 M-1/2 G-1/2

Equating for dimensions on both the sides, we get K 2r 3

or T2 =
M1L1T-2 = [M]a[LT-1]b[L]c
MG
= MaLb+c T-b

Thus value of y is 3.

Additional Useful Information and Objective Questions
ADDITIONAL USEFUL INFORMATION
with the main scale and the other is fixed with the
V
ERNIER CALIPERS
Vernier scale, which in turn slides on the main scale.
ed s.
Vernier caliper is a device to measure the distance When both the jaws are in contact then zero of the
between two points. It is designed to help measure main scale matches with zero of Vernier scale. When
dimensions of objects. We can measure length of a both the jaws are in contact and zero of the main scale
rv er
certain object, diameter of a cylinder, depth of hole, etc. does not match with zero of Vernier scale then we
There is one main scale which is like some ordinary say that there is zero error in the device. When there
scale and in addition to that there is Vernier scale to
se sh
is zero error in the instrument then it affects final
.
add more precision to the measurement. Two jaws are reading accordingly. At present we are assuming that
there to hold the object in between. One jaw is fixed there is no zero error in the instrument.
re li
s ub
ht P
ig rn
lr e
Al od
Markings on main scale are made at regular in Vernier scale is smaller by an amount 0.1 mm (LC)
M
separation and in most cases it is 1 mm. Hence each than that of main scale. When Vernier is moved by
division of main scale corresponds to a particular value an amount 0.1 mm then first mark of Vernier scale
and we are assuming it to be 1 mm. On Vernier scale matches with the first mark of main scale. Similarly
©
ten divisions are made in such a manner that these when Vernier scale is moved by 0.2 mm then 2nd
10 divisions of Vernier scale match with 9 divisions of mark of Vernier scale matches with second mark on
main scale. So we can understand that each division main scale and so on. Hence by finding which mark
of Vernier scale is shorter than each division on main on Vernier scale is matching with a mark on main
scale, by an amount equivalent to one tenth of main scale, we can measure the length with a precision of
scale division. If main scale division is 1 mm then 0.1 mm.
division on Vernier scale is shorter by 0.1 mm than When we measure a length by holding
division on main scale. Difference in length of main corresponding object between the jaws then reading
scale division and Vernier scale division is called least is taken in two steps.
count of Vernier calipers. Least count of instrument
Main scale reading (MSR): Value corresponding
in above explained case is 0.1 mm. Least count (LC)
to the mark on main scale, which is nearest to the
is the minimum value which can be measured
zero of Vernier scale on left side is called main scale
accurately by the instrument.
reading.
Least count = Length of one main scale division
Vernier scale reading (VSR): If nth division of
- Length of one vernier scale division Vernier scale coincides with some division on main
LC = 1 MSD - 1 VSD scale, then Vernier scale reading is n × LC.
Now assume that zero of Vernier scale matches Total reading = MSR + VSR
with zero of main scale. We know that each division ⇒ Total reading = MSR + n × Least Count

Inner measuring jaws are provided to measure with the stud. In fact, this state corresponds to zero
inner dimensions of an object and depth measuring reading. A scale is fixed with the U-frame parallel to
prong is provided to measure depth of an object. the axis of thimble and this scale is called Pitch scale
Retainer is used to restrict the movement of jaws or linear scale. A reference line is made parallel to
after holding the object appropriately. the axis of thimble and divisions are made. Let us
assume that each division of linear scale corresponds
ed s.
When two jaws of the Vernier are brought in
contact then zero of the Vernier scale should match to 1 mm. A circular scale is attached to the thimble
with zero of main scale. If it is so then there is no zero using a sleeve, which can move on the pitch scale
rv er
error in the instrument or else we need to take care or linear scale along with the screwed rod, when
of zero error also. thimble is turned. Circular scale is divided in 50 or
100 equal parts.
se sh
When the two jaws are in contact and zero of the
.
Vernier scale lies to the right of zero of main scale Pitch of the screw gauge is defined as the distance
then it is called positive zero error. When jaws are moved by screwed rod along its length when thimble
in contact and nth division of Vernier scale matches is given one full rotation. To measure the pitch we
re li
with some division of main scale then positive zero note down the distance travelled by circular scale
relative to linear scale when certain number of full
s ub
error is equal to n × LC. In case of positive error,
reading taken by the instrument is more than the
actual and thus zero correction is negative. Hence
rotations are given to the thimble.
Pitch of the screw
positive zero error is subtracted from the final
ht P
Distance moved by screwed rod
reading. =
Number of rotations
When the two jaws are in contact and zero of
Least count (LC) of the screw gauge is defined
ig rn
the Vernier scale lies to the left of zero of main scale

as distance moved by screwed rod when it is turned
then error is called negative error. Zero correction is
through 1 division on circular scale. Hence we can
positive. If N is total number of divisions on Vernier
write the least count as follows:
lr e
scale and nth division of Vernier scale matches with

some division of main scale then negative zero error Least Count
Al od
can be calculated as (N - n) × LC. In case of negative Pitch

=
error, reading taken by the instrument is less than Total number of divisions on circular scale
the actual and thus zero error is added to the final
If pitch of the screw is 1 mm and total number of
reading.
M
divisions on circular scale are 100 then least count

becomes 0.01 mm.
SCREW GAUGE
When some object is there between stud and end
Screw gauge is also used to measure distance
©
of the screwed rod then reading is taken in two steps.

between two points with more precision than Vernier
One is linear scale reading (LSR) and the other is
calipers. It can be used to measure the diameter of a
circular scale reading (CSR). When screw gauge is
thin wire or thickness of thin metal sheet, etc.
completely closed then linear scale is completely
covered by circular scale. When thimble is rotated to
take the reading then linear scale is exposed. Mark
on the linear scale which is just outside the circular
scale corresponds to linear scale reading and the
corresponding value is noted as linear scale reading.
Now we note which division on circular scale is in
line with reference line. Let nth division of circular
scale is aligned with reference line then circular
scale reading is n multiplied with least count (CSR
Screw gauge consists of a U-shaped frame = n × LC).
holding a screwed rod which is attached to a thimble Linear scale reading and circular scale reading
at one end. This screwed rod can be moved along the are added to get the total reading.
axis of thimble by rotating it. A stud with plane end
is fitted with U-shaped frame and when thimble is Total reading = LSR + CSR
rotated then end of the screwed rod comes in contact ⇒ Total Reading = LSR + n × LC.

It may be the case that when screwed rod scale in line with reference line and then multiply it
completely touches the stud then zero of the circular with least count to get the zero error. This positive zero
scale don’t get aligned with the reference line and verror is subtracted in the final result as zero correction
in this case we say that zero error exists in the is negative. In case of positive error, reading taken by
instrument. the instrument is more than the actual; hence zero
error is subtracted from the final reading.
ed s.
When zero of the circular scale lies above
the reference line then error is called negative.
rv er
Corresponding zero correction is positive. If N is total
number of divisions on circular scale and nth division
Zero error nil Zero error positive Zero error negative
lies in line with the reference line then zero error
se sh
.
When zero of the circular scale lies below the is (N - n) × LC. As we know that zero correction is
reference line hence zero mark on circular scale crosses positive and hence zero error is added in the final
the reference line when screw gauge is completely closed result. In case of negative error, reading taken by the
re li
then error is called positive error. Zero correction is instrument is less than actual; hence zero error is
s ub
negative. We can note the number of division of circular added to the final result.
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

ht P
uestions
Multiple Choice Q
ig rn
M. C. Q.
(a) n ∝ 1/u (b) n ∝ u

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
lr e
A with only one correct answer

(c) n ∝ u2 (d) n ∝ u3

Al od
A6. How the unit of energy will change if the unit of

Select the Correct Answer: length and force are increased four times?
A1. What will be the value of 3.725 after rounding off to
(a) 4 times (b) 8 times
three significant digits?
M

(c) 16 times (d) None of these

(a) 3.73 (b) 3.72
A7. What are the dimensions of a and b in Vander

(c) 3.71 (d) None of these Wall’s equation?
A2. What will be the value of 3.735 after rounding off to
©
three significant digits?  a

 P + 2  (V − b) = RT
V

(a) 3.73 (b) 3.74

(c) 3.72 (d) None of these (a) ML5T-2, L3 (b) ML-1T-1, L3

A3. A sample of material having mass 8.89 g occupies (c) MLT, L2 (d) None of these

a volume of 1.9 cm3. What will be the density of A8. Velocity of a particle at time t is expressed as follows:
material with correct significant digits?
β

(a) 4.678 g/cc (b) 4.6 g/cc
v = αt +
t+γ

(c) 4.7 g/cc (d) 4.68 g/cc
Dimensions of a, b and g are respectively.

A4. In a Vernier caliper, 9 divisions of main scale match
with 9 + n divisions of Vernier scale. What should be (a) L3, T, LT-1 (b) LT-2, L, T

the value of n so that least count of the instrument (c) L, T, LT-1 (d) None of these

remains at minimum possible value? ax
a − kθ

(a) 1 (b) 9 A9. If pressure (P) is expressed as, P = e , then
b

(c) 2 (d) None of these

what will be dimensions of b. Here x is distance, k
A5. Result of measurement of a certain physical entity is Boltzmann constant and q is temperature.
is expressed as nu, where n is numerical value and
u is its unit of measurement. If the same result is (a) M1L2T2 (b) M0L2T0

written in various units then, (c) M2L0T1 (d) None of these


∆V A15. Mass (m), length (l) and radius (r) of a wire are as
A10. A physical entity given by z = ε 0 l. Here ε0 is
∆t follows:
electrical permittivity of free space, l is length, ∆V
m = 0.3 ± 0.003 g

is potential difference and ∆t is time interval. Write l = 6 ± 0.06 cm

the dimensional formula for z.
r = 0.5 ± 0.005 mm

(a) M0L0T0A (b) M1L0T0A
ed s.

What will be the maximum percentage error in the
(c) M0L1T0A (d) None of these measurement of its density?
A11. If E is electric field intensity and ε0 is electrical
rv er

(a) 1 (b) 2
permittivity of free space, then dimension of

(c) 3 (d) 4
1
u = ε 0 E 2 is: A16. Edge length of a cube is 1.7 × 10-2 m. What will
2
se sh
be the volume of cube with correct significant
.
(a) ML-1T-2 (b) ML-1T-1
digits?
(c) MLT-2 (d) None of these
(a) 4.913 × 10-6 m3 (b) 4.91 × 10-6 m3

re li
A12. Number of particles crossing per unit area, per unit (c) 4.9 × 10-6 m3 (d) 4.92 × 10-6 m3

n − n1

s ub
time perpendicular to Z-axis is N = − D 2
z2 − z1
where n1 and n2 are the number of particles per unit
A17. Percentage error in mass and momentum are 3%
and 2% respectively. Maximum possible percentage
error in the kinetic energy is
volume for z1 and z2 respectively. Here D is called
(a) 7% (b) 2%
ht P
diffusion constant. What are the dimensions of D?
(c) 4% (d) 3%
0 2 −1 2 −1
(a) [M L T ] (b) [ML T ]
A18. Least count of a stop watch is 0.2 sec. Time of
−1
(c) [MLT ] (d) None of these
20 oscillations is found to be 25 seconds. Maximum
ig rn
A13. Volume flow rate through a capillary tube is given possible percentage error in the measurement of
time period is
K (r2 − r1 ) 4
by V = , where r1 and r2 are the inner
lr e
( x2 − x1 ) (a) 8% (b) 0.8%

and outer radii and x1 and x2 are the positions
(c) 1.8% (d) 2%
Al od
crossed by the liquid. What will be the dimensional A19. Acceleration due to gravity is to be measured
formula for K? using simple pendulum. If a and b are percentage
(a) [MLT-1] (b) [M0L0T-2] errors in the measurement of length and time
period respectively, then percentage error in the
M
(c) [M0L0T-1] (d) None of these

measurement of acceleration due to gravity is
A14. Marks on main scale of Vernier caliper are made
(a) a - 2b (b) 2a - b

at 1 mm separation. There are 25 equal divisions
on Vernier scale and the same matches with 20 (c) a + 2b (d) b + 2a

©
divisions on main scale. What is the least count of A20. Radius of a circle is 2.23 m. Area of the circle is
given Vernier caliper? (a) 15.6 m2 (b) 15.6149 m2

(a) 0.1 mm (b) 0.25 mm (c) 15.615 m2 (d) 15.62 m2

(c) 0.15 mm (d) 0.2 mm
Answers
A1. (b) A2. (b) A3. (c) A4. (a) A5. (a) A6. (c) A7. (a) A8. (b) A9. (b) A10. (a)
A11. (a) A12. (a) A13. (c) A14. (d) A15. (d) A16. (c) A17. (a) A18.
(b) A19. (c) A20. (a)

(b) Angle and strain
B from Competitive Examinations

(c) Tension and surface tension

(d) Planck’s constant and angular momentum
(A.I.I.M.S. 2001)
Medical Entrance BA2. The length and breadth of a metal sheet are 3⋅124
BA1. Which of the following pairs does not have similar m and 3⋅002 m respectively. The area of the sheet
dimensions? up to four correct significant digits is:

(a) Stress and pressure (a) 9⋅37 m2 (b) 9⋅378 m2


(c) 9⋅3782 m2 (d) 9⋅378248 m2

BA11. A student measured the diameter of a small steel
ball using a screw gauge of least count 0.001 cm.

(A.I.I.M.S. 2001) The main scale reading is 5 mm and zero of circular
BA3. The dimensions of the electric susceptibility are: scale division coincides with 25 divisions above the
(a) [M0L0T0A0] (b) [M0L-2T0A2]
reference level. If screw gauge has a zero error of
–0.004 cm, the correct diameter of the ball is
(c) [ML T-2A] (d) [M0L-1T0A]

ed s.
(a) 0.053 cm (b) 0.525 cm

(J.I.P.M.E.R. 2001) (c) 0.521 cm (d) 0.529 cm
rv er
BA4. The dimensional formula for coefficient of (N.E.E.T. 2018)
restitutions:
BA12. Pressure gradient has the same dimensions as
(a) MLT-2 (b) ML1T-2
that of:
se sh
(c) ML2T-1 (d) M0L0T0
(a) velocity gradient
.

(J.I.P.M.E.R. 2001) (b) potential gradient
BA5. The quantity that has dimensions of time is: (c) energy gradient
re li
(d) none of these. (A.F.M.C. 2004)
R 1

(a)

(c)
s ub L
(b)
RC
LC (d) light year

BA13. The unit of permittivity of free space, e0, is:

(a) newton metre2/coulomb2
(b) coulomb2/newton metre2
ht P

(B.H.U. 2002) (c) coulomb2/(newton metre) 2

BA6. If the energy (E) velocity (v) and force (F) be taken (d) coulomb/newton metre (C.B.S.E. 2004)
as fundamental quantity, then the dimensional BA14. The velocity v of a particle at time t is given by
ig rn
formula of mass will be: b

v = at + where a, b, c are constants. The
(a) F v-2 (b) F v-1
t+c
(c) E v-2 (d) E v2

dimensions of a, b, and c are respectively:
lr e

(B.H.U. 2002) (a) L, L T and T2 (b) LT-2, L and T
Al od
BA7. Pick out the wrong pair: (c) L2, T and LT2 (d) LT2, LT and L

(a) charge-coulomb (A.I.P.M.T. 2006)

(b) temperature-thermometer BA15. The physical quantity having the dimensions
[M-1L-3. T3 A2] is:
M

(c) pressure-barometer
(a) electromotive force

(d) sp. gravity-hydrometer
(b) electrical conductivity
(A.F.M.C. 2003) (c) electrical resistivity
©
BA8. The instrument to measure time is: (d) electrical resistance (P.M.T. 2006)

(a) barometer (b) chronometer BA16. If the error in the measurement of radius of a

(c) radiometer (d) None of these sphere is 2%, then the error in the determination
of volume of the sphere will be

(A.F.M.C. 2003)
(a) 6% (b) 8%
BA9. The main scale of a vernier callipers has n (c) 12% (d) 4%
divisions/cm. n divisions of the vernier scale
coincide with (n - 1) divisions of main scale. (C.B.S.E. 2008)
The least count of the vernier callipers is, BA17. Which two of the following five physical parameters
have the same dimensions?
1 1

(a) cm (b) cm
(A) Energy density
n(n + 1) (n + 1) (n − 1)

(B) Refractive index
1 1
(C) Dielectric constant
(c) cm (d) cm (N.E.E.T. 2019)
n n2
(D) Young’s modulus
A10. A cube has a side of length 1.2 × 10-2 m. Calculate
B
(E) Magnetic field
its volume:
(a) (C) and (E) (b) (A) and (D)
(a) 1.7 × 10-6 m3 (b) 1.73 × 10-6 m3

(c) (A) and (E) (d) (B) and (D)
(c) 1.70 × 10-6 m3 (d) 1.732 × 10-6 m3

(C.B.S.E. 2008)

BA18. Dimensions of resistance in an electrical circuit, in BA25. If F, T and V denote Force, Time and Velocity, then
terms of dimension of mass M, of length L, of time the dimensional formula for mass ‘M’ is:
T and of current I, would be: (a) F TV-1 (b) F-1 TV
2 -2 2 -1 -1

(a) ML T (b) ML T I (c) F-1T-1V (d) FT-1V-1
(c) ML2T-3I-2 (d) ML2T-3I-1
(A.I.P.M.T. 2014)
ed s.

(C.B.S.E. 2007) BA26. Length cannot be measured by:
BA19. A force ‘F’ is given by (a) fermi (b) debye
F = at + bt2
(c) micron (d) light year
rv er

where t is time. What are the dimensions of ‘a’ and ‘b’ (A.I.I.M.S. 2002)
(a) MLT-1 and MLT0
BA27. Using mass (M), length (L), time (T) and current
se sh

(b) MLT-3 and ML2T4 (A) as fundamental quantities, the dimensional
.
formula of permeability is:
(c) MLT-4 and MLT1

(a) M-1LT-2A (b) ML2T-2A-1

(d) MLT-3 and MLT-4(C.B.S.E. 2006)
re li
(c) MLT-2A-2 (d) MLT-1A-1
BA20. If the dimensions of a physical quantity are given
(A.I.I.M.S. 2003)

s ub
by MaLbTc, then the physical quantity will be:
(a) Velocity if a = 1, b = 0, c = -1
(b) Acceleration if a = 1, b = 1, c = -2

BA28. The dimensional formula of
a− t 2
a
b
in the equation,
where P = is pressure, x is distance and t is

bx
ht P
(c) Force if a = 0, b = -1, c = -2

(d) Pressure if a = 1, b = -1, c = -2

time, is:
(C.B.S.E. 2009) (a) LT-3 (b) ML3T-1

ig rn
1 2 (c) M2LT-3 (d) MT-2

BA21. The dimensional formula of ∈0 E , where ∈0 is the
2
(J.I.P.M.E.R. 2003)
permittivity of free space and E is electric field, is: BA29. The length, breadth and thickness of a block
lr e
(a) M L2 T-1 (b) MLT-1

are given by l = 12 cm, b = 6 cm and t = 2.45 cm.
The volume of the block according to the idea of
Al od
(c) ML2T-2 (d) ML-1T-2

significant figures should be:
(C.B.S.E. 2010)
(a) 1 × 102 cm3 (b) 2 × 102 cm3
BA22. The position x of a particle at time t is given by: (c) 1.763 × 102 cm3 (d) none of these
M
v
x = 0 (1 − e−at ) (B.H.U. 2003)
a
BA30. The dimensional formula of light year is:

where v0 is a constant and a > 0. The dimensional
(a) [L-1] (b) [T-1]
formula of v0 and a are:
©
(c) [L] (d) [T]

(a) [M0LT-1] and [T-1]

(Manipal 2003)
(b) [M0LT0] and [T-1]

BA31. Using mass (M), length (L), time (T) and electric
(c) [M0LT-1] and [LT-2]
current (A) as fundamental quantities, the
(d) [M0LT-1] and [T]
(B.H.U. 2002) dimensions of permittivity will be:
BA23. An object is moving through the liquid. The viscous (a) [MLT-1A-1] (b) [MLT-2A-2]
damping force acting on it is proportional to the (c) [M-1L-3T4A2] (d) [M2L-2T-2A]
velocity. Then dimensional formula of constant of
(A.I.I.M.S. 2004)
proportionality is:
BA32. The magnetic moment has dimensions of:
(a) ML-1T-1 (b) MLT-1

(a) [LA] (b) [L2A]
(c) M0L-1T-1 (d) ML0T-1

(c) [LT A] (d) [L2T-1A]
-1
(J.I.P.M.E.R. 2002)
(A.I.I.M.S. 1 2006)
BA24. If L, C and R denote the inductance, capacitance
BA33. The dimensions of [µ 0 ∈0 ]2 are:
and resistance respectively, then the dimensional
1 1
formula for C2 LR is: –
(a) [L2 T
2]
(b) [L-1T]
(a) ML2T-1I0 (b) M0L0T3I0
1 1
− –
(c) M-1L-2T6I2 (d) M0L0T2I0
(c) [LT-1] (d) [L
2T 2 ]

(J.I.P.M.E.R. 2002)
(C.B.S.E. 2011)

BA34. In an experiment, the percentage of error occurred of a wire measured by this screw gauge gives a
in the measurement of physical quantities A, B, C reading of 4 main scale divisions and 30 circular
and D are 1%, 2%, 3% and 4% respectively. Then the scale divisions. Assuming negligible zero error, the
maximum percentage of error in the measurement thickness of the wire is:
A 2B1 / 2 (a) 0.4300 cm (b) 0.3150 cm
X, where X = 1 / 3 3 will be:
C D (c) 0.0430 cm (d) 0.2150 cm
ed s.
 3 (J.E.E. Main 2018)
(a)   % (b) 16%
 13  BB3. The density of a material in the shape of a cube is
rv er
determined by measuring three sides of the cube
(c) -10% (d) 10% (N.E.E.T. 2019) and its mass. If the relative errors in measuring
BA35. In an experiment four quantities a, b, c and d are the mass and length are respectively 1.5% and 1%,
measured with percentage error 1%, 2%, 3% and
se sh
the maximum error in determining the density is:
.
4% respectively. Quantity P is calculated as follows: (a) 4.5% (b) 6%
a3b2 (c) 2.5% (d) 3.5%
P=
, % error in P is:
cd (J.E.E. Main 2018)
re li
(a) 10% (b) 7% BB4. Two full turns of the circular scale of a screw gauge

s ub
(c) 4%
(N.E.E.T. 2013)
(d) 14%
BA36. If energy (E), velocity (V) and time (T) are chosen
cover a distance of 1 mm on its main scale. The
total number of divisions on the circular scale is 50.
Further it is found that the screw gauge has a zero
error of -0.03 mm. While measuring the diameter of
ht P
as the fundamental quantities, the dimensional a thin wire, a student notes the main scale reading of
formula of surface tension will be: 3 mm and the number of circular scale division in line
(a) [EV-2 T-1] (b) [EV-1 T-2] with the main scale as 35. The diameter of the wire is
ig rn
(c) [EV-2 T-2] (d) [E-2V-1 T-3] (a) 3.32 mm (b) 3.73 mm
(A.I.P.M.T. 2015) (c) 3.67 mm (d) 3.38 mm
BA37. A physical quantity of the dimensions of the length (A.I.E.E.E. 2008)
lr e
e2 BB5. The pitch and the number of divisions, on the

can be formed out of c, G and is [c is velocity circular scale, for a given screw gauge are 0.5 mm
4πε 0
Al od
and 100 respectively. When the screw gauge is fully

of light, G is universal constant of gravitational tightened without any object, the zero of its circular
and e is charge]: scale lies 3 divisions below the mean line. The
readings of the main scale and the circular scale,
M
1 1
1  e2  2 2 e2  2 for a thin sheet, are 5.5 mm and 48 respectively,
(a) 2 G
 (b) c G 
c  4 πε 0   4πε 0  the thickness of this sheet is:
(a) 5.740 mm (b) 5.950 mm
©
1
 e2  2 (c) 5.725 mm (d) 5.755 mm
1 1 e2

(c) 2   (d) G (J.E.E. Main 2019)
c  G 4 πε 0  c 4 πε 0
BB6. The percentage errors in quantities P, Q, R and S are

(N.E.E.T. 2017) 0.5%, 1%, 3% and 1.5% respectively in the
P 3Q 2
measurement of a physical quantity A = . The
JEE (Main) & Other State Boards for RS
Engineering Entrance maximum percentage error in the value of A will be:
(a) 6.5% (b) 7.5%
BB1. The relative error in the determination of the
surface area of a sphere is α. Then the relative (c) 6.0% (d) 8.5%
error in the determination of its volume is: (J.E.E. Main 2018)
3 2 BB7. In an experiment the angles are required to be
(a) α (b) α measured using an instrument. 29 divisions of the
2 3
main scale exactly coincide with the 30 divisions
5 of the vernier scale. If the smallest division of the
(c) α
(d) a
2 main scale is half-a-degree (= 0.5°) then the least
(J.E.E. Main 2018) count of the instrument is
BB2. In a screw gauge, 5 complete rotations of the screw (a) 1 minute (b) half minute
cause it to move a linear distance of 0.25 cm. There (c) one degree (d) half degree
are 100 circular scale divisions. The thickness (A.I.E.E.E. 2009)

BB8. In a screw gauge, 5 complete rotations of the screw 1 s resolution. The accuracy in the determination of
cause it to move a linear distance of 0.25 cm. There g is:
are 100 circular scale divisions. The thickness
(a) 3% (b) 1%
of a wire measured by this screw gauge gives a
reading of 4 main scale divisions and 30 circular
(c) 5% (d) 2%
scale divisions. Assuming negligible zero error, the
(J.E.E. Main 2015)
ed s.
thickness of the wire is:
BB14. A student measures the time period of 100
(a) 0.4300 cm (b) 0.3150 cm oscillations of a simple pendulum four times. The
(c) 0.0430 cm (d) 0.2150 cm
rv er
data set is 90 s, 91 s, 95 s and 92 s. If the minimum
(J.E.E. Main 2011) division in the measuring clock is 1 s, then the
BB9. A spectrometer gives the following reading when reported mean time should be:
se sh
used to measure the angle of a prism. (a) 92 ± 2 s
(b) 92 ± 5.0 s
.

Main scale reading: 58.5 degree (c) 92 ± 1.8 s
(d) 92 ± 3 s

Vernier scale reading: 09 divisions
(J.E.E. Main 2016)
re li

Given that 1 division on main scale corresponds to
BB15. A screw gauge with a pitch of 0.5 mm and a circular
0.5 degree. Total divisions on the vernier scale is
s ub
30 and match with 29 divisions of the main scale.
The angle of the prism from the above data:
(a) 59 degree (b) 58.59 degree
scale with 50 divisions is used to measure the
thickness of a thin sheet of Aluminium. Before
starting the measurement, it is found that when
the two jaws of the screw gauge are brought in
ht P
(c) 58.77 degree (d) 58.65 degree contact, the 45th division coincides with the main
(A.I.E.E.E. 2012) scale line and that the zero of the main scale is
barely visible. What is the thickness of the sheet
BB10. Resistance of a given wire is obtained by measuring
ig rn
if the main scale reading is 0.5 mm and the 25th

the current flowing in it and the voltage difference
division coincides with the main scale line?
applied across it. If the percentage errors in the
measurement of the current and the voltage
(a) 0.75 mm (b) 0.80 mm
lr e
difference are 3% each, then error in the value of

(c) 0.70 mm (d) 0.50 mm
resistance of the wire is:
Al od

(J.E.E. Main 2016)
(a) 3% (b) 6%
(c) zero (d) 1% BB16. From the following combinations of physical
constants (expressed through their usual symbols)
(A.I.E.E.E. 2012)
the only combination that would have the same
M
BB11. Let [e0] denote the dimensional formula of the value in different systems of units is:
permittivity of vacuum. If M = mass, L = length,
T = time and A = electric current, then: ch e2
(a) 2 (b)
(a) [e0] = [M-1 L-3 T4 A2] 2πε 0 2πε 0Gme 2
©
(b) [e0] = [M-1 L2 T-1 A-2]

m0 ε 0 G 2π µ 0 ε 0 h
(c) [e0] = [M-1 L2 T-1 A]
(c) (d)
c2 he2 ce2 G
(d) [e0] = [M-1 L-3 T2 A] (J.E.E. Main 2013)
BB12. Expression for time in terms of G (universal (J.E.E. Main 2014)
gravitational constant), h (Planck constant) and c BB17. In terms of resistance R and time T, the dimension
(speed of light) is proportional to: µ
of ratio of the permeability µ and permittivity ε is:
ε
hc5 Gh

(a) (b) (a) RT-2 (b) R2T-2

G c3
(c) R2 (d) R2T2

c3 Gh
(J.E.E. Main 2014)

(c) (d) 5
Gh c
BB18. An experiment is performed to obtain the value
(J.E.E. Main 2019) of acceleration due to gravity by using a simple
BB13. The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is pendulum of length L. In this experiment time for
L 100 oscillations is measured by using a watch of

T = 2π . Measured value of L is 20.0 cm known 1 second least count and the value is 90.0 seconds.
g
The length L is measured by using a metre scale of

to 1 mm accuracy and time for 100 oscillations of the least count 1 mm and the value is 20.0 cm. The error
pendulum is found to be 90 s using a wrist watch of in the determination of g would be:


(a) 1.7% (b) 2.7%
measurement of a, b, c and d, respectively, are 2%,

(c) 4.4% (d) 2.27% 1%, 3% and 5%, then the relative error in P will be:

(J.E.E. Main 2014)
(a) 8% (b) 12%
BB19. The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is
(c) 32% (d) 25%

(J.E.E. Main 2017)
L
ed s.
T = 2π
. Measured value of L is 20.0 cm known BB25. A man grows into a giant such that his linear
g
dimensions increase by a factor of 9. Assuming that

to 1 mm accuracy and time for 100 oscillations of the his density remains same, the stress in the leg will
rv er
pendulum is found to be 90 s using a wrist watch of change by a factor of
1 s resolution. The accuracy in the determination of 1
g is:
(a) 9 (b)
se sh
9
.
(a) 1% (b) 5%
1
(c) 2% (d) 3%
(c) 81 (d)
81
(J.E.E. Main 2015)
re li

(J.E.E. Main 2017)
BB20. If electronic charge e, electron’s mass m, speed
BB26. The area of a square is 5.29 cm2. The area of 7 such
s ub
of light in vacuum c and Planck’s constant h are
taken as fundamental quantities, the permeability
of vacuum m0 can be expressed in units of:
squares taking into account the significant figures
is:
(a) 37.0 cm2 (b) 37 cm2

 hc 
ht P
 h 

(a)  (b)  (c) 37.03 cm2 (d) 37.030 cm2
 me2   me2 

(J.E.E. Main 2019)
 h   mc2 

(c)  2  (d)  2 
ig rn
 ce   he  JEE (Advanced) for IIT Entrance

(J.E.E. Main 2015) BC1. A vernier caliper has 1 mm marks on the main
lr e
BB21. In the following ‘I’ refers to current and other scale. It has 20 equal divisions on the vernier scale
symbols have their usual meaning. Choose the which match with 16 main scale divisions. For the
Al od
option that corresponds to the dimensions of vernier calipers, the least count is:
electrical conductivity:
(a) 0.02 mm (b) 0.05 mm
(a) ML-3T-3I2 (b) M-1L3T3I
(c) 0.1 mm (d) 0.2 mm
(c) M-1L-3T3I2 (d) M-1L-3T3I (I.I.T. 2010)
M
(J.E.E. Main 2016) BC2. Which of the following set have different
BB22. A, B, C and D are four different physical quantities dimensions?
having different dimensions. None of them is
(a) Pressure, Young’s modulus, stress
©
dimensionless. But we know that the equation AD =

(b) emf, potential difference, electric potential
Cln(BD) holds true. Then which of the combination
is not a meaningful quantity?
(c) Heat, work done, energy
( A − C) (d) Dipole moment, electric flux, electric field
(a) A2 - B2C2 (b)
(I.I.T. 2005)
D
∆V
A C AD2 BC3. A quantity ‘x’ is given by e0 L where e0 is

(c) − C (d) − ∆t
B BD C
permittivity of free space, L is length, DV is a

(J.E.E. Main 2016) potential difference and Dt is the time interval. The
BB23. Time (T), velocity (C) and angular momentum dimensional formula for ‘x’ is the same as that of:
(h) are chosen as fundamental quantities instead
(a) resistance (b) charge
of mass, length and time. In terms of these, the

(c) voltage (d) current
dimensions of mass would be:
(I.I.T. 2001)
-1 -2 -1 2
(a) [M] = [T
C h] (b) [M] = [T C h]
-1 -2
BC4. There are two Vernier calipers both of which have
(c) [M] = [T
C h ] (d) [M] = [T C-2 h]
-1
1 cm divided into 10 equal divisions on the main

(J.E.E. Main 2017) scale. The Vernier scale of one of the calipers (C1)
BB24. A physical quantity P is described by the relation has 10 equal divisions that correspond to 9 main
1 scale divisions. The Vernier scale of the other caliper
P =
a 2 b2c3d-4 If the relative errors in the (C2) has 10 equal divisions that correspond 11 main

scale divisions. The readings of the two calipers are 5.15 cm of the main scale. The Vernier scale has 50
shown in the figure. The measured values (in cm) divisions equivalent to 2.45 cm. The 24th division of
by calipers C1 and C2, respectively, are the Vernier scale exactly coincides with one of the
main scale divisions. The diameter of the cylinder is
(a) 5.112 cm (b) 5.124 cm
(c) 5.136 cm (d) 5.148 cm
ed s.
(J.E.E. Advanced 2013)
BC8. Using the expression 2d sin θ = λ, one calculate the
rv er
values of d by measuring the corresponding angles
θ in the range 0 to 90°. The wavelength λ is exactly
known and the error in θ is constant for all values
se sh
of θ. As θ increases from 0° to 90°.
.
(a) the absolute error in d remains constant.

(a) 2.87 and 2.86 (b) 2.85 and 2.82 (b) the absolute error in d increases.
re li

(c) 2.87 and 2.87 (d) 2.87 and 2.83 (c) the fractional error in d remains constant.
s ub
BC5. In an experiment to determine the acceleration due
to gravity g, the formula used for the time period of

(d) the fractional error in d decreases.
BC9. A person measures the depth of a well by measuring
the time interval between dropping a stone and
ht P
7 ( R − r)
a periodic motion is T = 2π
. The values receiving the sound of impact with the bottom of
5g
the well. The error in his measurement of time is
of R and r are measured to be (60 ± 1) mm and (10 ± 1)
dT = 0.01 seconds and he measures the depth of the
ig rn
mm, respectively. In five successive measurements, well to be L = 20 metres. Take the acceleration due
the time period is found to be 0.52 s, 0.56 s, 0.57 s, to gravity g = 10 ms-2 and the velocity of sound is
0.54 s and 0.59 s. The least count of the watch used 300 ms-1. Then the fractional error in the
lr e
for the measurement of time period is 0.01 s. Which δL

of the following statement(s) is (are) true? measurement is closest to:
L
Al od

(a) The error in the measurement of r is 10%.
(a) 0.2% (b) 3%

(b) The error in the measurement of T is 3.57%.
(c) 5% (d) 1%

(c) The error in the measurement of T is 2%.
M

(d) The error in the determined value of g is 11%. BC10. A student performs an experiment to determine
(J.E.E. Advanced 2016) the Young’s modulus of a wire, exactly 2 m long, by
BC6. During an experiment with a metre bridge, the Searle’s method. In a particular reading, the student
©
galvanometer shows a null point when the jockey measures the extension in the length of the wire to
is pressed at 40.0 cm using a standard resistance be 0.8 mm with an uncertainty of ±0.05 mm at a
of 90 Ω, as shown in the figure. The least count of load of exactly 1.0 kg. The student also measures
the scale used in the metre bridge is 1 mm. The the diameter of the wire to be 0.4 mm with an
unknown resistance is uncertainty of ±0.01 mm. Take g = 9.8 m/s2 (exact).
The Young’s modulus obtained from the reading is

(a) (2.0 ± 0.3) × 1011 N/m2

(b) (2.0 ± 0.2) × 1011 N/m2
(c) (2.0 ± 0.1) × 1011 N/m2

(d) (2.0 ± 0.05) × 1011 N/m2

(I.I.T. 2007)
(1 − a)
BC11. Consider the ratio r = to be determined by
(1 + a)
(a) 60 ± 0.15 W (b) 135 ± 0.56 W
measuring a dimensionless quantity a. If the error
in the measurement of a is Da (Da/a << 1), then
(c) 60 ± 0.25 W (d) 135 ± 0.23 W
what is the error Dr in determining r?
BC7. The diameter of a cylinder is measured using a ∆a 2∆a
Vernier caliper with no zero error. It is found that
(a) (b)
the zero of the Vernier scale lies between 5.10 cm and (1 + a) 2
(1 + a)2

2∆a 2a∆a length L = 2 m and diameter d = 0.5 mm is used.

(c) (d)
(1 − a )
2
(1 − a )
2 For a load M = 2.5 kg, an extension l = 0.25 mm
in the length of the wire is observed. Quantities
(J.E.E. Advanced 2018) d and l are measured using a screw gauge and a
BC12. The density of a solid ball is to be determined in an micrometer, respectively. They have the same pitch
experiment. The diameter of the ball is measured of 0.5 mm. The number of division on their circular
ed s.
with a screw gauge, whose pitch is 0.5 mm and scale is 100. The contributions to the maximum
there are 50 divisions on the circular scale. The probable error of the Y measurement
rv er
reading on the main scale is 2.5 mm and that on
(a) due to the errors in the measurements of d and
the circular scale is 20 divisions. If the measured l are the same.
mass of the ball has a relative error of 2%, the
(b) due to the error in the measurement of d is
relative percentage error in the density is
se sh
twice that due to the error in the measurement
.
(a) 0.9% (b) 2.4% of l.
(c) 3.1% (d) 4.2%
(c) due to the error in the measurement of l is
(I.I.T. 2011) twice that due to the error in the measurement
re li
of d.
BC13. In the determination of Young’s modulus


 Y =
s ub
4 MLg 
 by using Searle’s method, a wire of
πld 2 

(d) due to the error in the measurement of d is four
times that due to the error in the measurement
of l. (I.I.T. 2012)
Answers
ht P
BA1. (c) BA2. (b) BA3. (a) BA4. (d) BA5. (c) BA6. (c) BA7. (a) BA8. (b) BA9. (d) BA10. (a)
BA11. (d) BA12. (d) BA13. (b) BA14. (b) BA15. (b) BA16. (a) BA17. (b) BA18. (c) BA19. (d) BA20. (d)
ig rn
BA21. (d) BA22. (a) BA23. (d) BA24. (b) BA25. (a) BA26. (b) BA27. (c) BA28. (d) BA29. (b) BA30. (c)
BA31. (b) BA32. (b) BA33. (b) BA34. (b) BA35. (d) BA36. (c) BA37. (a) BB1. (a) BB2. (d) BB3. (a)
BB4. (d) BB5. (d) BB6. (a) BB7. (a) BB8. (d) BB9. (d) BB10. (b) BB11. (a) BB12. (d) BB13. (a)
lr e
BB14. (c) BB15. (b) BB16. (b) BB17. (c) BB18. (b) BB19. (d) BB20. (c) BB21. (c) BB22. (b, d)
Al od
BB23. (a) BB24. (c) BB25. (a) BB26. (c) BC1. (d) BC2. (d) BC3. (d) BC4. (d) BC5. (a) BC6. (c)
BC7. (b) BC8. (d) BC9. (d) BC10. (b) BC11. (b) BC12. (c) BC13. (a)
(c) P + Q (d) P - Q
C
M
C4. 10 Vernier scale divisions (VSD) match with 9 main

with more than one correct answer scale divisions (MSD). Least count of the given
Vernier caliper is
C1. Pairs of physical quantities having same
(a) 0.1 mm if 1 MSD = 1 mm
©
dimensions are
(a) Reynolds number and strain (b) 0.05 cm if 1 MSD = 0.05 cm
(b) Torque and force (c) 0.01 mm if 1 MSD = 1 mm
(c) Curie and frequency (d) 0.005 cm if 1 MSD = 0.05 cm
(d) Gravitational potential and latent heat C5. Select the correct option(s)
C2. A Vernier caliper has 50 divisions which are (a) Dimensionally correct equation must be correct.
equivalent to 2.45 cm. Main scale reading of vernier (b) Dimensionally correct equation may be incorrect.
caliper is found to be 4.15 cm. Markings on main (c) Dimensionally correct equation may be correct.
scale are at 0.05 cm. The 24th division of Vernier (d) Dimensionally incorrect equation must be
scale matches with one of the main scale divisions. incorrect.
(a) Least count = 0.001 cm C6. Accuracy of measurement is determined by
(b) Least count = 0.001 mm (a) Absolute error (b) Relative error
(c) Final reading = 4.174 cm (c) Percentage error (d) None of these
(d) Final reading = 4.157 cm C7. A dimensionless quantity
C3. Two physical quantities P and Q have different (a) Must not have a unit
dimensions. Which of the following mathematical (b) May have a unit
operation is/are possible?
P (c) May not have a unit
(a) (b) PQ
(d) Must have a unit
Q

C8. Unitless physical quantity to gravity. He uses a stopwatch with the least
(a) Can have non-zero dimensions count of 1 sec. for this and records 40 seconds for
(b) Cannot have non-zero dimensions 20 oscillations. For this observation, which of the
following statements(s) is (are) true?
(c) Must have zero dimensions
(a) Error DT in measuring T, the time period, is
(d) Does not exist
0.05 second
ed s.
C9. The dimensional formula ML-1T-2 may correspond to
(b) Error DT in measuring T, the time period, is
(a) Impulse of a force 1 second
rv er
(b) Pressure (c) Percentage error in the determination of g is 5%
(c) Energy (d) Percentage error in the determination of g
(d) Energy per unit volume is 2.5% (I.I.T. 2010)
se sh
C10. Which of the following sets of physical quantities C13. A student performed the experiment of
.
can be used as fundamental quantities in a system determination of focal length of a concave mirror
of units? by u-v method using an optical bench of length
1.5 metre. The focal length of the mirror used is
re li
(a) Length, velocity and acceleration
(b) Length, mass and acceleration 24 cm. The maximum error in the location of the

s ub
(c) Length, mass and time
(d) mass, time and acceleration
image can be 0.2 cm. The 5 sets of (u, v) values
recorded by the student (in cm) are: (42, 56), (48,
48), (60, 40) (66. 33), (78, 39). The data set(s)
C11. A length-scale () depends on the permittivity (ε) of that cannot come from experiment and is (are)
ht P
a dielectric materials, Boltzmann constant (kB), the incorrectly recorded, is(are)
absolute temperature (T), the number per unit volume (a) (42, 56) (b) (48, 48)
(n) of certain charged particles and the charge (q)
(c) (66, 33) (d) (78, 39)
ig rn
carried by each of the particles. Which of the following

expression(s) for  is(are) dimensionally correct? (I.I.T. 2009)
C14. Let us consider a system of units in which mass
 nq2   εk B T  and angular momentum are dimensionless. If
lr e
(a)  =
 εk T  (b)  =  nq2 
 B  length has dimension of L, which of the following
Al od
statement (s) is/are correct ?

 q2   q2 
(c)  =
 2/3  (d)  =  1/ 3  (a) The dimension of force is L–3
 εn k B T   εn k B T  (b) The dimension of energy is L–2

(J.E.E. Advanced 2016) (c) The dimension of power is L–5
M
C12. A student uses a simple pendulum of exactly (d) The dimension of linear momentum is L–1
1 m length to determine g, the acceleration due (J.E.E. Advanced 2019)
©
Answers
C1. (a, c, d) C2. (a, c) C3. (a, b) C4. (a, d) C5. (b, c, d) C6. (b, c) C7. (b, c)
C8. (b, c) C9. (b, d) C10. (b, c, d) C11. (b, d) C12. (a, c) C13. (c, d) C14. (a, b, d)
Answer the following questions:

D based on a given passage/comprehension
D1. What is least count of the given Vernier caliper?

(a) 0.1 mm (b) 0.1 cm
Passage 1
(c) 0.01 mm (d) 1 µm
D2. What is the edge length of the cube?
There is one Vernier caliper in which 1 main scale
division (MSD) is 1 mm. It is given that 10 divisions of
(a) 1.01 mm (b) 1.01 cm
Vernier scale match with 9 divisions of main scale. Given
(c) 10.1 cm (d) 1.001 cm
Vernier caliper is used to measure the edge of a cube. D3. What is the number of significant digits in the edge
Main scale reading (MSR) was found to be 10 and first length of cube, measured with the given Vernier
division of the Vernier scale was found to be coinciding caliper?
with some division of the main scale. Mass of the cube is
(a) 1 (b) 2
2.736 g.

(c) 3 (d) 4

D4. What is the volume of cube with correct number of D5. What is the density of material with correct number
significant digits? of significant digits?
(a) 1.03 cm3 (b) 1.0303 cm3 (a) 2.65 g/cm3 (b) 2.66 g/cm3
(c) 1.03 mm3 (d) 1.0303 mm3 (c) 2.656 g/cm3 (d) 2.650 g/cm3
Answers
ed s.
Passage 1 D1. (a) D2. (b) D3. (c) D4. (a) D5. (b)
rv er
Reason: Measurements with more decimal places are
ASSERTION REASON TYPE QUESTIONS said to be more accurate.
The questions given below consist of an assertion and 3. Assertion: When unit of measurement for a physical
se sh
quantity is changed, its numerical value also changes.
.
the reason. Use the following key to choose appropriate
answer: Reason: Product of numerical value and unit of
(a)
If both assertion and reason are correct and reason measurement for a physical quantity remains constant.
re li
is a correct explanation of the assertion. 4. Assertion: A physical quantity which has zero
dimension may have unit of measurement.
(b)
s ub
If both assertion and reason are correct but reason is
not the correct explanation of assertion.
(c) If assertion is correct but reason is incorrect.
Reason: Two physical entities having same dimensional
formula may have different units of measurement.
5. Assertion: Maximum possible error in a reading is
(d)
If assertion is incorrect but reason is correct.
ht P
taken as the least count of the measuring instrument.
(e) If both assertion and reason are incorrect.
Reason: Error in the measurement can never be greater
than the least count of the instrument.
1. Assertion: All equations which are physically correct
ig rn
must also be dimensionally correct. 6. Assertion: All physical quantities can be represented
dimensionally in terms of the base quantities.
Reason: All equations which are dimensionally correct
must also be physically correct. Reason: A base quantity cannot be represented
lr e
dimensionally in terms of remaining base quantities.

2. Assertion: Out of the two readings 15.25 and 15.256,
Al od
second one is more precise.
Answers
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (b)
M
2. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer

MATCHING TYPE QUESTIONS
using the codes given below the lists:
Each question has a matching list. The codes for the lists have
©
choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out of which only one is correct. List-I List-II
1. Match the two lists. P Boltzmann constant 1 [ML2T-1]
List-I List-II Q Coefficient of viscosity 2 [ML-1T-1]

P Gravitational constant 1 [ML0T-2]
R Planck constant 3 [MLT-3K-1]
Q Surface Tension 2 [ML2T-2K-1]
S Thermal conductivity 4 [ML2T-2K-1]
R Planck’s constant 3 [ML2T-1]
S Boltzmann’s constant 4 [M-1L3T-2]
P Q R S
P Q R S (a) 3 1 2 4
(a) 1 4 3 2
(b) 3 2 1 4
(b) 2 3 1 4
(c) 4 2 1 3
(c) 4 1 3 2
(d) 4 1 2 3
(d) 3 4 2 1
Answers
1. (c) 2. (c)

MATRIX MATCH TYPE QUESTIONS D→(q), then correctly bubbled matrix will look like the
following:
Each question contains statements given in two columns,
which have to be matched. Statements in column-I are p q r s
labelled as A, B, C and D whereas statements in column-II A p q r s
are labelled as p, q, r and s. Match the entries of column-I
ed s.
with appropriate entries of column-II. Each entry in B p q r s
column-I may have one or more than one correct option
C p q r s
rv er
from column-II. The answers to these questions have to be
appropriately bubbled as illustrated in the given example.
D p q r s
If the correct matches are A→(q, r), B→(p, s), C→(r, s) and
se sh
1. Match the two columns.
.
Column I Column II
(A) Stress (p) Joule
re li
(B) Coefficient of elasticity (q) ML2T-2
(C)
(D)
s ub
Work
Energy
(r)
(s)
N/m2
ML-1T-2
ht P
Answers
1. A → (r, s) B → (r, s) C → (p, q) D → (p, q)
ig rn
5. During Searle’s experiment, zero of the Vernier

INTEGER TYPE QUESTIONS scale lies between 3.20 × 10-2 m and 3.25 × 10-2 m
lr e
The answer to each of the following questions is a single- of the main scale. The 20th division of the Vernier
scale exactly coincides with one of the main scale
Al od
digit integer ranging from 0 to 9. Darken the correct digit.

divisions. When an additional load of 2 kg is
1. What is the dimension of length in moment of inertia? applied to the wire, the zero of the Vernier scale
still lies between 3.20 × 10-2 m and 3.25 × 10-2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 m of the main scale but now the 45th division of
M
2 Vernier scale coincides with one of the main scale

2. Consider the following equation F = a x + bt . If the
divisions. The length of the thin metallic wire is
dimensions of a/b are MpLqTr then calculate
2 m and its cross sectional area is 8 × 10-7 m2.
value of: -qr The least count of Vernier scale is 1.0 × 10-5 m.
©
the maximum percentage error in the Young’s

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
modulus of the wire is
3. Mass (M) of the largest stone that can be moved
by flowing river depends on the velocity of flow of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
river (v), density of water (r) and acceleration due
to gravity (g). If M depends on nth power of velocity
then calculate n. 6. To find the distance d over which a signal can
be seen clearly in foggy conditions, a railways
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 engineer uses dimensional analysis and assumes
4. The energy of a system as a function of time t is that the distance depends on the mass density ρ of
given as E(t) = A2 exp(-at), where α = 0.2 s-1. The the fog, intensity (power/area) S of the light from
measurement of A has an error of 1.25%. If the the signal and its frequency f. The engineer finds
error in the measurement of time is 1.50%, the that d is proportional to S1/n. The value of n is
percentage error in the value of E(t) at t = 5 s is 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Answers
1. [2] 2. [1] 3. [6] 4. [4] 5. [8] 6. [3]


Objective Questions
2.9. Which of the following measurements is most precise?
ed s.
Multiple Choice Questions (Type-I)

(a) 5.00 mm (b) 5.00 cm
2.1. The number of significant figures in 0.06900 is

(c) 5.00 m (d) 5.00 km.
rv er
(a) 5 (b) 4
(c) 2 (d) 3 2.10. The mean length of an object is 5 cm. Which of the
following measurements is most accurate?
2.2. The sum of the numbers 436.32, 227.2 and 0.301 in
se sh
appropriate significant figures is
(a) 4.9 cm (b) 4.805 cm
.
(a) 663.821 (b) 664
(c) 5.25 cm (d) 5.4 cm
(c) 663.8 (d) 663.82 2.11. Young’s modulus of steel is 1.9 × 1011 N/m2. When
expressed in CGS units of dynes/cm2, it will be
re li
2.3. The mass and volume of a body are 4.237 g and
equal to (1N = 105 dyne, 1 m2 = 104 cm2)
2.5 cm3, respectively. The density of the material

s ub
of the body in correct significant figures is
(a) 1.6048 g cm-3 (b) 1.69 g cm-3
(a) 1.9 × 1010

(c) 1.9 × 10
12
(b) 1.9 × 1011
(d) 1.9 × 1013
(c) 1.7 g cm-3
(d) 1.695 g cm-3 2.12. If momentum (P), area (A) and time (T) are taken
ht P
2.4. The numbers 2.745 and 2.735 on rounding off to to be fundamental quantities, then energy has the
3 significant figures will give dimensional formula
(a) 2.75 and 2.74 (b) 2.74 and 2.73 (a) (P1 A-1 T1) (b) (P2 A1 T1)

ig rn
(c) 2.75 and 2.73 (d) 2.74 and 2.74 (c) (P1 A-1/2 T1) (d) (P1 A1/2 T-1)

2.5. The length and breadth of a rectangular sheet are
lr e
16.2 cm and 10.1 cm, respectively. The area of the Multiple Choice Questions (Type-II)
sheet in appropriate significant figures and error is
2.13. On the basis of dimensions, decide which of the
Al od
(a) 164 ± 3 cm2 following relations for the displacement of a

(b) 163.62 ± 2.6 cm2 particle undergoing simple harmonic motion is not
(c) 163.6 ± 2.6 cm2 correct:
(a) y = a sin 2pt/T

M

(d) 163.62 ± 3 cm2
2.6. Which of the following pairs of physical quantities (b) y = a sin nt.

does not have same dimensional formula? a t
(c) y =
sin  
(a) Work and torque. T  a
©
(b) Angular momentum and Planck’s constant.  2πt 2πt 

(d) y = a 2  sin
− cos 
(c) Tension and surface tension.  T T 
(d) Impulse and linear momentum. 2.14. If P, Q, R are physical quantities, having different
2.7. Measure of two quantities along with the precision dimensions, which of the following combinations
of respective measuring instrument is can never be a meaningful quantity?
A = 2.5 m s-1 ± 0.5 m s-1 (a) (P - Q)/R
(b) PQ - R
B = 0.10 s ± 0.01 s
(c) PQ/R (d) (PR - Q2)/R
The value of A B will be (e) (R + Q)/P

(a) (0.25 ± 0.08) m 2.15. Photon is quantum of radiation with energy E = hν
(b) (0.25 ± 0.5) m where ν is frequency and h is Planck’s constant.
(c) (0.25 ± 0.05) m The dimensions of h are the same as that of
(d) (0.25 ± 0.135) m
(a) Linear impulse
2.8. You measure two quantities as A = 1.0 m ± 0.2 m,
(b) Angular impulse
B = 2.0 m ± 0.2 m. We should report correct value
(c) Linear momentum
for AB as:
(d) Angular momentum Planck
(a) 1.4 m ± 0.4 m
(b) 1.41 m ± 0.15 m 2.16. If Planck’s constant (h) and speed of light in vacuum
(c) 1.4 m ± 0.3 m
(d) 1.4 m ± 0.2 m (c) are taken as two fundamental quantities, which

one of the following can, in addition, be taken to 2.17. Which of the following ratios express pressure?
express length, mass and time in terms of the three (a) Force/Area
chosen fundamental quantities? (b) Energy/Volume

(a) Mass of electron (me) (c) Energy/Area

(b) Universal gravitational constant (G) (d) Force/Volume
2.18. Which of the following is not a unit of time?
ed s.

(c) Charge of electron (e)
(a) Second (b) Parsec

(d) Mass of proton (mp) (c) Year (d) Light year
rv er
Answers
se sh
2.1. (b) 2.2. (b) 2.3. (c) 2.4. (d) 2.5. (a) 2.6. (c) 2.7. (a) 2.8. (d) 2.9. (a)
.
2.10. (a) 2.11. (c) 2.12. (d) 2.13. (b, c) 2.14. (a, e) 2.15. (b, d) 2.16. (a, b, d) 2.17. (a, b) 2.18. (b, d)
re li
for ype Questions
s ub
Hints & Solutions Difficult Objective T
A8. (b): Dimensions of αt must be same as that of velocity.
A. MCQs with only one correct answer
ht P
a(T) = LT-1⇒ [α] = LT-2
A1. (b): Last digit to be dropped is 5 and preceding digit is
even hence it will remain unchanged. Hence option (b) Dimensions of b must be same as that of length. [β] = L
is correct. Since g is added to time hence its dimension must be
ig rn
A2. (b): Last digit to be dropped is 5 and preceding digit is same as that of time.
odd hence it will be increased by 1. Hence option (b) is [γ] = T
correct.
lr e
Hence option (b) is correct.

mass 8.89 A9. (b): Here ax/kq is power raised to exponent hence it
A3. (c): Density of the material = =
Al od
volume 1 .9 must be dimensionless.

= 4.6789 g /cc [a][x]=[k][θ]
According to rule, number of significant digits in ML2T −2 K −1 × K
the answer must be 2 because volume has minimum ⇒ [a] =

M
L
significant digits equal to 2. Hence final answer
rounded off to correct number of significant digits is ⇒ [a] = MLT-2
4.7 g/cc. Hence option (c) is correct. Now we can understand that a/b must have same
dimensions as that of pressure.
©
A4. (a): Least count is equal to the difference in length

of one main scale division and one Vernier scale [ a]
= [ P]
division. Hence for minimum possible difference we [ b]
need n=1. Hence, option (a) is correct.
MLT −2
A5. (a): When result is expressed in various units then nu ⇒
= ML−1T −2
[ b]
remains constant.
n1u1 = n2u2 ⇒
[ b] = M 0 L2 T0
Hence option (a) is correct.
A6. (c): Energy can be expressed as force multiplied with Hence option (b) is correct.
length; hence when both are increased to four times [ ∆V ]
then unit of energy becomes 16 times. Hence option (c) A10. (a): [ z[ = [ ε 0 ][ l]
[ ∆t ]
is correct.
A7. (a): a/V2, must have same dimensions as that of −1 −3 4 2 [ML2T −3 A −1 ]
pressure, P. ⇒ [ z] = [M L T A ][L ]

[T]
a
= ML−1T −2 ⇒ [ a] = ML5T −2
0 0 0
⇒ [ z] = [M L T A]
L6
Dimensions of b must be same as that of V.
[b] = L3. 1 2
A11. (a): [u] =  2 ε 0 E 
Hence option (a) is correct.  

⇒ [u] = [M-1L-3A2T4][MLT-3A-1]2 only. Hence volume of the cube should be written as

⇒ [u] = [ML-1T-2] follows:
Hence option (a) is correct. In class XII we shall study V = 4.9 × 10-6 m3.
that given expression stands for energy per unit
Hence option (c) is correct.
volume and so we can evaluate dimensions on that
basis also. A17. (a): Kinetic energy can be written in terms of linear
ed s.
momentum as follows:
n − n1
A12. (a): N = −D 2
z2 − z1 p2
K=
rv er
[ n2 − n1 ] 2m
⇒
[ N ] = [ D]
[ z2 − z1 ] ∆K ∆p ∆m
⇒
=2 +
K p m
se sh
−3
−2 −1 [L ]
.
⇒ [L T ] = [ D]

[L ] ∆K ∆p ∆m
2 −1 ⇒
× 100 = 2 × 100 + × 100
⇒
[ D] = [ L T ] K p m
re li
⇒ [ D] = [M 0 L2 T −1 ] ∆K
× 100 = 2 × 2 + 3 = 7%
s ub
A13. (c): V=
K (r2 − r1 )4
( x2 − x1 )
⇒

K
A18. (b): Time period of oscillation can be written as follows:
ht P
[ K ][(r2 − r1 )]4 25
⇒
[V ] = T= = 1.25s
[( x2 − x1 )] 20
Error in the measurement of time of 20 oscillations is
ig rn
[ K ][ L]4
3 −1 0.2 sec; hence corresponding error in the measurement
⇒ [L T ] =

[ L] of time period can be written as follows:
lr e
⇒
[ K ] = [T −1 ] = [M 0 L0 T −1 ] 0 .2
∆T = = 0.01s
20
Al od
A14. (d): Main scale divisions are made at 1 mm separation Percentage error in the measurement of time period
can be written as follows:
⇒ 1 MSD = 1 mm
25 Vernier scale divisions match with 20 divisions on ∆T 0.01
× 100 = × 100 = 0.8%
M
main scale hence T 1.25

1VSD = 20/25 = 0.8 mm Hence, option (b) is correct.
Least count is difference in length of MSD and VSD. l
T = 2π
©
LC = 1MSD - 1VSD = 1 - 0.8 = 0.2 mm A19. (c):

g
Hence option (d) is correct.
A15. (d): Density of the material of wire is given by 4 π 2l
⇒
g=
m T2
ρ= 2
πr l ∆g ∆l ∆T
⇒
= +2
∆ρ ∆m ∆r ∆l g l T
= +2 +
ρ m r l ∆g ∆l ∆T
⇒
× 100 = × 100 + 2 × 100
∆ρ 0.003 0.005 0.06 g l T
⇒
= +2 + = 0.01 + 0.02 + 0.01
ρ 0 .3 0.5 6 ∆g
⇒
× 100 = a + 2b
= 0.04 g
∆ρ Hence, option (c) is correct.
⇒
× 100 = 4
ρ A20. (a): Area of the circle is: A = πr2 = 3.14 × (2.23)2
= 15.6149 m2.
Hence, option (d) is correct.
A16. (c): Volume of cube can be written as: V = a3 = (1.7 × Number of significant digits in radius is 3; hence final
10-2)3 = 4.913 × 10-6 m3. answer should also contain only 3 significant digits.
Edge of the cube is provided with 2 significant digits; Hence A = 15.6 m2.
hence volume must also contain 2 significant digits Hence, option (a) is correct.

BA11. (d): Diameter of the ball

B. MCQs from Competitive Examinations
= M.S.R + C.S.R × (Least count) – Zero error
AIPMT/NEET & Other State Boards for = 0.5 cm + 25 × 0.001 – (–0.004)
Medical Entrance = 0.5 + 0.025 + 0.004 = 0.529 cm
BA1. (c): Tension is force but surface tension is force per Hence option (d) is correct.
ed s.
unit length. BA12. (d)
BA2. (b): l = 3.124 m (four significant figures), b = 3.002 m  1  q q  C2
BA13. (b): e0 =    1 22  = = C2/Nm2
(four significant figures)  4π   Fr  Nm 2
rv er
A = lb = 3.124 × 3.002
BA14. (b): Same dimensions can be added
= 9.378248
This given formula is dimensionally valid
se sh
From given data, least significant number is four,
.
b
so the result of this multiplication must have four v = at +
significant figure t+c
A = 9.378 m2 at → v (velocity)
re li
BA3. (a): Electric susceptibility is dimensionless. a[T] → [LT-1]
s ub
e has no dimensions
(v − v1 )
BA4. (d): Coefficient of restitution e = 2
(u2 − u1 )
⇒
Again
b
a → [LT-2]
t+c
→ v
ht P
1 But, t + c = time = [T] ⇒ c = [T]
BA5. (c): ω = ⇒ T = 2π LC
LC b
= [LT-1]
BA6. (c): M = k[ E ]a[v]b[ F ]c
[T ]
ig rn
b = [L]
= [Ma L2a T −2a ][M0Lb T − b ][M c Lc T −2c ]
BA15. (b): D = [M-1 L-3 T+3 A2]
Ma+c L2a+b+c T −2a − b − 2c ]
= [M
lr e
1 l Il 2
a + c = 1, 2a + b + c = 0, 2a + b + 2c = 0, s = = = = I l = [ A2 ][ L]
ρ RA VA
(VI ) A [ML2T −3 ][L2 ]
Al od
a = 1, b = −2, c = 0
= [M-1L-3T3I2]
M = k[ E]1 [v]−2
BA16. (a): Given error percentage of radius is r = 2%
BA7. (a): Rest all pairs are measuring devices and
∆V
M
respective quantities to be measured. 3∆r

= = 3 × 2% = 6%
BA8. (b): Chronometer V r
Energy Fl
BA9. (d): It is given that A17. (b): Energy density =
B = 3
Volume l
n VSD = (n - 1) MSD
©
F
(n − 1) = = [ML-1T-2]
1 VSD = MSD l2
n
Least count is difference between main scale stress F [MLT −2 ]
Young’s modulus = = = = [ML-1T-2]
division and Vernier scale division. strain A [L2 ]
(n − 1)
L.C. = 1 MSD - 1 VSD = 1 MSD - MSD V W W [ML2 T −2 ]
n BA18. (c): R= = = 2 =
1 I qI I t [A 2T]
= MSD
n = [ML2T-3A-2] or [ML2T-3I-2]
There are n divisions per cm; hence each main BA19. (d): F = at + bt2
1 at → Force = [MLT-2]
scale division is equivalent to cm.
n a[T] = [MLT-2]
1 1 1
L.C. = × cm = 2 cm ⇒ a = [MLT-3]
n n n
Now bt2 → Force = [MLT-2]
Hence option (d) is correct. b[T2] → [MLT-2]
BA10. (a): a = 1.2 × 10-2 (two significant digits) ⇒ b = [MLT-4]
Volume = a3 = 1.728 × 10-6 m3 F
Result of volume must have two significant figure. BA20. (d): P = = [ML-1T-2] ⇒ [M]a [L]b [T]c
A
∴ a3 = 1.7 × 10-6 m3 a = 1, b = -1, c = -2

BA21. (d): This formula is energy density for capacitor, BA29. (b): l = 12 cm, b = 6 cm, t = 2.45 cm
1 Energy W Fd ML2T −2 Volume = l b t
e0E2 = = = =
2 Volume V V L3 = 12 × 6 × 2.45
= 176.4 ⇒ it must be converted into least significant
= [ML-1T-2] figures in l, b and t
v0
ed s.
BA22. (a): x = (1 − e−at ) = 1.764 × 102
a = 2 × 102 cm3
at → constant BA30. (c): 1 Light year = 9.4607 × 1012 Km
rv er
⇒ a[T] → k It is distance travelled by light in one year so,
⇒ a = [T-1] Dimensions of light year, 1 ly = [L]
BA31. (b)
se sh
∴ x is the position
.
[L] = v0 BA32. (b): Magnetic moment = I.A
[ T −1 ] M = [AL2]
1
re li
v0 = [M0LT-1] BA33. (b): c=
µ0ε0
BA23. (d): F ∝ v ⇒ F = kv
s ub
[MLT-2] = k[LT-1] ⇒ K = [ML0T-1]
BA24. (b): C2LR = [M-1L-2T4I2]2[ML2T-2I-2][ML2T-3I-2]
[m0e0]1/2 =
A 2B1 / 2
1
c
=
1
LT −1
= [L-1 T]
= [M0L0T3I0] BA34. (b): x=

ht P
C1 / 3D3
BA25. (a): F = force T = time v = velocity
∆x 2∆A 1 ∆B 1 ∆C ∆D
F = [MLT-2], T = [T], v = [LT-1] = + + ×3
x A 2 B 3 C D
F
ig rn
Mass = M = (a is acceleration) ∆x 1 1
a × 100 = 2(1%) + (2%) + (3%) + 3(4%) = 16%
x 2 3
Ft [FT]
= = Hence option (b) is correct.
lr e
v [V]
BA35. (d):
M = [FTV-1]
Al od
∆P   ∆a   ∆b 
BA26. (b): debye × 100 = ± 3  × 100 + 2  × 100
F P   a   b 
BA27. (c): µ → permeability, F = qvB, B =
qv  ∆c   ∆d 
µ  Idl  + × 100 +  × 100 
 c   d 
M
B = × 
4π  r 2 
= ±[3 × 1% + 2 × 2% + 3% + 4%]
F µ  A L
=   % error in P = 14%
qv 4 π  L2  F F ⋅l E t −2
©
BA36. (c): Surface Tension = = 2 = 2 −2

 MLT −2  A  l l l t
 −1  =
µ 
 AT ⋅ LT  L E T −2 E T −2 -2 -2
=
2 −2 = 2 = [EV T ]
m =
ML2T −2 LT [ ]
V
A 2 T 0L e2
BA37. (a): The dimensions of the quantities c, G and
= [MLT-2 A-2] 4πε 0
a − t2 Force F are as follows:
BA28. (d): Pressure = P = = =
bx Area A [c] = [LT-1]
t → time, A → area [G] =[M-1L3T-2]
a = [T2]  e2 
 = ML T 
3 −2

 AT 2
 4πε 0 
bx =  
 F  Let the dimensions of the asked physical quantity
LT 2 2 (say) I be expressed as: z
b[L] =  e2 
MLT −2 x y
[I] = c G  
b = M-1L0T4  4πε 0 
a T2 Or, [L ] = [L1T −1 ]x [M −1L3T −2 ]y [M1L3T −2 ]z

= = ML0T-2
b M −1L0 T 4 -y + z = 0 ⇒ y = z...(i)

x + 3y + 3z = 1 ...(ii) BB4. (d): According to given details when circular scale of

-x - 2y - 2z = 0 ...(iii) screw gauge covers a distance of 1 mm, upon two
Solving equations (i), (ii) and (iii) circular turns.
The distance covered by the screw gauge in axial
x = -2
1 direction upon its one revolution is called the pitch
z=y= of screw gauge.
2
ed s.
1
Hence, I can be expressed as: Here, pitch = mm = 0.5 mm
2
1
Least count (L.C.)
1 
rv er
e2  2
2 
G  Pitch
c  4 πε 0  =
Number of divisions on circular scale
se sh
0.5 mm
= 0.01 mm
.
JEE (Main) & Other State Boards for =
50
Engineering Entrance Main scale reading, M.S.R. = 3 mm
Circular scale reading, C.S.R. = 35
re li
BB1. (a): Surface area of sphere is S = 4pr2
Zero error (Z.E.) is -0.03 mm
∆S ∆r

⇒
s ub ∆r α
S
= 2×
= ...(i)
r
=α Reading noted by student
M.S.R. = 3 mm, C.S.R. = 35
The diameters of wire is
r 2 D = M.S.R. + C.S.R. × L.C. + Z.E.
ht P
4 3 = 3 mm + 35 × 0.01 mm + (-0.03) mm
Volume of Sphere V = πr
3 = 3.38 mm
BB5. (d): Pitch = 0.5 mm
ig rn
∆V ∆r
⇒ = 3× 0 .5
V r L.C. = = 0.005 mm
100
Substituting from equation (i) we get the following:
Zero error = -3 × 0.005 = -0.015 mm
lr e
∆V 3 Actual value = Main scale reading + circular scale

= α
V 2
Al od
reading × L.C. - zero error

Hence option (a) is correct. = 5.5 mm + (48 × 0.005) mm + 0.015 mm
BB2. (d): It moves a distance of 0.25 cm in five rotations = 5.755 mm
and there are 100 divisions on circular scale; hence ∆A
M
BB6. (a): × 100 =

0.25 A
Least Count of screw gauge = cm
5 × 100 3∆P 2∆Q 1 ∆R ∆S
× 100 + × 100 + × 100 + × 100
= 5 × 10-4 cm P Q 2 R S
©
One rotation cover linear distance 1

= 3 × 0.5 + 2 × 1 + × 3 + 1.5
0.25 cm 2

= = 0.05 cm
5
= 1.5 + 2 + 1.5 + 1.5
Reading of thickness of wire ∆A

= 6.5%
= Main Scale Division × n + Circular A
Scale Division × Least Count Hence option (a) is correct.
= 4 × 0.05 cm + 30 × 5 × 10-4 cm BB7. (a): Given, 30 V.S.D. exactly match with 29 division
= (0.2 + 0.0150) cm = 0.2150 cm of main scale division (M.S.D.)
Hence option (d) is correct. One unit of vernier scale division
BB3. (a): Density d of the material can be written as mass 29
1 V.S.D. = M.S.D.
(m) divided by volume (V). 30
m m Least count, L.C. = 1 M.S.D. - 1 V.S.D.
d= = 3

V l 1
= M.S.D.
30
∆d ∆m 3∆l 1 M.S.D. is equal to 0.5 degrees. [1° = 60 minutes]
⇒
× 100 = × 100 + × 100
d m l 1 1
M.S.D. is the × 30 minutes
⇒ % Error of density = 1.5 + 3 × 1 = 4.5%. 30 30
Hence option (a) is correct. So, Least count is 1 minute

BB8. (d): It moves a distance of 0.25 cm in five rotations BB11. (a): From the Coulomb’s law
and there are 100 divisions on circular scale; hence
1  q2 
0.25 e0 =
Least Count of screw gauge =
cm 4 π  Fr 2 
5 × 100
= 5 × 10-4 cm 1  I 2 ⋅ t2 
=
4 π  F ⋅ r 2 
ed s.
One rotation cover linear distance
0.25 cm A 2T 2

= = 0.05 cm =
rv er
5 MLT −2L2

Reading of thickness of wire e0 = [M-1L-3T4A2]
= Main Scale Division × n + Circular
se sh

BB12. (d): [t] = [G]a [h]b [c]d
.
Scale Division × Least Count
[T]′ = [M-1 L3 T-2]a [M1 L2 T-1]b [L1 T-1]d

= 4 × 0.05 cm + 30 × 5 × 10-4 cm
[T]′ = [M-a + b L3a + 2b + d T-2a - b - d]

= (0.2 + 0.0150) cm
re li
-a + b = 0 ...(i)

= 0.2150 cm
s ub
BB9. (d): Least count of vernier scale
3a + 2b + d = 0
2a + b + d = -1...(iii)
...(ii)
L.C. = 1 M.S.D. - 1 V.S.D. From equation (i) (ii) and (iii) we get,
ht P
30 V.S.D. = 29 M.S.D. 1 1 5
a = ,b = ,d =
29 2 2 2
1 V.S.D. = M.S.D.
ig rn
30 1 1 5
− Gh
29 1 t = G 2 h 2 c 2 =
So, L.C. = 1 M.S.D. - M.S.D. = M.S.D. c5
30 30
lr e
BB13. (a): We can write the acceleration due to gravity as:

One division in main scale has a measure of 4π 2 L
Al od
0.5 degrees g=
T2
1 Time period,
1 M.S.D. = degrees
2
90
M
T = s
1 1 1 100
M.S.D = × degrees
30 2 30
Accuracy in time period,
1
©
= degrees 1
60 DT = s
100
L.C. = 1 minute
Accuracy in length, DL = 1 mm = 0.1 cm
1
So, L.C. = degrees ∆g 2∆T ∆L
60 × 100 = × 100 + × 100
g T L
Total reading = M.S.R. + V.S.R. × L.C.
2 × 0.01 0 .1
1 = × 100 + × 100
= (58.5 + 9 × ) degrees 0 .9 20
60
= 2.23 + 0.5
= (58.5 + 0.15) degree
≈ 2.73
= (58.65) degree
Accuracy in determination of g is approximately
V
BB10. (b): R = 3%
I
90 + 91 + 95 + 92
BB14. (c): Mean time T = = 92 sec.
∆R  ∆V ∆I  4
× 100 = ±  × 100 + × 100
R  V I  The absolute errors are as follows:
% error in R = ± [3% + 3%] T1 = 90 ⇒ |DT1| = |T0 - T1| = 2
= ± 6% T2 = 91 ⇒ DT2 = |T - T2| = 1

T3 = 95 ⇒ DT3 = |T - T3| = 3 BB19. (d)

T4 = 92 ⇒ DT4 = |T - T4| = 0 BB20. (c): Let the dimensional formula of m0 be expressed as:
2+1+3+0 [m0] = [e]w [m]x[h]y[c]z
Mean error DT = = 1.5 seconds
4 Writing dimensional formulae of the above given
Least count of measuring clock is 1 second. quantities:
ed s.
The reported mean time [MLT-2A-2] = [A1T1]w[M]x[ML2T-1]y[LT-1]z
= T ± DT = [Mx+yL2y+zTw-y-zAw]
rv er
= (92 ± 1.5) s On comparing:
Minimum division in the measuring clock is x + y = 1
1 second, thus the reported mean time should be
2y + z = 1
se sh
(92 ± 2)s
.
w - y - z = -2
BB15. (b): Least count of screw gauge
w = -2
Pitch 0 .5
L.C. = = We get: w = -2, x = 0, y = 1, z = -1
re li
Number of division on circular scale 50
 h 
s ub
= 0.01 mm
= 0.001 cm
Negative zero error = -5 × L.C.
Thus, µ 0 =  2 
 ce 
BB21. (c): The relation between current density J, electrical

ht P
= -5 × 0.01 mm
conductivity σ and electric field E is given by:
= -0.05 mm
J = σE
Measured thickness of aluminium sheet is
I1L−2
ig rn
∆x = M.S.R. + C.S.R. × L.C. - zero error J

σ= = 1 1 −2
E M LT
∆x = 0.5 mm + 25 × 0.01 -(-0.05)
I1T1
∆x = 0.80 mm
lr e
σ = M −1L−3T 3I2
BB16. (b): The quantity that is dimensionless and unitless
Al od
has same value in all the systems of units. BB22. (b, d): The product of B and D is dimensionless and
Dimensional formulae: the product of A and D has same dimensions as C.
[e] = [M0L0T1A1 ] Dimensionally we can also write:
M
[ε0] = [M-1L-3T4A2] 1
B∝
-1 3 -2 D
[G] = [M L T ]
AD = C
[me] = [M1L0T0]
2 2
©
2 2  C  C
e 2
[M L T A ] 0 0 1 1 2 (i) A − (BC) ⇒   −   meaningful
=  D  D
2πε 0Gme 2 [M −1L−3T 4 A 2 ][M −1L3T −2 ][M1L0 T 0 ]2

[M0L0 T 2 A 2 ] ( A − C)
= = [M 0 L0 T0 A 0 ] (ii) The dimensions of A and C are not
D
[M0L0 T 2 A 2 ]
same, hence this expression is meaningless
BB17. (c)
A AD
BB18. (b): Time period of simple pendulum on earth having (iii) −C ⇒ −C
B BD
effective length is l
C
4 π 2l 2 l
2 Or −C
T =
⇒ g = 4π BD
g T2
BD is dimensionless thus both the terms C/BD and
∆g  ∆l   ∆T  C have the same dimensions
× 100 =  × 100 + 2  × 100
g  l   T  (iv) C AD 2
−
BD C
 0 .1   0.01 
=
× 100 + 2  × 100 C AD2
 20   0 .9  ⇒ −
BD AD
10 C
= 0 .5 + 2 ×
= 0.5 + 2.2 = 2.7% ⇒ −D
9 BD

The dimensions of C and D are not same, thus this BC2. (d): Unit of dipole moment is C-m, unit of electric
combination does not give a meaningful quantity. flux is N-m2/C2 and unit of electric field is N/C.
BB23. (a): Let us express the dimensions of the mass Hence dimensions of these physical entities are
in terms of the time (T), velocity (C) and angular different.
momentum (h) Hence option (d) is correct.
∆V
ed s.
1 0 0 x y z
[M L T ] = [ T C h ] x = ε0 L
BC3. (d):
∆t
[M1L0 T 0 ] = [ T x ][(LT −1 ) y ][(M1L2T −1 )z ]
[ ∆V ]
rv er
[M1L0 T 0 ] = [MzLy + 2z T x − y −z ] ⇒
[ x ] = [ ε 0 ][ L]
[ ∆t ]
z = 1 …(i)
y + 2z = 0 …(ii) [ML2T −3 I −1 ]
se sh
−1 −3 4 2
⇒
[ x ] = [M L T I ][ L]
.
[T ]
x - y - z = 0 …(iii)
Solving equations (i), (ii), and (iii) ⇒
[ x] = [ I ]
Hence dimension of given expression is same as that
re li
x = -1, y = -2, z = 1
of current.
Hence, the correct dimensional formula is given by:

s ub [M ] = [T −1C−2 h1 ]
1
BC4. (d): C1:
1 Main scale division (MSD) = 0.1 cm
BB24. (c): Given that: P = a2 b2c3d-4
ht P
0 .9
The maximum possible relative error in P can be 1 Vernier scale division (VSD) = = 0.09 cm
10
found as follows:
Least count (LC) = 1 MSD - 1 VSD = 0.1 - 0.09
ig rn
∆P 1 ∆a ∆b ∆c ∆d = 0.01 cm.
= +2 +3 +4
P 2 a b c d Main scale reading (MSR) = 2.8 cm
∆P 1
lr e
× 100% = × 2% + 2 × 1% + 3 × 3% + 4 × 5% = 32% Number of Vernier division matching main scale

P 2 division (n) = 7
Al od
BB25. (a): Reading (R1) = MSR + n × LC = 2.8 + 7 × 0.01 = 2.87 cm

Force C2:
Stress =
area 1 Main scale division (MSD) = 0.1 cm
M
The stress on the legs of the person can be calculated 1 .1

as: 1 Vernier scale division (VSD) = = 0.11 cm
10
mg Volume (V ) × density (π ) × g Least count (LC) = 1 VSD - 1 MSD = 0.11 - 0.1
Stress = =
A area ( A) = 0.01 cm.

©
Dimensionally, V = L3, A = L2 Main scale reading (MSR) = 2.8 cm

L3ρg Here we should note that size of Vernier scale division
Stress = is bigger than main scale division; hence number of
L2 Vernier scale division matching main scale division
Thus, stress ∝ L will be counted from back. In given figure we can see
As the linear dimensions of the person have that 7th Vernier scale division is matching so we shall
increased by a factor of 9, thus the stress on the leg consider 10 - 7 = 3rd.
will also change by a factor of 9. Number of Vernier division matching main scale
division (n) = 3
JEE (Advanced) for IIT Entrance Reading (R2) = MSR + n × LC = 2.8 + 3 × 0.01 = 2.83 cm
BC1. (d): 1 Main scale division (MSD) = 1 mm Noting down R1 and R2 we can see that option (d) is
16 correct.
1 Vernier scale division (VSD) = = 0.8 mm
20 Hence option (d) is correct.
Least count is equal to difference between one main BC5. (a): Measured value of r = (10 ± 1) mm
scale division and Vernier scale division. Hence least Dr = 1 mm
count (LC) can be written as follows: ∆r 1
Percentage error = × 100 = × 100 = 10%
LC = 1 MSD - 1 VSD = 1 - 0.8 = 0.2 mm r 10
Hence option (d) is correct. We can see that option (a) is correct.

Mean value of time period C7. (b): 1 Main scale division (MSD) = 5.15 - 5.10 = 0.05 cm
B
(0.52 + 0.56 + 0.57 + 0.54 + 0.59) s 50 divisions of Vernier scale are equivalent to 2.45
T=
cm. Hence we can write the following:
5
2.45
⇒ T = 0.556 s = 0.56 s
1 Vernier scale division (VSD) = = 0.049 cm
50
∆T
ed s.

Percentage error in time period  × 100 Least count of the Vernier caliper can be written as
T
follows:
0.01 Least count (LC) = 1 MSD - 1 VSD = 0.05 - 0.049 =
= × 100 = 1.78%
rv er

0.56 0.001 cm
We can see that options (b) and (c) are wrong. Main scale reading (MSR) = 5.10 cm
24th division of Vernier scale matches with some main
se sh
We know that absolute errors are added in case
.
addition and subtraction hence we can write the scale division. Final reading can be written as follows:
following: Reading = MSR + n × LC = 5.10 + 24 × 0.001 = 5.124 cm
Measured value of (R - r) = (50 ± 2) mm Hence option (b) is correct.
re li
BC8. (d): Using the given expression we can write the
∆( R − r)

s ub
Percentage error in (R - r) =
R−r
× 100 =
2
50
× 100
= 4%
following:
λ
d = cosec θ
2
7 ( R − r)
ht P
By differentiating the above relation we can write
T = 2π
5g the following:
∆d λ
∆g  ∆T  ∆ ( R − r) = − cosec θ cot θ
ig rn
⇒
× 100 = 2  × 100 + × 100 ∆θ 2
g  T  ( R − r)
Hence absolute error in d can be written as follows:
∆g λ
× 100 = 2 × 1.78 + 4 = 7.56%
lr e
⇒
∆d = cosec θ cot θ∆θ …(i)
g 2
Al od
So option (d) is also wrong. Fractional error in d can be written as follows:

Hence option (a) is correct. λ
BC6. (c): Let l1 is the distance of null point from left and ∆d cosec θ cot θ∆θ
l2 be the same from right end. Note that sum of l1 = 2
d λ
M
and l2 is 100 cm and that we can use later on. Using cosec θ
2
condition of balanced Wheatstone’s bridge we can
write the following equation: ∆d
⇒
= cot θ∆θ …(ii)
R l1 d
©
=
90 l2 From equation (i) we can see that absolute error in d
l is not constant when q is varied from 0 to 90°. Hence
⇒
R = 90 1 …(i) option (a) is wrong.
l2
When q is increased from 0 to 90° then value of cosec θ
We can substitute l1 and l2 in above equation (i) to cot q decreases from infinity to zero hence option (b) is
calculate value of R as follows: wrong.
40
R = 90 × = 60Ω From equation (ii) we can see that fractional error in d
60 changes when q is changed hence option (c) is wrong.
From equation (i) we can write the following: When q is increased from 0 to 90° then value of cot q
∆R ∆l1 ∆l2 decreases hence option (d) is correct.
= +
R l1 l2 BC9. (d): Let L be the depth of well. Let t1 is the time taken
by the stone to touch the surface of water then we can
∆R 0.1 0.1  1 1 write the following:
⇒
= + ⇒ ∆R = 6  +
60 40 60  40 60 
2L 2L L
L = ½ gt2 ⇒ t1 =
= =
 6 + 4 1 g 10 5
⇒
∆R = 6   = = 0.25W
240  4
Now sound takes time t2 to reach the top and the
Hence unknown resistance is: (60 ± 0.25)W. Option same can be written as: t2 = L/300 because sound
(c) is correct. moves with a speed 300 m/s.

Total time taken by the sound to reach the person dr (1 + a) (−1) − (1 − a)

can be written as t = t1 + t2; BC11. (b): =
da (1 + a)2
L L
t= + −2da
5 300 ⇒
dr =
On differentiating above equation we get the following:
(1 + a)2
ed s.
1 1 −1 / 2  1  2 ∆a
dt = L dL +  dL ⇒
|∆r| =
52  300  (1 + a)2
rv er
1 1 ∆L ∆L BC12. (c): Pitch of the screw gauge is 0.5 mm and there are
⇒
∆t = + 50 divisions on circular scale; hence least count of the
5 2 L 300
instrument can be written as follows:
se sh
We can substitute L = 20 m and ∆t = 0.01 s in above
.
expression to get the following: 0 .5
Least count (LC) = = 0.01 mm
50
 1 1 1 
0.01 = ∆L  +
re li
⇒

 20 20 300  Diameter of the ball can be written as
⇒

s ub  1
0.01 = ∆L  +
1 
20 300
 = ∆L
15 + 1
300
d = MSR + CSR × LC = 2.5 + 20 × 0.01 = 2.5 + .20
= 2.70 mm
Error in the measurement of diameter is equal to
0.01 × 300 3
ht P
∆L = = least count and can be written as
16 16
∆d = 0.01 mm
∆L 3 1 15
× 100 = × × 100 =  1%
Density (r) of the material can be written as follows:
ig rn
L 16 20 16
BC10. (b): Young’s modulus for the wire can be written as mass m 6m
follows: ρ= = =
volume 4  d  3 πd 3
lr e
FL π 
Y= 3  2
Al
Al od
Here F is applied load (F = mg), L is original length From the above expression we can write the following:
of wire, l is extension and A is the area which can ∆ρ ∆m ∆d
be written as A = πd2/4, where d is diameter of the × 100 = × 100 + 3 × 100
ρ m d
wire. Hence above expression can be rewritten as
M
follows: ∆ρ
4 mgL × 100 = 2 + 1.11 = 3.11%
⇒ Y= …(i) ρ
πd 2l
Correct answer is (c).
©
First let us calculate value of Young’s modulus from

equation (i) and later we shall calculate error. BC13. (a): Least count of the screw gauge and micrometer
both are same and can be written as follows:
4 × 1 × 9 .8 × 2
⇒ Y= = 0.195 × 1012 N/m 2 pitch 0 .5
3.14 × (4 × 10−4 ) 2 × (8 × 10−4 ) Least count (LC) = = = 0.005mm
number of divisions on CS 100
11 2
⇒
Y = 2 × 10 N/m Error in the measurement of d and l will be equal to
In equation (i) error is in the measurements of d least count.
and l. ∆d = ∆l = 0.005 mm

∆Y ∆d ∆l
=2 +
Y d l  4MLg 
From the given relation  Y =  we can write
∆Y 0.01 0.05  πld 2 
⇒
11
=2 + the following:
2 × 10 0 .4 0 .8
∆Y 0.01 0.05 ∆Y ∆l ∆d
=2 + = 0.05 + 0.0625 = 0.1125 = +2
⇒
Y l d
2 × 1011 0 .4 0 .8
Contribution to total relative error due l can be
⇒
∆Y = 2 × 1011 × 0.1125 = 0.225 × 1011 N/m 2 written as
= 0.2 × 1011 N/m2 ∆l 0.005
= = 0.02
Hence we can see that option (b) is correct. l 0.25

Contribution in total error due to d can be written as

q2 A 2T 2
∆d 0.005 Option (d): 1/ 3 = 1
2 =2 = 0.02 εn kB T
d 0.5 [L−1T 2 A 2 ] × [L−3 ]3
We can see that both the contributions are equal and
1
thus option (a) is correct. = = [L]
[L−1 ] × [L−1 ]
ed s.
C. MCQs with more than one correct answer We can easily understand that dimensions of
remaining options are not equal to that of length.
rv er
C1. (a, c, d): Both Reynolds number and strain are
Hence options (b) and (d) are correct.
dimensionless entities. Torque is force multiplied
with length hence torque and force have different 40
C12. (a, c): We can see that time period is T = = 2s
dimensions. Curie is disintegrations per unit time 20
se sh
.
and frequency is number of cycles per unit time A total error of 1 s will get divided among 20 oscillations;
hence both have same dimensions. Gravitational hence error in the time period is given by
potential is defined as change in potential energy per 1

re li
unit mass and latent heat is energy per unit mass to ∆T = = 0.05s
20
change the state of a material; hence both have same
s ub
dimensions.
C2. (a, c): It is given that main scale divisions are made
at 0.05 cm separation.
We can see that option (a) is correct.
Further, we know that time period of oscillation is
given by
l 4 π 2l
ht P
1 MSD = 0.05 cm T = 2π ⇒g= 2
g T
50 divisions of Vernier scale is equivalent to 2.45 cm;
hence length of one Vernier scale division can be Here length is measured to be exact; hence it will not
written as follows: be included for error calculation. For above relation for
ig rn
2.45 acceleration due to gravity we can write the following:

1 VSD = = 0.049 cm ∆g ∆T 0.05
50 × 100 = 2 × 100 = 2 × 100 = 5%
lr e
g T 2
Least count is defined as difference in length of main
scale and Vernier scale division. We can see that option (c) is also correct.
Al od
1 1 1
LC = 1 MSD - 1 VSD = 0.05 - 0.049 = 0.001 cm. C13. (c, d): We can use the mirror formula + = to
v u f
Main scale reading is given to be 4.15 and it is given
that 24th division of Vernier scale matches with some verify the results. We can use given value of u to
calculate the value of v using given focal length of
M
division of main scale; hence reading of the Vernier

caliper can be written as follows: mirror. Then we can compare calculated value of v with
the given value of v in the question. We can verify that
reading = MSR + VSR × LC in last two readings recorded values are not within the
range of maximum permissible error of 0.2 cm. Hence
©
⇒ reading = 4.15 + 24 × 0.001 = 4.174 cm

options (c) and (d) are found to be correct.
C3. (a, b): Physical quantities having different dimensions
cannot be added or subtracted but can be multiplied D. MCQs based on passage/comprehension
or be divided.
Passage 1
C4. (a, d): Least count is defined as difference between D1. (a): 1 MSD = 1 mm.
one main scale division and one Vernier scale
10 Vernier scale divisions match with 9 main scale
division. Refer to solution of C2.
divisions hence
C9. (b, d)
1 VSD = 9/10 = 0.9 mm
C10. (b, c, d): Mass, length and time should be involved in
each set, only then these can be used as fundamental Least count of the Vernier caliper can be written as
units in any system of units. follows:
C11. (b, d): Permittivity: [ε] = [M-1L-3T4I2] LC = 1 MSD - 1 VSD = 1 - 0.9 = 0.1 mm.
Boltzmann constant: [kB] = [ML2T-2q-1] D2. (b): Main scale reading (MSR) is given to be 10 and
Absolute temperature: [T] = [θ] Vernier scale reading (VSR) reading is 1, because 1st
division of Vernier scale matches with some division
Number per unit volume: [n] = [L-3]
of main scale. Let x represent edge length then we
Charge: [q] = [TI] can write the following:
εk B T L−1T 2I2 x = MSR + VSR × LC = 10 + 1 × 0.1 = 10.1 mm.

Option (b): = = [L]
nq2 L−3T 2I2 ⇒ x = 1.01 cm


D4. (a): Volume of the cube can be written as follows: 4. [4]: Given energy of the system can be written as
V = x3 = (1.01)3 = 1.0303 cm3. follows:
Since edge length is measured only up to 3 significant
E = A2 e− αt
digits; hence volume must also be expressed in 3 We can differentiate the above to get the following:
significant digits. On rounding off the volume of cube dE = 2 A (dA)(e− αt ) + A2 (− αe− αt )(dt)
ed s.
to 3 significant digits we can write
dE 2 A (dA)(e− αt ) + A2 (− αe− αt )(dt)
V = 1.03 cm3
⇒
=
E A2 e− αt
m 2.736
rv er
D5. (b): Density of material = = = 2.65631 g/cm 3 dE 2(dA)
v 1.03 ⇒
= + (− α)(dt)
E A
Number of significant digits in this value should be
se sh
In the calculation of error, all terms are added so that
3; hence we can round it off accordingly.
.
we may get maximum possible error. Hence using
Thus density of material = 2.66 g/cm3. just magnitudes of each term we can write the above
expression as follows:
re li
INTEGER TYPE ∆E ∆A
⇒
=2 + α∆t
s ub
1. [2]: Moment of inertia is mass × (distance)2
Dimensional formula becomes ML2T0 ⇒

∆E
E
E
× 100 = 2
A
∆A
A
× 100 + 100α∆t …(i)
We can see that dimension of length is 2.
ht P
∆A
[F]
Given: × 100 = 1.25 …(ii)
2. [1]: [ a x ] = [ F ] ⇒ [ a] = A
[ x]
ig rn
∆t

Given: × 100 = 1.5
MLT −2 t
[ a] =
⇒ = ML1 / 2T −2
L1 / 2 Hence at t = 5 s we can write the following:
lr e
[F] 1 .5 × 5
Similarly [ bt 2 ] = [ F ] ⇒ [ b] = ∆t = …(iii)
100
Al od
[ t2 ]

Given: α = 0.2s −1 …(iv)
MLT −2
⇒ [ b] = = MLT −4
T2 Substituting values from equations (ii), (iii) and (iv) in
M
 a  ML T
1/ 2 −2 equation (i) we get the following:
−1 / 2 2
 b  = MLT −4 = L T ∆E 1 .5 × 5
 
⇒
× 100 = 2 × 1.25 + 100 × 0.2 ×
On comparing with the given dimensional formula. E 100
©
q = -1/2, r = 2 ∆E
⇒
× 100 = 4
-qr = 1 E
3. [6]: Let M ∝ vaρb g c Hence percentage error in the value of energy at t = 5 s
⇒
a
[ M ] ∝ [v] [ρ] [ g ] b c is 4.
5.
[8]: In both the measurements of Vernier, main scale
⇒
[M ] = [LT −1 ]a[ML−3 ]b[LT −2 ]c
reading (MSR) is 3.20 × 10-2 m.
⇒ [ML0 T 0 ] = [M b La −3b + c T − a − 2c ] Least count of Vernier (LC) = 1.0 × 10-5 m
Comparing the dimensions on both the sides we get the In first case 20th division of Vernier matches with
following: one main scale division.
b=1 First reading of Vernier
a - 3b + c = 0 ⇒ a - 3 + c = 0
L1 = MSR + n × LC = 3.20 × 10-2 + 20 × 1.0 × 10-5
⇒
a+c=3 = 3.220 × 10-2 m
Also, In second case 45th division of Vernier matches with
-a - 2c = 0 one main scale division.
Adding the above two equations we get -c = 3 ⇒ c = -3. Second reading of Vernier
⇒ -a - 2 × -3 = 0 ⇒ a = 6.
L2 = MSR + n × LC = 3.20 × 10-2 + 45 × 1.0 × 10-5
Hence the value of n = 6. = 3.245 × 10-2 m

Extension in the wire due to 2 kg load can be written Mass 4.237

as: \ Density =
= = 1.6948 gcm-3
Volume 2 .5
l = L2 − L1 = 0.025 × 10-2 m Here, volume has least number of significant figures,
Error in the measurement of L1 and L2 both is same equal to two.
as least count (1 × 10-5 m) hence for their difference \ Density = 1.7 g/cm3 (rounded off to two significant

ed s.
errors will be added. So error in the measurement of figures)
elongation will be two times the LC.
The correct option is (c).
∆l = 2 × 10−5 m
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2.4. (d): When rounded off to 3 significant figures both
Young’s modulus can be written as follows: 2.745 and 2.735 with give the value 2.74
FL The correct option is (d).
se sh
Y=
Al
.
2.5. (a): Given, length, l = (16.2 ± 0.1) cm
Here force (F), length of wire (L) and area of cross Breadth, b = (10. 1 ± 0.1) cm
section (A) are given to be exact; hence error in the
\ Area, A = l × b = (16.2 × 10.1) cm2

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calculation of Y can be written as follows:
= 163.62 cm2
s ub
∆Y
Y
× 100 =
Hence answer is 8.
∆l
l
× 100 =
2 × 10−5
0.025 × 10−2
× 100 = 8%
Relative error in A is
= 164 cm2 (3 significant figures)
∆A ∆l ∆b
ht P
6. [3]: Density: [ρ] = [ML-3] = +
A l b
 ML2T −3 
0.1 0.1
Intensity: [S] =  L2  = [MT-3] = +
ig rn
  16.2 10.1
Frequency: [f] = [T-1] = (6.173 + 9.901) × 10-3
= 16.074×10-3 = 0.016074
lr e
Let us assume that

d ∝ ρa S b f c = 0.016
Al od
⇒
[d] = [ρ]a [S]b [f]c ∴
DA = 0.016 × A
⇒ [L] = [ML ] [MT ] [T ]

-3 a -3 b -1 c = 0.016 × 164 cm2
[L] = [Ma+bL-3aT-3b-c] = 2.636 cm3

M
⇒

On comparing dimensions on both the sides we get = 3 cm2 (1 significant figure)
the following: ∴ Area, A = (164 ± 3) cm2

-3a = 1 ⇒ a = -1/3 The correct option is (a).
©
a + b = 0 ⇒ b = -a = 1/3 2.6. (c): [Tension] = [Force] = [MLT-2]

1/ 3 −2
We can see that d ∝ S [ Force] [ MLT ]
[Surface Tension] = =
Hence value of n = 3.
[Length ] L
Answer is 3.
0 -2
= ML T
NCERT Exemplar Problems: MCQs Type-I The correct option is (c).
2.1. (b): The number of significant figure in 0.06900 is four. 2.7. (a): Given, A = 2.5 ms-1 ± 0.5 ms-1
The correct option is (b). B = 0.10 s ± 0.01 s
2.2. (b): Here, 0.301 has least number of significant
Let X = AB
figures, equal to three.
\ The sum of 436.32, 227.2 and 0.301 must also have = 2.5 × 0.10 = 0.25 m
three significant figures. Relative error is
436.32 + 227.2 + 0.301 = 663.821 ∆X ∆A ∆B
= +
= 664 (3 significant figures) X A B
The correct option is (b). 0.5 0.01
= +
2.3. (c): Given, mass = 4.237 g 2.5 0.10
Volume = 2.5 cm3 = 0.2 + 0.1 = 0.3

DX = 0.3 × X Also [P] [T] = [ML]

= 0.3 × 0.25 m = 0.075 m 1
M = [ PT ] = [PT] = [ PTA 2 ]
−
= 0.08 m (2 significant figures) ⇒
[ L] 1
∴ X = (0.25 ± 0.08) m [A 2 ]
The correct option is (a). \
Energy = [ML2 T-2] = [PTA-½ AT-2]
ed s.
2.8. (d): Given, A = 1.0 m ± 0.2 m = [PA½ T-1]
B = 2.0 m ± 0.2 m The correct option is (d).
rv er
Let X= AB
= (1.0) (2.0) =
2.0 = 1.414 m NCERT Exemplar Problems: MCQs Type-II
se sh
= 1.4 (2 significant figures) 2.13. (b, c): In option (b) and (c), the arguments of sine are
.
not dimensionless (vt and t/a). So, options (b) and (c)
Relative error is are dimensionally incorrect.
∆X 1 ∆A 1 ∆B
= + The correct options are (b) and (c).
re li
X 2 A 2 B
2.14. (a, e): Given that P, Q and R are physical quantities with

s ub =
1  ∆A ∆B 
2
+
 A B 
different dimensions. So, neither of the three quantities
can be added or subtracted (any two out of three).
Thus, combination (a) and (c) can never be a
meaningful quantity.
ht P
1  0 .2 0 .2  In options (b) and (d), product of PQ or PR can
= +
2 1.0 2.0 
be equal to R or Q2, respectively, so this can be a
meaningful relation.
ig rn
The correct options are (a) and (e).

1 0.3
= (0.2 + 0.1) = = 0.15 2.15. (b, d): E = hν
2 2 E
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⇒ ∆x = 0.15X = 0.15 × 1.414 ⇒

h=
ν
Al od
= 0.2121 m
[ E ] [ ML2T −2 ]
= 0.2 (1 significant figure) or [h] = = = [ ML2T −1 ]
[ ν] [T −1 ]
⇒ X = 1.4 m ± 0.2 m
Linear Impulse = Force × change in time
M
The correct option is (d).

=F×t
2.9. (a): The measurement, which is measured with an
instrument having minimum least count, is the most = [MLT-2] × [T]
precise. = [MLT-1]
©
Here 5.00 mm is the most precise measurement. Angular impulse = Torque × Time
The correct option is (a). =t×t
2.10. (a): The measurement with the least difference with = [ML2T-2] × [T]
mean value. = [ML2T-1]
The correct option is (a). Because it is closest to 5 cm. Linear momentum = mass × velocity
2.11. (c): Given 1 N = 105 dyne =m×v
and 1 m2 = 104 cm2 = [M] [LT−1]
11 2
Young’s modulus, Y = 1.9 × 10 Nm = [M LT−1]
5 Angular momentum = m v r
= 1.9 × 1011 × 10 dyne
104 cm 2 = [M] [LT-1] [L]
= 1.9 × 1012 dyne/cm2 = [ML2T-1]
The correct option is (c). So, the dimensions of angular impulse and angular
momentum are same as that of h.
2.12. (d): We know that
The correct options are (b) and (d).
[P] = [MLT-1]
2.16. (a, b, d): Here, [h] = [ML2T-1]
2
[A] = [L ] Speed of light [c] = [LT-1]
½
⇒
[L] = [A ] Mass of electron, [me] = [M]

Universal gravitational constant, [G] = [M-1 L3T-2] Any of the options (a), (b) and (d) can be used to
Charge of electron, [e] = [AT] express L, M and T in terms of the given fundamental
Mass of proton, [mP] = [M] quantities.
2 −1 −1 The correct options are (a), (b) and (d).
 hc  [ML T ][LT ]
Now,   = −1 3 −2
= [M2 ]
G [M L T ] Force
ed s.
2.17. (a, b): Pressure =
1 Area
 hc  2
⇒
[M] =  
G  [Pressure] = [MLT-2]= [ML-1T-2]
rv er
2 −1
 h  [ML T ] Energy Force [ML2T –2 ][L ]
Also,   = = [ML ] Now, = =
c [LT −1 ] Volume Area × distance [L2 ][L ]
se sh
1
.
1 2
 h  h G 2 [ hG ] = [ML-1T-2]
⇒
[ L] =  =
 =   hc  3
 cm   c    = [Pressure]
[ c]2
re li
As [c] = [LT-1] The correct options are (a) and (b).
⇒

s ub [T] =  L  =
c
 
5
1
[ hG] 2
2.18. (b, d): Parsec and light year are units of distance not
time.
The correct options are (b) and (d).
[ c] 2
ht P
ig rn
lr e
Al od
M
©

Time Allowed: 2 hours Maximum Marks: 35
ed s.
1. What are different systems of units used for measuring all kinds of physical quantities? (1)
2. How many astronomical units are equal to one light year? (1)
rv er
3. Define errors in a measurement of any physical quantity. (1)
4. Define precision and accuracy. (1)
se sh
.
5. How many significant digits are there in 7521.05890? (1)
6. Convert 1° and 1′ to radians. (2)
re li
l
7. Check the dimensional consistency of the equation t = 2π (2)
s ub
8. How can we minimise the random errors in an experiment?
g
(2)
9. Express Newton in terms of dyne. (2)
ht P
10. A physical balance of least count 0.1 gram is used to measure the mass of an object. Write the results if
mean value of the observed reading is 125.4 g. (3)
ig rn
11. The diameter of cylinders are d1 = (2.02 ± 0.01) cm and d2 = (3.21 ± 0.03) cm respectively. Find the difference
between their diameters along with the error limits. (3)
lr e
12. Explain three types of errors observed in measurement. (3)

13. Compute the following with regard to significant figures. (3)
Al od

(a) 5.3 × 0.185
0.9251 × 1.03

(b)
M
1.285
14. How do we measure the standard international unit for mass, length and time? Also explain why they
are also called fundamental units? (5)
©
15. Write a short note on uses of dimensional analysis. Also mention the limitations of dimensional analysis. (5)
► To check your performance, see HINTS AND SOLUTIONS TO SOME QUESTIONS at the end of
Part I of the book.

CHAPTER
MOTION IN A
3 STRAIGHT LINE
ed s.
rv er
1. INTRODUCTION
se sh
.
We know that the motion is an integral part of our life. If
we observe ourselves, then we find that we are moving here
In this Chapter…
and there to perform our routine tasks. We can walk and
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Understanding Text
run or we can use some vehicle to change our position from
s ub
one place to another. We are living on the planet earth,
which itself is moving around the sun in a big circular
path. Apart from the revolution around the sun, earth is
Introduction
Position, Path Length and
Displacement3
1
Average Velocity and Average Speed 7

also rotating about its own axis which passes through the
ht P
Instantaneous Velocity and
centre of the earth. There are other planets which are also Instantaneous Speed 11
revolving around the sun. But it is not the end, because this Acceleration 12
ig rn
whole planetary system around the sun including sun is also Equations for Uniformly Accelerated
revolving around the centre of the Milky Way galaxy, which Motion19
in turn is moving within the group of galaxies. In nature Motion under Gravity 25
lr e
we may observe the motion as translation, rotation and Relative Velocity 32

vibration. It is not only at a big scale that motion is taking Chapter Summary 35
Al od
place. There is a continuous motion at the microscopic scales Conceptual Questions 38

also. For example, structure of an atom is highly dynamic. Tough & Tricky Problems 40
We know that electrons are moving around the nucleus at NCERT File (Solved)
such a high speed. Many times motion at microscopic scale
M
Textbook Exercises 43
is beyond our comprehension. For example, there is a glass Additional Exercises 49
filled with water kept on a table and we may not appreciate NCERT Exemplar Problems (Subjective) 52
any kind of motion in water inside the glass. But the fact HOTS & Advanced Level Questions
©
is that molecules of water are randomly moving within with Answers 54

the volume of water and that too very fast. Similarly, if evision Exercises
R 56
we observe an iron block kept on table then we may not
Hints & Answers for Revision Exercises 57
observe any motion but at the microscopic levels we know
Competition File
that particles like electrons, protons and neutrons within
Additional Useful Information 60
the material are in a continuous state of motion.
MCQs60
Firstly, let us define motion without any discussions Competitive Examinations Qs
about the cause of motion. Such a description of motion, AIPMT/NEET & Other State Boards for
without considering the cause of motion, is studied Medical Entrance 62
under kinematics. Motion is change in position of JEE (Main) & Other State Boards for
an object with the passage of time. In this chapter we Engineering Entrance 66
shall learn the concepts of velocity and acceleration. To JEE (Advanced) for IIT Entrance 68
learn these concepts we shall first confine ourselves to the NCERT Exemplar Problems (Objective) 74
motion in a straight line. Motion of an object in a straight Hints & Solutions for Difficult Qs 76
line is called rectilinear motion. In this chapter we shall Chapter Practice Test 94
also derive standard equations to describe the motion of
object moving with uniform acceleration.
3/1

Motion is caused by forces but in this chapter cause of the motion

Learning & More will not be discussed. We shall discuss only about the motion or changes
in motion. In this chapter we shall discuss about the objects in motion
Mechanics is the branch of which are speeding up or slowing down to stop or reversing its direction
science which deals with the study
of motion and most importantly how time is involved in these changes.
of motion of objects. It is further
classified into statics, kinematics In this chapter we shall discuss the motion of a particle or we may
and dynamics. In statics, we study call it a point object. A point object is something which does not occupy
about the mechanics related to any space. To consider object as point object is often useful in describing
objects at rest. In kinematics, we motion of objects. If an object is moving without changing its orientation
ed s.
study about the object in motion then its motion is purely translation and object can be considered as
irrespective of the cause of the point object for describing its motion. There are cases where considering
rv er
motion. However, in dynamics, we object like point object is very much justified. For example, when we
study about the mechanics related
talk about motion of earth around the sun then earth can be treated like
to the objects in motion taking into
point object because the size of earth is too small in comparison to its
se sh
account the causes of motion too.
orbital radius and the size of the sun. In later chapters we shall learn
.
about the centre of mass of object where entire mass of the object can be
assumed to be concentrated and in many cases we assume the location
re li
of centre of mass as the location of equivalent point object. When we
shall study about rotational dynamics in mechanics then only size and
s ub shape of object will play an important role but before that most of the
mechanics’ concepts are not affected by the size and shape of the objects
but are based on location of centre of mass and its motion. Hence, we
ht P
can understand the practical importance of this concept of point object.
Concept of point object is not just an approximation and it is much more
than that.
ig rn
1.1. Vectors and Scalars

In physics we study several physical quantities. The physical
lr e
quantities which require only magnitude for their complete

Al od
description are known as scalar quantities. Examples of scalar

quantities are mass, speed, distance, energy, etc. But there are
some physical quantities which are direction oriented. Physical
quantities which require magnitude as well as direction
M
for their complete description are called vector quantities.

Examples of vector quantities are displacement, velocity, acceleration,
force, linear momentum, etc. We shall learn about these and many
©
other vector quantities in other chapters of this book. Whenever

we talk about a vector quantity then we need to mention about its
direction also. Calculations involving vector quantities are affected
by their directions and we need to learn vector algebra to completely
understand the mathematics behind the vector quantities. Vector
algebra is a part of next chapter and there we shall learn about it in
detail. In the context of this chapter, only a little information about
vector algebra is required.
Time is an important scalar quantity in kinematics. Vector quantities
involved in kinematics are displacement, velocity and acceleration. In
this chapter we shall learn about motion in a straight line and in this
case all involved vectors are directed along the same straight line.
These vectors may be parallel or anti-parallel to each other. We assign
one direction along the line as positive and hence its opposite is treated
as negative. Magnitudes of vectors along positive direction are written
with positive sign and for those along negative direction are written
with negative sign. While performing calculations we need to take
into account these positive and negative signs on vector quantities.
Hence, we can understand that in vector algebra, positive and negative

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 3/3
signs are used to represent two opposite directions on a straight line. KEY NOTE
Generally, vectors are represented with a small line or an arrowhead on
the symbol of physical quantity, for example velocity can be represented Mainly motion can be classified
→ into three categories:
as v or v . Rectilinear motion: when a point
object is moving along a straight
2. POSITION, PATH LENGTH AND DISPLACEMENT line it is said to be in rectilinear
motion.
A particle is said to be in a state of motion when it changes its position
in space with time. How to measure the position of particle? We Circular motion: when a point
ed s.
need a reference point to measure the position of particle. Let some object is moving along a circle it is
said to be in circular motion.
particle be located at a point in space and we want to describe its
rv er
position. We are living in a three-dimensional world and in general Oscillatory motion: an object
we can use X-Y-Z coordinate system to describe the position of a point moving to and fro or back and forth
in space. This rectangular coordinate system consists three mutually repeatedly about a fixed point in
se sh
a given interval of time, then it is
perpendicular axes which are known as X, Y and Z axes. These three
.
said to be in oscillatory or vibratory
axes perpendicularly intersect each other at a common point called motion.
origin of this coordinate system. We always need a reference to specify
re li
position of some point and here origin serves as a reference point.
Positive direction along each axis is specified and hence opposite will
s ub
be treated as negative direction. The coordinates (x, y, z) can be used to
describe the position of particle in space. If there is a clock to measure
the time then coordinate system along with the clock is called
ht P
frame of reference. Three axes of coordinate system represent three
dimensions and we should always remember that there are two opposite
directions in every dimension.
ig rn
There are two types of frames of reference, inertial frame of reference

and non-inertial frame of reference. The one in which Newton’s law of
motion is followed is inertial frame of reference. A frame of reference
lr e
which contains a passenger sitting in a car either at rest or moving with

constant velocity along the straight line is an example of inertial frame
Al od
of reference. The one in which Newton’s law of motion is not followed

is called non-inertial frame of reference. A frame of reference which
contains a passanger sitting in a car moving with variable velocity is an
M
example of non-inertial frame of reference.

If there is change in one or more coordinates of particle with the
passage of time then we say that particle is in the state of motion. If
©
coordinates of particle do not change with time then it is said to be in the

state of rest. Rest and motion are relative terms and depend on the choice
of frame of reference. Same object can be in a state of rest with respect to
one particular frame of reference and in a state of motion when observed
from some other frame of reference. For example, we can say that car is in
state of motion with respect to frame of reference attached with the road,
if frame of reference is assumed to be attached with the passenger of car
then from this frame of reference, car is in a state of rest, because car is
not changing its position with respect to the passenger. Similarly you can
see that many objects kept inside your room are in a state of rest, because
your observations are with respect to frame of reference attached with
the room. But we know that earth is moving and hence all these objects
including you are in a state of motion when observed from the space. So
it is easy to understand that the rest and motion are relative terms and it
depends on choice of frame of reference to describe them.
In a particular frame of reference, we need to select a set of axes and
the selection of the axes and the origin is based on the situation. Let us
take an example of a particle moving along some straight line. In this
case we can assume one of the three axes along the path and the origin

somewhere on this direction of motion. Let us say that X-axis is aligned

with the straight line path of the particle. We can easily understand
that when the particle moves then only X-coordinate changes with
time. The type of motion in which only one of the coordinates of particle
changes with time is called one-dimensional motion. Hence, with the
appropriate choice of axes we can always treat the motion in a straight
line as one-dimensional motion. Let us now take an example of a particle
moving along a circular path. We can select two coordinate axes lying on
the plane of circle and hence third axis will be perpendicular to its plane.
ed s.
Let us assume that X and Y-axes are on the plane of circle and the Z-axis
is perpendicular to the plane of circle. We can understand that when the
rv er
particle moves on its circular path then its Z-coordinate will not change
and only X and Y coordinates will change. Hence, the motion of particle
in a circular path can always be treated as a two-dimensional motion.
se sh
The type of motion in which any two coordinates of the moving particle
.
change is called two-dimensional motion. Similarly, when we throw
an object at a particular angle (not equal to 90°) with the horizontal
then the motion of the object remains restricted to a vertical plane.
re li
Hence, only two axes are sufficient to describe the motion in such a
s ub situation. Such type of motion of object under gravity is called projectile
motion and this is also one example of two-dimensional motion. When a
particle is moving on a plane and its path is not straight then also it is a
ht P
two-dimensional motion. Most of our discussions will be restricted to
one-dimensional and two-dimensional motion. In this chapter we shall
learn about one-dimensional motion and in the next chapter we shall
ig rn
learn about two-dimensional motion.

Let us take an example of an air balloon floating in air. Its position
is described by using all the three coordinates, thus it can be said to be
lr e
in three-dimensional motion. Thus, the type of motion in which all the

three coordinates change with time is called three-dimensional motion.
Al od
A kite or a bird flying in the sky is also an example of three-dimensional

motion. Selection of frame of reference is first and very important step
towards the quantitative analysis of the motion of particle in space. In this
M
chapter we are concerned about the motion in a straight line; hence only
one axis is required to describe the motion. And this axis coincides with the
straight line path of the particle. Let us select origin at point O as shown in
Fig. 2.1. This origin can be shifted anywhere on the X-axis since the
©
distance between any two positions will not change with the shift in origin.
Fig. 2.1. X-axis to represent motion

in a straight line.
Selection of positive direction depends on our choice and for now we

are assuming positive direction towards right, as indicated by an arrow
in Fig. 2.1. We use arrow on the axis to indicate its positive direction.
Direction opposite to it is treated as negative direction. Origin O is used
to measure the position of the particle. The position of an object at origin
is assumed to be zero. Since we have assumed rightward direction as
positive, hence position of the points to the right of origin will be positive
and if a point is on the left side of the origin then position of the point is
taken as negative. This is same as writing X-coordinate of the point.
Path length is also called the distance. Distance and displacement
are two important terms of kinematics. Distance is a scalar quantity.

When a particle moves from one point in space to another not

necessarily in a straight line in a given time then the actual length of
path travelled by the particle is called distance. In Fig. 2.2 a particle
moves from initial point A towards the final point B. It can follow any
random path to move from A to B and length of the path is equal to the
distance travelled by particle. We can see that the minimum distance
will be covered when the particle moves straight from A to B. On the
other hand displacement is defined as a vector quantity. Magnitude of
the displacement vector is equal to the shortest distance between
ed s.
initial point and final point. Direction of displacement vector is taken
from initial point towards the final point as shown by the straight arrow
rv er
AB in Fig. 2.2. We know that the displacement is the shortest distance Fig. 2.2. Representation of distance
between initial and final points, hence distance travelled by the particle and displacement.
between two points in space can be greater than or equal to the magnitude
se sh
of displacement between those two points. Here displacement of the
.
object can be represented as AB.
In this chapter we are mainly concerned about straight line motion
re li
and let us discuss about distance and displacement in the context of
straight line motion. Let us take an example of a particle moving along
s ub
the straight line and assume that X-axis of reference coincides with the
line of motion of particle. Point O, as shown in Fig. 2.3, is the origin of
our reference. Rightward direction is selected as positive direction for
ht P
X-axis. Scale to measure the position of particle is shown in Fig. 2.3 and
the values mentioned are in metre.
ig rn
lr e
Al od
Fig. 2.3. Representation of motion in one-dimension.
Let us consider that a particle starts from the origin O at time

M
t = 0. Other points marked as A, B and C are the positions of the particle

at different instants of time. Position coordinates of A, B and C can be
written as follows:
©
xA = + 140 m, xB = + 80 m and xC = − 60 m.
Note that rightward direction is selected as positive, hence points to

the right of the origin O have positive position coordinates and those on
left have negative position coordinates. Let us consider the interval of
motion when the particle moves from O to A. In this interval the distance
travelled by the particle is 140 m. We know that the magnitude of
displacement for this interval is the shortest distance between initial and
final points, which is also the equal to 140 m. Direction of displacement
is taken from initial point towards the final point of motion, hence
must be directed along OA which is positive direction. So we can say
that the displacement for this interval is +140 m. Positive sign indicates
the direction of displacement which is along the positive X direction.
Displacement is change in position and hence it can also be calculated by
subtracting initial position coordinate from the final position coordinate
(Dx = xf − xi). Hence, displacement for the given interval can be written as
Dx = xA − xO = (+140 m) − (0) = +140 m.
Let us now consider the interval of motion when the particle moves
from point O to A and then back to point B. Distance travelled by the

particle is actual length of the path which is equal to 140 m + 60 m

= 200 m. Initial point is O and final point is B for the given motion.
Magnitude of displacement is the shortest distance, hence 80 m. Its
direction is from initial point O towards the final point B hence along the
positive direction. Hence, displacement for the motion is + 80 m. In case
of straight line motion the distance and the magnitude of displacement
will be different when the particle reverses its direction of motion during
that interval.
ed s.
Fig. 2.4. Position-time graph for a
Let us now consider the interval when the particle moves from
particle at rest.
point B to point C. Distance travelled by the particle in this interval is
80 m + 60 m = 140 m. We can see that the magnitude of displacement
rv er
is also 140 m. Direction of displacement is from initial point towards
the final point and hence displacement in this interval is directed from
B to C and hence along negative direction. So displacement for this
se sh
.
interval can be written as −140 m. Here, negative sign indicates the
direction of displacement which is along negative X-direction. We can
also calculate the displacement as Dx = xC − xB = (− 60 m) − (+ 80 m)
re li
= −140 m.
s ub
Fig. 2.5. Position-time graph for a
particle at rest.
When a particle moves along the straight line which is assumed as
X-axis, then X-coordinate of the particle changes with time. We can draw
a graph between X-coordinate and time. This is called position-time
graph and is one powerful tool to represent and analyse the motion. We
ht P
can start with the simplest cases to understand how graphs can help
to represent the motion. Let us take an example of a particle in a state
of rest at x = + 20 m. Then its position-time graph will be a line parallel
ig rn
to the time axis because position coordinate of the particle does not
change with time. Position-time graph of a particle at rest at x = + 20 m
is shown in Fig. 2.4.
lr e
Similarly, if the particle is at rest at x = − 30 m, then its position-time

Al od
graph will be represented as shown in Fig. 2.5.

A particle is said to be in uniform motion, if it covers equal distances
in equal time intervals. Let us take an example of a particle at x = 0
M
Fig. 2.6. Position-time graph for at time t = 0. Let the particle be moving uniformly along positive
a particle in uniform motion. X direction then its position-time (x - t) graph will be represented as
shown in Fig. 2.6.
In the above case if particle starts moving along negative direction
©
uniformly then its position-time (x - t) graph will be as shown in

Fig. 2.7.
If the motion of a particle is not uniform then its position-time graph
can be a curve. For example, when a lift moves between two floors then it
does not move uniformly at the beginning and at the time it stops. Only
for some time in between the floors, lift moves uniformly and position-
time (x - t) graph of this situation is as shown in Fig. 2.8. But we need
to learn more concepts to understand this graph. These concepts are
Fig. 2.7. Position-time graph for covered in subsequent sections in the same chapter and there we shall
a particle in uniform motion in revisit the position-time graph again.
negative direction.
Note that the position or displacement can be negative or positive.
Hence, the position-time graph can be above the time axis and as well
KEY NOTE as below the time axis. Similarly, position coordinate can increase or
decrease and hence graph can rise or go down as time passes. But if
An object which covers unequal we try to make the distance-time graph then we should keep in mind
displacements in equal interval of that it is always positive and hence graph will always be above the
time is said to be in non-uniform
time axis. Moreover, for a particle the distance may remain constant
motion.
with time or it will increase with the time and hence graph will be

parallel to time axis or it will rise. Distance-time graph will never

go down with the passage of time. We should remember that
the distance is equal to the total length of the path followed by the
particle. It is always positive and never decreases with the time. In
Table 1 some key differences between the distance and displacement
are given.
Table 1. Difference between distance (path length) and displacement
Distance Displacement
ed s.
1 It is the actual length of the path It is the shortest distance between Fig. 2.8. Position-time graph for
travelled by an object in the given the final and the initial position of an non-uniform motion.
rv er
time interval. object in a given time interval.
2 It is a scalar quantity. It is a vector quantity.
se sh
3 There can be many paths between The value of displacement of an object
.
two positions and so are the values travelling between two position in
of the distance travelled by an given time is always same.
object in given time between the
re li
two positions.
4
5
s ub
The value of distance can only be Displacement of an object can be
positive.
The value of distance travelled by
zero, negative or positive.
The value of displacement of an
an object between two positions object between two positions in given
ht P
in given time interval can be interval of time can never be greater
either greater or equal to the than the distance travelled. However,
displacement of the object. It can it can be less than the distance
ig rn
never be less than the value of travelled by the object.

displacement.
lr e
3. AVERAGE VELOCITY AND AVERAGE SPEED

Al od
When position of an object changes with time it is said to be in a state

of motion. Time taken by the object to change the position by a certain
amount is also an important factor. We define velocity to indicate how
M
fast the position is changing with time. First let us understand average
velocity which is defined for a certain interval of time. Average velocity
is defined as the total change in position or the total displacement
(Dx) of an object divided by the time interval (Dt) taken by the
©
object for this change in position or displacement.

∆x
vav =
∆t
If position of an object at an instant of time t1 is x1 and at time t2
position is x2 then the average velocity for this interval can be written
as follows:
∆x x2 − x1
vav = = …(1)
∆t t2 − t1
SI unit of velocity is m/s. It is a vector quantity and its direction is
same as the direction of displacement or change in position.
Let us now consider the position-time graph of a particle as shown
in Fig. 3.1.
Let at time t1 the position of particle be x1 and the corresponding
point on the graph is shown as A. Similarly, let at time t2 the position
of particle be x2 and the corresponding point on the graph is shown as
Fig. 3.1. Position-time graph.
B. Line joining points A and B is chord of the graph for selected interval

of time. Here, q is the angle made by the chord with the time axis, and
tan q is the slope of this chord. Slope of the chord AB can be written as
follows:
∆x x2 − x1
tan θ = = = vav …(2)
∆t t2 − t1
Hence, the slope of the chord in x - t graph for a given interval is equal
to the average velocity of object for that interval. Average velocity can be
positive or negative depending on the displacement. We should always
ed s.
remember that if x - t graph is rising with the passage of time in
some time interval then the average velocity remains positive for
rv er
that interval. Similarly, when x - t graph is going down with the
passage of time in some time interval then the average velocity in
that interval of time will be negative.
se sh
.
Average velocity gives information of change in position or
displacement with respect to time. And we know that the actual length
of the path may be different from the displacement. We define average
re li
speed to describe the rate of motion along actual path of object.
s ub Average speed in a time interval of motion is defined as
distance covered by the body divided by time interval in which
this distance is covered.
ht P
Total path length
Average Speed = …(3)
Total time interval
Speed is a scalar quantity and it does not tell about the direction
ig rn
of motion. Average speed is always positive unlike the average velocity

which can be positive or negative. Its unit is same as that of velocity
which is m/s. In general we know that distance can be greater or equal
lr e
to the displacement and hence average speed for a given time interval
Al od
can also be greater than or equal to magnitude of average velocity in the

same time interval. If for straight line motion in a time interval, object
does not reverse its direction of motion, then magnitude of its average
velocity is same as average speed. But if particle reverses its direction
M
of motion during the straight line motion then average speed becomes
greater than magnitude of average velocity in that time interval.
Let us take an example of particle moving along X-axis as shown in
©
Fig. 3.2. Values marked in the figure are in metres.
Fig. 3.2. Motion of an object along X-axis.
In this example particle starts from origin O at time t = 0 and then

REMEMBER reaches the point A at t = 20 s and then to the point B at t = 40 s.
For an object moving along straight To calculate average velocity we can write initial and final positions
line in a given time interval, the of particle as follows:
average speed can be greater than x1 = 0; x2 = + 80 m.
or equal to the average velocity
of the object in the same time Change in position or displacement can be written as follows:
interval. Dx = x2 − x1 = 80 − 0 = 80 m;

Time interval Dt = 40 s. KEY NOTE
∆x 80 The value of average speed and

Average velocity = = = 2 m/s. magnitude of average velocity
∆t 40 need not to be the same. However,
To calculate the average speed for the same time interval we can the value of instantaneous speed
is equal to the magnitude of
write distance covered as follows: instantaneous velocity.
Total distance covered = 140 m + 60 m = 200 m.
Time interval Dt = 40 s.
ed s.
FORMULAE USED
Average speed =
distance 200
Average speed = = = 5 m/s
rv er
Total distance travelled
time interval 40
Total time taken
If we consider the interval OA then average speed and magnitude of Average velocity =
se sh
average velocity, both will be same and equal to 140/20 = 7 m/s. We can
.
Total displacement
easily understand that the average velocity and average speed depend Total time
on the selected time interval.
re li
s ub
 Example 1.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
(b) From Q to S:
An athlete is running on a circular track PQRS of
ht P
radius 100 m shown below 1
Distance covered = × 2πr = pr = 100π m
2

ig rn
Displacement = QR = 2r = 200 m
(c) From P to P:
lr e
Distance covered = 2pr = 2 × π × 100 = 200π m

isplacement = 0 (Final position and initial
D
Al od
position are same)

(ii) (a) Distance covered in one revolution
= 2pr = 200π m
M
Time taken, t = 5 minutes

Distance 200 π
He starts from point P and moves clockwise. ∴ Average speed = =
time 5 min
©
(i) Find the distance travelled by him and

displacement when he = 40π metre/min
(a) reaches Q Displacement in one revolution = 0
(b) moves from Q to S Displacement
(c) reaches P again after one revolution (b) ∴ Average velocity = =0
time
(ii) If he completes one revolution in 5 minutes, find
his  Example 2.
A car travels from X to Y at a speed of 50 km/h and
(a) average speed
returns back from Y to X at a speed of 60 km/h. Find
(b) average velocity the average speed and average velocity of the car.
Solution: (i) (a) Total perimeter of circular track = 2pr Solution: Let x be the distance between X and Y. Time
= 2π(100) m taken by the car to travel from X to Y is
1 x
∴ Distance covered = × 2π(100) = 50π m t1 =
4 50
Time taken by the car to travel from Y to X is
Displacement = PQ = PO2 + OQ 2 = r2 + r2
x
t2 =
= 2r = 100 2 m 60

Total time taken by the car to travel from X to Y and ⇒ 80 + v2 = 1.6v2

then Y to X is
or 0.6v2 = 80
x x  1 1 11 x
t1 + t2 = + = x + = s 80
50 60  50 60  300 ⇒ v2 = = 133.3 km/hr
0 .6
Total distance covered in the journey = 2x
2 x 300 × 2 600  Example 4.
∴ Average speed =
= m/s A cyclist moves with a speed of 30 km/hr in the first 10
11 x 11 11
minutes, with speed of 15 km/hr in the next 20 minute
300
and with a speed of 40 km/hr in the last 15 minutes.
ed s.
=
54.55 m/s Calculate the average speed of the cyclist.
In the total journey, the car started from point X and Solution: Distance covered by the cyclist in t1 = 10 min
rv er
returns back to X. So, the net displacement of the car 10
is zero. = hr
60
∴ Average velocity = 0
v1 = 30 km/hr
se sh
.
 Example 3. d1 = Speed × time
On a journey of 80 km, a car covers the first 40 km with 30 × 10
a uniform speed of 80 km/hr. How fast it should travel = v1 × t1 = km = 5 km
re li
60
in the next 40 km so that an average speed of 100 km/hr
20
s ub
is maintained for the entire journey?
Solution: Let total distance, 2s = 80 km
Time taken to cover a distance s with a speed v1 is
Distance covered by the cyclist in t2 = 20 min =
v2 = 15 km/hr
60
hr
d2 = v2 × t2
ht P
s
t1 = 15 × 20
v1 = = 5 km
60
Let v2 be the speed of the car in the next 40 km of
ig rn
15
journey. Then, time taken to cover another 40 km with Distance covered by the cyclist in t3 = 15 min = hr
a speed v2 is 60
d3 = v3 × t3 v3 = 40 km/hr
s
lr e
t2 = 40 × 15
v2 = = 10 km
60
Al od
Average speed over entire journey is given by

2s 2s 2s Total distance covered by the cyclist
vav = = =
t1 + t2 s s 1 1 d = d1 + d2 + d3
+ s + 
M
v1 v2  v1 v2  = 5 + 5 + 10 = 20 km
2v1v2 Total time taken, t = (10 + 20 + 15) min
= 45
v1 + v2
= 45 min = hr
©
60
Given, vav = 100 km/hr
Total distance
and v1 = 80 km/hr Average speed of cyclist =
Total time
2 × 80 × v2
∴ 100 = 20 20 × 60 80
80 + v2 = = =
45 45 3
160v2 60
⇒ 80 + v2 =
100 = 26.6 km/hr
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 1
1. 5.5 × 10−3 cm/s 1. The minute hand of a table clock is 5 cm long. Find the average velocity of
3πR the tip of the minute hand between 3.00 pm and 3.30 pm.
2. (i) pR, 2R (ii) √ , 2R
2 2. A particle is moving in anticlockwise direction along a circle of radius R.

ed s.

Calculate the distance and displacement covered by the particle (i) from A
rv er
to C (ii) from A to D.
3. A bus travelled a total distance s. It covered its journey in consecutive one-
fourth distances with speeds 60 km/hr, 50 km/hr, 70 km/hr and 80 km/hr,
se sh
respectively. Calculate the average speed of bus for entire journey.
.
4. A body is travelling due east at a speed of 15 km/h for one hour and then
turns towards south at a speed of 10 km/h for one hour. Find the average
re li
velocity of the body.
s ub
5. A boy is taking rounds along a 20 m wall back and forth. He completed
10 rounds in 45 minutes. Calculate the average speed and average velocity
of the boy.
3. 63.03 km/h
4. 9.015 km/h
6. A car is travelling along a straight line and covers one-fourth of the total 5. 0.148 m/s; 0
ht P
distance with a velocity of 10 m/s. The remaining distance is covered with a
6. 5.71 m/s
velocity of 5 m/s. Calculate the average velocity of the car.
ig rn
4. I NSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND INSTANTANEOUS

SPEED
lr e
When we calculate average velocity or speed then selected time

Al od
interval can be large or small. But when time interval selected is

infinitesimally small then it is known as instantaneous velocity
or speed.
M
We can define velocity at a particular instant as limiting value

of average velocity when time interval Dt becomes infinitesimally
small or when time interval Dt approaches zero. Mathematically
we can write the same as follows:
©
∆x
v = lim …(1)
∆t → 0 ∆t
Let us take an example of a particle whose X-coordinate changes
with time as x = t2, where t is measured in seconds and x is measured
in metres.
Let us calculate the instantaneous velocity of the particle at time
t = 3 s.
Here, t1 = 3 s
⇒ x1 = (3)2 = 9 m
Let t2 = (3 + Dt)
⇒ x2 = (3 + Dt)2 = 9 + Dt2 + 6Dt
⇒ Dx = x2 − x1 = (9 + Dt2 + 6Dt) − (9)
⇒ Dx = 6Dt + Dt2
∆x
v = lim

∆t →0 ∆t

(6 ∆t + ∆t 2 )
⇒ v = lim
∆t → 0 ∆t
⇒ v = lim (6 + ∆t)
∆t → 0
⇒ v = 6 m/s
Mathematics of differential calculus is developed for the calculation of
instantaneous rate of change. In differential calculus we use letter d
instead of ‘∆’ to represent change. Here, ‘dt’ indicates the time interval
ed s.
that is infinitesimally small, so that it is approximated to be equal to
zero. Hence, instantaneous velocity can be written as follows:
rv er
Fig. 4.1. Determining ∆x dx
v = lim = …(2)
instantaneous velocity of a moving ∆t → 0 ∆t dt
object.
se sh
dx
.
Here, represents instantaneous rate of change of position or
dt
dx
the instantaneous velocity of the particle. Here, is also known as
dt
re li
differential coefficient of x with respect to time t.
Graphically, we have understood that the slope of chord in x - t
s ub graph, in an interval represents average velocity for that interval of
time. From Fig. 4.1 we can easily understand that when width of the
interval approaches zero then chord becomes tangent to the graph at a
ht P
point and slope of the tangent at a point of time on x - t graph is equal to
instantaneous velocity of the particle at that instant of time.
If q is the angle made by tangent on x - t graph corresponding to an
ig rn
instant t = t0 then tan q is instantaneous velocity of particle at t = t0 as

shown in Fig. 4.2.
Fig. 4.2. Determining the
lr e
From Fig. 4.2, we can write instantaneous velocity at t = t0 as follows:

instantaneous velocity of
moving object. dx
Al od
v= = tan θ = Slope of the tangent at t = t0

dt
In a large time interval generally the distance is greater than or
equal to the amount of displacement in that interval. But when the
M
interval of time approaches zero then difference between distance and

displacement vanishes. That is why instantaneous speed at any point
KEY NOTE
is equal to the magnitude of velocity at that instant of time but we
©
For a moving object the know that average speed in a time interval is always greater or equal to
instantaneous speed at any point magnitude of average velocity in that interval.
is equal to the magnitude of
instantaneous velocity but average 5. ACCELERATION
speed in a given time interval is
always greater or equal to the As we have studied earlier that the rate of change of displacement with
magnitude of average velocity in respect to time is defined as velocity of the particle but velocity of the
that interval. particle can also change with time. Rate of change of velocity with
respect to time is defined as acceleration of object. It is a vector
quantity and its unit is m/s2.
KEY NOTE
change in velocity
The slope of the tangent in a graph acceleration =
time
plotted between two physical
quantities is rate of change of Average acceleration of a particle in a time interval is defined as
quantity represented by Y-axis the change in velocity divided by the time interval. Let v1 and v2 be
with respect to the change in the the instantaneous velocities of particle at times t1 and t2, the average
quantity represented by X-axis. In acceleration can be written as follows:
Fig. 4.2, the slope of displacement-
time graph determines the velocity ∆v v2 − v1
aav = = …(1)
and its unit is m s-1. ∆t t2 − t1

We can also draw a graph between velocity of particle and time as

we have drawn the displacement-time graph. We can see in Fig. 5.1
slope of the chord of v - t graph in a time interval represents average
acceleration of the particle in that time interval.
∆v v2 − v1
tan θ = = = aav …(2)
∆t t2 − t1
Instantaneous acceleration is defined as limiting value of
average acceleration when time interval is infinitesimally small.
ed s.
Fig. 5.1. Determining average
∆v dv acceleration using velocity-time
a = lim = …(3)
∆t → 0 ∆t dt graph.
rv er
Slope of the tangent of v - t graph at a certain instant represents
instantaneous acceleration of the particle at that instant of time.
se sh
In Fig. 5.2 slope of the tangent at t = t0 represents instantaneous
.
acceleration of the particle at that instant.
dv
a= = tan θ = Slope of the tangent at t = t0.
re li
dt
s ub
We can understand that v - t graph of a particle will be a straight
line when it is moving with a constant acceleration.
Hence, finally we know that the slope of the x - t graph represents
ht P
velocity and the slope of v - t graph represents acceleration. One
important point regarding v - t graph is that the area under the graph
projected on the time axis represents displacement of the particle. In
ig rn
case of v - t graph area above the time axis is taken as positive and that Fig. 5.2. Determining
below the time axis is taken as negative. If we consider the positive and instantaneous acceleration using
negative signs to calculate the total area under the graph then we get the velocity-time graph.
lr e
net displacement and if we just add the magnitudes without considering

their sign then we get the total distance covered by the particle.
Al od
Instantaneous acceleration is given as the first derivative of the

velocity at the given instant.
→ →
M
→ ∆v dv
a = lim =
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
→
→ dx
©
Since, v=
dt
 →
d x
d →
 dt 
→   d2 x
⇒ a= =
dt dt
Thus instantaneous acceleration can also be expressed as the second
derivative of the position of the moving object at the instant.
In case of straight line motion when the velocity and acceleration
both are directed along the same direction or have the same sign then
magnitude of velocity increases and such kind of motion is called
accelerated motion. When velocity and acceleration are along the
opposite directions or are having opposite signs then magnitude of
velocity decreases with time and such kind of motion is called retarding
motion. Let v and a represent velocity and acceleration at some instant
of time then we can write the following:
• If v and a, both are positive then particle is accelerated. If v and a,
both are negative then also particle is accelerated.

• If v is positive and a is negative then particle is retarded.

• I f v is negative and a is positive then also particle is retarded. We
know that the slope of x - t graph represents velocity and hence for
accelerated motion, magnitude of slope of x - t graph increases with
time and that for retarding motion, magnitude of slope of x - t graph
decreases with time.
Let x and v represent position and velocity of the particle at some
instant of time then we can write the following:
ed s.
• If x and v both have same sign then particle moves away from the
origin.
rv er
• When they have opposite signs then particle moves towards the
Fig. 5.3. Position-time graph for origin.
accelerated motion.
se sh
Figure 5.3 shows the x - t graph of a particle which is placed in the
.
positive side of the X-axis (x +) and moving along the positive direction
(v +). Applied acceleration is also in the positive direction (a +). It is a
case of the accelerated motion and thus the magnitude of the slope of
re li
x - t graph is increasing with the time.
s ub Figure 5.4 shows the x - t graph of a particle on the positive
side of the X-axis (x +) and moving along the positive direction (v +).
Applied acceleration is in the negative direction (a −). It is a case of the
ht P
retarding motion and thus the magnitude of the slope of x - t graph is
decreasing with the time.
Figure 5.5 shows the x - t graph of a particle on the positive side of
ig rn
the X-axis (x +) and moving along the negative direction (v−). Applied
acceleration is in the positive direction (a +). It is a case of the retarding
motion and thus the magnitude of the slope of x - t graph is decreasing
lr e
Fig. 5.4. Position-time graph for

retarding motion.
with the time.
Al od
Figure 5.6 shows the x - t graph of a particle on the positive side of

the X-axis (x +) and moving along the negative direction (v −). Applied
acceleration is also in the negative direction (a −). It is a case of the
accelerated motion and thus the magnitude of the slope of x - t graph is
M
increasing with the time.

Figure 5.7 shows the x - t graph of a particle on the negative side
of the X-axis (x −) and moving along the positive direction (v +). Applied
©
acceleration is also in the positive direction (a +). It is a case of the


retarding motion.
Fig. 5.6. Position-time graph for Fig. 5.7. Position-time graph for
accelerating motion. accelerating motion.


of the X-axis (x −) and moving along the positive direction (v +). Applied
acceleration is in the negative direction (a −). It is a case of the retarding
with the time.
of the origin (x −) and moving along the negative direction (v −). Applied
acceleration is in the positive direction (a +). It is a case of the retarding
ed s.
with the time.
rv er
Figure 5.10 shows the x - t graph of a particle on the negative
side of the origin (x −) and moving along the negative direction (v −). Fig. 5.8. Position-time graph for
Applied acceleration is also in the negative direction (a −). It is a case of retarding motion.
se sh
.
re li
s ub
ht P
Fig. 5.11. Velocity-time graph of an
object with zero acceleration.
ig rn
lr e
Fig. 5.9. Position-time graph for Fig. 5.10. Position-time graph for
Al od
retarding motion. acceleration motion.
Graph between velocity and time (v - t) is very useful in the

M
numerical analysis. We know that the slope of v - t graph is equal to Fig. 5.12. Velocity-time graph of
the acceleration of a particle in motion and the area under the graph an object with zero acceleration.
projected on the time axis represents the displacement. Fig. 5.11 shows
the v - t graph for a particle moving along the positive direction of
©
X-axis with a constant velocity and hence without any acceleration

(a = 0).
Figure 5.12 shows the v - t graph for a particle moving along the
negative direction with a constant velocity and hence without any
acceleration (a = 0).
Fig. 5.13. Velocity-time graph of an
positive direction (v +) and a constant acceleration is also applied in the
object with constant acceleration.
positive direction of X-axis (a +).
positive direction (v +) and a constant acceleration is applied in the
negative direction (a −).
The graph between acceleration and time (a - t) can also be
drawn. Slope of a - t graph represents rate of change of acceleration
and we do not have any standard term to represent it. Area under
the a - t graph projected on time axis, for an interval of
time is equal to change in velocity of particle in that time Fig. 5.14. Velocity-time graph of an
object with constant acceleration.
interval.

SOLVED EXAMPLES
 Example 1. (ii) Displacement is positive from 0 to 3 s, negative for
A body starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 3 to 4 s and positive from 4 to 8 s.
5 m/s2 for 7 seconds, along a straight line. It then starts \ Total displacement in 0 to 8 s is
decelerating at a rate of 2 m/s2 for the next 5 seconds,
moves uniformly with a velocity of 25 m/s for the next 1 1 1
= × 1 × 20 + 1 × 20 + × 1 × 20 − × 1 × 30
2 seconds and then retards again and comes to rest in 2 2 2
another 3 seconds. 1
ed s.
+ 2 × 20 + × 2 × 30 + 2 × 10
(i) Plot the velocity versus time graph for the body. 2
(ii) Calculate the total distance travelled by the body = 10 + 20 + 10 − 15 + 20 + 30 + 20 = 95 m
rv er
with the help of the graph.  Example 3.
Solution: (i) The velocity−time graph of the body is The figure given below shows the distance−time graph
of the two cars, which began their journey together, in
se sh
shown below:
the same direction, from different points of start.
.
(i) Find the speed of car X and car Y.
(ii) When and where will car Y catch car X?
re li
s ub
ht P
(ii) Distance travelled by the body = Area under v − t
graph
ig rn
= Area of ∆ OPR + Area of DPQS + Area of QRTS

+ Area of SUTV + Area of DUVW
Solution:
lr e
1 1 1
= × 7 × 35 + × 10 × 5 + 25 × 5 + 25 × 2 + × 25 × 3
2 2 2
Al od
= 360 m
 Example 2.
The velocity versus time graph of a body moving along
M
a straight path is shown below.
BC 62.5 − 50 12.5
©
(i) Speed of X = = = = 4.17 km/hr

AC 3−0 3
BD 62.5 − 0
Speed of Y = = = 20.83 km/hr
CD 3−0
(ii) The two graphs intersect at point B, so car Y will
catch car X after 3 hours and at a distance of
62.5 km from the origin.
(i) Calculate the distance covered by the body from  Example 4.
t = 0 to t = 8 s. The plot of speed for the journey of a bus from one bus
(ii) Find its net displacement from t = 0 to 8 s. stop to another is shown below.
Solution: (i)
Distance covered by the body from
t = 0 to 8 s
= Area under the v - t graph
1 1 1
= × 1 × 20 + 1 × 20 + × 1 × 20 + × 1 × 30
2 2 2
1
+ 2 × 10 + × 2 × 30 + 2 × 10
2
= 10 + 20 + 10 + 15 + 20 + 30 + 20 = 95 m

(i) Find the maximum acceleration (or deceleration) dv

of the bus during the journey. Solution: a = t2 + t + 2 =

dt
(ii) Calculate the distance covered by the bus from
⇒
dv = (t2 + t + 2)dt
0.5 hr to 2.5 hr.
50 Integrating both sides, we get
Solution: (i) Slope of part OP = = 100 km/hr2
0 .5 h
∫ dv = ∫ (t
2
+ t + 2) dt
80 − 50 30
Slope of part QR = = = 30 km/hr2 t3 t 2
1 1 ⇒ v =
+ + 2t + C
ed s.
3 2
60 − 0 60
Slope of part SX = = = 120 km/hr2 At t = 0, v = 3 m/s
4 − 3 .5 0 .5
rv er
\C=3

\M
aximum acceleration (deceleration) is observed for
At t = 5 s, we have
part SX.
se sh
(ii) Distance covered by the bus for 0.5 h to 2.5 h (5)3 52
.
v = + +2×5+3
= Area of PQUT + Area of 3 2
QUVY + Area of D QRY
= 41.67 + 12.5 + 13
re li
1
= 50 × 1 + 1 × 50 + × (80 − 50) × 1 =
67.17 m/s  67.2 m/s

s ub = 100 +
1
2
2
× 30 = 115 km
 Example 7.
The displacement x of a particle varies as
ht P
x = t − 2
 Example 5.
The position of an object moving along X-axis is given (i) What is the velocity and acceleration of the
by x = a + bt2, where a = 8.5 m, b = 2.5 m/s2 and t is particle at t = 0?
ig rn
measured in seconds. What is its velocity at t = 0 and (ii) When will the velocity of the particle become
t = 2 s? What is the average velocity between t = 2 s zero?
and t = 4 s? (N.C.E.R.T. Solved Example)
(iii) What is the displacement of the particle when its
lr e
Solution: Given, x = a + bt2 velocity is zero?

Al od
Instantaneous velocity is (iv) Is the motion of the particle uniformly accelerated

dx d or not?
v = = (a + bt 2 ) = 0 + 2bt = 2bt
dt dt Solution: Displacement, x =t−2
Now, at t = 0, v = 0
M
⇒
x = (t − 2)2 = t2 − 4t + 4
t = 2 s, v = 2 × 2.5 × 2 = 10 m/s (b = 2.5 ms-2)
At t = 2 s, x = a + 4b dx
Velocity, v = = 2t − 4
dt
©
And t = 4 s, x = a + 16b
Average velocity between 2 s and 4 s dv
Acceleration, a= =2
dt
(a + 16 b) − (a + 4 b)
= (i) At t = 0,
4−2
v = 2 × 0 − 4 = −4 m/s
12b a = 2 m/s2
= = 6b
2
(ii) Velocity will become zero when
= 6 × 2.5 m/s
2t − 4 = 0
= 15.0 m/s
4
 Example 6. ⇒
t= =2s
2
The acceleration of a particle varies with time t as
a = t2 + t + 2 (iii) Displacement at t = 2 s is
where t is in seconds. x = (2)2 − 4 × 2 + 4
The particle starts with an initial velocity v = 3 m/s =4−8+4=0

at t = 0. Find the velocity of the particle at the end of (iv) Since a is constant and independent of time. So
5 s. the particle has a uniform acceleration.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS 2
1. Calculate the displacement and

distance travelled by the body in
5 s, from the adjoining velocity-
time graph.
ed s.
2. From the adjoining acceleration-time graph for a particle, find the average
rv er
acceleration in initial 30 s.
se sh
.
re li
s ub 3. Calculate the displacement covered by a moving body in 8 s. The velocity-
time graph of the body is shown below.
ht P
ig rn
lr e
Al od
M
©
4. A body is projected in a vertical direction. The altitude y is given by

y = 10 t2 − 9t + 5
Calculate the initial velocity of the body.
Answers to Practice Problems 5. The displacement of a particle moving along a straight line is given by
1. 12 m and 20 m, respectively
s = 3t3 + 2t2 − 10t + 9
2. 25 m/s2
Calculate the velocity at t = 2 s and acceleration at t = 3 s.
3. +2 m
6. A particle is moving with an initial velocity of 5 ms−1. What will be
4. -9 m/s the velocity of the particle at t = 3 s, if the acceleration of the particle is
5. 34 m/s and 58 m/s2 given by
6. 173 m/s
a = 16 t3 - 12 t2 + 6t - 25
4
t
7. k 3
16 7. The velocity of an object varies as v = k t . Calculate the change in position
of the ball in time t. 4

6. EQUATIONS FOR UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

Let a particle be moving with uniform acceleration ‘a’ along a straight
line with initial velocity ‘u’. Let ‘v’ be the velocity of the particle after
time t. Velocity-time graph for this interval of time is represented by AC
in Fig. 6.1.
We know that the slope (tan q) of v-t graph gives the acceleration
(a). For the given v - t graph we can write the following:
CD
ed s.
tan q =
AD
Fig. 6.1. Velocity-time graph for
v−u
rv er
⇒ a= uniformly accelerated motion.
t
⇒ v = u + at …(1)
se sh
Above obtained equation is the first equation of uniformly
.
accelerated motion. We can use the above equation as a formula for a
particle moving with constant acceleration.
re li
As we have already studied that area under v - t graph gives
s ub
the displacement for the particle. Let a particle placed at origin
start moving along the X-axis, let at time t its position coordinate be x.
Therefore, the displacement of the particle at time t is x. Hence, we can
write the following:
ht P
x = Area under the graph AC = Area within ACDEOA
1
⇒ x= × (OA + CE) × OE
ig rn
2
1
⇒ x= × (u + v) × t
lr e
2
Substituting value of v from equation (1) we get the following:
Al od
1
⇒ x= × (u + u + at) × t
2
M
1
⇒ x= × (2u + at) × t
2
1 2
©
⇒ x = ut + at …(2)
2
Equation (2) is the second equation of uniformly accelerated motion.
We can use this equation as a formula for a particle moving with constant
acceleration.
Now we can substitute time t calculated from equation (1) in
equation (2) to get the third equation of motion. Or as an alternate
approach we can square the equation (1) and proceed as follows:
v2 = (u + at)2
⇒ v2 = u2 + 2uat + a2 t2
 1 2
⇒ v2 = u2 + 2a  ut + at 
2
We can now substitute the value from equation (2) in above equation
to get the following:
⇒ v2 = u2 + 2ax …(3)
Equation (3) is the third equation of uniformly accelerated motion.
We can use this as a formula for a particle moving with a constant

acceleration. It is only a scalar equation. However, equation (1) and (2)

are vector in nature.
To derive the equations of motion here, we have assumed that the
particle is at x = 0 at time t = 0. If position coordinate of the particle
is x0 at time t = 0 then these equations of motion can be written as
follows:
⇒ v = u + at …(1a)
1 2
ed s.
⇒ x = x0 + ut + at …(2a)
2
⇒ v2 = u2 + 2a(x − x0)…(3a)
rv er
6.1. Deriving Equations Using Method of Integration
se sh
Let a particle be moving with a uniform acceleration ‘a’ along a straight
.
line with an initial velocity ‘u’. Let ‘v’ be the velocity of the particle after
time t.
re li
(1) We know that instantaneous acceleration can be written as
follows:
s ub a=
dv
dt
⇒ dv = adt
ht P
On integrating both sides for the time interval between 0 and t, in
which the velocity changes from u to v, we get the following:
ig rn
v t
⇒ ∫ dv = a∫ dt
u 0
lr e
⇒ [v]uv = a[ t ]0t
Al od
⇒ [ v − u] = a[t − 0]
⇒ v − u = at
M
⇒ v = u + at
Hence, we have got first equation of motion.
(2) We know that the instantaneous velocity can be written as follows:
©
dx
v=
dt
⇒ dx = vdt
Substituting the value of v from the first equation of motion we get
the following:
⇒ dx = (u + at) dt
⇒ dx = udt + atdt
On integrating both sides we get the following:
x t t
KEY NOTE ⇒ ∫ dx = u∫ dt + a∫ tdt
The equations of motion derived in x0 0 0
this section are only for uniformly (Here x0 is the position of the object at time, t = 0 and x is the position
accelerated motion. These
of the object at time t)
equations are also not valid for
t
circular motion or simple harmonic  t2 
motion since the acceleration is not [ x ]xx0 = u[ t ]0t + a 
⇒
uniform in these cases. 2 0

 t2  KEY NOTE
⇒ x − x0 = u(t − 0) + a  − 0 
2  Displacement in nth second
nth second is interval from (n - 1) s
1 2 to n s.
⇒ x = x0 + ut +
at
2 Displacement in (n - 1) s can be
Hence, we have got the second equation of motion. written as
1
(3) We can write instantaneous acceleration and velocity as follows: Sn-1 = u(n - 1) + a(n - 1)2
2
Displacement in n second can be
ed s.
dv dx
a=
& v= written as.
dt dt 1
Sn = un + an2
2
rv er
Dividing the above equations we get the following relation.
Displacement in nth second can be
a dv written as
=
Snth = Sn - Sn-1
se sh
v dx
.
⇒ vdv = adx  1 2
⇒ Snth = un + an 
 2 
On integrating both sides of above equations, we get
re li
 1 2
v x - u(n − 1) + a(n − 1) 
 2 
s ub
∫ vdv = a ∫ dx
u x0
(Here, x0 is the position of the object at time, t = 0 and x is the position

Solving above equation we get the
following:
a
Snth = u + (2n − 1)
ht P
of the object at time t and u and v are initial and final velocities) 2
v
 v2 
= a [ x ]x
x FORMULAE USED
⇒  2 
ig rn
0
u (i) n = u + at
v2
u  2 1
(ii) x = x0 + ut + at2
 −  = a[ x − x0 ]
lr e
⇒ 2
2 2
(iii) n2 = u2 + 2a(x - x0)
Al od
⇒ v2 = u2 + 2a( x − x0 ) a
(iv) Snth = u + (2n - 1)
2
Hence, we have got the third equation of motion.
M
SOLVED EXAMPLES
©
A motorcyclist starts from rest and accelerates to a An electron enters an electric field of width 40 mm with
speed of 60 km/hr in 50 s, on a straight road. Calculate a speed of 6 × 103 m/s and takes 6 ns to cross it. Find
the distance covered by the motorcyclist in this time. its acceleration and velocity just after it exits the field.
Solution: Here, initial velocity, u = 0 Solution: Initial velocity, u = 6 × 103 m/s
Time, t = 50 s Time taken, t = 6 ns = 6 × 10−9 s
Final velocity, v = 60 km/hr Distance travelled by the electron,
60 × 5 s = 40 mm = 40 × 10−6 m
= = 16.67 m/s
18
Using, v = u + at = 4 × 10−5 m
v−u 16.67 − 0 We know that,
⇒
a= =
t 50 1 2
= 0.3334 m/s2 s = ut + at
2
1 2 2(s − ut)
Distance, s = ut + at
⇒
a=
2
t2
1
= 0 × 50 + × 0.3334 × (50) 2
2 2(4 × 10−5 − 6 × 103 × 6 × 10−9 )
=
= 416.75 m (6 × 10−9 ) 2

2(4 − 3.6) × 10−5 \

v22 − u22 = 2a2 s2
=
36 × 10−18
⇒ 02 − (30)2 = 2 × (−2)s2

= 0.022 × 1013 m/s2
900
= 0.22 × 1012 m/s2 ⇒
s2 = = 225 m
4
Also, Final velocity, v = u + at Distance covered by the second train before coming to
= 6 × 103 + 0.22 × 1012 × 6 × 10−9 halt = s2 = 225 m
= (6 + 1.32) × 103 = 7.32 × 103 m/s Total distance covered by both the trains
ed s.
 Example 3. = 156.25 + 225 m
On seeing red light ahead, a driver takes 0.3s to apply = 381.25
rv er
the brakes. This is called the reaction time of the driver.
This distance is less than 1 km (= 1000 m), which
If he was initially driving at a speed of 36 km/hr
was the distance between the trains before applying
and application of the brakes causes a deceleration of
brakes.
4.0 m/s2, calculate the distance travelled by the car
se sh
.
after he sees the red light. So, the accident (collision) will be averted.
Solution: The driver takes 0.3 s to apply the brakes  Example 5.
after he sees the red light. A truck starts from rest and accelerates uniformly
re li
So, during this reaction time, he continues to move to a velocity of 40 m/s in 10 s. It then runs with this
s ub
with a uniform speed of 36 km/hr =
36 × 5
18
= 10 m/s
\ Distance covered during 0.3 s = 10 × 0.3 = 3 m

uniform velocity and is finally brought to rest in 50 m
by a uniform deceleration. If the total run of the truck is
500 m, find its acceleration, deceleration and total time
of journey.
ht P
Now, for the motion with deceleration, we have Solution: When the truck has uniform acceleration
Initial velocity, u = 10 m/s after starting from rest:
Final velocity, v = 0 u = 0, t = 10 s, v = 40 m/s
ig rn
deceleration, a = −4.0 m/s2 v = u + at

2 2
As v − u = 2as v−u 40 − 0
⇒ a= = = 4 m/s2
lr e
2
⇒ 0 − 10 = 2 × (−4.0) × s
2 t 10
1 2
Al od
100
⇒
s= = 12.5 m Distance travelled, s 1 = ut + at
8 2
\ Total distance travelled by the car = 3 m + 12.5 m 1
= × 4 × (10) 2 = 200 m
2
= 15.5 m
M

 Example 4. When the truck runs with uniform velocity:
Two trains travelling along a straight track are Let distance covered is s2 in this case. If s3 is the
heading towards each other, travelling at 90 km/hr distance covered during deceleration, then
©
and 100 km/hr. Drivers of both the trains apply brakes As s1 + s2 + s3 = 500 [given s3 = 50 m]
together when the train are 1.0 km apart, decelerating
\ s2 = 500 − s1 − s3
each train at 2.0 m/s2. Determine that whether the
train accident will be averted. = 500 − 200 − 50
= 250 m
Solution: For the 1st train:
This distance is covered with a uniform velocity of 40 m/s
u1 = 90 km/hr = 25 m/s
250
u1 = 0; a1 = −2.0 m/s2 \
Time taken = = 6.25 s
40
\
v12 − u12 = 2a1s1 When the truck is finally brought to rest:
2 2 u = 40 m/s, v = 0, s = s3 = 50 m
⇒ 0 − (25) = 2 × (−2) × s1

625 \
v2 − u2 = 2as
⇒
s1 =
= 156.25 m
4 ⇒ 02 − 402 = 2 × a × 50

Distance covered by the first train before coming to 1600
halt = s1 = 156.25 m ⇒
a= − = −16 m/s2
100
For the second train: Retardation = 16 m/s2
u2 = 108 km/hr = 30 m/s Also, v = u + at
v2 = 0 ; a2 = − 2.0 m/s2 0 = 40 − 16 × t

40  Example 8.
⇒
t= = 2.5 s A train initially at rest accelerates at a constant rate x
16
for time t1 and then decelerates at a constant rate y for
\ Total time taken for the journey = 10 + 6.25 + 2.5
the remaining time. If the total time of its journey is t
= 18.75 s seconds, then find in terms of t, x and y
 Example 6. (i) the maximum velocity attained
A thief starts his car from a point with an acceleration (ii) total distance travelled
of 2 m/s2. The police chasing the thief arrives at the
Solution: (i) For the time t1:
point 10 s later and continues to chase the thief with a
ed s.
uniform velocity of 40 m/s in their car. In what time the v = u + at
police’s car will overtake the thief’s car? = 0 + xt1
Solution: Given, acceleration of thief’s car, a = 2 m/s2
rv er
v
⇒
t1 = ...(i)
Initial velocity, u = 0 x
Uniform velocity of police’s car, v = 40 m/s Here, v will be the maximum velocity attained by the
se sh
train because after that, it will start to decelerate
.
Let t be the time in seconds taken by the police’s car to
overtake the thief’s car. For the time t2 = (t − t1)
Distance covered by the police’s car in t seconds = vt Using v = u + at
re li
= 40 t we can write

s ub
Distance covered by the thief’s car in (t + 10) seconds
1
s = u(t + 10) + a(t + 10)2
2

or
0 = v − y (t − t1)
t − t1 =
v
...(ii)
y
ht P
1 Adding (i) and (ii), we get
= × 2(t + 10)2 = (t + 10)2
2
v v
Now, 40t = (t + 10)2 t1 + t − t1 = +
ig rn
x y
⇒ 40t = t2 + 20t + 100

t2 − 20t + 100 = 0
 1 1  x + y
⇒
t = v  +  = v 
 x y  xy 
lr e
⇒ (t − 10)2 = 0

or t = 10 s xyt
Al od
or v =
 Example 7. x+ y
A man is 10 m behind the bus stop when the bus left This is the required expression for maximum velocity.
the stop, with an acceleration of 2 m/s2. What should
(ii) Distance travelled by the train in time t1 is
M
be the minimum uniform speed of man so that he may

catch the bus? If he runs with required minimum 1
at2 s1 = ut +
speed then how much time it will take to catch the 2
bus? 1 2 1 v2 v2
= 0 + xt1 = x ⋅ 2 =
©
Solution: Let v be the speed of the man and t be the 2 2 x 2x

time taken by man to catch the bus. Condition for man
= x 2 y2 t 2
to catch the bus can be written as follows:
2 x ( x + y) 2
Distance moved by man = 10 + distance moved by bus
1 = xy2t 2
⇒
vt = 10 + × 2 × t2
2 2( x + y) 2
⇒
t2 - vt + 10 = 0 ...(i)
Distance travelled by the train in time t2 = (t − t1) is
Above equation must have real roots.
1 2
⇒
D≥0 s2 = ut + at
2
⇒
v2 - 40 ≥ 0
1
⇒
v ≥ 2 10 = v(t − t1) − y(t − t1 ) 2
2
Hence minimum speed for man is 2 10 m/s.
v 1 v2 v2 x2 yt 2
Substituting minimum value of v in equation (i) we get = v ⋅ − y 2 = =
the following:
y 2 y 2y 2( x + y) 2
t2 - 2 10 t + 10 = 0 \ Total distance travelled by the train

2
⇒
(t - 10) = 0 xy2t 2 x2 yt 2
s = s1 + s2 = 2
+
⇒
t= 10s 2( x + y) 2( x + y) 2

xyt 2 1
= = 3.75 + × 2.5 × 23

2 (y + x) 2
2 ( x + y)
= 3.75 + 28.75 = 32.5 m
xyt 2
=
2 ( x + y)  Example 10.
An object moving with uniform acceleration has a
velocity of 20 m/s after 4 seconds and 28 m/s after
 Example 9.
6 seconds. Calculate the distance travelled by the object
A body covers a distance of 15 m in the 5th second and
in 10th second.
ed s.
20 m in the 7th second. How much it will cover in the
12th second? Solution: For a velocity of 20 m/s:
Solution: Here, s5th = 15 m and s7th = 20 m v = u + at
rv er
1 ⇒ 20 = u + 4a...(i)

As s5th = u + a(2 × 5 − 1) = 15
2 For a velocity of 28 m/s
se sh
.
28 = u + 6a...(ii)
9a
⇒
u+ = 15 ...(i) Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get
2
8 = 2a
re li
1
Also, s7th = u + a(2 × 7 − 1) = 20 8
⇒

s ub u+
13
2
a = 20
2
...(ii)
⇒
a=
2
= 4 m/s2
Substituting this value in (i), we get

20 = u + 4 × 4
ht P
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get
⇒
u = 20 − 16 = 4 m/s
4a 10
= 5 ⇒a= = 2.5 m/s2 \ Distance travelled by the object in 10th second

2 4
ig rn
1
9a 9 × 2 .5 S10th = u + × a(2n − 1)
Using (i), u = 15 − = 15 − 2
2 2
lr e
1
= 3.75 m/s = u+ × 4 (2 × 10 − 1)
2
Al od
1 = 4 + 2(19)
Now, S12th = u + a(2 × 12 − 1)
2 = 42 m
M
©
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 3
1. A particle is moving with an initial velocity of 2 m/s and covers a distance of

20 m in 5 s. Find (a) acceleration of particle (b) time taken by the particle to
attain a velocity of 10 m/s.
2. A particle is moving under a constant acceleration of 3 m/s2. The initial
velocity of the particle is 10 m/s. Calculate the distance travelled by the
particle in 5 s and also in the 5th second of its motion.
3. A particle moves 20 m in 3rd second and 30 m in 5th second of its journey.
What will be the distance covered by the body in 4 s after 6th second?
4. A particle is initially at rest. It starts moving with a constant acceleration.
1. (a) 0.8 m/s2 (b) 10 s The speed of the particle in t seconds is 50 m/s and after one second the
2. 87.5 m, 23.5 m speed becomes 75 m/s. Calculate the acceleration of the particle and distance
3. 190 m covered in (t + 1)th second of its motion.
4. 25 m/s2, 62.5 m 5. What will be the minimum stopping distance required by a car to stop if it is
moving with a velocity of 40 m/s with a deceleration of 20 m/s2? How much
5. 40 m, 2 s
time will it take to stop the car?

7. MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

We know that earth applies gravitational force on all objects and
that is why objects fall on the surface of earth when released from a
height. If the height of the object is not much (negligible as compared
to the radius of earth) then we can assume that the force and resulting
acceleration due to gravity remain nearly constant near the surface of
earth. Acceleration due to gravity near the surface of earth is found to
be approximately 9.8 m/s2. We know that the acceleration is a vector
quantity and the direction of acceleration due to gravity is always
ed s.
vertically downwards (towards the centre of earth). If an object is
released from the rest from a certain height or it is projected vertically
rv er
upwards or downwards with some initial velocity then in these cases
motion of the object remains restricted to vertical straight line.
Acceleration due to gravity is represented by ‘g’ and remains constant
se sh
.
near the surface of earth. Hence, we can use three equations of motion
for uniformly accelerated motion. To analyse the motion under gravity
along vertical straight line we assume one of the coordinate axes along
re li
the vertical direction. We can select upward or downward direction as
positive direction. Let us understand the procedure with the help of a
s ub
few examples.
(1) An object is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity u.
Acceleration due to gravity is downwards and hence is directed
ht P
opposite to the initial velocity given to the object. When the
acceleration (rate of change of velocity) is in the direction opposite
to that of the velocity of a particle, the motion of the particle is
ig rn
retarded. Hence, in this case the motion of the object is first retarded
and then the object comes to rest for an instant at a certain height
(H) above the point of projection.
lr e
Let the time taken by the particle to reach this point be t1. At
Al od
time t = t1, the particle comes to rest but the acceleration is still
acting downwards and hence particle is again moved downwards.
During the downward journey the velocity and acceleration are in
the same direction and hence, speed of the particle increases
M
as it moves down. Let the particle reaches starting point O

again at time t = t2. Let us assume point of projection as origin
O and upward direction as the positive direction as shown in
©
Fig. 7.1.
Let us consider the time interval when the particle starts from O
and reaches the highest point A.
v = u + at
⇒ 0 = (+ u) + (-g) t1
Note that the upward direction is taken as positive and hence initial
velocity u is taken as positive because it is upwards and acceleration
Fig. 7.1. Motion of an object
due to gravity is negative because it is directed vertically downwards.
thrown vertically upwards.
Solving the above equation we get the following:
u
⇒ t1 = …(1)
g
Hence, the time taken by an object to reach the top-most point when
u
it is thrown upwards with initial velocity u is .
g
We should understand that the selection of positive direction is
a matter of choice as we can see that by changing our choice for

positive direction, signs of all the vector quantities get reversed and
thus overall equation remains unaffected.
Let us now apply third equation of motion for the motion of the
object between points O and A.
v2 = u2 + 2ax
Here direction of displacement (x) is upwards (from initial point
towards the final point) and hence will be treated as positive.
⇒ 0 = (+u) 2 + 2(− g)(+ H )
ed s.
u2
⇒ H= …(2)
rv er
2g
Above expression can be used for calculating the maximum height
attained by the object when thrown vertically upwards with an
se sh
.
initial velocity u.
Let us now consider the time interval when the particle starts from
O and reaches A and then again comes back to point O. For this
re li
interval the net displacement is zero. We can apply second equation
s ub of motion as follows:
x = ut +

1 2
at
2
ht P
1
⇒ 0 = (+u) t + (− g) t 2
2
ig rn
 1 
⇒ 0 =  u − gt  t
 2 
lr e
2u
⇒ t=0&t=
g
Al od
Here, t = 0 represents the beginning of motion and t = 2u/g represents

the time when the particle is again back to point O. We have assumed
t2 as the time to the come back to the starting point O.
M
2u
t2 = …(3)
g
When an object is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity
©
u then it comes back to the starting point after time 2u/g. Hence
particle takes u/g time in upward journey and same time for
the downward journey. When no air resistance is considered then
the upward and downward journeys are symmetrical. Particle comes
back to the starting point with the same speed but the direction of
motion is opposite.
(2) An object is released from rest from a point at a certain height
from the earth’s surface (refer to Fig. 7.2) and due to gravity it
accelerates downwards. Let us consider starting point as the
origin (O) and downward direction as the positive direction. Let
the particle descend height h in time t. Acceleration due to gravity
is downwards and hence will be taken as positive. Direction of
displacement is taken from initial point towards the final point,
hence displacement h is also directed downwards and hence
positive.
We can write velocity attained by the object in terms of time using
Fig. 7.2. Motion of an object first equation of motion.
released from rest. v = u + at

⇒ v = 0 + (+g) t
v = gt …(4)
We can also write velocity attained in terms of height descended by
the object using third equation of motion.
2 2
v = u + 2ax
2
⇒ v = 0 + 2(+ g)(+ h)
ed s.
⇒ v = 2 gh …(5)
We can write height descended by the object in terms of time using
rv er
second equation of motion.
1 2
x = ut + at
se sh
2
.
1
⇒ (+ h) = 0 + (+ g) t 2
2
re li
1 2
⇒ s ub h=
2
gt …(6)
2h
⇒ t= …(7)
ht P
g
Thus, the time taken by an object released from rest from a height h
ig rn
can be calculated by using equation (7).

(3) Let us now take an example of particle thrown upwards with
initial velocity u, from the top of a building of height H. We have
lr e
to calculate the time taken by the particle to reach the ground.

In Fig. 7.3, A is the point at the top of building from where the
Al od
object is projected. In above cases we have taken the initial point

as the origin. In this case we are assuming bottom of building
as the origin and that is shown as O in the figure. Here we have
M
assumed upward direction as positive and marked vertical axis as

Y-axis. The second equation of motion in this case can be written
as follows:
©
1 2
y = y0 + ut + at Fig. 7.3. Motion of an object thrown
2
upward from a height.
We have to calculate the time taken by the particle to reach the
bottom of the building. Hence, final y-coordinate of the particle will
be 0.
y = 0, y0 = + H, u = + u, a = −g.
1
⇒ 0 = H + (+u) t + (− g) t 2
2
⇒ gt 2 − 2ut − 2 H = 0
2u ± 4u2 + 8 gH
⇒ t=
2g
u u2 2H
⇒ t= ± +
g g2 g

Out of the two solutions of the quadratic equation, one is positive

and the other is negative. Positive value of t is the valid solution. Hence,
the time taken by the particle to reach the bottom of building is given by
the following relation:
u u2 2H
⇒ t= + +
g g2 g
(4) Graphical representation of motion of an object under free fall
ed s.
If we release an object near the surface of earth then it is accelerated
vertically downwards due to gravitational attraction of earth. Here we
rv er
are neglecting air resistance in our analysis. If the height of object
is small as compared to the radius of the earth then we can assume
acceleration due to gravity as constant. The acceleration due to gravity is
se sh
Fig. 7.4. Free fall.
.
represented by g and its value near the surface of earth is approximately
equal to 9.8 m/s2. Hence, given case is an example of the motion with
uniform acceleration. To represent a motion in terms of graphs we
re li
need to select the origin and the axes for measurement. In this case
let us take the point from where object is dropped as the origin for the
s ub measurement and downward direction as positive direction for Y-axis as
shown in Fig. 7.4.
Acceleration due to gravity is always vertically downwards and
ht P
here downward direction is taken as the positive direction and hence
acceleration remains constant in positive direction and acceleration-
time graph will be as shown in Fig. 7.5.
ig rn
Fig. 7.5. Acceleration-time graph Similarly, we can use first equation of motion to get the velocity in
for free fall. terms of time.
lr e
v = u + at
Al od
⇒ v = 0 + (+g) t
⇒ v = gt
Hence, velocity increases linearly with time in positive
M
direction and graph between velocity and time will be as shown in

Fig. 7.6.
If v - t graph makes an angle q with the time axis then its slope is
©
tan q. Slope of v - t graph represents the acceleration and hence we can

write tan q = g.
Fig. 7.6. Velocity-time graph for
free fall. We can use second equation of motion to write y-coordinate of the
object in terms of time.
1 2
y = ut + at
2
1
⇒ y = 0 + (+g) t2
2
1 2
⇒ y = gt
2
free fall. Position-time graph for the object under free-fall can be shown as in
Fig. 7.7. It is a parabolic curve.

SOLVED EXAMPLES
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of Using the information given in example 2, find
4.9 m/s. Find (i) the greatest height reached by the stone above the
(i) the maximum height reached by the ball ground
(ii) time taken to reach the maximum height (ii) the velocity with which it strikes the ground
ed s.
Solution: (i) Given, initial velocity, u = 4.9 m/s (iii) time taken to reach the maximum height
2
Acceleration, a = 9.8 m/s Solution:
rv er
If we assume upward direction as positive direction (i) Let s′ be the height covered in upward motion
then initial velocity will be treated as positive and then
acceleration due to gravity as negative. v2 = u2 + 2gs′
se sh
.
At maximum height, final velocity, v = 0 0 = (14.7)2 + 2 × (−9.8)s′
2 2
Using v − u = 2ah, we have
(14.7) 2
02 − (4.9)2 = 2 × (−9.8)h ⇒ s′ = = 11.025 m
re li
19.6
(4.9) 2
⇒
s ub
(ii) Using,
h=
2 × 9 .8
v = u + at
= 1.225 m \ The greatest height above the ground = s′ + s
= 11.025 + 196
= 207.025 m
0 = 4.9 - 9.8t
ht P
(ii) For the downward motion of the stone,
⇒
t = 0.5 s
u = 0, g = 9.8 m/s2, s = 207.028 m
 Example 2.
ig rn
Using v2 = u2 + 2gs
A stone is thrown vertically upwards from the top of a
= 0 + 2 × (9.8) × 207.025
building, with a speed of 14.7 m/s. If it returns to the
⇒ v = 63.7 m/s
lr e
earth in 8 s, calculate the height of the building.

Solution: Let us assume upward direction as positive (iii) Let t be the time taken to reach the maximum
Al od
direction height. Then, for the upward motion.

u = 14.7 m/s, v = 0, g = −9.8 m/s2
= u + gt, we get
Using v
M
v−u 0 − 14.7
t= = = 1.5 s
g −9.8
©
 Example 4.
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity
of 20 m/s from the top of a multistorey building. The
height of the point from where the ball is thrown is
25.0 m from the ground. (a) How high will the ball
Given, initial velocity, u = 14.7 m/s rise? and (b) How long will it be before the ball hits
g = −9.8 m/s the ground?
Time taken to reach earth, t = 8 s Take g = 10 m/s2 (N.C.E.R.T. Solved Example)

Net displacement of the stone, s = −h Solution: (a) Given, initial velocity, u = 20 m/s
(Vertically upward direction here is taken as positive g = -10 m/s2 (upward direction is assumed as positive)

and the net displacement from the initial position is in
At the highest point, final velocity, v = 0
the vertically downward direction)
Let the ball rise to height h from where it is thrown
1 2
Now, s = ut + gt above the building. Then
2
v2 − u2 = 2gh
1
⇒
× (−9.8) × 82
−h = 14.7 × 8 + ⇒ 02 − 202 = 2 × (−10) × h

2
= 117.6 − 313.6 = −196 m 400
⇒
h = = 20 m
⇒
h = 196 m 20

(b) Net displacement of the ball, s = − Height of building So, distance of the stone from the highest point 4 s
= −25.0 m after it was thrown = Distance covered by the stone in
1.5 s from the highest point
1 2
Now, s = ut + gt 1 2
2 \
s = ut + gt
2
1
⇒
−25 = 20 t + × (−10) × t 2
2 1
= 0 × 1.5 + × 10 × (1.5) 2
⇒ 5t2 − 20t − 25 = 0
2
⇒
t2 − 4t − 5 = 0 = 11.25 m
ed s.
(t + 1) (t − 5) = 0
 Example 6.

∵ t ≠ −1 A hot air balloon is projected vertically with a net
rv er
\
t = 5 s vertical acceleration of 4 m/s2 upwards, by lighting
its burner. The burner is blown out in 2 minutes but
the balloon continues to move up. Find the maximum
se sh
height reached by the balloon before it starts to come
.
down again.
Solution: Given, net vertical acceleration, a = 4 m/s2
re li
Height covered by the balloon in 2 minutes (120 s) is
s ub h1 = ut +
1 2
2
at
1
ht P
= 0 + × 4 × (120) 2
2
 Example 5. = 28,800 m
ig rn
A boy projects a stone vertically upwards and catches it Velocity attained by the hot air balloon after 2 min
back after 5 s. How high the stone goes and with what (120 s).
velocity it was thrown? Also calculate the separation v = u + at
between the highest point and the stone 4 s after it was
lr e
projected upwards. = 0 + 4 × 120

Al od
Take g = 10 m/s 2 = 480 m/s
Solution: Let us take upward as positive direction. After the burner is blown out,
For the stone, u = 480 m/s and final velocity, v = 0
M
Time of ascent = Time of descent Using v2 − u2 = 2gh2, we get

Total time taken by the stone to come back to the same 02 − (480)2 = −2 × 9.8 × h2
level of projection = 5 s
(480) 2
∴ Time of ascent = 2.5 s
⇒
h2 =  11,755 m
©
2 × 9 .8
For the upward motion of the ball:
\ Maximum height reached by the balloon is

Initial velocity, u = ?
h = h1 + h2 = (28,800 + 11,755) m
Final velocity, v = 0
= 40,555 m = 40.555 km
Time taken, t = 2.5 s
 41 km
g = −10 m/s2
Using v = u + gt, we get  Example 7.
A packet is dropped from a helicopter, which is
0 = u − 10 × 2.5
ascending at a rate of 16 m/s, when it is at a height of
⇒
u = 25 m/s 14.4 m above the ground.
This is the velocity with which the stone was projected. (i) How much time it will take the packet to reach
Maximum height attained by the ball is given by the ground?
1 2 (ii) With what velocity it will hit the ground?
s = ut + gt
2
Solution: (i) Initially the velocity of packet is same as
1 2 that of the upward velocity of helicopter. So,
= 25 × 2.5 − × 10 × (2.5)
2 u = 16 m/s, g = −9.8 m/s2, s = −14.4 m

= 62.5 − 31.25 = 31.25 m Note that here we have assumed upward as positive
After 2.5 s, the stone is at the highest point. direction.

1 2 ⇒ 80 = 20t
Using, s = ut + gt , we get
2 ⇒ t=4s
1 Substituting this in eq. (ii), we get
−14.4 = 16 t − × 9 .8 t 2
2 80 − h = 4.9 × 42
⇒
−14.4 = 16t − 4.9 t2 ⇒
h = 80 − 78.4 = 1.6 m
2
⇒ 4.9 t − 16t − 14.4 = 0

Solving, we get t=4s
ed s.
(ii) Using v = u + gt
= 16 − 9.8 × 4 = −23.2 m/s
(Negative because it is directed vertically downwards)
rv er
 Example 8.
A ball is thrown upwards with a speed of 20 m/s from
se sh
the ground. Another ball is dropped from rest from a
.
building 80 m high at the same time,
So, the two balls will collide after 4 s, at a height of 1.6 m
(i) Find the difference in their height after they have from the ground.
fallen for 2 s?
re li
 Example 9.
(ii) If the balls are along the same line of motion,
s ub
when will they collide?
Solution: (i) For the first ball:
A stone is dropped from a stationary hot air balloon in
the air and travels 14.7 m in the last second before it
hits the ground. Find the height of the balloon from the
ground.
u = 20 m/s, g = −9.8 m/s2

ht P
Height reached by the ball in t = 2 s is Solution: Here, initial velocity of the stone, u = 0
1 2 g = 9.8 m/s2 (downward motion)

h1 = ut + gt
2 Let the last second be the nth second. Then
ig rn
1 g
= 20 × 2 − × 9 .8 × 4 Snth = u +
(2n − 1)
2 2
lr e
= 20.4 m 9 .8
⇒ 14.7 = 0 +
(2n − 1)
2
Al od
For the second ball:

⇒ 14.7 = 4.9(2n − 1)

u = 0 m/s, g = 9.8 m/s2
14.7
Distance travelled in t = 2s is or =3 2n − 1 =
4 .9
M
1 2 ⇒ 2n = 4 or n = 2

h2 = ut + gt
2 \
t=2s
1 \ Height of the balloon from the ground is

= 0 × 2 + × 9 .8 × 4
©
2 1
h= 0+ × 9.8 × 22 = 19.6 m
= 19.6 m 2
\ Height of the second ball from the ground,
 Example 10.
h3 = 80 m − 19.6 m A body is falling freely under gravity. It passes two
points A and B (A being higher than B) 20 m apart
= 60.4 m
vertically, in 2s. Find the elevation of the point above A,
\ Difference in the height of two balls = h3 − h1 from where it began to fall.
= 60.4 − 20.4 m = 40 m Solution:
(ii) Let after time t s, the balls will collide, then for the
first ball:
1 2
h = 20t − 9.8t
2
= 20 t − 4.9 t2...(i)
1
For the second ball, 80 − h = × 9 .8 t 2
2
Let X be the point above A from where the body began
⇒ 80 − h = 4.9 t2...(ii) to fall. Then,
Adding (i) and (ii), we get 1 1
h2 − h1 = g (t + 2) 2 − gt 2
h + 80 − h = 20t − 4.9 t2 + 4.9 t2 2 2

1 20
= g (4 t + 4) ⇒ 2t + 2 =
⇒ 2t + 2 = 2.04
2 9 .8
Given, h2 − h1 = 20 m ⇒ 2t = 0.04
⇒ t = 0.02 s
1 1 2 1 2
\ 20 = × 9.8(4 t + 4) \
h1 = gt = × 9.8 × (0.02)
2 2 2
= 9.8(2t + 2) = 0.001 m
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 4
ed s.
1. A ball is thrown vertically upwards from ground with such a speed so
rv er
that it just reaches the top of a building and then falls back. If it takes
7 s for the ball to return to the hands of thrower, calculate the height of the
building, approximately.
se sh
.
2. A ball A is dropped from the top of a tower 50 m high and at the same
instant another ball B is projected upwards with the velocity of 10 m/s. After
how much time and where the two balls will meet?
re li
Answers to Practice Problems 3. Two bodies are dropped from rest from two different buildings; one at a
height 200 m and another at a height of 150 m above the ground. What
s ub
1. 60 m
2. After 5 s at 122.5 m from the
top of tower
will be the difference in height of the bodies after they have fallen for 2 s?
(g = 10 m/s2)
4. Two balls are released from the same height at an interval of 2 s. When will
3. 50 m
ht P
the separation between the balls be 20 m after the first ball is released?
4. 2 s Take, g = 10 m/s2.
ig rn
8. RELATIVE VELOCITY
Concept of motion is always relative. You always need a reference to
lr e
measure the position of an object. Same is the reference for velocity as

well as for the acceleration. In fact, all the measurements are relative in
Al od
physics. In this section we will consider the objects moving with uniform
velocities. Most of the time we consider the velocity with respect to the
frame of reference attached to the ground. And many times we do not even
M
mention the frame of reference because it is supposed to be understood.

When we take the ground or earth as our frame of reference then for
local movements we can treat this frame of reference to be at rest. But we
should always remember that there is nothing in state of absolute rest or
©
motion. Concept of relative motion is very important in physics and here

we shall learn to express position and velocity of one object with respect to
another object when positions and velocities of both of them are known in
one common frame of reference which is usually fixed reference attached
to the ground.
Vector quantities are denoted in a certain way and those
things we shall learn in next chapter. But here in case of straight
line motion we are not using any vector notations because in case
of one-dimensional motion we can take care about directions by
using positive (+) and negative (−) signs. Let there be two objects A
and B moving along X-axis. vA and vB are the velocities of A and B
respectively, with respect to the reference attached to ground or any
other stationary object. Let x0A and x0B are position coordinates of
A and B respectively at time t = 0. And let xA and xB be the position
coordinates of A and B respectively at some instant of time t. We can
write the following equations:
xA = x0A + vAt…(1)
xB = x0B + vBt…(2)

Position of B with respect to A can be written as follows:

xBA = xB - xA
⇒ xBA = ( x0B − x0 A ) + (vB − vA ) t …(3)
Rate of change of position with respect to time is defined as velocity.
Hence on differentiating above equation we shall get velocity of B with
respect to A, because xBA is the position of B with respect to A.
dx
⇒ BA = vB − vA
ed s.
dt
⇒ vBA = vB − vA …(4)
objects moving with same velocity.
rv er
In above equation vBA represents the velocity of B with respect to A.
Similarly we can write the velocity of object A with respect to B as
follows:
se sh
.
⇒ vAB = vA − vB …(5)
From equation (4) and (5) we can see that vAB = −vBA.
re li
Figure 8.1 shows the position-time graph of two objects A and B
moving with the same velocity along the positive direction. We can
s ub
see that the separation between objects remains constant with time.
Relative velocity of one object with respect to another is zero in this case.
vAB = vBA = 0.
ht P
Figure 8.2 shows the position-time graph of two objects A and B moving
along positive direction. In given case vA > vB. Initial positions are such that
these two objects do not meet and separation between them grows with Fig. 8.2. Position-time graph for
ig rn
time. Velocity of A with respect to B (vAB = vA − vB) is along the positive objects moving with different
direction and velocity of B with respect to A (vBA = vB − vA) is along the velocities.
negative direction. Let vA = 40 m/s and vB = 20 m/s.
lr e
vAB = vA − vB = 40 − 20 = 20 m/s.
Al od
vBA = vB − vA = 20 − 40 = −20 m/s.

Here, vAB = Relative velocity of object A with respect to B
vBA = Relative velocity of object B with respect to A
M
Figure 8.3 shows position-time graph of two objects A and B moving

along positive direction. In given case vA < vB. Initial positions are such that
these two objects meet at a certain instant. Let vA = 30 m/s and vB = 50 m/s.
©
vAB = vA − vB = 30 − 50 = −20 m/s.

vBA = vB − vA = 50 − 30 = 20 m/s.
In Fig. 8.4 object A is moving along negative direction and object B is Fig. 8.3. Position-time graph of
two objects moving with different
moving along positive direction. Initial positions of the objects are such
velocities meeting at a point.
that they meet at a certain instant. Let vA = −40 m/s and vB = 30 m/s.
vAB = vA − vB = −40 − 30 = −70 m/s.
vBA = vB − vA = 30 − (−40) = 70 m/s.
When two objects are moving along the same direction then
the magnitude of relative velocity is equal to the difference in
magnitudes of their velocities. And when they are moving along
opposite directions then magnitude of relative velocity is equal
to the sum of magnitudes of their velocities. If you are sitting
inside the train near the window and there is a parallel railway track
and another train is running on that track too. If train on the parallel
track is running in the same direction as that of yours then you will feel
that other train is moving with slower speed. But when train on the Fig. 8.4. Position-time graph of
parallel track is running along opposite direction to that of yours then two objects moving in different
directions.
you will feel that other train is running with a high speed.

SOLVED EXAMPLES
 Example 1. \
vM = vA − 5 = (15 − 5) m/s
On a straight road, two cars X and Y are moving in the
= 10 m/s
same direction. Velocity of car X is 20 m/s and that of
car Y is 15 m/s. Find the velocity of X relative to Y and  Example 3.
vice versa. A train, 100 m in length, is moving with a velocity
of 54 km/hr in one direction. Another train, 80 m in
Solution: Given, velocity of X, vX = 20 m/s
length, is moving with a velocity of 36 km/hr in the
ed s.
Velocity of Y, vY = 15 m/s opposite direction. Find the time when the two trains
Velocity of X relative to Y, will completely cross each other.
rv er
vXY = vX − vY = 20 − 15 = 5 m/s
Solution: Relative velocity of first train w.r.t. to
second train = (54 − (−36) km/hr = 90 km/hr
Positive relative velocity shows that the driver of car Y
sees car X moving ahead of him at the rate of 5 m/s. 90 × 5
se sh
= m/s = 25 m/s
.
Now, velocity of Y relative to X, 18
In order to cross other train, total distance to be
vYX = vY − vX = 15 − 20 = −5 m/s travelled by each train = 100 + 80 = 180 m
re li
Negative relative velocity shows that the driver of car Time taken by each train to cross other train
X sees (when looking back) the car Y moving behind
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him at the rate of 5 m/s.
 Example 2.
Two parallel rail tracks run north-south. Train A moves

 Example 4.
=
180
25
= 7.2 s
A boat rescued people drowning in a river during a flood,

ht P
north with a speed of 54 km/h and train B moves south
with maximum of 5 people at a time 7 people were holding
with a speed of 90 km/hr. What is the
a rock in middle of water flow. The boat arrives and
(a) velocity of B with respect to A? picks 5 of them and left 2 people holding the rock. When
ig rn
(b) velocity of ground with respect to B? and the boat began to travel upstream, 2 people holding the
rock, left hold of it and start flowing with the water flow.
(c) velocity of a monkey running on the roof of the
The boat travels 2 km upstream, left the 5 people, turned
train A against its motion (with a velocity of 18
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about and caught with the 2 people drowning. How long

km h−1 with respect to the train A) as observed by
will it take the boat to reach those 2 people?
a man standing on the ground?
Al od
Take, speed of boat w.r.t. to still water = 10 m/s

(N.C.E.R.T. Solved Example)
Speed of water flow = 2 m/s
Solution: Let south to north be the positive direction
of X-axis. Then, Solution: For upstream motion of boat:
M
54 × 5 Relative velocity w.r.t. to water flow = 10 − 2 = 8 m/s

Speed of train A, vA = + 54 km/hr = m/s = 15 m/s
18 Distance travelled = 2 km = 2000 m
−90 × 5 2000
©
Speed of train B, vB = − 90 km/hr = m/s Time taken, t1 = = 250 s

18 8
= −25 m/s For downstream motion of 2 people:
(a) Relative velocity of B with respect of A is Distance moved by them in 250 s = 2 × 250 = 500 m
vBA = vB − vA = −25 − 15 = −40 m/s Distance between the boat after it turned about and
2 people in the water = 2000 + 500 = 2500 m
which means that train B appears to an observer
in train A to move with a speed of 40 m/s from This distance is to be covered by the boat with its own
north to south. velocity (w.r.t. to still water) because the velocity of
the water flow is shared by both (boat and the 2 people
(b) Relative velocity of ground with respect to B is
in water)
vOB = 0 − vB = 0 + 25 = 25 m/s
2500
which means that to an observer in train B, the ∴ Time taken, t2 =
= 250 s
10
earth (or ground) appears to move with a speed of
Total time taken to reach them, t = t1 + t2
25 m/s from south to earth.
= (250 + 250) s
(c) Let vM be the velocity of the monkey with respect to
the ground. Then, relative velocity of the monkey = 500 s
with respect to A is 500
= = 8.33 mins
vMA = vM − vA = −18 km/hr = −5 m/s 60


PRACTICE PROBLEMS 5
1. A bus A travelling at a speed of 70 km/h just overtakes another bus B at a

speed of 60 km/h. The length of each bus is 10 m. Calculate the time taken
by the bus A to overtake bus B.
2. A boy starts running on a straight line path with speed of 20 km/h and a
girl is running on the same path with a speed of 15 km/h starting from same
point. What is the position of the girl w.r.t. boy in 20 minutes?
ed s.
3. Two trains A and B each of length 200 m are running on parallel tracks. A
overtakes B in 30 s and A crosses B in 15 s. What are the velocities of trains
A and B?
rv er
4. The speed of a man along with the river is 20 km/h and speed of the man
against the river current is 10 km/h. Calculate the speed of the man in still Answers to Practice Problems
se sh
water and speed of the river.
.
1. 7.2 s
5. Two cars A and B are moving in same direction with a speed of 40 km/h. The
2. 1.67 km behind the boy
distance between cars A and B is constant and is 5 km. Another car C is also
moving in the same direction. If at a certain instant car B is overtaking C, 3. 20 m/s and 6.6 m/s, respectively
re li
then car A takes 20 minutes to overtake C. Find speed of C? 4. 15 km/h and 5 km/h, respec-
s ub
6. A thief’s car is moving on a straight road with a speed of 80 km/h. It is
followed by a police car moving at a constant speed of 120 km/h, crossing a
T-point 20 s later than the thief’s car. At what distance from the T-point, the
tively
5. 25 km/h
6. 1333.3 m
police car will catch the thief’s car?
ht P
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Chapter Summary
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Al od
Key Terms & Laws

M
 Motion: Motion is change in position of an object with the passage of time. The position of object can be specified
with reference to some arbitrarily chosen origin.
 Scalar quantities: Physical quantities which require only magnitude for their complete description are known as
scalar quantities. Examples of scalar quantities are mass, speed, distance, energy, etc.
©
 Vector quantities: Physical quantities which require magnitude as well as direction for their complete description
are called vector quantities. Examples of vector quantities are displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, etc.
 One-dimensional motion: The type of motion in which only one of the coordinates of particle changes with time
is called one-dimensional motion.
 Path length: It is the total length of the path traversed by an object. It is also known as distance.
 Displacement: It is the change in position of an object and is equal to the shortest distance travelled by the object
between the initial and final points.
 Uniform motion: A particle is said to be in uniform motion if it covers equal distances in equal time intervals.
 Non-uniform motion: An object which covers unequal displacements in equal interval of time is said to be in
non-uniform motion.
 Average velocity: Average velocity is defined as the total change in position or the total displacement of an object
divided by the time interval taken by the object for this change in position or displacement.
 Average speed: Average speed in a given time interval is defined as the total distance covered by the body divided
by total duration of the time interval in which this distance is covered.
 Instantaneous velocity or instantaneous speed or simply velocity: We can define velocity at a particular
instant as limiting value of average velocity when time interval ∆t becomes infinitesimally small or when time
interval ∆t approaches zero.

 Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity with respect to time is defined as the acceleration of object. It is a vector
quantity.
 Average acceleration: Average acceleration of the particle in a given time interval is defined as the total change
in velocity divided by the total duration of the time interval.
 Instantaneous acceleration: Instantaneous acceleration is defined as the limiting value of average acceleration
when time interval is infinitesimally small.
 Relative velocity: Relative velocity of an object with respect to another object is defined as the velocity with
which one object moves with respect to another.
ed s.
 Rest and motion are relative terms and depend on the choice of frame of reference.
rv er
 Distance is a scalar quantity whereas displacement is a vector quantity.
 Distance travelled by an object is greater or equal to the magnitude of displacement between the two
se sh
points.
.
 A distance-time graph is always above the time axis whereas a displacement-time graph can be above or
below time axis.
re li
F  Slope of the chord in x-t graph for a given time interval is equal to the average velocity of the object for that
s ub interval.
A
 Average speed is always positive unlike the average velocity which can be positive or negative.
 For an object moving along the straight line in a given time interval, the average speed can be greater than
or equal to the average velocity of the object in the same time interval.
C
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 The velocity at a particular instant is equal to the slope of the tangent drawn on the position-time graph at
that instant.
T
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 Slope of the tangent on v-t graph at a certain instant represents instantaneous acceleration of the
particle at that instant of time and area under the graph projected on the time axis represents the
S
displacement.
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 V- t graph of a particle will be a straight line when it is moving with a constant acceleration.
 Area under the a-t graph projected on the time axis, for an interval of a time is equal to change in velocity
Al od
of the particle in that interval.

 If a particle is gaining speed, acceleration is in the direction of the velocity and if it is losing speed, the
acceleration is in the direction opposite to that of the velocity.
M
 If at any instant, velocity of a particle is zero, it does not necessarily implies that its acceleration will also
be zero.
 When two objects are moving along the same direction then magnitude of relative velocity is equal to the
©
difference in magnitudes of their velocities. And when they are moving along opposite directions then the
magnitude of the relative velocity is equal to the sum of the magnitudes of their velocities.
RELATIONS
∆x
 Average velocity of a particle for displacement ∆x and time interval ∆t is vav =
∆t
• If position of an object at an instant of time t1 is x1 and at time t2 position is x2 then average velocity for this

interval can be written as follows:
∆x x2 − x1
vav = =
∆t t2 − t1
Total path length
 Average Speed =
total time interval
∆x dx
 Instantaneous velocity: v = lim =
∆t → 0 ∆t dt

 Average acceleration:
∆v v2 − v1
aav = =
∆t t2 − t1
 Instantaneous acceleration:
∆v dv
a = lim =
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
ed s.
 →
 d x
rv er
→
d
 dt  
→ dv   d2 x
a=
• = =
dt dt dt
se sh
.
 Kinematic equations of motion: When the object is at position x0 = 0 at t = 0, kinematic equations of motion for
constant acceleration are given by:
v = u + at
•
re li
1

s ub
x = ut + at 2
•
v2 = u2 + 2ax
•
2
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If the particle starts at x = x0, then x will be replaced by x - x0 in the above equations.
 Motion under gravity:
• Time taken to reach the top most point when an object is thrown upwards with an initial velocity u is
ig rn
u
t =
g
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• Maximum height attained by object when thrown vertically upwards with initial velocity u.
Al od
u2
H =
2g
• Time taken to return back to the initial point when some object is thrown upwards with initial velocity u is
M
2u
t =
g
©
• Time taken by an object to reach the ground when released from rest from height h
2h
t =
g
Units and Dimensional Formulae of the Quantities Discussed
S no. Physical Quantity SI Unit Dimensional Formula
1 Path length (Distance) m [L]
2 Displacement m [L]
3 Velocity (Average and instantaneous) m s-1 [LT-1]
4 Speed (Average and instantaneous) m s-1 [LT-1]
5 Acceleration (Average and instantaneous) m s-2 [LT-2]

C onceptual
Q uestions
Q.1. How is the vehicle over speeding determined while crossing the toll intercity?
Ans. When a vehicle enters the toll, the time is mentioned on the slip. On reaching the next toll, the difference in
time and distance is used to calculate the speed of the vehicle over the entire trip, which gives an idea of over
ed s.
speeding.
Q.2. For a moving object the distance covered by it is always greater than or equal to the displacement of
rv er
the object in a given time interval. Comment.
Ans. Distance is actual length of path. Displacement is shortest distance between initial and final point, hence distance
is always greater or equal to displacement.
se sh
.
Q.3. A toy cart is designed in such a way that after moving 500 cm forward it reverses 300 cm back at a rate
of 100 cm per five seconds. Find the time taken by the cart to cover a distance of 1 m.
Ans. To cover the distance of 1 m, the cart will actually cover 5 × 500 + 5 × 300 = 4000 cm = 40 m
re li

Time taken to cover the distance of 4000 cm will be 200 seconds.
s ub
Q.4. Represent the motion of an object in uniform motion along a straight line when both initial distance
and velocity of the object is positive.
Ans. here x0 is the initial distance.
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Al od
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Q.5. From the given displacement-time graph of two cars moving on a straight road, which of the following
is moving with greater velocity?
©
Ans. The slope of displacement-time graph gives the velocity. Here, car II has greater slope than car I and is moving with
greater velocity.
Q.6. For a moving object is it possible that magnitude of average speed is less than magnitude of average
velocity?
Ans. No. The average velocity is given by total displacement /total time and the average speed is given by total distance/
total time. Since value of distance will be always greater than or equal to the displacement, therefore, the average
speed will also be always greater than or equal to the magnitude of average velocity.
Q.7. For a 5 cm long minute hand in the wall clock, find the displacement of the tip of the hand in an interval
of 30 minutes. Also find the ratio of distance to displacement.

Ans. In 30 minutes, the minute hand will reach the diametrically opposite end. Thus the displacement will be
5 + 5 = 10 cm.
The distance covered will be πr = 3.14 × 5 = 15.7 cm

10 100

Thus ratio of distance to displacement will be =
15.7 157
Q.8. The pilot landing or taking off the aero plane is an inertial observer or non-inertial observer?
Ans. While taking off and landing, the plane is under acceleration, thus the observer is in non-inertial frame of
ed s.
reference. Therefore, the pilot is a non-inertial observer here.
Q.9. A man goes to market by walk to purchase some groceries. On the way back home after purchasing he
rv er
takes an autorickshaw to home. Represent the given journey in form of displacement-time graph.
Ans.
se sh
.
re li
s ub
ht P
Q.10. From the given position-time graph of two objects comment on their relative velocities.
ig rn
lr e
Al od
M
©
Ans. From the given figure it is clear that at t = 0 both the objects are at different positions. But since both the curves
are straight and parallel to each other, their relative velocity will be zero.
Q.11. When is a moving object considered as a point object? Give some examples.
Ans. Any moving object is considered as a point object when the size of object is very small in comparison to the
distance travelled by it. For example, horizon mission travelling in solar system.
Q.12. What can be concluded from a position-time graph of a moving object with negative slope?
Ans. It means that the velocity of the object is negative.
Q.13. Is it possible for a moving object to have instantaneous velocity equal to the average velocity?
Ans. Yes, it is possible only in motion of an object in one dimension. It is not possible in case when object is moving in
two or three dimensions.
Q.14. Give an example when the direction of the acceleration of the moving object is opposite to the direction
of the motion.
Ans. In case of an object thrown upward, the object is moving in the upward direction but the acceleration of the object
is in downward direction.

Tough & Tricky PROBLEMS

Problem 1. A stone is thrown up from the top of dx d 2
v= = (t − 4 t + 6)
a tower and it takes time t1 to reach the ground. A dt dt
second stone is thrown down with the same speed ⇒ v = 2t − 4
and it takes time t2 to reach the ground. How much
We can see that velocity of particle is zero at t = 2 s. A
time a third stone would take to reach the ground,
graph between velocity (v) and time (t) is given below:
if it is dropped down?
ed s.
Solution Let H be the height of tower. Let us
assume the downward direction as positive direction.
rv er
Net displacement for all three cases is H (downward),
hence it can be written as s = +H. Acceleration due to
gravity is also in vertically downward direction, so it can
se sh
be written as a = +g.
.
We can use the following equation for displacement of
stones.
re li
s = ut + ½ at2

s ub
For the first stone, initial velocity (let u) is upwards. So,
it will be treated as negative. Substituting all values in
above equation of motion we get.
1 2
ht P
H = −ut1 + gt1 …(1)
2
For the second stone, initial velocity is downwards. So, Area enclosed by the v-t graph below time axis represents
it will be treated as positive. We can write the following displacement along negative x-direction and area above time
ig rn
equation: axis represents displacement along positive x-direction.

Displacement between t = 0 to t = 2 s is
1 2
H = ut2 + gt2 …(2) 1
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2 x1 = −× 4 × 2 = −4 m
For the third stone, initial velocity is zero. So, we can 2
Al od
write the following equation: Displacement between t = 2 s to t = 3 s.

1 2 1
H= gt …(3) x2 =× 2 ×1 = 1m
2 2
Here t is the time taken by third stone to reach the Net displacement can be written as follows:
M
ground. x = x1 + x2 = − 4 + 1 = − 3 m

Let us multiply equation (1) with t2 and equation (2) with Hence, displacement is 3 m along negative x-direction.
t1 and then add both. Then we get, Distance travelled can be written as follows:
©
1 x = x1 + x2 = 4 + 1 = 5 m
H (t1 + t2 ) = gt1t2 (t1 + t2 )
2
1 Problem 3. A particle is moving along a straight
⇒ H= gt1t2 …(4) line such that its displacement x and time t are
2
related as follows:
Comparing equation (3) and (4) we get the following:
x2 = 1 + t 2
1 1
H = gt 2 = gt1t2 Show that acceleration of the particle can be
2 2
1 t2
⇒ t = t1t2 represented as: a = − .
x x3
Problem 2. A particle is moving in a straight line Solution x2 = 1 + t2
along X-axis and its x-coordinate varies with time
t as: ⇒ x = (1 + t2)1/2
x = t2 − 4t + 6 Velocity of the particle can be written by differentiating
displacement.
Find the distance and displacement of particle in
time interval t = 0 to t = 3 s. dx 1
⇒ v= = (1 + t 2 ) −1 / 2 × 2t
dt 2
Solution Velocity of particle can be calculated by
differentiating x w.r.t. t. ⇒ v = t(1 + t2)− 1/2

Now we can differentiate velocity to find acceleration total distance covered by car before coming to

as follows: rest.
dv  1 Solution Speed of the car (u) = 90 km/h
⇒ a= = t ×  −  (1 + t 2 ) −3 / 2 × 2t + (1 + t 2 ) −1 / 2 × 1
dt  2 5
= 90 × m / s = 25 m / s
18
1 t2
⇒ a= 2 1/ 2
− The driver took 0.3 s to react. Hence, the car continues
(1 + t ) (1 + t 2 )3 / 2 to move with constant speed of 25 m/s for 0.3 s. Distance
travelled by the car during this interval of time.
1 t2
ed s.
⇒ a= − x1 = 25 m/s × 0.3 s = 7.5 m
x x3
For constant retardation, we can use the following
rv er
Problem 4. An elevator accelerates from rest at equation:
a constant rate a for time interval t1 and travels v2 = u2 + 2as
a distance S1. It then retards at a constant rate b
for time interval t2 and finally comes to rest after ⇒ (0)2 = (25)2 + 2(−10)x2
se sh
.
travelling a distance S2 during its retardation. (25) 2 625
Show that: ⇒ x2 = = = 31.25 m
20 20
S1 t1 β Total distance travelled by the car before it comes to rest
re li
= = .
S2 t2 α can be written as follows:
s ub
Solution Velocity-time graph for the above situation
is as follows:
x = x1 + x2 = 7.5 + 31.25 = 38.75 m.
Problem 6. A truck is moving at a constant speed

of 50 km/h on a straight road which terminates on
ht P
a wall. A fly starts moving with a constant speed
of 100 km/h from the wall towards the truck when
the truck is at a distance 25 km from the wall. Fly
ig rn
reaches the truck and then turns back towards the

wall and then on reaching the wall it again turns
towards the truck and so on. It makes several trips
lr e
between the truck and the wall, before the truck

just reaches the wall.
Al od
(a) What is the total distance travelled by the fly

Maximum velocity attained by the elevator is v0. Slope of
during this period?
the v-t graph represents acceleration of the body; hence
we can write the following relation: (b) How many trips the fly makes between the
truck and the wall?
M
v0 v
α= and β = 0 Solution
t1 t2
(a) Time taken by the truck to reach the wall
α t2
=
©
⇒ …(1) Distance 25 km 1
β t1 = = = h.
speed 50 km/h 2
Area under the v-t graph represents displacement; hence
we can write the following: Hence with a speed of 100 km/hr, fly will cover 50
km in 1/2 hr.
1 1
S1 = v0 t1 and S2 = v0 t2 (b) Let us assume that at a certain instant fly is at the
2 2 wall and truck is at a distance x1 from the wall. Fly
Dividing the above two equations we get and truck are moving towards each other with speeds
S1 t1 100 km/h and 50 km/h, respectively. Hence relative
= …(2) speed becomes 100 + 50 = 150 km/h. Time taken by
S2 t2
the fly to reach the truck can be written as follows:
On combining equations (1) and (2), we get x
t1 = 1
S1 t1 β 150
= = .
S2 t2 α Distance travelled by the fly to reach the truck
x1 2
Problem 5. A driver is driving a car at a speed x′ = 100t1 = 100 × = x1
150 3
of 90 km/h. He spots a child standing on his way
and decided to apply the brakes but it took him Distance travelled by truck in this time interval
0.3 s to actually apply the brakes. If the retardation x1 x

x′′ = 50 × t1 = 50 × = 1
produced by the brakes is 10 m/s2, calculate the 150 3

Further time taken by the fly to reach back the wall half of time. Find the average velocity of the
x′ 2 x1 x particle.
t2 = = = 1
100 3 × 100 150 Solution Let us assume that total distance covered
by the particle is x. Let t1 be the time taken to cover first
Further distance travelled by truck in time t2
half of the distance and t2 be the time taken to cover
x1 x remaining half.
x′′′ = 50 × t2 = 50 × = 1
150 3 x/2 x
Distance between truck and the wall after trip of the fly t1 = =
v0 2v0
is complete can be written as follows:
ed s.
For the next half we can write the following:
x x x
x = x1 − x′′ − x′′′ = x1 − 1 − 1 = 1 x t t
3 3 3 = v1 × 2 + v2 × 2
rv er
2 2 2
⇒ x2 = x1/3
x
t2 =
Using the above result we can write the following: v1 + v2
se sh
Distance between the truck and the wall at the beginning
.
Total time can be written as follows:
of 1st trip = 20 km
T = t1 + t2
x x
re li
1  ⇒ T= +
of 2nd trip =   × 20 km 2v0 v1 + v2
3
s ub
rd 1 
2
of 3 trip =   × 20 km
⇒ T=
x (v1 + v2 + 2v0 )
2v0 (v1 + v2 )
3
Average velocity can be written as follows:
ht P
Similarly
Distance between the truck and the wall at the beginning x 2v0 (v1 + v2 )
n −1
vav = =
1  T (v1 + v2 + 2v0 )
of nth trip =  
ig rn
× 20 km
3
Problem 9. There is one tower of height h. One
Distance between the truck and the wall will reduce to particle A is projected upward from top of the
zero only when n approaches infinity. Hence, the fly will tower with a speed u1 at time t = 0. At time t = t0
lr e
theoretically make infinite trips between truck and the another particle B is projected upward from the
wall before truck touches the wall. bottom of the tower with a speed u2. When will the
Al od
Problem 7. Height of a tower is 125 m and a particles cross each other?

particle is dropped from rest from the top of Solution Let us assume upward direction as
the tower. After two seconds of its fall, another the positive direction. Let x be the height above the
M
particle is projected downwards with a speed u tower where the two particles meet. We can say that
such that both the particles reach the ground displacement of particle A in time t is x and displacement
simultaneously. What is the value of u? of particle B in time t − t0 is h + x (see figure).
Solution Let vertically downward direction be positive.
©
We can use the following equation for the first particle.

S = ut + ½ at2
⇒ 125 = 0 + ½ (10) t2
125
⇒ t2 = = 25
5
⇒ t = 5 s.
Second particle is released after 2 s; hence second particle
must cover the same distance in 5 − 2 = 3 s.
S = ut + ½ at2
⇒ 125 = u × 3 + ½ (10) (3)2
⇒ 3u = 125 − 45 = 80 = ut + ½ at2
We can use, S
⇒ u = 80/3 m/s = 26.67 m/s For Particle A:
Problem 8. A particle is moving in a straight line. 1 2

x = u1t − gt
It covers half of the total distance with velocity v0. 2
Remaining half distance is covered with a velocity 1 2
⇒ gt = u1t − x …(1)
v1 for half the time and with velocity v2 for other 2

For Particle B: Solution Velocity: v = t2 − t = t (t−1) …(1)

1
g(t − t0 )2
h + x = u2 (t − t0 ) − dv
2 Acceleration: a = = 2t − 1 …(2)
dt
1 1
⇒ h + x = u2 (t − t0 ) − gt 2 − gt02 + gtt0
2 2 Motion of particle is considered as retarding motion
Substituting from equation (1), we get when v and a have opposite signs that means they are
along opposite directions.
1 2
⇒ h + x = u2 (t − t0 ) − u1t + x − gt0 + gtt0 From equation (1) we can see that,
2
ed s.
Velocity is positive when t > 1.
⇒ 2h = 2u2t − 2u2t0 − 2u1t − gt02 + 2 gtt0
Velocity is negative when t < 1.
rv er
⇒ 2h + 2u2t0 + gt02 = 2t (u2 − u1 + gt0 )
From equation (2) we can see that,
2h + 2u2t0 + gt02 Acceleration is positive when t > 1/2
⇒ t=
se sh
2(u2 − u1 + gt0 ) Acceleration is negative when t < 1/2

.
Problem 10. Velocity of a particle moving in From above results we can see that when velocity is
positive then acceleration cannot be negative.
a straight line is given as: v = t2 − t. Here, v is
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measured in m/s and time t in seconds. Find the But there is an interval ½ < t < 1, when velocity is
negative and acceleration is positive; hence this is the
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time interval for which the particle undergoes
retardation. interval of time when particle retards.
ht P
ig rn
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Al od
3.1. In which of the following examples of motion (c) (A/B) walks faster than (B/A).
can the body be considered approximately a
M
(d) A and B reach home at the (same/different)

point object: time.
(a)
a railway carriage moving without jerks (e)
(A/B) overtakes (B/A) on the road (once/
between two stations. twice).
©
(b) a monkey sitting on top of a man cycling

smoothly on a circular track.
(c) a spinning cricket ball that turns sharply
on hitting the ground.
(d) a tumbling beaker that has slipped off the
edge of a table.
Ans.
In parts (a), (b) the body can be considered
approximately as a point object because the distance
covered by the body is very much greater than the
size of the body.
The position-time (x − t) graphs for two
3.2. Ans. (a) A lives closer to the school than B. (because
children A and B returning from their school O OP < OQ)
to their homes P and Q respectively are shown (b) A starts from the school earlier than B. When
in following figure. Choose the correct entries they start, then t = 0 at x = 0 for A. But for B, t
in the brackets below: has a finite value when it starts at x = 0.
(a) (A/B) lives closer to the school than (B/A). (c) B walks faster than A. Because, the velocity is
(b)
(A/B) starts from the school earlier than given by slope of the x - t graph. The slope is
(B/A). more for B than A.

(d) A and B reach home at the same time. Because,

the value of t corresponding to the points P and Q
is same in x - t graph.
(e) B overtakes A on the road once because B starts
from the school after A and overtakes A.
3.3. A woman starts from her home at 9:00 am,
walks with a speed of 5 km h−1 on a straight
road up to her office 2.5 km away, stays at
the office up to 5:00 pm, and returns home
ed s.
by an auto with a speed of 25 km h−1. Choose
suitable scales and plot the x − t graph of her
motion.
rv er
Ans.
se sh
.
3.5. A jet airplane travelling at the speed of
500 km h−1 ejects its products of combustion
re li
at the speed of 1500 km h−1 relative to the jet
s ub plane. What is the speed of the latter with
respect to an observer on the ground?
Ans. Let us consider that vp = velocity of products
ht P
vA = velocity of airplane
distance
Time taken by woman to reach office = vp − vA = - 1500 km h−1
speed
vp − 500 = - 1500
ig rn
As distance = 2.5 km, speed = 5 km/h

vp = - 1500 + 500
Therefore, time, t = 2.5/5 = 0.5 hr
= - 1000 km h−1 (negative sign indicates
\ Woman reach office at 9.30 A.M.

lr e
that velocity of products is opposite to that of jet)

2 .5 3.6. A car moving along a straight highway with
Time taken by woman to return home = = 0.1 hr
Al od
25 speed of 126 km h−1 is brought to a stop within

= 6 min a distance of 200 m. What is the retardation of
⇒ Woman reaches back to home at 5.06 P.M.
the car (assumed uniform), and how long does
it take for the car to stop?
M
3.4. A drunkard walking in a narrow lane takes

5 steps forward and 3 steps backward, followed 126 × 5
Ans. Initial velocity, u = 126 km h−1 = m s−1
again by 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward, 18
and so on. Each step is 1 m long and requires = 35 m s−1
©
1 s. Plot the x − t graph of his motion. Determine

Final velocity, v = 0, s = 200 m
graphically and otherwise how long the
drunkard takes to fall in a pit 13 m away from Using v2 − u2 = 2as,
the start. (0)2 − (35)2 = 2 × a × 200
Ans. Effective distance covered by the drunkard in 8 steps − 35 × 35
Therefore, a=
in 8 s 2 × 200
= 5 − 3 = 2 m
49
The distance travelled by the drunkard in 8 s = 2 or a= − = − 3.06 m s−2
16
metre.
As we know, v = u + at
The distance travelled by the drunkard in 32 s is
8 m. 49
0 = 35 − ×t
Now after 32 s, if the drunkard will move next 5 steps 16
forward, then he will fall into the pit which is at a 35 × 16
distance of 13 m from the start. or t= = 11.43 s.
49
Therefore, total time taken by drunkard to fall in the
3.7. Two trains A and B of length 400 m each are
pit
moving on two parallel tracks with a uniform
= 32 + 5 = 37 s speed of 72 km h−1 in the same direction, with A
The (x − t) plot is shown in figure. ahead of B. The driver of B decides to overtake

A and accelerates by 1 m s−2. If after 50 s, the a speed of 20 km h−1 in the direction A to B

guard of B just brushes past the driver of A, notices that a bus goes past him every 18 min in
what was the original distance between them? the direction of his motion, and every 6 min in
Ans. the opposite direction. What is the period T of
72 × 1000 the bus service and with what speed (assumed
Velocity of train A = 72 km h-1 = constant) do the buses ply on the road?
3600
= 20 ms−1 Ans. Let Vb = speed of bus
Velocity of train B = 20 m/s, t = 50 s, a = 0 Vc = speed of cyclist.
1 2 The relative velocity of bus in the direction of motion
ed s.
SA = Distance covered by train A in 50, SA = ut + at

2 of cyclist = Vb − Vc = Vb − 20
= 20 × 50 + 0 The relative velocity of bus in opposite direction of
rv er
= 1000 m motion of cyclist = Vb + Vc
For train B, a = 1 m/s2 = Vb + 20
se sh
\ SB = Distance covered by train B in 50 s
distance
As we know = time
.
velocity
1 2
SB = ut + at \ The distance travelled by bus in time T = VbT
2
re li
= 2250 m VbT
= 18
Vb − 20
\

s ub SB − SA = 2250 − 1000 = 1250 m
3.8. On a two-lane road, car A is travelling with a
speed of 36 km h−1. Two cars B and C approach

VbT
Vb + 20
=6
car A in opposite direction with a speed of Solving we get Vb = 40 km h-1

ht P
54 km h−1 each. At a certain instant, when the
distance AB is equal to AC, both being 1 km, T = 9 min
B decides to overtake A before C does. What 3.10. A player throws a ball upwards with an initial
speed of 29.4 ms−1.
ig rn
minimum acceleration of car B is required to

avoid an accident? (a)
What is the direction of acceleration
Ans. Velocity of car A = 36 km h-1 = 10 m s−1 during the upward motion of the ball?
lr e
Velocity of car B = 54 km h-1 = 15 m s−1 (b) What are the velocity and acceleration of
the ball at the highest point of its motion?
Al od
Velocity of car C = 54 km h-1 = 15 m s−1

(c) Choose the x = 0 m and t = 0 s to be the
The relative velocity of B w.r.t. A = (15 − 10) m s−1 location and time of the ball at its highest
= 5 m s−1 point, vertically downward direction to
M
be the positive direction of X-axis, and

The relative velocity of C w.r.t. A = (15 + 10) m s−1
give the signs of position, velocity and
= 25 m s−1 acceleration of the ball during its upward
At an instant when both the cars B and C are at and downward motion.
©
same distance of 1 km from car A (d)

To what height does the ball rise and
then time taken by C to cover a distance of 1000 m = after how long does the ball return to the
1000/25 = 40 s player’s hands? (Take g = 9.8 m s−2 and
neglect air resistance).
Hence the car B should travel the same distance
in a time less than 40 s. Therefore, the minimum Ans. (a)
As the ball is under the effect of gravity, the
acceleration produced by car B can be found by using direction of acceleration due to gravity during the
upward motion of ball is vertically downward.
1 2
s = ut + at (b) At the highest point the velocity of ball = 0 and
2
acceleration will be equal to acceleration due to
1 gravity and is 9.8 m s-2 vertically downward.
1000 = 5 × 40 + × a × 40 × 40
2 (c) As the downward direction is taken to be positive
1 direction of X-axis, then during upward motion,
800 = a × 40 × 40 sign of position and velocity are negative while
2
the sign of acceleration is positive.
800 × 2 For downward motion of the ball, sign of position,
a= = 1 m s−2.
40 × 40 velocity and acceleration is positive.
3.9. Two towns A and B are connected by a regular (d) Let t be the time taken by the ball to reach the
bus service with a bus leaving in either highest point of motion = time of ascent
direction every T minutes. A man cycling with For upward motion, u = − 29.4 m/s, v′ = 0

As v′2 − u2 = 2gh, where h is the maximum height v= 2 as

attained by the ball.
(0)2 − (-29.4)2 = 2 (9.8) (-h) = 2 × 10 × 90 = 30 2
29.4 × 29.4 9
or h= = 44.1 m Rebound velocity = v′ = v
2 × 9 .8 10
v′ = v + at 9
× 30 2 = 27 2 m/s
=
0 = - 29.4 + (9.8) t 10
v′ 27 2
ed s.
29.4 t′ = time taken to reach highest point =
=
or t= =3s 10 10
9 .8
= 2.7 2 = 3.81 s

Time of ascent = Time of descent = 3 s
rv er
Total time taken by ball = t + t′ = 4.24 + 3.81 = 8.05 s
Total time = (3 + 3) = 6 s. As time of ascent = time of descent.
3.11. Read each statement below carefully and state \ The ball will take 3.81 s to come back to floor

se sh
with reasons and examples if it is true or false:
.
Velocity of the ball before striking the floor
A particle in one-dimensional motion
= 27 2 m/s
(a)
with zero speed at an instant may have
Velocity of the ball after striking the floor
re li
non-zero acceleration at that instant,
9
(b)
s ub
with zero
velocity,
(c)
speed
with constant speed must have zero

may have non-zero

= 27 2 ×
= 24.3 2 m/s
10
acceleration, \ Total time elapsed for 2nd rebound = 8.05 + 3.81

ht P
(d) with positive value of acceleration must be = 11.86 s
speeding up.
Ans. (a) True.
ig rn
When a body is projected upwards then at the

highest point, velocity = 0, acceleration is equal
to acceleration due to gravity and is 9.8 m s−2
lr e
vertically downwards.
Al od
(b) False. As velocity of the body is the speed in a

particular direction. If speed is zero then velocity
is also zero.
(c) True. When a body is moving in a straight line
M
with constant speed then velocity of the body is 3.13. Explain clearly, with examples, the distinction
constant and for constant velocity, acceleration is between:
zero. (a)
magnitude of displacement (sometimes
©
(d) False. When velocity is negative and acceleration called distance) over an interval of time,
is positive, then body slows down. and the total length of path covered by a
3.12. A ball is dropped from a height of 90 m on a particle over the same interval;
floor. At each collision with the floor, the ball (b)
magnitude of average velocity over an
loses one-tenth of its speed. Plot the speed- interval of time, and the average speed
time graph of its motion between t = 0 to 12 s. over the same interval. [Average speed of a
Ans. As ball is dropped downwards. particle over an interval of time is defined
as the total path length divided by the time
= 0, a = 10 ms-2, s = 90 m
Therefore, u
interval]. Show in both (a) and (b) that
v = ?, t = ? the second quantity is either greater than
1 2 or equal to the first. When is the equality
s = ut + at sign true? [For simplicity consider one-
2
dimensional motion]
1 2
= 0+ at [Here a = g = 10 m/s2] Ans. (a) Displacement is a vector quantity. When a body
2 changes its position with respect to time, then a
2s 2 × 90 straight line joining from initial to final position
⇒
t= = = 4.24 s of a body is called the displacement, independent
a 10
of the nature of the actual path taken by the body.
v2 − u2 = 2 as Distance is the total path length covered by a
v2 − 0 = 2 as body in a certain interval of time.

Examples distance covered = 2.5 km

(i) Consider a particle is moving from A to B in 2 s Net displacement = 2.5 km
and then from B to A in 2 s.
(a) Magnitude of average velocity
= net displacement/total time taken
2.5 km
= = 5 km h-1
1/2h
Here distance covered = AB + BA = 4 + 4 = 8 m
(b) Average speed
But displacement will be zero as the initial and
ed s.
final position of the particle is same. Total distance travelled
=

In this case, distance is greater than the Total time taken
rv er
displacement. 2.5 km
Distance will be equal to displacement when = = 5 km h−1
1/2h
the body is moving in a straight line in same
se sh
direction. (ii) From 0 to 50 minutes
.
distance covered 1 
Distance travelled in 30 min  h while going
(ii) Average speed = 2 
time taken to the market = 2.5 km
re li
AB + BA Distance travelled in 20 min (1/3 h) while coming

s ub =
=
4+4
t
= 2 m/s
back to home
= 7 .5 ×
1
= 2.5 km
2+2 3
ht P
Total distance travelled in 50 min
displacement
Average velocity = = (2.5 + 2.5) = 5.0 km
time
ig rn
=0 (b) Average speed
Hence in this case, average speed is greater than Total distance travelled
=
lr e
the average velocity. Total time taken

Average speed is equal to average velocity when
Al od
5 × 60
the body is moving in a straight line in same
= = 6 km h−1
50
direction only.
3.14. A man walks on a straight road from his home (a) Magnitude of average velocity
M
to a market 2.5 km away with a speed of 5 km = displacement/total time taken

h−1. Finding the market closed, he instantly
turns and walks back home with a speed of 7.5 ( 2 .5 − 2 .5 )
= =0
km h−1. What is the 50 / 60
©
(a) magnitude of average velocity, and (iii) From 0 to 40 min

(b) average speed of the man over the interval Distance travelled in 30 min. while going to market
of time = 2.5 km
(i) 0 to 30 min, (ii) 0 to 50 min, (iii) 0 to Distance travelled in 10 min. while coming back
40 min? [Note: You will appreciate from market
from this exercise why it is better to 1 5
define average speed as total path = 7 .5 × = km = 1.25 km
6 4
length divided by time, and not as
magnitude of average velocity. You Total distance = 2.5 + 1.25 = 3.75 km
would not like to tell the tired man Displacement = 2.5 - 1.25 = 1.25
on his return home that his average
speed was zero !] Total distance travelled
(a) Average speed =
Total time taken
Ans. Time taken by a man to go from home to market =
2.5/5 = 0.5 hr = 30 min. 3.75
= = 5.625 km h−1
Time taken by a man to go from market to home = 40 / 60
2.5/7.5 = 1/3 hr = 20 min Magnitude of average velocity
Total time = 30 + 20 = 50 min. Net displacement
=
Case (i) From 0 to 30 min Total time taken

1.25 If not, suggest a suitable physical context for

= km h−1 this graph.
40 / 60
= 1.875 km h-1
3.15. In Exercises 3.13 and 3.14, we have carefully
distinguished between average speed and
magnitude of average velocity. No such
distinction is necessary when we consider
instantaneous speed and magnitude of
ed s.
velocity. The instantaneous speed is always
equal to the magnitude of instantaneous
velocity. Why?
rv er
Ans. For instantaneous speed we consider only a small Ans. No, it is not correct to say that a particle moves
interval of time. During this short interval of time, in a straight line for t < 0 and on a parabolic path
direction of motion is not supposed to change.
se sh
for t > 0. Because the x − t graph cannot show the
.
Therefore, there is no difference between total trajectory of the particle. In this graph when t = 0,
distance covered and magnitude of displacement. x = 0, the situation can be correlated to the motion of
Hence, instantaneous speed and instantaneous a body dropped freely from a height.
re li
velocity are same.
3.18. A police van moving on a highway with a
s ub
3.16. Look at the graphs (a) to (d) carefully and
state, with reasons, which of these cannot
possibly represent one-dimensional motion of
a particle.
speed of 30 km h−1 fires a bullet at a thief’s
car speeding away in the same direction with
a speed of 192 km h−1. If the muzzle speed of
the bullet is 150 m s−1, with what speed does
ht P
the bullet hit the thief’s car? (Note: Obtain
that speed which is relevant for damaging the
thief’s car).
ig rn
Ans. Speed of the police van, vp = 30 km h-1

Speed of the thief’s car, vt = 192 km h-1
lr e
As the bullet is fired from the police van, it will share

the velocity of the van.
Al od
Muzzle speed of the bullet = 150 m/s = 540 km/h

Total speed of the bullet, vb = 540 + 30 = 570 km h-1
Relative velocity of bullet w.r.t. thief car = vb − vt
M
= 570 - 192
= 378 km hr-1 = 105 ms-1

©
3.19. Suggest a suitable physical situation for each

of the following graphs:
Ans. (a) This graph does not represent one-dimensional
motion because, a particle cannot have two
different positions at the same time.
(b) This graph does not represent one-dimensional
motion because a particle cannot have velocity
in positive and negative direction at the same
instant.
(c)
This graph also does not represent one-
dimensional motion, because the speed is always
positive in one-dimensional motion.
(d)
This graph also does not represent one-
dimensional motion, because the total path
length covered by a particle can never decrease
with time.
3.17. Figure shows x − t plot of one-dimensional
motion of a particle. Is it correct to say from
the graph that the particle moves in a straight Ans. (a)
The graph shows that initially a body was at
line for t < 0 and on a parabolic path for t > 0? rest. Then suddenly acquires constant velocity

in positive direction. After some time it rebounds

and move in negative direction and finally comes
to rest.
A similar situation occurs when a ball (at rest) is
kicked, which rebounds on striking a wall with a
reduced speed, then moves to the opposite wall
and gets stopped ultimately.
(b)
The similar situation occurs when a ball is
thrown up with some initial velocity. On striking Ans. As Average speed in a given interval of time is equal
ed s.
the floor, it rebounds with reduced speed after to the slope of x - t graph. The slope is greatest in
each collision with floor. interval 3, therefore, average speed is greatest in
interval 3 and least in interval 2, because slope of
rv er
(c)
In this graph, velocity of a body is initially
x - t graph is least there.
constant. Then acceleration increases for a
short duration, then falls to zero and after that Average velocity is positive in interval 1 and 2 because
slope of x - t graph is positive there and negative in
se sh
the body again moves with a constant velocity.
.
The similar situation occurs when a cricket interval 3 because of negative slope there.
ball is hit by a bat for a very short duration of 3.22. Figure gives a speed-time graph of a particle
time. in motion along a constant direction. Three
re li
equal intervals of time are shown. In which
3.20. Figure gives the (x − t) plot of a particle
interval is the average acceleration greatest
s ub
executing one-dimensional simple harmonic
motion. (You will learn about this motion in
more detail in Chapter 14). Give the signs of
in magnitude? In which interval is the average
speed greatest? Choosing the positive direction
as the constant direction of motion, give the
position, velocity and acceleration variables of
ht P
signs of v and a in the three intervals. What are
the particle at t = 0.3 s, 1.2 s, − 1.2 s.
the accelerations at the points A, B, C and D?
ig rn
lr e
Al od
Ans. (i) At t = 0.3 s, x is negative,

Velocity is negative.
Acceleration is positive.
M
Ans. As average acceleration is equal to slope of v − t

(ii) At t = 1.2 s, x is positive, graph. As slope is greatest in interval 2. Therefore

Velocity is positive. But acceleration will be average acceleration is greatest in interval 2.
negative. Average speed is greatest in interval 3 due to highest
©
(iii) At time t = −1.2 s, x is negative, peak at D.

In interval (1), v is positive, slope of v − t graph is

Velocity is positive and acceleration is also
positive, hence acceleration is positive.
positive.
In interval (2), v is positive, but slope of v − t graph is
3.21. Figure gives the x − t plot of a particle in one-
negative, hence acceleration is negative.
dimensional motion. Three different equal
intervals of time are shown. In which interval In interval (3), u is positive, but v − t graph is parallel
is the average speed greatest, and in which is it to time axis, therefore, acceleration is zero.
the least? Give the sign of average velocity for Slope of graph is zero at A, B, C and D, hence
each interval. acceleration is zero at these points.
NCERT Additional Exercises

3.23. A three-wheeler starts from rest, accelerates What do you expect this plot to be during
uniformly with 1 m s−2 on a straight road for accelerated motion: a straight line or a
10 s and then moves with uniform velocity. parabola?
Plot the distance covered by the vehicle
Ans. As u = 0, a = 1 ms-2,
during the nth second (n = 1, 2, 3, ...) versus n.

a the belt) between his father and mother located

Dn = distance covered in nth sec = u +
(2n - 1) 50 m apart on the moving belt. The belt moves
2
with a speed of 4 km h−1. For an observer on a
1
= 0+ (2n − 1) stationary platform outside, what is the
2
by putting n = 1, 2, 3, ....we can get different values (a) speed of the child running in the direction
of Dn like of motion of the belt?
n Dn (b) speed of the child running opposite to the

direction of motion of the belt?
1 0.5
(c) time taken by the child in (a) and (b)?
ed s.
2 1.5
Which of the answers alter if motion is
3 2.5 viewed by one of the parents?
rv er
4 3.5
5 4.5
se sh
6 5.5
.
7 6.5
8 7.5
re li
9 8.5
s ub 10 9.5
As Dn ∝ n, therefore graph comes to be a straight
line BC upto t = 10 sec. After 10 sec., the graph is a Ans. Speed of child w.r.t. belt = 9 km h-1.
ht P
straight line CD parallel to time axis as shown.
Consider the direction from left to right is taken to
be positive direction.
(a) vC = + 9 km h−1, vB = + 4 km h−1
ig rn
\ Speed of child w.r.t. stationary observer

= 9 + 4 = 13 km h−1
vC = −9 km h−1, vB = + 4 km h−1
lr e
(b)
\ Speed of child w.r.t. stationary observer.

Al od
= −9 + 4 = −5 km h−1
(c) Distance between parents = 50 m
As parents and child are located on the same
M
belt, therefore, speed of child with respect to

3.24. A boy standing on a stationary lift (open from
either parent will be same in either direction
above) throws a ball upwards with the maximum
and will be 9 km h−1.
initial speed he can, equal to 49 m s−1. How much
\ Time taken by the child in case (a) and case
©
time does the ball take to return to his hands? If

the lift starts moving up with a uniform speed of (b) will be
5 m s−1 and the boy again throws the ball up with 50 × 3600
t=
the maximum speed he can, how long does the 9 × 1000
ball take to return to his hands?
= 20 s.
Ans. When the lift is stationary:
Consider the motion of ball going upwards and then If the motion is viewed by any one of the parents,
coming back to the hands of boy, i.e. displacement is answer to (c) is unaltered because the parents
zero. and the child are located at the same belt while
\ S = 0, u = 49 ms-1, g = -9.8 ms-2 the answers to (a) and (b) will change because
the relative velocity of the child is 9 km h−1 as
1 2
S = ut + gt observed by one of parents.
2
3.26. Two stones are thrown up simultaneously from
1 2
0 = 49 + (−9.8)t the edge of a cliff 200 m high with initial speeds
2 of 15 m s−1 and 30 m s−1. Verify that the graph
⇒ t = 10 s shown in the figure correctly represents the
When lift starts moving, there is no change in relative time variation of the relative position of the
velocity of ball w.r.t. boy and hence, time taken by the second stone with respect to the first. Neglect
ball to return to boy’s hand will be 10 sec. air resistance and assume that the stones do
3.25. On a long horizontally moving belt, a child runs not rebound after hitting the ground. Take
to and fro with a speed 9 km h−1 (with respect to g = 10 m s−2. Give the equations for the linear

and curved parts of the plot. What is the average speed of the particle over
the intervals in (a) and (b)?
Ans. (a) Distance covered by the particle in 10 s
= Area enclosed by the graph
1
= Base × Height
2
1
= × 10 × 12 = 60 m
2
Average speed between t = 0 and t = 10 s
ed s.
Total path length 60
= = = 6 m/s
Time 10
rv er
Ans. Consider the upward motion of 1st stone: (b) So, distance travelled from t = 2 s to t = 6 s =
x0 = 200 m, u = 15 ms-1, g = −10 ms-2, x = x, distance travelled from t = 2 s to t = 5 s (S1)+
1 2 distance travelled from t = 5 s to t = 6 s(S2)
se sh
x1 = x0 + ut + gt
.
2 Let a1 = acceleration of particle from t = 0 to
x1 = 200 + 15 t − 5 t2...(i) t = 5 sec.
When first stone hits the ground then From t = 0 to t = 5 s, final velocity, v = 12 ms-1
re li
x1 = 0, we get 200 + 15 t − 5t2 = 0 u=0
s ub
t2 − 3t − 40 = 0
solving we get t = − 5 s or t = 8 s
As t = − 5 s is meaningless.
\

v = u + a′1t
a1 =
v−u
t
=
12 − 0
5
= 2.4 ms-2
ht P
Therefore t = 8 s Thus velocity after t = 2 s
Similarly when 2nd stone hits the ground then v = u + at
x2 = 0 = 0 + 2.4 × 2 = 4.8 ms-1
ig rn
x0 = 200 m, u = 30 ms-1, g = −10 ms-2, x = x2 To find distance S1 travelled between t = 2 s and
1 2 t = 5 s we have
We get x2 = x0 + ut + gt
2 Dt = 3 s, a1 = 2.4 ms-2, v = 4.8 ms-1
lr e
0 = 200 + 30 t − 5t2...(ii) 1
a∆t 2
S1 = v∆t +
200 + 30 t − 5t2 = 0
Al od
2
or t2 − 6t − 40 = 0 1 2
= 4.8 × 3 + (2.4) × (3) = 25.2 m
Solving we get t = − 4 s, or t = 10 s. 2
As t = − 4 s is meaningless To find S2: (between t = 5 s to t = 6 s),
M
therefore, t = 10 s 0 − 12
From (i) and (ii) we get relative position of second a2 = = −2.4 ms-2
10 − 5
stone w.r.t. first stone.
For t = 5 s to t = 6 s we have
©
x2 − x1 = 15 t.
The first stone will be in motion for 8 seconds. Dt = 1 s, a2 = −2.4 ms-2, v = 12 ms-1
As x2 − x1 ∝ t 1 1
\ S2 = vt + a∆t 2 ⇒ 12 × 1 + (−2.4) × 12
Therefore, graph will be a straight line for t = 8 sec. 2 2
and the maximum separation between two stones S2 = 10.8 m
= 15 t = 15 × 8 = 120 m.
Therefore, total distance travelled between t = 2 s
After 8 sec., only 2nd stone will be in motion and the
and t = 6 s is S1 + S2 = 25.2 +10.8 = 36 m
graph is in accordance with the equation x2 = 200 +
30 t − 15t2 for an interval between 8 s. to 10 s. 36
Thus Average speed = = 9 ms-1
3.27. The speed-time graph of a particle moving 6−2
along a fixed direction is shown in figure. 3.28. The velocity-time graph of a particle in one-
Obtain the distance traversed by the particle dimensional motion is shown in the figure.
between (a) t = 0 s to 10 s (b) t = 2 s to 6 s.

Which of the following formulae are correct x(t2) = x(t1) + vaverage (t2 − t1) + (½) aaverage
(e)
for describing the motion of the particle over (t2 − t1)2
the time-interval t1 to t2:
(f ) x(t2) − x(t1) = area under the v − t curve
(a) x(t2) = x(t1) + v (t1) (t2 − t1) + (½) a (t2 − t1)2 bounded by the t-axis and the dotted line
(b) v(t2) = v(t1) + a (t2 − t1) shown.
(c) vaverage = (x(t2) − x(t1))/t2 − t1) Ans. As the motion of the particle over the interval t1 and t2
(d) aaverage = (v(t2) − v(t1) + t2 − t1) is non-uniform. Therefore, the relations (c), (d), (f) are
correct. But (a), (b), (e) represent uniform acceleration.
ed s.
rv er
Subjective Questions
se sh
.
Objective Questions (3.1 to 3.11) from Exemplar dx
Note: x is positive (x > 0) throughout and at B, v =
=0
Problems are given in Competition File page 74. dt
and at C, the curvature of the curve changes, i.e.
re li
Very Short Answer Type Questions
a = 0, so b → ii.

s ub
3.12. Refer to the graphs in figure. Match the
following:
Graph characteristic
For graph (c),
(a) (i) has v > 0 and a < 0 throughout.

ht P
(b) (ii) has x > 0 throughout and has a point
with v = 0 and a point with a = 0.
(c) (iii) has a point with zero displacement
ig rn
for t > 0. dx
(d) (iv) has v < 0 and a > 0. Slope v = is negative (v < 0), the curvature in
dt
lr e
(a) (b) x − t graph indicates that negative velocity is decreasing

with time, i.e. a > 0, so c → iv.
Al od
For graph (d),

M

(c) (d)
©
dx
slope = v is positive (v > 0), and x − t graph says
dt
that positive velocity is decreasing with time, i.e.
a < 0, so d → (i).
Ans. For graph (a),
3.13. A uniformly moving cricket ball is turned back
by hitting it with a bat for a very short time
interval. Show the variation of its acceleration
with time. (Take acceleration in the backward
direction as positive).
Ans. Acceleration of the ball
At B, x = 0 for t > 0, so a → iii. is zero just before it
For graph (b), strikes the bat and when
it strikes the bat, it gets
accelerated due to applied
impulsive force of the
bat, and a − t graph is as
shown in figure.
3.14. Give examples of a one-dimensional motion
where

(a) the particle moving along positive Ans. When a ball is dropped, displacement x is always
x-direction comes to rest periodically and positive. Velocity v is positive in downward direction
moves forward. and v is negative in upward direction and acceleration
(b) the particle moving along positive is always −g. So, the required graphs are shown
x-direction comes to rest periodically and in figure.
moves backward.
Ans. The motion must be linked with periodic motion
represented by sine or cosine function.
(a) Let x (t) = t − sin t
ed s.
dx
\ v= = 1 − cos t (a) (b)
dt
3.18. A particle executes the motion described by
rv er
dv
and a= = sin t x (t) = x0 (1 − e-gt); t ≥ 0, x0 > 0.
dt (a) Where does the particle start and with
when t = 0, x = 0 what velocity?
se sh
when t = π, x = π − sin π = π > 0
.
(b) Find maximum and minimum values of x (t),
(b) Let x (t) = sin t v (t), a(t). Show that x (t) and a (t) increase
dx with time and v (t) decreases with time.
v= = cos t
re li
dt Ans. Give x (t) = x0 (1 − e-gt)
As x and v are involving sin t and cos t, hence, these dx
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equations represent periodic motion.
3.15. Give example of a motion where x > 0, v < 0, a > 0
at a particular instant.

v=
a=
dt
dv
= x0ge−gt
= − x0g2e−g t
dt
ht P
Ans. Let the motion be represented by equation (a) At t = 0, x = x0 (1 − e-0) = x0 (1 − 1) = 0
x (t) = a + be-kt, a > b > 0 and k > 0 and v = x0ge-0 = x0g
So x (t) > 0 (b) x (t) is maximum, when t = ∞, so x (t) = x0
ig rn
dx − kt x (t) is minimum, when t = 0, so x (t) = 0

v= = − bke , i.e. v < 0
dt v (t) is maximum, when t = 0, so v (0) = gx0
lr e
dv v (t) is minimum, when t = ∞, so v (t) = 0

and a= = bk2e−kt, i.e. a > 0
dt a (t) is minimum, when t = ∞, so a (t) = 0
Al od
3.16. An object falling through a fluid is observed a (t) is maximum, when t = 0, so a (0) = − x0g2
to have acceleration given by a = g − bv where 3.19. A bird is tossing (flying to and fro) between two
g = gravitational acceleration and b is constant. cars moving towards each other on a straight
After a long time of release, it is observed to road. One car has a speed of 18 km/h while the
M
fall with constant speed. What must be the other has the speed of 27 km/h. The bird starts
value of constant speed? moving from first car towards the other and
Ans. When an object is falling with constant speed, v is is moving with the speed of 36 km/h and when
constant, then the two cars were separated by 36 km. What is
©
dv the total distance covered by the bird? What is

a= =0
dt the total displacement of the bird?
or g − bv = 0 Ans. Relative speed of cars = 18 + 27 = 45 km h-1
g 36
or v= Time required to meet, t = = 0.8 h
b 45
So, distance covered by the bird, S = vt
= 36 × 0.8 = 28.8 km
Short Answer Type Questions
3.20. A man runs across the roof-top of a tall building
3.17. A ball is dropped and its displacement vs time and jumps horizontally with the hope of
graph is as shown in figure (displacement x landing on the roof of the next building which
is from ground and all quantities are positive is of a lower height than the first. If his speed
upwards). is 9 m/s, the (horizontal) distance between the
(a) Plot qualitatively velocity vs time graph. two buildings is 10 m and the height difference
(b) Plot qualitatively acceleration vs time graph. is 9 m, will he be able to land on the next
building? (take g = 10 m/s2)
Ans. When the man jumps horizontally with ux = 9 m s-1,
its motion along vertical is given by
1 2 1 2
y = uy t + ay t = 0 + × 10 × t
2 2

or 9 = 5t2 Ans. Here v0 is initial velocity, if x and v be distance and

3 velocity at any time t at A then from figure, slope is
or t= given by
5
v0 v −v
tan q = - = 0
x0 x−0
v0
or v0 −v = x
x0
v0
ed s.
or v = v0 − x ...(i)
x0
Horizontal distance travelled,
rv er
3 27
x = ux t = 9 ×= m  12 m
5 5
se sh
So, the horizontal distance covered by the man while
.
jumping is greater than the horizontal distance
between the two buildings. So, the man will land on
the next building.
re li
3.21. A ball is dropped from a building of height 45 m.
s ub
Simultaneously another ball is thrown up with
a speed 40 m/s. Calculate the relative speed of
the balls as a function of time.
And acceleration, a =
dv
dt
v dx
= − 0
x0 dt
v
= − 0 (v)
x0
Ans. Initial relative velocity is 40 m/s. Relative v0  v0 

ht P
= −  v0 − x x
acceleration is zero as both are under gravity. Hence x0 0 
relative velocity remains constant (40 m/s).
(using equation (i))
3.22. The velocity-displacement graph of a particle
ig rn
is shown in figure. Graph between a and x is shown in figure below.

(a) Write the relation between v and x.
(b) Obtain the relation between acceleration
lr e
and displacement and plot it.

Al od
M
v02 v02
or a= − + x
x0 x02
©
HOTS Higher Order Thinking Skills &

Advanced Level QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
Q.1. A horizontal conveyor belt is moving at a v = u + at ⇒ 5 = 0 + a × 0.1
speed of 5 m/s. A box of mass 20 kg is gently ⇒ a = 50 m/s2.
placed on this belt. Box first slips on the belt We can now use the following equation to calculate
and finally comes to rest with respect to belt. If distance travelled by the box.
box takes time 0.1 s to stop slipping on the belt, v2 = u2 + 2as ⇒ (5)2 = (0)2 + 2 × 50 × s
then what will be the distance travelled by the ⇒ s = 0.25 m
box during this interval?
Q.2.
Police in a jeep is chasing a pickpocket.
Ans. Box stops slipping on the belt when it acquires same Police jeep is moving with uniform velocity v.
speed of 5 m/s as that of the belt. Initial speed of Pickpocket starts a motorcycle when police jeep
the box is zero and it acquires a speed of 5 m/s in is at a distance d from him. Motorcycle starts
0.1 s. We can find average acceleration of box using moving with uniform acceleration a. Prove that
following equation: pickpocket will be caught only if v ≥ 2 ad .

Ans. Let us assume that it takes time t to catch the 1

pickpocket. Distance travelled by the motorcycle in ⇒
− 50 = 10t + (−10) t 2
2
this time interval can be written as follows:
1 2 1 2 2 ± 4 + 40
s = ut + at ⇒ s = at ⇒ t2 − 2t − 10 = 0
⇒ t=
2 2 2
Distance travelled by jeep in same time interval ⇒
t=1± 11
should be d + s, hence we can write the following:
Negative sign in the above solution will yield
d + s = vt
negative result hence that is not correct. Using only
1 2
⇒ d + at = vt positive sign, we can write the time taken as follows:
ed s.
2
⇒ 2
at − 2vt + 2d = 0 ⇒
t=1+ 11 = 4.32 s
2v ± 4v2 − 8 ad Distance travelled by balloon in this time interval
rv er
t=
=
10 m/s × 4.32 s = 43.2 m
2a
2 Hence, separation between the stone and the balloon
v ± v − 2ad
se sh
⇒
t=
=
50 + 43.2 = 93.2 m
.
a
For real solution of time we can write the following: Q.5. P, Q, R and S are the points in a vertical line.
v2 − 2ad ≥ 0 It is given that PQ = QR = RS. A particle is
re li
⇒ v2 ≥ 2ad released from rest from the point P. Particle
v ≥ 2ad takes time tPQ, tQR and tRS to cover three equal

s ub
or
Q.3. Water drops are falling at a regular interval
from a leaked pipe 18 m above the floor. When
first drop touches the ground, fourth drop is
distances, respectively. Find ratio tPQ : tQR : tRS.
Ans. Let us assume that PQ = QR = RS = x.
Let it take time t1 to cover the distance PQ, then we
ht P
just leaving the pipe. What is the height of can write the following:
third drop at the given instant?
1 2 2x
Ans. When a body is dropped from x= gt ⇒ t1 =
2 1 g
ig rn
state of rest then in equal

intervals of time body covers
distance in the ratio 1 : 3 : 5 : 7
lr e
etc. So we can divide the 18 m

height in the ratio of 1 : 3 : 5.
Al od
Let x be the distance between

3rd and 4th drop then it will be
distance 3x between 2nd and 3rd
drop and 5x will be the distance
M
between 1st and 2nd drop. Total

distance in terms of x can be written as follows:
9x = 18 ⇒ x = 2. Let it take time t2 to cover the distance PR, then we
Distance of 3rd drop from the bottom is 8x; hence can write the following:
©
16 m above the floor. 1 2 4x

Q.4. A balloon is going upwards with uniform 2x = gt ⇒ t2 =
2 2 g
velocity of 10 m/s. A stone attached to the
balloon gets separated from it at a certain Similarly, assume that it takes time t3 to cover the
instant of time. Find the separation between distance PS, then we can write the following:
stone and the balloon when stone has fallen 1 2 6x
through a height of 50 m from the point where 3x = gt ⇒ t3 =
2 3 g
it got separated from balloon.
Ans. Let t = 0 be the instant when stone gets separated from Now we can write the following:
balloon. Velocity of the stone at time t = 0 is 10 m/s 2x
upwards. Stone moves under gravity like a freely tPQ = t1 =
g
falling body after it gets separated from the balloon.
If we assume upward direction as positive, then initial 4x 2x 2x
tQR = t2 − t1 = − = ( 2 − 1)
velocity can be written as u = + 10 m/s. Acceleration g g g
due to gravity is downwards, hence acceleration
a = − 10 m/s2. Displacement of the stone is 50 m 6x 4x 2x
tRS = t3 − t2 = − = ( 3 − 2)
downwards, hence displacement s = − 50 m. We can g g g
use the following equation of motion to find the time. Hence ratio can be written as follows:
1 2
s = ut + at tPQ : tQR : tRS = 1 : ( 2 − 1) : ( 3 − 2)

2

32. What will be the instantaneous acceleration of an object

Very Short Answer Questions Carrying 1 mark thrown upward, when it reaches maximum height?
1. When can we say that an object is in motion? 33. When is the acceleration of a bike larger: when it is
ed s.
2. How are rest and motion relative to each other? suddenly stopped or when it is raced?
Explain with an example. 34. How does the velocity of a ball thrown upwards
3. How are rectilinear motion and translatory motion change on its way?
rv er
similar or different to each other? 35. Give one example when the velocity of an object changes
4. Define circular motion. at a constant rate both in magnitude and direction.
5. When can we say that circular motion is periodic? 36. A girl dropped an orange in a moving bus with
se sh
acceleration a, what will be the acceleration of the
.
6. When is the motion of an object categorised as
oscillatory motion? apple with respect to the bus?
7. How are vibratory motion and simple harmonic 37. Find the acceleration of an orange fallen in a bus
re li
motion similar? moving with acceleration a, with respect to the
8. How are vibratory motion and simple harmonic road.
s ub
motion different?
9. Define inertial frame of reference.
10. Earth revolving around the sun is an example of
38. Give an example of an object moving with constant
value of acceleration but in variable direction.
39. Represent the motion of an object thrown upward
with the help of velocity-time graph.
ht P
motion in how many dimensions?
11. Give an example of three-dimensional motion. 40. Represent the variation of distance with time for an
12. Give some example of scalar quantities. object under free fall.
13. Define vector quantities with example.
ig rn
14. What do we measure using speedometer? Fill in the Blanks Carrying 1 mark
15. What will be the distance and displacement of the 1. ……….. speed is arithmetic mean of individual
object when it makes one complete round of a circular
lr e
speeds.
park of radius 5 m? 2. Path length is a ……….. quantity.
Al od
16. What is instantaneous speed? 3. When a particle moves in a circle of radius r, the
17. Define velocity of an object. displacement covered in one complete revolution is
18. What can be deduced from the slope of a position- ……….. .
time graph of uniform motion? 4. Negative acceleration is also called ……….. or
M
19. What parameters can be determined from velocity– ……….. .

time graph of uniform motion? 5. When an object is moving with zero acceleration, the
20. How is non-uniform motion different from uniform velocity-time graph is a straight line ……….. to the
motion? time axis.
©
21. What do we measure by odometer installed in vehicles? 6. ……….. is the time a person takes to think and take
22. How can we measure the instantaneously velocity some action.
graphically? 7. Time occurs ……….. in the unit of acceleration.
23. What does negative slope of a position-time graph 8. Average speed cannot be ……….. than magnitude of
signify? average velocity.
24. What can be said about the velocity of the object if its
9. The acceleration of the light travelling in vacuum is
displacement-time graph is parallel to displacement
……….. .
axis?
10. If the tangent at any point to the position-time graph
25. Is it possible for an object to possess constant velocity
is parallel to time axis then instantaneous velocity is
and varying speed?
……….. .
26. Define acceleration of an object.
27. What do we mean by instantaneous acceleration?
Short Answer Questions Carrying 2 or 3 marks
28. Mention one use of velocity-time curve of an
accelerating object. 1. Explain briefly about one-, two- and three-dimensional
29. Write three equations of motion of object with motion.
uniform acceleration. 2. Differentiate between inertial frame of reference and
30. Can we use the above listed equation in SHM or non-inertial frame of reference.
circular motion? 3. Differentiate between scalar and vector quantities.
31. Is it possible for a uniformly accelerating object to 4. Write three differences between distance and
change its direction of velocity? displacement.
HFI_PHY_G11_C03B_4Color.indd 56 1/31/2020 2:50:51 PM

5. Is it possible that magnitude of displacement of an

object and distance covered by an object in same time Long Answer Questions Carrying 5 marks
is same? 1. Write and derive all the three equations of motion
6. Adil is running at speed of 2.5 ms−1 for five minutes. analytically.
He then completes the remaining distance by walking 2. Write a short note on velocity and speed. Differentiate
for another five minutes at speed of 1 ms−1. Find the between them with the help of examples and
average speed of Adil. illustrations.
7. Write any four differences between speed and velocity. 3. Write a short note on acceleration, average acceleration,
8. Is it possible for an object to have zero average variable acceleration and instantaneous acceleration.
Also show how instantaneous acceleration is related to
ed s.
velocity and zero average speed?
average acceleration.
9. Write some uses of velocity-time graph of an object in
4. Derive the equations of motion for an object in uniformly
uniform motion.
rv er
accelerated motion in one dimension using calculus.
10. Prove that average velocity of an object can never be 5. For an object under free fall, discuss the variation of
greater than the average speed of an object over a acceleration with time, velocity with time and position
given interval of time. of object with time. Also represent them graphically.
se sh
11. A toy car is moving on a circular track of radius R
.
and completes one rotation in 55 seconds. Calculate
Numerical Problems
the displacement of the car in 1 min 50 sec.
1. An ant is crawling on the rim of a circular plank of
re li
1 min and 50 sec = 110 sec
12. Two cars are moving in same direction with speed of radius 7 cm. Calculate the distance and displacement
s ub
40 kmh−1. Find the relative velocity of first car with
another. Do they have same velocity?
13. Represent the position-time graph of two objects
of ant in (a) completing one round, (b) in completing
2.5 round and (c) half round.
2. A bus on a straight highway moves from stop A to C,
moving along a straight line such that their relative 300 m away in 20 sec. It further moves from stop C to
ht P
velocity is (a) zero and (b) non-zero. D, 180 m away in 7 sec. Calculate the average speed
of bus from A to D.
14. Two balls were thrown simultaneously from a top of a
3. A bike is moving on a straight road. After covering
building in opposite directions. If one ball is thrown up
ig rn
a distance of 420 m in 22 sec, it turns back and stops

and another in downward direction, then what will be
after 12 sec midway. Calculate the average velocity
the ratio of their speeds when they hit the ground.
of the bike in first 22 sec and in first 34 sec.
15. A cricket ball and a ping pong ball are simultaneously
lr e
4. The instantaneous position of a moving drone is

thrown upward with velocity v. Which of them will pass given by y = m + nt2, where m = 6 m and n = 3.2 ms−2
through the point of projection with greater speed?
Al od
and t is time. Find the velocity, the average velocity

16. What is the significance of (a) positive and (b) negative of drone between t = 0 sec and 4 sec. Also calculate
slope in distance-time graph of an object in uniformly the velocity at t = 3 sec.
accelerated motion? 5. A stone is thrown up with a velocity of 18 ms−1
M
17. What is the significance of (a) positive and (b) negative from a 25 m high deck. Calculate the maximum
slope in velocity-time graph of an object in uniformly height achieved by stone from ground. Also calculate
accelerated motion? the total time taken by stone to reach the ground.
18. Represent the velocity-time graph for a uniformly 6. A ball is dropped from a top of a 100 m high building.
©
accelerated motion when acceleration is positive. At the same time another ball is thrown up from the
19. Write the steps to calculate the distance and ground with a speed of 20 ms−1. At what time will the
displacement covered by a uniformly accelerated balls meet?
object from its velocity-time graph. 7. Two buses are running antiparallel in East-West
20. Calculate the acceleration of an object if its velocity is direction. Calculate the velocity of Bus II with respect
to Bus I. The speeds of Bus I and II are 60 kmh−1 and
given by v = (
1
2
)
12 x + 24 . 90 kmhr−1 respectively. Also calculate the velocity of
road with respect to Bus I.
Very Short Answer Questions simultaneously. For example, while sitting in a

moving bus we are in rest with respect to the bus but
1. An object is said to be in motion when it changes its we are in motion with respect to the surroundings
position with time with respect to its surroundings. outside the bus.
2. Rest and motion are relative terms as an object can 3. When a body moves along any path without changing
be at rest with respect to some surrounding and can its orientation or without rotation, its motion is called
be in motion with respect to some other surrounding

translatory motion. Whereas when a body moves at 2

along a straight line without rotation then its motion s = ut +

2
is called rectilinear motion.
5. Uniform circular motion is periodic in nature. v2 = u2 + 2aS
6. The motion of an object is oscillatory when the object 30. No.
moves to and fro repeatedly about the mean position 31. Yes, it is observed when a ball is thrown up, after
in a fixed interval of time. reaching the maximum height it comes back and
changes the direction of its velocity.
7. Both vibratory motion and simple harmonic motion
are oscillatory motions. 32. The acceleration of the object when it reaches the
maximum height is equal to the acceleration due to
ed s.
8. Vibratory motion is when the object is undergoing
gravity, i.e. 9.8 ms−2.
oscillatory motion with very small amplitude. However,
simple harmonic motion is when force acting on the 33. The acceleration of the bike is larger when it is
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object undergoing oscillatory motion is linear. suddenly stopped because then the change in velocity
in given time is large.
9. The frame of reference or system of coordinates
describing time, position, displacement, acceleration, 34. When the ball is thrown upwards its velocity is directed
se sh
upwards. However when the ball reaches maximum
.
etc. which follows Newton’s first law of motion is said
to be inertial frame of reference. height, its direction is changed to downward direction.
35. In projectile motion, the velocity of an object changes
10. Two dimensions
in both magnitude and direction at a constant rate.
re li
11. Aeroplane flying in the sky is example of three-
36. The apple will fall freely with acceleration due to
dimensional motion.
s ub
12. Distance, speed, length, time, etc. are scalar quantities.
13. The physical quantities which have both magnitude
and direction are vector quantities. For example,
gravity with respect to the bus.
37. The acceleration of the orange with respect to the
2 2
road will be a + g with respect to the road.
ht P
velocity, acceleration, displacement, etc. 38. An object moving in circular path has constant value
14. We measure the instantaneous speed of the vehicle of acceleration but in variable direction.
with speedometer. 39.
ig rn
15. Distance = 2pr = 10 p m

Displacement will be zero.
16. The limit of average speed as the time interval ∆t of
lr e
an object at the given instant is very small.

17. Velocity of an object can be defined as the ratio of
Al od
displacement of the object in the given time t and the

time taken, t.
18. The uniform velocity of an object can be calculated
using position-time graph of uniform motion.
M
19. The area of velocity-time graph between any two time

instants is equal to the displacement of the object in Fill in the Blanks
that time interval.
1. Average 2. Scalar 3. zero
©
20. Non-uniform motion is when an object covers unequal

displacements in unequal intervals of time. However, 4. retardation, deceleration
5. parallel
in case of uniform motion, the object covers equal 6. Reaction time 7. twice
displacements in equal intervals of time. 8. less 9. zero 10. zero
21. Odometer is used to measure instantaneous velocity
of the vehicle. Short Answer Questions
22. We can measure instantaneous velocity from slope of 6. v1 = 2.5 ms−1
tangent at any instant from position-time graph. v2 = 1 ms−1
23. It signifies that the velocity of the object is negative. t1 = 5 min = 300 sec
24. The velocity of the object will be infinite. t2 = 5 min = 300 sec
25. No, it is not possible. total distance v1t1 + v2t2
26. Acceleration of an object can be defined as the rate of
average speed = =
total time t1 + t2
change of its velocity with time. Its S.I. unit is ms− 2.
27. Instantaneous acceleration of an object is acceleration 2.5 × 300 + 1 × 300 1050
⇒ average speed
=
of that object at a given instant of time, which can be 300 + 300 600
found as the first derivative of velocity and second = 1.75 ms−1
derivative of its position at given time. 11. In 110 sec, the car will complete two rotations on the
28. The velocity-time curve of a moving object is useful in tracks. Thus the total displacement will be zero.
determining the acceleration of the object. 12. Relative velocity of car one with respect to other car
29. v = u + at is 40 − 40 = 0.

20. Acceleration can be calculated as: here y0 is height of deck

dv dv dx dv ⇒ 0 = (18)2 + 2(− 9.8) (y − y0)
a= = × =v
dt dx dt dx (y − y0) 19.6 = (18)2
From equation, 324
⇒ (y − y0) = = 16.53 m
19.6
v=
1
2
(
12 x + 24 ) maximum height from the ground will be 25 + 16.53
1 = 41.53 m
⇒ v2 = (12 x + 24 )
4 (b) To calculate the total time taken by stone to reach
dv 1 the ground, we can consider the initial and final
ed s.
⇒ 2v = × 12 position of stone with respect to the origin.
dx 4
dv 12 1
⇒ a=v = = 1.5 ms-2 Thus using, y = y0 + v0t + at2
rv er
dx 8 2
here y0 = 25 m, y = 0
Numerical Problems v0 = 18 ms−1 a = −9.8 ms−2
 1
se sh
1. (a) Given, radius of circular plank, r = 7 cm \ 0 = 25 + 18 t +   (−9.8)t2
.
 2
Distance travelled by ant in one circle = 2pr ⇒ 4.9 t2 − 18 t − 25 = 0
= 2 × 3.14 × 7 = 43.96 cm Solving for quadratic equation
re li
Displacement in one round = zero t = 3.80 sec.
(b) In 2.5 rounds 6. Let us consider that balls meet at time t at some

s ub Distance = 2.5 × 2pr
= 2.5 × 43.96 = 109.9 cm
Displacement = 7 + 7 = 14 cm
distance x from the top of building.
ht P
(c) In half round
2πr 43.96
Distance = = = 21.98 cm
2 2
Displacement = 7 + 7 = 14 cm
ig rn
Path length
2. Average speed =
Time
lr e
300 + 180
= = 17.78 ms−1
20 + 7
Al od
3. In first 22 sec,
displacement = 420 m
time = 22 sec. For ball falling down, u = 0, a = 9.8 ms−2, S = x and
420 time = t
M
average velocity = = 19.09 ms−1

22 1 2
In first 34 seconds, Using S = ut + at
420 2
displacement = 420 − = 210 m
2 1 2
⇒ x = × 9 .8 × t
©
time = 34 sec. 2
displacement ⇒ x = 4.9 t2...(i)
average velocity =
time For ball thrown upwards, u = 20 ms−1, a = −9.8 ms−2,
210 S = (100 − x)
= = 6.18 ms−1
34 (from figure)
4. average velocity between t = 0 and t = 4 can be calculated 1 2
as: \ S = ut + at
y ( 4 . 0 ) − y (0 ) m + n (16) 2
v = =
4−0 4 ⇒ 100 − x = 20 t − 4.9 t2...(ii)
6 + 3.2 × 16 From (i) and (ii), we get
⇒
v= = 14.3 ms−1 100 = 20 t
4
Velocity of drone at t = 3 can be calculated as: ⇒ t = 5 sec.
y = m + nt2 7. Given, vI = 60 kmh−1 = 16.67 ms−1
dy then, vII = −90 kmh−1 = −25 ms−1
v= = 2nt = 2 × 3.2 × 3 = 19.2 ms−1
dt relative velocity of Bus II with respect to Bus I can be
5. Given v0 = +18 ms−1 calculated as:
a = −g = −9.8 ms−1 vII − vI = −25 − 16.67 = −41.67 ms−1
v = 0 ms−1 velocity of road with respect to Bus I can be calculated
Let ball reach y cm from deck, then as:
v2 = v02 + 2a (y − y0), v′ = 0 − vII = 0 − (−25) = 25 ms−1

Additional Useful Information and Objective Questions
ADDITIONAL USEFUL INFORMATION
When we talk about motion then we always attached to the earth and are moving similarly so
need a frame of reference to record our observations. there is no relative motion and we observe everything
ed s.
Generally we use x-y-z coordinate system as our frame at rest with respect to ourselves. We observe motion
of reference and assume that observer is located at only when something moves with respect to the
the origin. We define positive directions for X, Y and Z earth. Atmosphere of the earth is also held by its
rv er
axis. Position, displacement, velocity and acceleration gravitational force and moves along with it. So we
depend on the choice of reference. Note that position don’t observe the motion of air particles. We observe
se sh
of the particle depends on the choice of origin but winds only when the air particles move with respect
.
remaining quantities namely displacement, velocity to the earth due to pressure differences between
and acceleration do not depend on the choice of the various locations.
origin. When we change the location of the origin
re li
When two particles are moving in the same
without changing the orientation of coordinate axes direction with same speed then one particle will
s ub
then displacement, velocity and acceleration are not
affected but the position will be accordingly modified.
In many cases reference frame remains fixed but
observe the other in a state of rest. Relative motion
between the particles is observed only when they
move with different velocities. When particles move
it may be in a state of motion and will accordingly
ht P
along the same direction with slightly different
affect observations regarding displacement, velocity speeds then one will observe the other to be moving
and acceleration. Observer always assumes itself very slowly but when both the particles move along
in a state of rest and effect of motion of observer is
ig rn
opposite directions, then they observe faster relative

observed on other objects. Concept of rest and motion motion between them. When you encounter a train
is always relative and we shall discuss about it in on parallel tracks moving in the same direction, then
lr e
details in next chapter. To learn the concepts behind you observe that the other train is moving at a slower
the frame of references we should start building the rate with respect to you, and the relative speed is
Al od
notion. Let us take an example of ourselves as one the difference between their speeds. But when you
living creature on the surface of earth. We know find a train on parallel track moving along opposite
that the earth is in a continuous state of motion. In direction then you observe the motion of other train
fact, earth is moving with much higher speed than
M
to be much faster and the relative speed in this case

you can really guess. But we don’t observe the effect is sum of the speeds of both the trains.
of motion of the earth directly. All the objects are
©
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
uestions
Multiple Choice Q M. C. Q.

Ratio of initial velocity to initial acceleration
A with only one correct answer
depends

(a) Only on a and b (b) Only on b and c
A1.
In a one-dimensional motion, particle has zero
(c) Only on c and d (d) Only on d and a
speed at an instant. At the same instant, particle A3.
A particle is projected vertically upwards and
must have reaches the highest point in time t1 and takes time t2

(a) Zero acceleration (b) Non-zero acceleration to return to the ground from top. Choose the correct

(c) Zero velocity (d) Non-zero velocity option when air resistance applies constant force on
the particle opposite to direction of its motion.
A2.
Displacement of a particle moving in a straight line
is represented as follows: (a) t1 = t2

3 2
x = at + bt + ct + d
(b) t1 > t2


(c) t1 < t2
5 5/ 2
(c) u +
αt (d) u + αt3 / 2

(d)
Information is not sufficient to decide the 2
relation between t1 and t2. A12. A body is given an initial velocity towards the
A4.
Magnitude of average velocity and speed are found north and constant acceleration is applied on it
to be the same in an interval of time. towards the south. If s1 and s2 are the magnitudes
of displacements in first 5 s and the next 5 s
ed s.

(a) Particle must have zero acceleration.
respectively then

(b) Particle must have non-zero acceleration.
(a) s1 = s2
rv er

(c)
Particle must be moving in a straight line
(b) s1 > s2
without reversing the direction of motion.
(c) s1 < s2

(d) Particle must be in a state of rest.
(d) Information is not sufficient to decide the
se sh
A5.
A body is moving with constant speed. Its acceleration
.
relation between s1 and s2.

(a) must be non-zero A13. A particle is thrown up with an initial velocity such

(b) must be zero that it takes more than one second to reach the top
re li
(c) may be non-zero and constant point. What is the distance travelled by the particle
during the first second of its decent?

A6.
s ub
(d) may be non-zero and variable
A parrot flies in a straight line for 6 s. Velocity of the
parrot is given by v = t − 3 . Time (t) is measured in

(a) g/2
(b) g/4
(c) g
ht P
seconds and velocity in m/s. Displacement of the
parrot in 6 s is (d) Information is insufficient to calculate the
desired distance.

(a) 0 (b) 5 m
A14. A particle is projected vertically upward from a
ig rn

(c) 6 m (d) 9 m point near the surface of earth. Upward direction
A7.
Velocity of an object is variable, then is assumed as positive direction. Acceleration of the

(a) its acceleration may remain constant. particle during its upward and downward journey
lr e
are respectively

(b) its speed may remain constant.
(a) Positive, Negative (b) Negative, Positive
Al od

(c) its average acceleration may remain constant.
(c) Positive, Positive (d) Negative, Negative

(d) all of these
A15. Graph between velocity and displacement is shown
A8.
If speed of an object is variable, then in the following figure:
M

(a) its acceleration may be zero.

(b) its velocity may be constant.

(c) its velocity must be variable.
©

(d) its acceleration must be zero.
A9.
An object is given an initial velocity of 11 m/s towards
the north and a constant acceleration of 2 m/s2
towards the south. What will be the distance covered
by the object in the sixth second of its motion?

(a) 0.25 m (b) 0.5 m
Which of the following graphs represents the correct

(c) 0 (d) 2 m variation of acceleration with displacement?
A10. An object is projected vertically upward and is found
(a) (b)
to be at the same height at time t1 and t2. Neglect
the air resistance. What is the speed of projection?
g(t1 + t2 ) g(t1 − t2 )

(a) (b)
2 2
(c) g(t1 + t2 ) (d) g(t1 − t2 )

(c) (d)
A11. The initial velocity given to a particle is u and
acceleration is given by a = αt3/2. What will be the
velocity of particle after time t.
5/ 2 2 5/ 2
(a) u + αt (b) u +
αt
5

A16. Displacement x of a particle varies with time as bottom of the building. What should be the speed of
x = t + 5, where x is in metres and time t is in projection of the particle projected from the bottom
seconds. Select the correct option. of building so that the particles cross each other
after 1 s? Acceleration due to gravity is 10 m/s2.

(a) Acceleration of the particle is constant.
(a) 100 m/s (b) 95 m/s
(b) Velocity of the particle at t = 0 is 10 m/s.

(c) 90 m/s (d) 105 m/s
ed s.

(c) Particle never reverses its direction of motion
A19. Two buses are moving in the same direction with
for t > 0.
a speed of 30 km/h. Separation between the buses

(d) All of the above
rv er
is 5 km. A car is moving in the opposite direction
A17. A particle starts from rest with a constant and meets the two buses after an interval of 4 min.
acceleration. Let Sn represent displacement What is the speed of the car?
se sh
in the interval from t = n − 1 to t = n. Here Sn (a) 45 km/h (b) 30 km/h
.
represents displacement in nth second of its motion. (c) 25 km/h (d) 40 km/h
Then Sn/Sn + 1 is
A20. A particle moves in a straight line and its position
n−1 2n − 1 x and time t are related as follows:
re li

(a) (b)
2n + 1 2n + 1 x2 = 2 + t

(c)
s ub
n+1
2n + 1
(d)
2n − 1
2n

Acceleration of the particle is given by
(a)
1
4 x2
(b) − 3 / 2
4x
1
A18. A particle is dropped from rest from the top of a
ht P
building of height 100 m. At the same instant 1 1
(c) − 3 (d) −
another particle is projected upward from the 4x 4x
Answers
ig rn
A1. (c) A2. (b) A3. (c) A4. (c) A5. (d) A6. (d) A7. (d) A8. (c) A9. (c) A10. (a)
lr e
A11. (b) A12. (d) A13. (a) A14. (d) A15. (a) A16. (d) A17. (b) A18. (a) A19. (a) A20. (c)
Al od
speed of 5 m/s crosses the train. The time taken by

B from Competitive Examinations
the bird to cross the train will be:
(a) 16 sec (b) 12 sec
M
(c) 10 sec (d) 8 sec (Manipal 2002)

AIPMT/NEET & Other State Boards for BA5. A stone dropped from a tower of height h reaches
Medical Entrance the ground after t seconds. From the same tower
©
BA1. A bus starts from rest with an acceleration of if two stones are thrown, one upwards and the
1 m s−2. A man who is 48 m behind the bus starts other downwards, with the same velocity u and
with uniform velocity of 10 ms−1. Then minimum they reach the ground after t1 and t2 seconds
time after which the man can catch the bus is: respectively, then:
(a) 4 s (b) 10 s t +t
(a) t = t1 − t2 (b) t = 1 2
(c) 12 s (d) 8 s (A.F.M.C. 2001) 2
BA2. A particle is thrown vertically upwards. Its velocity 2 2
(c) t = t1t2 (d) t = t1 − t2 (A.F.M.C. 2002)

at half of the height is 10 m s−1. The maximum
height attained by it is (given, g = 10 m/s2): BA6. If a ball is thrown vertically upwards with speed u,
(a) 16 m (b) 10 m the distance covered during the last t seconds of its
ascent is:
(c) 8 m (d) 18 m (C.B.S.E. 2005)
1 2 1
BA3. A stone is dropped from rest from the top of a tower gt (b) ut − gt 2
(a)
19.6 m high. The distance travelled during the last 2 2
second of its fall is (given g = 9.8 m/s2): (c) (u + gt)t (d) ut(C.B.S.E. 2003)

(a) 9.8 m (b) 14.7 m BA7. A body moving with uniform acceleration describes
(c) 4.9 m (d) 19.6 m 40 m in the first 5 sec and 65 m in next 5 sec. Its
(e) 10 m (Kerala P.M.T. 2001) initial velocity will be:
BA4. A 120 m long train is moving towards west with
(a) 4 m/s (b) 2.5 m/s
speed of 10 m/s. A bird flying towards east with a
(c) 5.5 m/s (d) 11 m/s (A.F.M.C. 2003)

BA8. A man throws balls with the same speed vertically BA15. The position x of a particle with respect to time t
upwards one after the other at an interval of 2 along X-axis is given by x = 9t2 − t3 where x is in
second. What should be the speed of the throw metres and t in second. What will be the position
so that more than two balls are in the sky at any of this particle when it achieves maximum speed
time? (Given g = 9.8 m/s2) along the + x direction?

(a) At least 9.8 m/s
(a) 54 m (b) 81 m
ed s.

(b) Any speed less than 19.6 m/s
(c) 24 m (d) 32 m (C.B.S.E. 2007)

(c) Only with speed 19.6 m/s BA16. A car accelerates from rest at constant rate for first
rv er

(d) More than 19.6 m/s (C.B.S.E. 2003) 10 s and covers a distance ‘x’. It covers a distance ‘y’
in next 10 s at the same acceleration. Which of the
BA9. A bullet loses 1/20 of its velocity after penetrating
following is true?
a plank. How many planks are required to stop the
se sh
.
bullet? (a) x = 3y (b) y = 3x

(a) 6 (b) 9 (c) x = y (d) y = 2x(A.F.M.C. 2005)

(c) 11 (d) 13(A.F.M.C. 2004) BA17. A car moves from X to Y with a uniform speed vu
re li
and returns to Y with a uniform speed vd. The
BA10. The displacement x of a particle varies with time as
s ub
x = a eat + bebt where a, b, α, β are constants and are
positive. The velocity of the particle will:
(a) Drop to zero when α = β

average speed for this round trip is:
(a) vu vd (b)
2vd vu
vd + vu
ht P
(b) be independent of α and β

vu + vd v v

(c) go on increasing with time
(c) (d) d u (C.B.S.E. 2007)
2 vd + vu

(d) go on decreasing with time (C.B.S.E. 2005)
ig rn
BA18. A particle moving along X-axis has acceleration f,

BA11. A particle moves in a straight line with a constant
acceleration. It changes its velocity from 10 ms−1 to  t
at time t, given by f = f0 1 −  , where f0 and T are
20 ms−1 while passing through a distance 135 m in  T
lr e
t second. The value of t is: constants. The particle at t = 0 has zero velocity.
In the time interval between t = 0 and the instant
Al od

(a) 1.8 (b) 12
when f = 0, the particle’s velocity (vx) changes by:

(c) 9 (d) 10 (C.B.S.E. 2008)
1 1
BA12. The distance travelled by a particle starting from (a) f0 T 2 (b) f0 T
2 2
M
4
rest and moving with an acceleration m s−2 in
the third second is:
3 (c) f0T 2 (d) f0T(C.B.S.E. 2007)
BA19. A particle starting from the origin (0, 0) moves in
10 a straight line in the (x, y) plane. Its coordinates

(a) 4 m (b) m
©
3
at a later time are ( 3 , 3). The path of the particle
19

(c) m (d) 6 m (C.B.S.E. 2008) makes with the X-axis an angle of:
3

(a) 45° (b) 60°
BA13. A particle moves along straight line OX. At time t
(seconds) the distance x (metres) from O is given by:
(c) 0° (d) 30°(C.B.S.E. 2007)
x = 40 + 12t − t3. How long the particle travels
BA20. A particle starts its motion from rest under the
before coming to rest? action of a constant force. If the distance covered
in the first 10 seconds is S1 and that covered in the

(a) 16 m (b) 21 m first 20 seconds is S2, then:

(c) 40 m (d) 56 m (C.B.S.E. 2006)
(a) S2 = 3S1 (b) S2 = 4S1

BA14. Two bodies A and B of masses 1 kg and 3 kg
(c) S2 = S1 (d) S2 = 2S1(C.B.S.E. 2009)

respectively are dropped from heights 16 m and
25 m. The ratio of the time taken by them to reach BA21. A bus is moving with a speed of 10 m s−1 on a
the ground is: straight road. A scooterist wishes to overtake the
bus in 100 s. If the bus is at a distance of 1 km
4 5 from the scooterist, with what speed should the

(a) (b)
5 4 scooterist chase the bus?
12 5 (a) 40 m s−1
(b) 25 m s−1

(c) (d) (C.B.S.E. 2006)
5 12 (c) 10 m s−1 (d) 20 m s−1(C.B.S.E. 2009)


BA22. A ball is dropped from a high rising platform at BA29. The position x of a particle varies with time t as
t = 0 starting from rest. After 6 seconds another ball x = a t2 − b. For what value of t acceleration is
is thrown downwards from the same platform with zero?
a speed v. The two balls meet at t = 18 s. What is 2a
the value of v? (Take g = 10 m/s2)
(a) (b) a/b
3b

(a) 40 m/s (b) 60 m/s
ed s.

(c) 75 m/s (d) 55 m/s (C.B.S.E. 2010) a

(c) (d) never(B.H.U. 2002)
3b
BA23. A particle moves a distance x in time t according to
rv er
equation x = (t + 5)−1. The acceleration of particle is BA30. A ball is thrown vertically upwards. Which of the
proportional to: following plots represents the speed-time graph of
(a) (distance)−2 (b) (velocity)2/3
the ball during its flight if the air resistance is not
se sh
ignored? (Assume air resistance constant)
(c) (velocity)3/2 (d) (distance)2
.

(C.B.S.E. 2010)
(a) (b)
BA24. A body A starts from rest with an acceleration
re li
‘a1’. After 2 seconds another body B starts from
rest with an acceleration ‘a2’. If they travel equal
s ub
distances in 5th second after the start of A, their
a
ratio 1 is equal to:
a2

(c) (d)
ht P
5 5

(a) (b)
9 7
ig rn
9 9

(c) (d) (A.I.I.M.S. 2001)
5 7 (A.I.I.M.S. 2003)
BA25. A ball dropped from the 9th storey of a multistoried BA31. A body falls from a height h = 200 m. The ratio of
lr e
building reaches the ground in 3 second. In the first distance travelled in each 2 sec, during t = 0 to t = 6
second of its free fall, it passes through n storeys, second of the journey is:
Al od
where n is equal to (Take g = 10 m s−2).

(a) 1 : 4 : 9 (b) 1 : 2 : 4

(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 1 : 3 : 5 (d) 1 : 2 : 3 (B.H.U. 2003)

(c) 3 (d) 4 (J.I.P.M.E.R. 2001) BA32. Which of the following velocity-time graphs shows
M
BA26. One car moving on a straight road covers one-third a realistic situation for a body in motion?
of the distance with 20 km h−1 and the rest with
(a) (b)
60 km h−1. The average speed is:
(a) 40 km h−1 (b) 80 km h−1
©

2
km h−1 (d) 36 km h−1
(c) 46
3
(J.I.P.M.E.R. 2001)
BA27. A particle starts from rest and has an acceleration
(c) (d)
of 2 m/s2 for 10 seconds. After that, it travels for
30 seconds with constant speed and then undergoes
a retardation of 4 m/s2 and comes back to rest. The
total distance covered by the particle is:

(a) 650 m (b) 700 m

(c) 750 m (d) 800 m (A.I.I.M.S. 2002)
(A.I.I.M.S. 2004)
BA28. A very large number of balls are thrown vertically
BA33. A ball is thrown up vertically with velocity v0, it
upwards in quick successions in such a way that
reaches a maximum height ‘h’. If one wishes to
the next ball is thrown when the previous one is
tripple the maximum height the ball should be
at the maximum height. If the maximum height
thrown with a velocity of:
is 5 m, then number of balls thrown per minute is
(take g = 10 m/s2):
(a) 3 v0 (b) 9 v0

(a) 80 (b) 120 3
(c) 3 v0 (d)
v (A.I.I.M.S. 2005)

(c) 40 (d) 60 (J.I.P.M.E.R. 2002) 2 0

BA34. 3 7 A B
(a) A + B (b) +
2 3 2 3
3
(c) A + 4B (d) 3A + 7B(N.E.E.T. 2016)
2
BA41. A car moves a distance of 200 m. It covers the first
half of the distance at a speed of 40 km h−1 and
ed s.
the second half of the distance at a speed v. The
average speed is 48 km h−1. Find the value of v.
rv er
A particle shows distance-time curve as given in (a) 56 km h−1 (b) 60 km h−1
this figure. The maximum instantaneous velocity (c) 50 km h−1 (d) 48 km h−1
of the particle is around the point:
(C.B.S.E. 1991)
se sh
(a) C (b) D BA42. A body travels such that square of time is
.
(c) A (d) B (C.B.S.E. 2008) proportional to the displacement. Its acceleration is:
BA35. A car starts from rest, moves with an acceleration (a) zero (b) infinite
‘a’ and then decelerate at a constant rate ‘b’ for
re li
(c) constant (d) variable(A.F.M.C. 1993)
some time to come to rest. If the total time taken is BA43. A body is vertically projected at 100 m s−1. It returns

s ub
t, the maximum velocity of the car is given by:
(a)
abt
a+ b
(b)
a2t
a+ b

after (g = 10 m s−2)
(a) 10 s
(c) 8 s
(b) 20 s
(d) 16 s (A.F.M.C. 1993)
ht P
at b2t BA44. A boy walks to his school at a distance 6 km with a

(c) (d) (B.H.U. 2006) speed of 2.5 km h−1 and walks back with a constant
a+ b a+ b
speed of 4 km h−1. His average speed for the round
BA36. A boy standing at the top of a tower of 20 m height trip is:
ig rn
drops a stone. Assuming g = 10 m s−2, the velocity

24 40
with which it hits the ground is: (a) km h −1 (b) km h −1
13 13
(a) 10.0 m/s (b) 20.0 m/s
lr e
(c) 40.0 m/s (d) 5.0 m/s (C.B.S.E. 2011) (c) 3 km h−1 (d) 4.8 km h−1

(A.I.I.M.S. 1995)
BA37. The motion of a particle along a straight line is
Al od
BA45. A ball of mass m1 and another of mass m2 are

described by equation:
dropped from equal heights. If the time taken by
x = 8 + 12t − t3 the balls are t1 and t2 respectively then,
where x is in metre and t in second. The retardation t
M
of the particle when its velocity becomes zero is: (a) t1 = 2 (b) t1 = t2
2
(a) 12 ms−2 (b) 24 ms−2 t
(c) t1 = 4t2 (d) t1 = 2 (B.H.U. 1997)
(c) zero (d) 6 ms−2(C.B.S.E. 2012) 4
©
BA38. A stone falls freely under gravity. It covers BA46. A ball is dropped on to the floor from a height 10
distances h1, h2 and h3 in the first 5 seconds, the m and it rebounds to a height of 2.5 m. If the ball
next 5 seconds and the next 5 seconds respectively. is in contact with the floor for 0.01 s, the average
The relation between h1, h2 and h3 is: acceleration during the contact is (g = 9.8 m/s2):
h h (a) 1400 m s−2 (b) 2100 m s−2
(a) h1 = 2 = 3 (b) h2 = 3h1 and h3 = 3h2 (c) 700 m s−2 (d) 2800 m s−2
3 5
(c) h1 = h2 = h3 (d) h1 = 2h2 = 3h3 (C.P.M.T. 1997, B.H.U. 1997)
(N.E.E.T. 2013) BA47. A cyclist accelerates from rest to a velocity of
BA39. A particle of unit mass undergoes one-dimensional 72 km hr−1 in 10 sec. If the cyclist is in straight
motion such that its velocity varies according to track, the acceleration of the cyclist is:
v(x) = bx− 2n (a) 7.2 m s−2 (b) 120 m s−2
−2
where β and n are constants and x is the position (c) 2 m s (d) 0.2 m s−2
of the particle. The acceleration of the particle as a (Kerala P.M.T. 2003)
function of x is given by: BA48. A car has speed of 40 km/h. On applying brakes it
(a) − 2nb2x− 2n − 1 (b) − 2nb2x− 4n − 1 stops after 15 m. If its speed was 80 km h−1 it would
(c) − 2b2x− 2n + 1 (d) − 2nb2e− 4n + 1 have stopped after:

(A.I.P.M.T. 2015) (a) 15 m (b) 30 m
BA40. If the velocity of a particle is v = At + Bt2 where A (c) 45 m (d) 60 m (I.P.U. Delhi 2003)
and B are constant, then the distance travelled by BA49. A particle is moving such that its position
it between 1 s and 2 s is: coordinates (x, y) are (2 m, 3 m) at time t = 0, (6 m,

7 m) at time t = 2 s and (13 m, 14 m) at time t = 5 s automobile is travelling at 80 km/h, the minimum
( )
→
Average v av from t = 0 to t = 5 s is
stopping distance in metres is (assume no skidding):
(a) 150 m (b) 100 m
1 7 (c) 75 m (d) 160 m(J.E.E. Main 2018)
(a) (13iˆ + 14 ˆj ) (b) (iˆ + ˆj ) BB4. All the graphs below are intended to represent the
5 3
11 same motion. One of them does it incorrectly. Pick
(c) 2 (iˆ + ˆj ) (d) (iˆ + ˆj )
ed s.
it up.
5
(A.I.P.M.T. 2014) (a) (b)
rv er
BA50. Preeti reached the metro station and found that
the escalator was not working. She walked up the
stationary escalator in time t1. On other days, if she
se sh
remains stationary on the moving escalator, then

(c) (d)
.
the escalator takes her up in time t2. The time taken
by her to walk up on the moving escalator will be
t +t t t
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(a) 1 2 (b) 1 2
2 t2 − t1
s ub t t
(c) 1 2 (d) t1 − t2 (N.E.E.T. 2017)
t2 + t1
BA51. The x and y coordinates of the particle at any time
(J.E.E. Main 2018)
BB5. The velocity of particle is v = v0 + gt + ft2. If its
position is x = 0 at t = 0, then its displacement after
are x = 5t − 2t2 and y = 10t respectively, where x and unit time is:
ht P
y are in metres and t in seconds. The acceleration of (a) v + g/2 + f/3 (b) v + g + f
the particle at t = 2 s is (c) v + g/2 + f (d) v + 2g + 3f.(A.I.E.E.E. 2007)
(a) 0 (b) 5 m/s2 BB6. An object moving with a speed of 6.25 m/s is
ig rn
(c) − 4 m/s (d) − 8 m/s2 (N.E.E.T. 2017)

2 decelerated at a rate given by:
dv
BA52. A person travelling in a straight line moves with a = − 2 .5 v
dt
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constant velocity v1 for certain distance ‘x’ and with

where v is the instantaneous speed. The time taken
a constant velocity v2 for next equal distance. The
by the object, to come to rest, would be:
Al od
average velocity v is given by the relation

1 1 1 (a) 2 s (b) 4 s
(a) v = v1v2 (b) = + (c) 8 s (d) 1 s (A.I.E.E.E. 2011)
v v1 v2
BB7. A ball is released from the top of a tower of height
2 1 1 v v1 + v2
M
(c) = + (d) = h metres. It takes T seconds to reach the ground.

v v1 v2 2 2 T
(N.E.E.T. 2019) What is the position of the ball at second?
h 3
(a) metres from the ground
9
©
JEE (Main) & Other State Boards for

7h
Engineering Entrance (b)
9
metres from the ground
BB1. A parachutist after bailing out falls 50 m without 8h
friction. When parachute opens it decelerates at (c) metres from the ground
9
2 m s−2. He lands with a speed of 3 m s−1. At what
height did he bail out? 17h
(d) metres from the ground (A.I.E.E.E. 2004)
(a) 191 m (b) 182 m 18
(c) 293 m (d) 111 m (A.I.E.E.E. 2005) BB8. A particle of mass m is acted upon by a force F
BB2. In a car race on straight road, car A takes a time R
given by the empirical law F = 2 v(t). If this law
t less than car B at the finish and passes finishing t
point with a speed ‘v’ more than that of car B. Both is to be tested experimentally by observing the
the cars start from rest and travel with constant motion starting from rest, the best way is to plot:
acceleration a1 and a2 respectively. Then ‘v’ is equal 1
(a) v(t) against t2 (b) log v(t) against 2
2a1 a2 t
(a) t (b) t 2a1 a2
a1 + a2 1
a + a2 (c) log v(t) against t (d) log v(t) against
(c) 1 t (d) t a1 a2 t
2 (J.E.E. Main 2016)
(J.E.E. Main 2019)
BB3. An automobile, travelling at 40 km/h, can be stopped BB9. From a tower of height H, a particle is thrown
at a distance of 40 m by applying brakes. If the same vertically upwards with a speed u. The time taken

by the particle, to hit the ground, is n times that

(c)
taken by it to reach the highest point of its path.
The relation between H, u and n is:
(a) 2gH = n2u2 (b) gH = (n − 2)2u2
(c) 2gH = nu2(n − 2) (d) gH = (n − 2)u2
(J.E.E. Main 2014)
ed s.

(d)
BB10. A person climbs up a stalled escalator in 60 s. If
standing on the same but escalator running with
rv er
constant velocity he takes 40 s. How much time is
taken by the person to walk up the moving escalator? (J.E.E. Main 2015)
(a) 37 s (b) 27 s
BB13. Which of the following option correctly describes
se sh

.
(c) 24 s (d) 45 s (J.E.E. Main 2014) the variation of the speed v and acceleration ‘a’ of a
BB11. The velocity-time graphs of a car and a scooter are point mass falling vertically in a viscous medium that
shown in the figure. (i) The difference between the applies a force F = − kv, where ‘k’ is a constant, on the
re li
distance travelled by the car and the scooter in 15 s body? (Graphs are schematic and not drawn to scale.)
and (ii) the time at which the car will catch up with
s ub
the scooter are, respectively.

(a) (b)
ht P

(c) (d)
ig rn
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(J.E.E. Main 2016)
BB14. A car moving with a velocity of 20 ms−1 is stopped
Al od
in a distance of 40 m. If the same car is travelling

at double the velocity, the distance travelled by it
(a) 112.5 m and 22.5 s for same retardation is
(b) 337.5 m and 25 s (a) 640 m (b) 320 m
M
(c) 225.5 m and 10 s (c) 160 m (d) 1280 m

(d) 112.5 m and 15 s (J.E.E. Main 2018) (Karnataka C.E.T. 2017)
BB12. Two stones are thrown up simultaneously from the BB15. A car is standing 200 m behind a bus, which is also
©
edge of a cliff 240 m high with initial speed of 10 m/s at rest. The two start moving at the same instant
and 40 m/s respectively. Which of the following but with different forward accelerations. The bus has
graph best represents the time variation of relative acceleration 2 m/s2 and the car has acceleration 4 m/s2.
position of the second stone with respect to the first? The car will catch up with the bus after a time of:
(Assume stones do not rebound after hitting the (a) 110 s (b)
120 s
ground and neglect air resistance, take g = 10 m/s2)
(c) 10 2 s (d) 15 s (J.E.E. Main 2017)

(The figures are schematic and not drawn to scale) BB16. Which graph corresponds to an object moving with a

(a) constant negative acceleration and a positive velocity?
(a) (b)

(b)
(c) (d)

(J.E.E. Main 2017)

BB17. A body is thrown vertically upwards. Which one BC2.

A small block slides without friction down an
of the following graphs correctly represents the inclined plane starting from rest. Let Sn be the
velocity vs time? distance travelled from time t = n − 1 to t = n.

(a) (b) Sn

Then is:
Sn+1
ed s.
2n − 1 2n + 1

(a) (b)
2n 2n − 1
rv er

(c) (d) 2n − 1 2n

(c) (d)
2n + 1 2n + 1

(I.I.T. Screening 2004)
se sh
.
BC3. A tennis ball is dropped on a horizontal smooth
surface. It bounces back to its original position
(J.E.E. Main 2017) after hitting the surface. The force on the ball
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BB18. The position of a particle as a function of time t, during the collision is proportional to the length of
s ub
is given by x(t) = at + bt2 - ct3, where a, b and c
are constants. When the particle attains zero
acceleration, then its velocity will be:
2 2
compression of the ball. Which one of the following
sketches describes the variation of its kinetic
energy K with time t most appropriately? The
figures are only illustrative and not to scale.
(a) a + b (b) a + b
ht P

c 4c
(a) (b)
2 2
(c) a + b (d) a + b

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3c 2c
(J.E.E. Main 2019)

(c) (d)
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JEE (Advanced) for IIT Entrance

Al od
BC1. A particle starts from rest. Its acceleration (α) versus

time (t) is as shown in the figure. The maximum
speed of the particle will be:
BC4. Consider an expanding sphere of instantaneous
M
radius R whose total mass remains constant. The

expansion is such that the instantaneous density ρ
remains uniform throughout the volume. The rate
 1 dρ 
©
of fractional change in density  is constant.

 ρ dt 
The velocity v of any point on the surface of the
expanding sphere is proportional to
(a) R (b) R3

(a) 110 m/s (b) 55 m/s 1

(c) (d) R2/3

(c) 550 m/s (d) 660 m/s R

(I.I.T. Screening 2004)
Answers
BA1. (d) BA2. (b) BA3. (b) BA4. (d) BA5. (c) BA6. (a) BA7. (c) BA8. (d) BA9. (b) BA10. (c)
BA11. (c) BA12. (b) BA13. (d) BA14. (a) BA15. (a) BA16. (b) BA17. (b) BA18. (b) BA19. (b) BA20. (b)
BA21. (d) BA22. (c) BA23. (c) BA24. (a) BA25. (a) BA26. (d) BA27. (c) BA28. (d) BA29. (d) BA30. (b)
BA31. (c) BA32. (c) BA33. (c) BA34. (a) BA35. (a) BA36. (b) BA37. (a) BA38. (a) BA39. (b) BA40. (a)
BA41. (b) BA42. (c) BA43. (b) BA44. (b) BA45. (b) BA46. (b) BA47. (c) BA48. (d) BA49. (d) BA50. (c)
BA51. (c) BA52. (c) BB1. (c) BB2. (d) BB3. (d) BB4. (d) BB5. (a) BB6. (a) BB7. (c) BB8. (d)
BB9. (c) BB10. (c) BB11. (a) BB12. (a) BB13. (b) BB14. (c) BB15. (c) BB16. (c) BB17. (c) BB18. (c)
BC1. (b) BC2. (c) BC3. (b) BC4. (a)


(b)
moving up and slowing down then its
C with more than one correct answer
acceleration must be downward.
(c)
moving down and speeding up then its
C1.
A particle is moving along X-axis according to the acceleration must be downward.
following equation:
(d)
moving down and slowing down then its
x = u(t − 4) + a (t − 3)2 acceleration must be upward.
ed s.

All terms in above equation are measured in MKS C7.
For a particle moving in a straight line
system.
(a) magnitude of velocity is equal to the speed of
rv er
(a) Acceleration of the particle is a. the particle.
(b) Acceleration of the particle is 2a.
(b)
if position and velocity have same sign then
se sh
(c) Velocity of particle at t = 3 s is u. particle is moving away from the origin.
.
(d) At t = 0 particle is at the origin.
(c) magnitude of average velocity is equal to the
C2.
Let v and a represent instantaneous velocity and average speed for a given interval.
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acceleration of a particle respectively.
(d) if speed of the particle remains zero in a time
(a) Acceleration a can be zero when velocity v ≠ 0
interval then acceleration is equal to zero at
s ub
(b) Acceleration a can be nonzero when velocity
v = 0. C8.
any instant of the time during that interval.
For a particle moving in a straight line
(c) Acceleration a can be zero when velocity v = 0.
(a)
if velocity is negative and acceleration is
ht P
(d) Acceleration a must be zero when velocity v = 0. positive then speed increases.
C3.
A particle may have
(b)
if velocity is positive and acceleration is
(a) variable velocity without variable speed. negative then speed decreases.
ig rn
(b) variable speed without variable velocity.

(c) if velocity is zero at an instant then acceleration
(c) zero acceleration with variable velocity. must also be zero at that instant.
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(d) nonzero acceleration with constant speed.

(d) it is possible that speed of a particle is never zero
C4.
Velocity-time graph for a particle is shown in in an interval of time, but average speed is zero.
Al od
following figure for time interval 0 to 2 T. C9.

Displacement of a particle moving along X-axis is
given by x = at2 − bt3.

(a) Particle starts from rest and again comes to
M
rest after time 2a/3b.

(b) Particle starts from origin and again returns to
origin after time t = a/b.
©

(c)
Particle starts with zero acceleration and
acceleration again becomes zero after time
t = a/3b.

(d)
Acceleration of the particle becomes zero at
(a) During the motion, particle reverses its
t = a/3b.
direction of motion.
(b) Particle is moving with constant acceleration. C10. Select the correct statements for a particle in a
state of motion.
(c) Net displacement in time interval 0 to 2T is zero.

(a) If speed of the particle changes then velocity
(d) Speeds of particle at t = 0 and t = 2T are same.
of the particle must change and it must have
C5.
An observer moves along the line joining two non-zero acceleration.
stationary objects with constant speed. He observes
that the two objects
(b)
If velocity of the particle changes then its
speed must also change and particle must have
(a) move with same speed.
non-zero acceleration.
(b) move with the same velocity.

(c)
When particle moves in a straight line with
(c) move in the same direction. changing speed then its velocity may remain
(d) move along the opposite directions. constant.
C6.
If a particle moving in a vertical straight line is
(d) When velocity of the particle changes then its

(a) moving up and speeding up then its acceleration speed may or may not change but particle must
must be upward. have some acceleration.

C11. A particle is moving on a straight line and its before reaching the maximum height. What can be
average velocity is found to be zero in an interval of the possible value of u?
time.
(a) 20 m/s (b) 35 m/s

(a) Average speed of the particle may also be zero
(c) 5 m/s (d) 40 m/s
for a given interval of time.
C13. Displacement of a particle moving in a straight line

(b)
Velocity of the particle can never be zero in
ed s.
is written as follows:
given interval of time.
t 3 5t 2

(c)
Velocity of the particle must be zero at a
x= − + 6t + 7
3 2
rv er
particular instant.

What is the possible acceleration of particle when

(d) Acceleration of particle may be zero.
particle is in a state of rest?
C12. A particle is projected upwards with initial velocity
se sh
(a) 1 m/s2 (b) − 1 m/s2

u. Assume acceleration due to gravity is 10 m/s2.
.

It is found that particle covers 5 m in last second (c) − 5 m/s2 (d) + 5 m/s2
re li
Answers s ub
C1. (b, c) C2. (a, b, c) C3. (a, d) C4. (a, b, c, d) C5. (a, b, c)
C6. (a, b, c, d) C7.
(a, b, d) C8. (b) C9. (a, b, d) C10. (a, d)
C11. (c) C12. (a, b, d) C13. (a, b)
ht P
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS is projected. Point of maximum height is denoted as B.
ig rn
D based on a given passage/comprehension

When particle reaches the point A during downward
journey then we call the same point as C. Point at the
bottom of tower is marked as D where particle finally
lr e
Passage I strikes. Acceleration due to gravity g = 10 m/s2.

Al od
A particle starts moving in a straight line with initial Answer the following questions:
velocity v0. Applied forces cause a retardation of αv,
where v is magnitude of instantaneous velocity and α is D4.
How much time the particle takes to cross the point
a constant. C after being projected from point A.
M

(a) 1 s (b) 2 s

(c) 3 s (d) 4 s
D1.
How long the particle will take to come to rest.
D5.
Maximum height above the ground attained by
ln 2
©

(a) (b) a ln2 particle is
α

(a) 20 m (b) 30 m
1

(c) (d) infinite
(c) 40 m (d) 60 m
α
D6.
Time taken by the particle to reach the ground is
D2. How long the particle will take to reduce its speed

(a) 2 s (b) 4 s
to half of its initial value?
ln 2 (c) 2 2 s (d) (2 + 2 2 ) s
(a) (b) a ln2
α
1 Passage III

(c) (d) infinite
α A particle is travelling along X-axis and its x-coordinate
D3.
Total distance covered by the particle is is related to time as follows:

(a) infinity (b) v0α x = 5t2 − 20

(c) v0/α (d) v0/eα Here x is measured in metres and time t in seconds.

Passage II
D7.
When does the particle cross the origin?
There is a tower of height 20 m and a particle is projected
up from top of the tower with an initial speed 20 m/s. Top
(a) 2 s (b) 3 s
of the tower is marked as point A, from where particle
(c) 1 s (d) never

D8.
When does the particle reverse its direction of D9.
When does the magnitude of velocity become equal
motion? to that of acceleration?

(a) 2 s (b) 3 s
(a) 2 s (b) 3 s

(c) 1 s (d) never
(c) 1 s (d) never
Answers
ed s.
Passage I D1. (d) D2. (a) D3. (c)
rv er
Passage II D4. (d) D5. (c) D6. (d)
Passage III D7. (a) D8. (d) D9. (c)
se sh
.
Reason: If a particle is moving in a circular path then
ASSERTION REASON TYPE QUESTIONS its average speed in one complete circle is zero.
re li
The questions given below consist of an assertion and 5. Assertion: For a particle in motion, it is not possible
the reason. Use the following key to choose appropriate to have constant velocity and variable acceleration.
answer: s ub
(a) If both assertion and reason are correct and reason
is a correct explanation of the assertion.
Reason: A particle under acceleration cannot have
constant velocity.
6. Assertion: Average speed of the particle in a given
ht P
interval of time may be equal to the magnitude of the
(b) If both assertion and reason are correct but reason is
average velocity.
not the correct explanation of assertion.
Reason: Instantaneous speed of the particle is equal
(c) If assertion is correct but reason is incorrect. to the magnitude of instantaneous velocity.
ig rn
(d) If assertion is incorrect but reason is correct. 7. Assertion: Average speed in an interval cannot be less
(e) If both assertion and reason are incorrect. than the magnitude of average velocity in the same
interval.
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1. Assertion: When an object is accelerating, it is either Reason: For a particle in motion distance travelled is
Al od
speeding up or slowing down. always greater than or equal to the magnitude of the
displacement.
Reason: When an object moves on a circular path with
uniform speed, the object accelerates. 8. Assertion: For a particle in state of motion, average
velocity can be zero, but average speed cannot be zero
2. Assertion: A ball is thrown vertically upwards and air
M
in any finite interval of time.

resistance is considered. Time of ascent is less than the
time of decent. Reason: For a particle in state of motion, displacement
in an interval of time can be zero but distance can never
Reason: Air resistance always acts opposite to velocity. be zero.
©
3. Assertion: If velocity of a particle at a certain instant 9. Assertion: For an observer looking out through the
is zero then its acceleration must also be zero at the window of a fast moving train, the nearby objects
same instant. appear to move in the opposite direction to the train,
Reason: When a particle is projected upward under while the distant objects appear to be stationary.
gravity then at the top point its instantaneous velocity Reason: If the observer and the object are moving at
becomes zero. → →
velocities V1 and V2 respectively with the reference
4. Assertion: If speed of a particle is never zero in an
to a laboratory frame, the velocity of the object with
interval of time then it may have zero average speed → →
for the same interval of time. respect to the observer will be V2 − V1.
Answers
1.
(d) 2. (a) 3.
(d) 4.
(e) 5. (a) 6.
(b) 7.
(a) 8.
(a) 9.
(b)
1. For a particle moving in a straight line assume s, v, a

MATCHING TYPE QUESTIONS
and t represents displacement, velocity, acceleration
Each question has a matching list. The codes for the lists have and time respectively.
choices (a), (b), (c) and (d), out of which only one is correct.

List-I List-II P Q R S
P v: positive 1 (a) 3 2 4 1
a: positive
(b) 1 3 3 4
(c) 2 1 3 4
ed s.
(d) 4 1 3 2
rv er
2.
For a particle moving along the vertical direction,
Q v: positive 2 assume s, v, a and t represent displacement, velocity,
acceleration and time respectively. Assume the vertical
se sh
a: negative upward direction as the positive direction.
.
List-I List-II
re li
P v: positive 1 Particle is moving down
a: positive and slowing down
R
s ub
v: negative 3
Q v: positive
a: negative
2 Particle is moving up
and speeding up
a: positive
ht P
R v: negative 3 Particle is moving down
a: positive and speeding up
ig rn
S v: negative 4 Particle is moving up

a: negative and slowing down
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S v: negative 4
Al od
a: negative P Q R S
(a) 3 2 4 1
(b) 1 3 3 4
M
(c) 2 4 1 3
(d) 4 1 2 3
©
Answers
1.
(d) 2.
(c)
MATRIX MATCH TYPE QUESTIONS and D → (q), then correctly bubbled matrix will look like
the following:
Each question contains statements given in two columns, p q r s
which are to be matched. Statements in Column-I are
labelled as A, B, C and D whereas statements in Column-II A p q r s
are labelled as p, q, r and s. Match the entries of Column-I
with appropriate entries of Column-II. Each entry in B p q r s
Column-I may have one or more than one correct option
from Column-II. The answers to these questions have to be C p q r s
appropriately bubbled as illustrated in the given example.
If the correct matches are A → (q, r), B → (p, s), C → (r, s) D p q r s

1. Match the Column-I with Column-II:
Column-I Column-II
(A) Constant speed (p)
ed s.
rv er
se sh
.
(B) Constant velocity (q)
re li
s ub
(C) Increasing speed (r)
ht P
ig rn
(D) Negative acceleration (s)

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Al od
M
Answers
©
A → (p, q) B → (q) C → (s) D → (r)

1.
INTEGER TYPE QUESTIONS 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
The answer to each of the following questions is a single 3.

Particle is moving in a straight line. Distance
digit integer ranging from 0 to 9. Darken the correct digit. x is related to the time t by the equation,
t = x + 3. Distance x is measured in metres and
1.
A balloon starts rising above the surface of earth time t in seconds. After how many seconds will the
with an acceleration 1.25 m/s2. After 8 s, a stone is particle come to the rest?
released from the balloon. Calculate the time taken
by the stone in seconds to reach the ground. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 4.
A particle is moving in a straight line. All
the physical quantities are to be measured in
2.
A particle is projected vertically upwards from an MKS system. Square of the magnitude of its
elevated point. Magnitude of the velocity at height instantaneous velocity is found to be ten times
h above the starting point is found to be half of the its instantaneous displacement. What is the
magnitude of velocity at h height below the starting acceleration of the particle?
point. If maximum height reached by the particle
above its initial point is mh/n then find (m - n). 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

5.
What is the velocity of particle in previous question where v is instantaneous velocity, find the value
when its displacement is zero? of n.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
6.
A particle is moving in a straight line and 9.
A balloon starts from the state of rest from the
its velocity varies with its displacement as ground with constant acceleration g/n. After time T,
ed s.
v = 4 + 4 s m/s. Assume s = 0 at t = 0. Find the a stone is dropped from the balloon. If stone takes
displacement of the particle in metres at t = 1 s. time T to reach the ground then calculate value of n.
rv er
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
7.
A particle is given an initial velocity of 20 m/s. 10.
A rocket is moving in a gravity-free space with a
se sh
Acceleration of the particle changes with time and constant acceleration of 2 m s−2 along + x direction
.
its variation is shown in the following figure: (see the figure). The length of a chamber inside the
rocket is 4 m. A ball is thrown from the left end
of the chamber in + x direction with a speed of 0.3
re li
ms −1 relative to the rocket. At the same time, another
ball is thrown in − x direction with a speed of 0.2 ms −1
s ub from its right end relative to the rocket. The time in
seconds when the two balls hit each other is
ht P

How many seconds the particle will take to acquire
its initial velocity again?
ig rn
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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8.
A particle is moving in a straight line and relation
between time and displacement is t = αx2 + βx. If
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Al od
retardation is found to be proportional to the vn,
Answers
M
1.
[4] 2.
[2] 3.
[3] 4.
[5] 5.
[0] 6.
[3] 7.
[6] 8. [3] 9.
[3] 10. [2]
©

Objective Questions

(b)
Multiple Choice Questions (Type-I)
3.1.
Among the four graphs (as shown below), there is
only one graph for which average velocity over the
time interval (0, T) can vanish for a suitably chosen
T. Which one is it?
(a)

(c)


(d) (a) Quantity B may represent time.

(b) Quantity A is velocity if motion is uniform

(c) Quantity A is displacement if motion is

uniform.
(d) Quantity A is velocity if motion is uniformly

ed s.
accelerated.
3.8.
A graph of x versus t is shown in the figure
given below. Choose correct alternatives from
rv er
th
3.2.
A lift is coming from 8 floor and is just about to below.
reach 4th floor. Taking ground floor as origin and
positive direction upwards for all quantities, which
se sh
one of the following is correct?
.
(a) x < 0, v < 0, a > 0 (b) x > 0, v < 0, a < 0
(c) x > 0, v < 0, a > 0 (d) x > 0, v > 0, a < 0.
re li
3.3.
In one-dimensional motion, instantaneous speed v
satisfies 0 ≤ v < v0.
s ub
(a) The displacement in time T must always take
non-negative values.
(b) The displacement x in time T satisfies

ht P
− v0T < x < v0T.
(a) The particle was released from rest at t = 0

(c)
The acceleration is always a non-negative
number. (b) At B, the acceleration a > 0.

ig rn
(d) The motion has no turning points.

(c) At C, the velocity and the acceleration vanish.

3.4.
A vehicle travels half the distance L with speed V1 (d) Average velocity for the motion between A and

and the other half with speed V2, then its average D is positive
lr e
speed is (e) The speed at D exceeds that at E.

Al od
V + V2 2V1 + V2 3.9.
For the one-dimensional motion, described by
(a) 1
(b)
2 V1 + V2 x = t − sin t
2V1V2 L (V1 + V2 ) (a) x (t) > 0 for all t > 0

(c)
(d)
V1 + V2 V1V2
M
(b) v(t) > 0 for all t > 0

2
The displacement of a particle is given by x = (t − 2)
3.5. (c) a (t) > 0 for all t > 0

where x is in metres and t in seconds. The distance (d) v(t) lies between 0 and 2.

covered by the particle in first 4 seconds is
©
3.10. A spring with one end attached to a mass and

(a) 4 m
(b) 8 m the other to a rigid support is stretched and
(c) 12 m
(d) 16 m. released.
3.6.
At a metro station, a girl walks up a stationary (a) Magnitude of acceleration, when just released

escalator in time t1. If she remains stationary on is maximum.
the escalator, then the escalator takes her up in
(b) Magnitude of acceleration, when at equilibrium

time t2. The time taken by her to walk up on the
position, is maximum.
moving escalator will be
(a) (t + t2) /2
(b) t1t2/ (t2 − t1) (c) Speed is maximum when mass is at equilibrium

position.
(c) t1t2/(t2 + t1) (d) t1 − t2.

(d) Magnitude of displacement is always maximum

whenever speed is minimum.
Multiple Choice Questions (Type-II)
3.11. A ball is bouncing elastically with a speed 1 m/s
3.7.
The variation of
between walls of a railway compartment of size
quantity A with
10 m in a direction perpendicular to walls. The
quantity B, plotted
train is moving at a constant velocity of 10 m/s
in the figure,
parallel to the direction of motion of the ball. As
describes the
seen from the ground
motion of a particle
in a straight line. (a) the direction of motion of the ball changes every

10 seconds

(b) speed of ball changes every 10 seconds

(d) the acceleration of ball is the same as from the

(c)
average speed of ball over any 20 seconds train.
interval is fixed
Answers
ed s.
3.1. (b) 3.2. (c) 3.3. (b) 3.4. (c) 3.5. (b) 3.6. (c)
3.7. (a, c, d) 3.8.
(a, c, e) 3.9.
(a, d) 3.10
(a, c) 3.11
(b, c, d)
rv er
se sh
for Questions
Hints & Solutions Difficult Objective T
ype
.
re li

If h is the maximum height attained by the particle
A. MCQs with only one correct answer
then we can write the following:
s ub
A1. (c): Acceleration of the particle can be zero as well
as non-zero, but when speed of the particle is zero
then its velocity is zero for sure at the same instant.

h=
1 1
a t2 = a t2
2 11 2 22
ht P
t2 a1

=
A2. (b): Velocity of the particle can be written as follows: t1 a2
dx From equations (1) and (2) we can see that a1 > a2;

ig rn

v= = 3at 2 + 2bt + c hence t2 > t1.
dt
Acceleration of the particle can be written as
lr e
follows: A4.
(c): Displacement and distance are necessarily
equal when particle moves in a straight line path
dv d 2 x
Al od
a= = = 6 at + 2b without turning back.

dt dt 2
Velocity and acceleration at t = 0 can be written as A5.
(d): When acceleration of a particle is zero then
follows: it moves with constant speed but the speed may
M
v0 = c remain constant even if the acceleration is non-

zero, for example acceleration of the particle moving
a0 = 2b in a circular path with constant speed is non-zero
©
Hence ratio of initial velocity and initial acceleration and variable because the direction of acceleration
can be written as follows: continuously changes.
v0/a0 = c/2b.
Hence option (b) is correct. (d): v = t − 3
A6.
⇒ v = 3 − t, when t < 3 s

A3.
(c): When the particle moves upwards then its
weight as the well as the air resistance both acts And, v = t − 3, when t > 3 s.

downwards; hence the retardation for the upward
Graph between velocity and time is shown in
journey can be calculated as follows: figure.

Mg + F = Ma1
F
⇒
a1 = g + …(1)
M

When particle moves downward then weight acts
downwards but air resistance acts upwards; hence
the acceleration during the downward journey can
be calculated as follows:

Mg − F = Ma2
F
Displacement of the parrot is equal to the area
⇒ a2 = g − …(2)
M under the graph.

1  A12. (d): Acceleration is opposite to the velocity; hence

Displacement = 2  × 3 × 3  m = 9 m body comes to rest at a certain instant and then it
2 
reverses it motion. Unless we know the time when
particle comes to rest, we cannot decide the relation
A7. (d) between s1 and s2. Magnitude of initial velocity and
A8. (c) acceleration both are required. Hence option (d) is
ed s.
A9. (c): If we assume north direction as the positive correct.
direction then graph between velocity and time is A13. (a): Particle comes to rest at the highest point and
shown in figure. then it starts falling down due to the gravity. Distance
rv er
travelled in t seconds can be written as follows:
1 2 1
H= gt = g (1)2 = g/2.
se sh
2 2
.
A14. (d): During the motion acceleration remains
downward. Hence option (d) is correct.
re li
A15. (a): Velocity in terms of displacement (x) can be
s ub
We can see that velocity of the particle becomes zero at
written from the graph as follows:
⇒
v
v = v0 − 0 x
x0
5.5 s. Sixth second of motion means the time interval
ht P
between 5 s and 6 s. We can see that the area under We can differentiate the above equation to get the
the graph for this interval is equally divided above and acceleration.
below the time axis; hence the net displacement in this dv v  dx 
⇒ a= = 0− 0  
ig rn
interval becomes zero. Hence option (c) is correct. dt x0  dt 

A10. (a): Let us assume the upward direction as the
v0
positive direction and h be the desired height ⇒ a=− (v)
x0
lr e
mentioned in the question. We can use the following

equation of motion. Substituting v in above equation we get the
Al od
1 following:
S = ut + at2
2 v0  v 
⇒ a=− v − 0x
⇒ h = ut −
1 2
gt x0  0 x0 
2
M
⇒ 2
gt − 2ut + 2h = 0 v02 v02
⇒ a= x−
t1 and t2 are the two roots of the above equation. We x02 x0
can write sum of the roots as follows: As per above equation, option (a) is correct.
©
2u
t1 + t2 = A16. (d): x =t+5
g
⇒
x = t2 + 10t + 25
g(t1 + t2 )
⇒ u= dx
2 ⇒
v= = 2t + 10
Hence option (a) is correct. dt
dv dv
A11. (b): = αt3 / 2 ⇒ a= = 2 m/s2
dt dt
⇒
dv = at3/2dt Hence option (d) is correct.
v t A17. (b): Displacement in nth second can be written as
∫ dv = α ∫ t
3/ 2
⇒
dt follows:
u 0
1
t
Sn =
a (2n – 1)
2  2
⇒
[v]uv = α  t5 / 2 
 5 0
Hence we can write
2 1 1
α[ t5 / 2 − 0]
v−u = Sn + 1 =
a [2(n + 1) – 1] = a (2n + 1)
⇒
2 2
5
2 Sn 2n − 1
v = u + αt 5/ 2
=
⇒ Sn+1 2n + 1
5

A18. (a): Distance covered by the particle which is 1 2

dropped from top of the building in one second. 48 +
t = 10 t
2
1 1 t2 − 20 t + 96 = 0
h = gt 2 = × 10 × (1) 2 = 5 m.
2 2 t = 12 seconds
Hence particle projected from the bottom must cover
t = 8 seconds
100 − 5 = 95 m in one second to cross the other particle
ed s.
at this instant. Assuming the upward direction as the The minimum time taken by man is 8 seconds.
positive direction we can use the following equation: BA2. (b): Let a particle gain maximum height H in time t
rv er
1 with initial speed is u.
S = ut + at2
2
1
⇒ 95 = u (1) + (− 10) (1)2
se sh
2
.
⇒ u = 100 m/s.
A19. (a): Let speed of the car is u. And it is moving opposite
re li
to the buses hence relative speed of approach becomes
s ub
30 + u. Since relative speed is constant hence we can
write the time taken as follows:
t=
distance
=
5

relative speed 30 + u
ht P
Time is given to be 4 min; hence we can write the
following:
4 5
ig rn
=
60 30 + u H
At h = , v = 10 m/s
⇒ 30 + u = 75 2
lr e
⇒ u = 45 km/h Acceleration acting from A to B is −g

Hence option (a) is correct. v2 = u2 + 2a (AB)
Al od
A20. (c): x = (2 + t)1/2

2 H
dx 1 102 = u − 2 g   ...(i)
⇒ v = = (2 + t) −1 / 2 2
dt 2
M
d2 x 1 1 For motion A to C
⇒ a =
= × − (2 + t) −3 / 2 v2 = u2 + 2a (AC)
dt 2 2 2
1 0 = u2 − 2gH
⇒ a = −

©
4 (2 + t)3 / 2 u2 = 2gH...(ii)
1 From equation (ii) and (i)
⇒ a = −
4 x3 H
100 = 2 gH − 2 g
Hence option (c) is correct. 2
gH = 100 m
B. MCQs from Competitive Examinations
10 H = 100 m
H = 10 m
Medical Entrance
BA3. (b): Let particle take t sec to reach ground.
BA1. (d): a = 1 m s−2,
1
Bus starts from rest and travelled distance ‘S’ in h = gt2
2
time ‘t’
1 2 1
So, S = 0 + at ⇒ 19.6 = × 9.8 × t2
2 2
1 2 1 2 ⇒ t=2s
= 0+ t = t We have to find distance covered in last sec.
2 2
A man is standing 48 m from bus, he also takes Distance covered in 1 sec can be written as
time t to catch the bus with velocity v = 10 m/s 1 1
h1 = gt2 = × 9.8 × (1)2 = 4.9 m
⇒ (48 + S) = vt 2 2

Hence remaining distance will be covered in last From equation (i) × 4 - (ii)
second.
1
x = h - h1 = 19.6 - 4.9 = 14.7 m 160 = 20u + a (100)
2
Option (b) is correct.
1
−105 = −10u − a (100)
BA4. (d): The relative velocity of bird with respect to 2
ed s.
train v = 10 + 5 = 15 m/s 55 = 10 u
The distance covered by bird is 120 m with same u = 5.5 m/s
rv er
velocity.
BA8. (d): Ball takes time from initial point to final point
120 u
Time taken by bird, t = = 8 seconds (where velocity is zero) t = and come back at its
15
se sh
g
.
BA5. (c): For stone dropped from rest we can write initial point in same time, total time is 2t, given
1 condition, at least two balls must be in air.
h = gt2 ...(i)
2
re li

So, 2t > 4 seconds
For stone projected upward we can write
2u
s ub 1
h = -ut1 + gt21...(ii)
2
For stone projected downward we can write

g
>4
u > 19.6 m/s
1 BA9. (b): Let initial velocity of bullet be u.
h = ut2 + gt22...(iii)
ht P
2
After penetrating plank of thickness x
Multiplying equation (ii) with t2 and equation (iii) u 19
with t1 and then adding both we get the following: Final velocity of bullet v = u −
= u
20 20
ig rn
1
Let us assume the bullet crossed n number of
h(t1 + t2) = gt1t2(t1 + t2)
2 planks
lr e
1
Total thickness of plank is nx
⇒ h=
gt1t2...(iv)
2
For a plank, v2 = u2 + 2ax
Al od
Comparing equations (i) and (iv) we get  19 

2
−39 2

 u = u2 + 2ax ⇒ 2ax = u
20 400
t= t1 t2

After penetrating n plank, bullet is stopped
M

∴
v′2 = u2 + 2a(nx)
BA6. (a): Upward motion and downward motion are
0 = u2 + (2ax)n
identical. Hence distance covered during the last ‘t’
©
second is same as distance covered in first ‘t’ sec, 2

 −39u2 

0= u + n
after reaching maximum height.  400 
1
S = ut + at2 39u2
2
0 = u2 − n
400
1 2 1 2
⇒
h=0+ gt ⇒ h = gt 400
2 2 u ≠ 0,
n= ≈ 10.26
39
So, the bullet will stop at 11th plank.

1 2
BA7. (c): S = ut + at
2 BA10. (c): x = a eat + bebt
(25) dx
40 = 5u + a ...(i)
2 v= = aαeat + bbebt
dt
S′ = 40 + 65 = 105,
dv
t′ = 5 + 5 = 10 s a= = aa2eat + bb2ebt
dt
1 We can see that v and a both remain positive all
S′ = ut′ + a t′2
2 the time and hence velocity of particle goes on
1 increasing with time.
105 = 10u + a (100) ...(ii)
2 Hence option (c) is correct.

BA11. (c): u = 10 m/s, v = 20 m/s, S = 135 m v = 18t − 3t2

v2 − u2 dv
⇒ =a = 18 − 6t
2S dt
dv
For maxima or minima, = 0, the time
400 − 100 dt
⇒ =a 18 − 6t = 0
2 × 135
ed s.
t = 3 seconds
10
a= m/s2 The distance covered in time t = 3 seconds
9
rv er
v=u+at x = 9(3)2 − (3)3 = 54 m
10 BA16. (b):
20 = 10 + t
9
se sh
.
t = 9 seconds
BA12. (b): a = 4/3 ms−2, u = 0 Let acceleration acting in both cases be a
tn = 3rd second
re li
Motion from A to B:
Distance travelled by particle in 3rd second. 1 2

s ub S3rd = S3 − S2
=
1 1
a (3 ) − a ( 2 )
2 2

x = ut +
1
2
at
x = 0 + a (10) = 50 a...(i)
2
2 2 2
ht P
4 Again v1 = u + at
= (5 ) v1 = 10a
3×2
Motion from B to C:
ig rn
10
= m 1 2
3 y = v1t + at
BA13. (d): x = 40 + 12t − t 3 2
lr e
1 2
dx = 10 at + at
= 0 + 12 − 3t2 2
dt
Al od
1
v = 12 − 3t2, = 100 a + a (100)
2
when velocity is zero (body at rest) y = 150 a...(ii)
12 − 3t2 = 0
M
Divide equation (i) by (ii)

t2 = 4
x 50 a
t = +2, −2 =
y 150 a
Only positive time is taken, ∴ t = 2 s
©
y = 3x
The distance travelled by particles before coming to
BA17. (b): Let x be the distance between X and Y.
rest in time t = 2 seconds is
total distance
x = 40 + 12(2) − 23 Average speed =
total time
= 40 + 24 − 8
x+ x
= 56 m x x
⇒ vav = +
BA14. (a): Both balls are dropped so, uA = 0, uB = 0 vu vd
1 1 2vd vu
g ( tA ) , SB = g (tB ) 2
2
SA = ⇒ vav =
2 2 vd + vu
SA t2  t
= A2 BA18. (b): Given acceleration, f = f0 1 − 
SB tB  T
tA SA 16 4 dv  t
= = = = f0 1 − 
tB SB 25 5 dt  T
BA15. (a): Given, x is the position with respect to time t  t

2 3
v= ∫ f0 1 − T  dt
x = 9t − t
dx  t2 
v= = 18t − 3t2 v = f0  t − +C
dt  2T 

Given, t = 0, v = 0 BA21. (d): vB = 10 m/s

0 = f0(0 − 0) + C ⇒C=0 Let both reach at point P in time t = 100 second.
 t2  Motion of scooterist from A to P
v = f0  t −
 2T 
Time at which acceleration is zero is given by
ed s.
 t2 
f0  t −  = 0
T
rv er

⇒ t = T total distance
= vs
The particle velocity in the time interval t = 0 to total time
se sh
t=T
.
1000 + x
= vs...(i)
t=T  t 100
vx = ∫t =0 f0 1 −  dt
 T Motion of bus from B to P in same time
re li
T total distance
  t2   = vB
s ub
=  f0  t −
 
 T

2T  
0

total time
x
100
= 10 m/s
= f0  T −  − f0 (0) x = 1000 m ...(ii)
ht P
 2
From equation (i) and (ii)
T 
= f0   − 0 2000
2 = vs
ig rn
100
1 vs = 20 m/s
= f0 (T )
2 BA22. (c): Let a ball takes time t to meet the another ball,
lr e
3 the distance covered by ball is S. (t = 18 s)

BA19. (b): tan q = = 3
3
Al od
1 2 1
gt = g (18) 2 ...(i)
S=
2 2
Again a ball is thrown with velocity v and meet with
previous ball, the displacement covered by ball will
M
be same
1 2
S = vt′ +
gt′
2
©
1
S = v ( t − 6) + g ( t − 6)
2

q = 60°
2
BA20. (b): Initial speed u = 0 Substituting from (i)
1 1
Given constant force, F = m a g(18) 2 = v (18 − 6) + g (18 − 6)
2

2 2
F
Acceleration acting in the particle, a =
= constant g g
(18) − (12) = v × 12
2 2
m
2 2
The acceleration acting remains constant on the
particle g × 30 × 6
v=
2 × 12
1 2
S1 = 0 + at 10 × 30 × 6
2 =
2 × 12
1
a (10) = 50 a
2
S1 = v = 75 m/s
2
1 1
a (20) = 200 a
2 BA23. (c): displacement, x =
S2 = 0 +
2 ( t + 5)
S1 50 a 1 dx −1
= = Acceleration = = − x2
S2 200 a 4 dt (t + 5)2
S2 = 4 S1 v = − x2

dv dx x 2x
= − 2x +
dt dt 3 3
=
a = − 2xv x x
+
= − 2x(− x2) 60 90
a = 2x3 60 × 90
= = 36 km/h
( + 60)
90
ed s.
= 2[(−v)1/2]3
a = 2(−v)3/2 BA27. (c): v (m/s)
rv er
a ∝ v3/2 A v = 20 m/s B
20
BA24. (a): For body A
2
2
/s
a = – 4 m/s
Distance travelled in 5th second
m
se sh
2
.
=
1 9
a
a (2n − 1) = a1 [ n = 5 s]
C
y= t (s)
2 1 2 O t1 = 10 s t2 = 40 s t3 = 45 s
For body B, the distance travelled in 3rd second
re li
From O to A, a = 2 m/s2, t1 = 10 s
n′ = 3 s

s ub y=
1
a (2n′ − 1)
2 2
1

v = u + at1
= 0 + 2 × 10
= 20 m/s
y= a (5 )
ht P
2 2 From A to B, v = 20 m/s till t2 = 40 s. At point C,
v = 0 and from B to C, a = −4 m/s2
9 5
a = a2 ∴ v = u + at3
2 1 2
ig rn
0 = 20 − 4 t3
a1 5 t3 = 5 seconds
=
a2 9
Total distance covered by the particle
lr e
BA25. (a): Let height of one storey be h. = Area under v − t graph

Al od
Total height = 9h 1 1
= × 20 × 10 + 30 × 20 + × 20 × 5
A ball is dropped from height 9 h in t = 3 2 2
1 = 100 + 600 + 50
g ( t ) [u = 0]
2
∴ 9h = 0 +
2
M
= 750 m
9h = 5 × 3 × 3 BA28. (d): Maximum height gained by ball is 5 m
h=5m H=5m
Let, in the first second it crosses the n stories of Initial velocity of ball be u
©
total height nh ⇒ v2 = u2 + 2aH

1 0 = u2 − 2gH [v = 0]
g (1)
2
∴ nh = 0 +
2
u = 2gH = 10 m/s
nh = 5
Time taken by ball to gain height H is
n = 1 storey
v = u + at
x
BA26. (d): Let the total distance be x. The car covers in 10 − 10 t = 0
3
time t1, with velocity v1 = 20 km/h t = 1 sec.
x The time interval for balls between one another is
∴ t1 = 3 = x
1 second. So, 60 balls are thrown in one minute.
20 60
BA29. (d): x = at2 − b
2x
Again it covers in time t2 with velocity v2 = dx
3 v= = 2 at − 0
60 km/h dt
2x x Acceleration of particle,
∴ t2 = = dv
3 × 60 90 = 2a − 0
dt
total distance coverd = 2a
Average speed =
total time Since acceleration is constant hence it is never zero.

BA30. (b): Speed-time graph will be straight line for both BA35. (a): Acceleration = + a, for time t1
upward and downward journey but slope of upward From initial to maximum velocity.
journey will be more.
vmax = 0 + at1
BA31. (c): The distance travelled from O to A is
v
t1 = max
a
ed s.
It then decelerates with constant rate b and stops in
time t2
0 = vmax − bt2
rv er
vmax
t2 =
b
If the total time is given t,
se sh
.
t = t1 + t2
vmax = abt
( a + b)
re li
1 1 A36. (b): h = 20 m, u = 0
B

s ub OA = ut +
From A to B is
1
2
g (2)2 = g (4) = 2g[u = 0]
1
2 ball hit the ground with velocity v
∴ v2 = u2 + 2gh
AB = g (4)2 − g (2)2 v2 = 0 + 2 × 10 × 20
ht P
2 2 v = 20 m/s
1
= g (12) BA37. (a): x = 8 + 12 t − t3
2
B to C dx
ig rn
1 1 v= = 12 − 3 t2
BC = S3 − S2 = g (6)2 − g (4)2 dt
2 2 dv
1 a= = − 6 t
lr e
BC = g (36−16) dt
2
For v=0
Al od
1
BC = g (20) 12 − 3 t2 = 0
2
t2 = 4
1  1 1
OA: AB: BC =  g(4)  : g (12) : g (20) t = + 2, −2 ⇒t=2s
2  2 2
M
= 4 : 12 : 20 The retardation of particle at t = 2 s is

=1:3:5 a = − 6 × 2 = −12 m/s2
BA32. (c): In graphs a, b and d there are two velocities BA38. (a): For height h1
©
at same instant and it is not possible. Hence only 1

S5 = h1 = 0 + g (5)2…(i)
option (c) is correct. 2
A33. (c): A ball is thrown with initial velocity v0
B h2 = S10 − S5
At maximum height h, final velocity must be zero, 1 1 1
h2 = g (10)2 − g (5)2 = g (75) …(ii)
2 2
v = u + 2gh 2 2 2
2 1 1
0 = v0 − 2gh h3 = S15 − S10 = g (15)2 − g (10)2
2 2
⇒ v0 = 2 gh 1
= g (125) …(iii)
Now, h′ = 3 h and initial velocity be v′. Final velocity 2
will be zero, at maximum height h′ 1 1 1
h1 : h2 : h3 = g (25) : g (75) : g (125) = 1 : 3 : 5
v2 = (v′)2 − 2g (3h) 2 2 2
0 = (v′)2 − 2g (3h) h2 h3
h1 = =
v′ = 2 g × 3h = 3 v0 3 5
BA39. (b): v (x) = βx−2n
ds
BA34. (a): vins =
= tan q dv( x) dx
dt = b (−2n) x−2n−1
The point at which slope of (s, t) graph is maximum, dt dt
−2n − 1  dx 
will have maximum instantaneous velocity = b (−2n) x (βx−2n) v( x) = dt 
 
Point C is more steeper than A, B and D a (x) = −β2 (2n) x−4n − 1

BA40. (a): v = At + Bt2 BA45. (b): For mass m1, time taken to fall from height h is
dx 2h
= At + Bt2 t1 =
dt g
t=2 For mass m2
∫ dx ∫t = 1 ( At + Bt
2
= ) dt
2h
t2 =
ed s.
t 22
t 32 g
= A   + B  t1 = t2
2
 1  3 1
BA46. (b): h = 10 m
rv er
3A 7B v2 = 0 + 2g(10)
= +
2 3 v2 = 196 m/s
BA41. (b): For the first half let time taken be t1 v = 14 m/s (downwards)
se sh
.
100 m
t1 =
40 kmh −1
For the second half let time taken be t2
re li
100
t2 =
s ub
Average velocity =
v
total displacement
total time
ht P
h′ = 2.5 m, let the velocity with which the ball

(200 × 10−3 ) km
48 = −3 −3
rebounds be u. At maximum height v′ = 0
10 × 100 100 × 10
+
40 km/h v
ig rn
2(40v)
48 =
v + 40
lr e
48v + 40 × 48 = 80 v
v = 60 km h−1 0 = u2 − 2g(2.5)
Al od
BA42. (c): A body travels u2 = 5g

x = Kt2 u = 5g = 7 m/s (upwards)
dx During the collision of ball with the ground in time
M
v= = K (2t)
dt t = 0.01 s
dv dv u − ( − v) 7 + 14
a= = 2K = Constant a= = = = 2100 m/s2
dt dt t 0.01
©
BA43. (b): Time taken for flight BA47. (c): u = 0, v = 72 km/h, t = 10 sec
2u 72000
T= v= = 20 m/s
g 60 × 60
2 × 100 v = u + at = 20 m/s
=
10 20 = 0 + a(10)
= 20 seconds a = 2 m/s2
100
BA44. (b): Time taken by a boy when walking to his school BA48. (d): u = 40 km/h, S = 15 m = m/s
9
is t1 v2 = u2 + 2 aS
6 2
where t1 = hour.  100 
0=  + 2 × a × 15
2 .5  9 
Again time taken when walking from school to home
2
is t2  100  100 × 100 −104
30 a = − 
 ⇒a= − = m/s2
6  9  30 × 81 2430
where t2 = hour 200
4 Now, v = 80 km/h = m/s
12 km 2 × 2 .5 × 4 9
Average speed = = m/s 2 2
v = 0, (v) = u + 2aS′
6 6 6 .5
+ (v)2 = u2 + 2aS′
2 .5 4
2
200 40  200  104
= = km/h 0=   −2× S′
65 13  9  2430

2 × 104 200 × 200 x+x 2x 2v1v2

S′ = \ v = = =
2430 9×9 t1 + t2 x x v1 + v2
 +
S′ = 60 m 
BA49. (d): Average velocity, vav =
total displacement s () 2 1 1
v1 v2
total time taken ( t ) \ = = +

 v v1 v2
Initial position, r1 = 2iˆ + 3 ˆj
ed s.
 Hence option (c) is correct.
Final position, r2 = 13iˆ + 14 ˆj
  
Displacement, s = r2 − r1 JEE (Main) & Other State Boards for
rv er
 

 r −r
vav = 2 1 Engineering Entrance
t2 − t1 BB1. (c): Taking a = g = 9.8 m/s2
se sh
( ) (
13iˆ + 14 ˆj − 2iˆ + 3 ˆj )
.

vav =
5−0
 11iˆ + 11 ˆj
re li
vav =
5

s ub
vav =
11
5
(i + j )
BA50. (c): Let the total length of the path covered by the
ht P
escalator be d.
Let the speed of the girl when escalator is stationary
d
be v1 =
ig rn
t1
d
Let the speed of escalator be v2 =
t2
Let the time taken by the girl to reach the metro For motion along A to B
lr e
station while walking on the moving escalator be t. v2 = u2 + 2gh (u = 0)

d
Al od
Velocity of the girl on the moving escalator, v = v= 2gh = 2 × 9.8 × 50

t
v = v1 + v2 v = 980 m/s
d d d Now motion along B to C
= +
M
t t1 t2 v′2 = v2 + 2aH
1 1 1 tt  v′2 − v2   9 − 980 

= + ⇒ t= 1 2 H= 
t t1 t2 t1 + t2
 =  2 × (−2) 
 2a 
BA51. (c): The component of velocity along X-axis,
©
971
dx = = 242.75 m
vx = = 5 − 4t m/s 4
dt
The component of velocity along Y-axis, Total height = h + H = 50 + 242.75
= 292.75 ≈ 293 m
dy
vx = = 10 m/s BB2. (d): Let tA and tB are times taken by cars A and B to
dt
reach finish point.
Acceleration of the particle along the X-axis,
tA = (tB - t)
dv
ax = x = −4 m/s 2 1 1
dt s = a1tA2 and s = a2tB2
Acceleration of the particle along the Y-axis, 2 2
dvy vA = 2sa1 , vB = 2sa2
ay = =0
dt Difference in velocity,
The net acceleration of the particle is − 4 m/s2 and it
vA - vB = ( 2sa1 − 2sa2 ) = v ...(i)
remains same.
Difference in time.
BA52. (c): Let total distance be 2x. Particle moves
distance x with speed v1 and remaining x with v2.  2s 2s 
(tA - tB) =  − = t ...(ii)
Let t1 and t2 be the time taken by the particle to  a1 a2 
cover corresponding distances.
Solve equation (i) and (ii) we get
x x
As t1 = and t2 = v = t a1a2
v1 v2

BB3. (d): If a is the retardation then 2

1 T 1 1 2
x= 0+ g  =  gT 

2
v − u = −2aS 2
2  3 9 2

To stop after travelling a distance S we can write h
x=
the following (v = 0) 9

2aS = u2 height of the point reached by the ball from ground:
ed s.
S1 u12 u2  80 
2 h 8h
⇒
= 2 ⇒ S2 = 22 (40) =   (40 m) h′ = h − x = h − =
S2 u u1  40  9 9
rv er
2
R

= 160 m BB8. (d): F = v (t )
t2

Hence option (d) is correct. dv R
se sh
m = 2 v (t )
.
BB4. (d): Options (a), (b) and (c) represent the graphs dt t
for a situation when velocity of the particle first
decreases and then becomes zero for a moment dv R 1
∫ =
m ∫ t2
dt
re li
and then it increases in the opposite direction. v
But in the graph (d) we can see that speed is first
s ub
increasing and then decreasing; hence this is not
consistent with others. So option (d) is incorrect.
ln (v) =
−R 1 
2.303 log v ( t ) =
−R 1 
 +c
m t
 +c
BB5. (a): v = v0 + gt + ft2 m t
ht P
dx The best way is to draw a plot between log[v(t)]
= v0 + gt + ft2  1
dt against   .
 t
ig rn
x t =1
∫ dx = ∫ (v 0 )
+ gt + ft 2 dt BB9. (c): Given that the height of the tower is H and
the particle is thrown vertically upwards with a
0 t=0
lr e
speed u.
1
  t2   t3   Let the time taken by the particle to reach the
Al od
x = v0 t + g   + f    highest point from the tower be t.

 2  3   0
At the highest point the velocity of the particle
 g f becomes zero.
x =  v0 + +  u
 2 3
M
0 = −u + gt ⇒ t = …(i)
g
dv Then the time taken by the particle to hit the
BB6. (a): = −2.5 v
dt ground will be, t1 = nt.
©
v= 0 t From equation (i)

dv
∫ v
= ∫ −2.5 dt nu
v = 6.25 t=0
t1 =
…(ii)
g
0 1
 12 
2v  6.25 = −2.5 t
H = −ut1 + gt 2
2 1
From equation (ii)
−2 6.25 = −2.5 t
2
u 1 2  u
2(2.5) = 2.5 t ⇒t=2s H = − un × + gn  
g 2  g
BB7. (c): Given that the time taken
by the ball to reach the ground u2n n2u2
H=− +
from a tower of height h, t = T g 2g
1 2gH = −2u2n + n2u2
h= g T2
2 2gH = u2n(n − 2)
1 2 BB10. (c): Let the total length of the path covered by the
g T = h escalator be d metres.
2
Let x be the distance covered
Speed of the person climbing up stalled escalator,
by the ball from t = 0 to d
v1 = m/s
t = T/3 s 60

d 5t2 − 40t − 240 = 0 ⇒ t2 - 8t - 48 = 0

Speed of the escalator, v2 = m/s
t = 12, − 4
40
Thus, t = 12 s
Let the time taken by the person to walk up the
moving escalator be t seconds For time, 0 ≤ t ≤ 8 s
d Let y1 be the instantaneous position of the stone-1
Thus, the velocity of the person will be, v = m/s
ed s.
t at time t:
v = v1 + v2
y1 = 10t − 5t2
d d d Let y2 be the instantaneous position of the stone-2
rv er
= +
t 60 40 at time t, then its displacement can be written as:
y2 = 40t − 5t2
1 2+3
=
se sh
Thus, the difference of the positions is given by:
t 120
.
y2 − y1 = 30t
120
⇒
t= = 24 s For time 8 s ≤ t ≤ 12 s
5
re li
y1 = − 240
1
BB11. (a): Distance travelled by car in 15 sec = (45) (15) y2 = 40t − 5t2
=

675
2
s ub
m = 337.5 m,
2
Thus, the difference of the positions is given by:
y2 − y1 = -5t2 + 40t + 240
Hence, the correct schematic diagram is as given in
ht P
Distance travelled by scooter in 15 seconds = 30 × 15
option (a).
= 450
Difference of the distance travelled in 15s is
ig rn
= 450 - 337.5 = 112.5 m

675
Let car catches scooter in time t; + 45(t – 15) = 30t
2
lr e
337.5 + 45t – 675 = 30t ⇒ 15t = 337.5 ⇒ t = 22.5 sec

Al od

BB12. (a): Initial speed of stone-1, u1 = 10 m/s
Initial speed of stone-2, u2 = 40 m/s
BB13. (b): Let the mass of the body be m.
M
Then the acceleration of the body due to viscous

force can be expressed as:
F kv
a1 = =−
©
m m
Net acceleration of the body is given by:
kv
a= g−
m
As we know that the acceleration and the velocity
are related as:
dv
Let us first calculate the time taken by each stone a=
to reach to the ground. dt
Or,
Time taken by stone-1 to reach the ground dv kv
= g−
1 dt m
− 240 = 10t − × 10t 2
2 dv
= dt
kv
5t2 − 10t − 240 = 0 ⇒ t2 - 2t - 48 = 0 g−
m
t = 8, − 6
Integrating both sides
Thus, t = 8 s
 kv 
Time taken by stone-2 to reach the ground g−

ln  m = − k t
− 240 = 40t −
1
× 10t 2 g  m
 
2

k S1 − S2 = 2t2 − t2 = t2
Let =α
m t2 = 200
 g − αv  t= 200 = 10 2 s
ln  = − αt
 g  BB16. (c): As it is given that the acceleration is constant and
 g − αv  in negative direction velocity is in positive direction.
ed s.
 = e− αt
 g  The acceleration and velocity are related as:
⇒
g − av = ge−at dv
a=
…(i)
rv er
g dt
⇒
v = (1 − e− αt ) ...(i)
α Taking acceleration to be equal to a negative
constant −K
se sh
dv
a=
.
dt dv
−K =
dt
g
⇒
(αe− αt )
a= dv = − Kdt
re li
α
⇒ a = ge-at…(ii) Integrating both sides
s ub
From equations (i) and (ii) we can conclude that the
appropriate graph is as follows:

∫ dv = − K ∫ dt
v = − Kt + C′
None of the graphs given in the options satisfy the
ht P
above derived relation between the velocity and the
time.
Multiplying dx in numerator and denominator in
ig rn
equation (i)
dv dx dv dx dv
Hence, the correct option is (b). a = × = × =v
lr e
dt dx dx dt dx
BB14. (c): u = 20 m s−1
dv
v = −K
Al od
S = 40 m
dx
Let the acceleration of the car be a
vdv = − Kdx
v2 − u2 = 2aS
Integrating both sides
0 − 202 = 2a × 40
M
⇒ a = − 5 m s−2 ∫ vdv = ∫ − Kdx

If the initial velocity is doubled, then let the distance
travelled by the car before stopping be s. v2
= − Kx + C
©
v2 − u2 = 2as 2
0 − 402 = 2 (− 5) s C v2
⇒
x= −
⇒ s = 160 m K 2K
BB15. (c): The graph given in option (c) is in accordance with
the above derived relation.
BB17. (c): As the velocity is thrown vertically upwards, we
know that a constant acceleration g is acting in the
downward direction.
Let the initial velocity of the body be u, thus the
instantaneous value of the velocity is given by:
v = u − gt
Let the bus and the car meet at P.
The graph corresponding to the above derived
Let the bus and the car meet after time t.
result is as given in option (c).
The distance travelled by the car is given by:

1
× 4 × t 2 = 2t 2
S1 = JEE (Advanced) for IIT Entrance
2 BC1. (b): Here we can see that acceleration remains positive
The distance travelled by the bus is given by: for the first 11 s from the start; hence its speed will
1 keep increasing. Change in speed during 11 s is equal
S2 = × 2 × t 2 = t 2
2 to area under the acceleration−time graph and will

also be equal to maximum speed acquired by the dR K

particle. Note that particle starts from rest. = − R …(ii)
dt 3
1 The velocity of any point on the sphere will be
vmax =
× 10 × 11 = 55 m/s
2 dR

Hence option (b) is correct. v=
dt
ed s.
BC2. (c): Acceleration of the block will be constant and let K
it be a. Block starts from rest. Thus, v = − R
3
1 2 1 a
rv er
Sn =
an − a(n − 1) 2 = (2n − 1) Hence, the correct option is (a)
2 2 2
Substituting n + 1 in place of n we can write the C. MCQs with more than one correct answer
following:
se sh
C1.
(b, c): x = u (t − 4) + a (t − 3)2
.
a a
Sn+1 = (2n + 2 − 1) = (2n + 1) dx
2 2 ⇒
v= = u + 2a(t − 3)
dt
Sn 2n − 1
re li
= dv
Sn+1 2n + 1 ⇒ a= = 2a
s ub
BC3. (b): Kinetic energy can be written as follows:

dt
We can see that options (b) and (c) are correct.
C2.
(a, b, c)
1 1 C3.
(a, d)
ht P
K = mu2 = mg2t2
2 2 C4.
(a, b, c, d): Initially velocity is negative and then
At the time of collision kinetic energy of the ball after time T it becomes positive, so the particle has
first decreases and then increases. Hence option (b) reversed its direction of motion. Option (a) is correct.
ig rn
is correct. Slope of the v-t graph is acceleration and we can see

BC4. (a): Total mass of the object = Volume × Density that the slope of given graph is constant; hence the
M = ρV acceleration of particle remains constant. Option
lr e
Differentiating both sides (b) is correct.

Al od
dM dV dρ Area below and above the time axis are equal in

=ρ +V given time interval hence the net displacement
dt dt dt
becomes zero. Option (c) is correct.
As the mass remains constant
Speed of the particle after time 2T is same as speed
dρ
M
dV of particle t = 0. Option (d) is correct.

ρ +V =0
dt dt C5.
(a, b, c)
dV dρ
ρ = −V C6.
(a, b, c, d): When velocity and acceleration are in the
dt dt same direction then magnitude of velocity increases.
©
1 dV 1 dρ When velocity and acceleration are along the opposite

=−
V dt ρ dt directions then magnitude of velocity decreases.
1 dρ C7.
(a, b, d): Options (a) and (b) can be understood.

As it is given in the question that is a constant,
ρ dt When speed of the particle remains zero then it
let it be equal to K.
1 dV means particle is at rest in a time interval; hence
= −K velocity also remains zero and hence acceleration
V dt
remains zero during that interval of time.
dV
= − KV …(i) C8.
(b)
dt
C9.
(a, b, d):
The instantaneous volume of the sphere is given by
4 x = at2 − bt3
V = πR3 dx
3 ⇒ v= = 2at − 3bt 2
dV dR dt
= 4 πR2
dt dt dv
From equation (i) ⇒ a= = 2a − 6 bt
dt
dR
4 πR2 = − KV x = 0 ⇒ the t2(a − bt) = 0 ⇒ t = 0 and t = a/b

dt
Hence the particle returns to origin after time t = a/b.

dR 4  v = 0 ⇒ 2at − 3bt2 = 0 ⇒ t (2a − 3bt) = 0 ⇒ t = 0 and

4 πR2 = − K  πR3 
dt 3  t = 2a/3b

Hence the particle comes to rest after time 2a/3b. v

⇒ [ln v]v0 = − at
a = 0 ⇒ 2a − 6bt = 0 ⇒ t = a/3b
v
Hence acceleration of the particle becomes zero ⇒ ln = − at
after time t = a/3b. v0
C10. (a, d) ⇒ v = v0e−at…(i)
C11. (c): Note that the particle is moving in a straight Further we can proceed as follows:
ed s.
line and to make average velocity zero in an dx
⇒ = v0 e− αt
interval of time, particle must return to the initial dt
rv er
point of motion. Return to the initial point along ⇒ dx = v0 e− αt dt
the same straight line is possible only when the
x t
particle reverses its motion. To reverse the motion,
∫ dx = v0 ∫ e
−αt
⇒ dt
se sh
particle must come to the rest at least for an
.
0 0
instant. And it is not possible without acceleration. t
Hence only option (c) is correct.  e− αt 
x = v0  
⇒
C12. (a, b, d): If particle is projected with such an  − α 0
re li
speed that time taken to reach top point remains
v0
s ub
greater than 1 s, then distance covered during the
last second of upward journey is same as distance
travelled during first second of its downward
⇒
α
[1 − e− αt ] …(ii)
x=
We can calculate time taken by the particle when its speed

becomes half using equation (i).
journey. Hence it is independent of initial velocity
ht P
of projection but time taken to reach the top point v = v0 e− αt
must be greater than 1 s. Only option (c) is not
v0
possible. Hence options (a), (b) and (d) are correct. ⇒ = v0 e−αt ⇒ eαt = 2
2
ig rn
C13. (a, b):

⇒ at = ln 2
t 3 5t 2
Given, x= − + 6t + 7 ln 2
3 2 ⇒ t =
lr e
α
dx
⇒
= t 2 − 5t + 6 …(1)
v= Substituting t = infinity in equation (ii), we get x = v0/α
Al od
dt
dv Passage II
⇒ a= = 2t − 5 …(2)
dt D4 (d) D5 (c) D6 (d)
For particle to be in a state of rest we can write the Particle is projected from point A with an initial velocity u =
M
following: 20 m/s in upward direction, and time taken by the particle

v = 0 ⇒ t2− 5t + 6 = 0 ⇒ (t − 3)(t − 2) = 0 to return to same point is given by:
⇒ t = 2 s, 3 s 2u 2 × 20
t = = = 4 s.
©
Hence there are two instants when particle is g 10

at rest and corresponding acceleration at these Maximum height reached by particle from top of the tower
instants can be calculated by substituting in can be written as follows:
equation (2).
u2 20 × 20
For t = 2 s ⇒ a = 2 × 2 − 5 = − 1 m/s2 h=
= = 20 m.
2g 2 × 10
For t = 3 s ⇒ a = 2 × 3 − 5 = 1 m/s2
Height of the tower is 20 m hence maximum height attained
Hence we can see that both options (a) and (b) both
by the particle above the ground is 40 m.
are possible.
Time to reach the bottom of tower can be calculated using
D. MCQs based on passage/comprehension following relation:
1
Passage I S = ut + at2
2
D1 (d) D2 (a) D3 (c) Assuming the upward direction as the positive direction
dv we can substitute the values in above equation.
= − av
dt 1
dv −20 = 20t +
(−10)t 2
⇒ = − adt 2
v ⇒ t2 − 4t − 4 = 0
v t
dv 4 ± 16 + 16 4 ± 4 2
⇒ ∫ v
= −α ∫ dt ⇒ t= = = 2±2 2
v0 0 2 2

Negative sign will produce negative result and is not in front of eyes then displacement of corresponding
acceptable; hence using the positive sign we can write the image on retina remains proportionally very small
time taken by the particle to reach the bottom as follows: and hence the objects appear stationary.
t = (2 + 2 2 ) s INTEGER TYPE
Passage III
[4]: Velocity attained by the balloon in 8 s: v = u + at
1.
ed s.
D7 (a) D8 (d) D9 (c) ⇒ v = 0 + 1.25 × 8 = 10 m/s.
x = 5t 2 − 20 Above calculated velocity will be the initial velocity
rv er
X-coordinate of the particle becomes zero when it crosses of the stone.
the origin. Displacement of balloon in 8 s:
x = 5t 2 − 20 = 0 ⇒ t = 2 s 1 1
S = ut + at2 = 0 + × 1.25 × (8)2 = 40 m
se sh
2 2
.
Hence option (a) is correct for D7.
Now we can say that stone has initial velocity
Velocity of the particle can be written as follows: 10 m/s directed upward and final displacement to
dx reach the ground is 40 m downward. Acceleration
v= = 10t
re li

dt due to gravity is always downward.
We can see that velocity of the particle is always positive
s ub
hence it never reverses its direction of motion.
Hence option (d) is correct for D8.
Acceleration of particle can be written as follows:

Let us assume downward direction to be positive
and using the following equation:
S = ut +
1
at2
2
ht P
dv ⇒ 40 = − 10t + (1/2) × 10 × t2
a= = 10 2
dt ⇒ 5t − 10t − 40 = 0
For magnitude of velocity to become equal to that of ⇒ t2 − 2t − 8 = 0
ig rn
acceleration, we can write the following: 2 ± 4 + 32 2 ± 6

10t = 10 ⇒ t = 1 s. ⇒
t= =
2 2
Hence option (c) is correct for D9. Only positive sign will provide correct answer.
lr e
ASSERTION REASON TYPE ⇒ t = 4 s.

Al od
Hence answer is 4.
1. (d): Velocity is a vector quantity; hence it can 2. [2]: Let u be the magnitude of initial velocity which
change due to the change in magnitude as well is directed upwards. Then as per given information,
as the direction. In uniform circular motion the we can write the following:
M
particle accelerates but its speed remains constant. 1 2

2. (a): While ascending or descending, particle u2 − 2 gh = u + 2 gh
2
covers the same distance. Acceleration during the ⇒ 4u2 − 8 gh = u2 + 2gh
downward motion (g − F/m) is less than retardation
©
10 gh
during upward motion (g + F/m). Hence using ⇒ u2 =
1 3
h = gt2 we can understand that time of ascent is Maximum height attained by the body can be
2
less than the time of decent. written as follows:
u2 5h
4. (e): If speed is never zero in an interval of time then H= = .
the particle must have covered a certain distance; 2g 3
hence its average speed cannot be zero. Similarly Comparing it with the given result we get m = 5
when the particle is moving in a circular path then and n = 3; hence value of m − n = 2.
distance covered by the particle in any interval is Hence answer is 2.
not zero hence the average speed cannot be zero. 3. [3]: Given equation can be written as follows:
9. (b): Both the statements are true but statement 2 x =t−3
is not the correct explanation to the statement 1. ⇒ x = t2 − 6t + 9
Relative velocity of near stationary objects and as
Velocity can be written as follows:
well as far stationary objects is same with respect to
the moving train but still brain perceives far objects v = 2t − 6
nearly stationary. v = 0 ⇒ t = 3 s.
When some object moves in front of our eyes then Hence answer is 3.
observed displacement of object is proportional to the 4. [5]: Let s be the displacement and v the velocity
displacement of image of object formed by eye lens on then we can write the following:
the retina. When object at a very large distance moves v2 = 10s

We can understand that above equation is true for

Velocity attained by the balloon in time T will be
constant acceleration and we can compare it with same as initial velocity of stone.
standard equation v2 = u2 + 2as then we get to know g gT
the following:
v = u + at ⇒ v = 0 + T =
n n
Initial velocity u = 0,
Let us assume downward direction as positive
And 2a = 10 ⇒ a = 5 m/s2. direction for the stone. We can write the following
ed s.
Hence answer is 5. for the stone.
5. [0] gT
Initial velocity: u = −

6. [3]: v = 4 + 4s
rv er
n
Squaring the above equation we get the following: 1  g 2
v2 = 4 + 4s Displacement: s = h =
 T
2  n
se sh
We can see that the above equation is same as that Acceleration: a = g

.
for constant acceleration. We can compare the above
Time: t = T
equation with v2 = u2 + 2as to get the following: Equation: S = ut + ½ at2

Initial velocity: u = 2 m/s,
re li
gT 2  gT  g
Acceleration: a = 2 m/s2. ⇒
= − T + T2
2n  n  2

s ub
Displacement in time t = 1 can be calculated with
the following equation:
S = ut +
1
at2
⇒

1
2n
1 1
=− +
n 2
2 3 1
ht P
1 ⇒
= ⇒n=3
⇒ S = 2 × 1 + × 2 × (1)2 = 3 m. 2n 2
2
Hence answer is 3.
Hence answer is 3.
ig rn
7. [6]: Area under the acceleration-time graph

represents the change in velocity. Area above the NCERT Exemplar Problems: MCQs Type-I
time axis is taken as positive and below the time
axis, it is taken as negative. To acquire initial 3.1. (b): In graph (b), for one value of x, there are two
lr e
velocity again, change in velocity must be zero. If values of t.

The correct option is (b).
Al od
we can extend the graph for 6 s then we can see

that total area becomes zero due to equal amounts 3.2. (c): So x > 0, v < 0, before reaching 4th floor lift is
of positive and negative areas. Hence particle retarded, i.e. acceleration is opposite to velocity and
acquires back its initial velocity at t = 6 s. hence it is directed upward, so a > 0.
M
Answer is 6. The correct option is (c).

8. [3]: t = ax2 + bx 3.3. (b): In time T, maximum distance travelled = v0T.
dt For one-dimensional motion, the displacement x
⇒ = 2αx + β
dx and T satisfy − v0T < x < v0T.
©
Hence instantaneous velocity of the particle can be The correct option is (b).
written as follows:
3.4. (c): Time taken to travel a distance of L/2 with
dx 1
⇒ v = = …(1) velocity V1 is
dt 2αx + β L /2
t2 = and
We can differentiate the above relation of velocity V1
to get the acceleration. Time taken to travel a remaining distance of L/2
dv 1 dx with velocity V2 is
⇒ a = =− 2
× 2α × L /2
dt (2αx + β) dt t2 =
In above relation dx/dt is instantaneous velocity V2
v and also we can use equation (1) to rewrite the L L
Average velocity, vav = =
above relation as follows: t1 + t2 
L 1 1
⇒ a = − v2 × 2a × v  + 
2  V1 V2 
⇒ a = − av3 2V1V2
We can see that n = 3. = .
V1 + V2
Hence answer is 3.
9. [3]: Height above the ground attained by balloon in The correct option is (c).
time T can be written as follows: 3.5. (b): Given, Displacement, x = (t − 2)2
1  g dx
h =   T2 …(1) Velocity, v = = 2 (t − 2) m s−1
2  n dt

dv Thus, option (c) can be correct. Also, if the motion

Acceleration, a = = 2 m s−2 is uniformly accelerated (acceleration is constant),
dt
this implies that velocity is increasing with time
At t = 0, v = −4 m s−1
and hence, velocity-time graph is a straight line
At t = 2, v = 0 with a positive slope. Thus, option (d) is correct.
At t = 4, v = 4 m s−1 The correct options are (a), (c) and (d).
ed s.
Velocity-time graph is as shown in the figure. 3.8. (a, c, e): At point A, slope of graph is zero, so v = 0.
At B, x − t graph is parallel to time axis, so v = 0 and
a = 0.
rv er
At C there is change in slope, so v and a vanish
Between A and D, average velocity is negative
se sh
Also, slope at D > slope at E
.
So, speed at D will be more than at E.
The correct options are (a), (c) and (e).
re li
3.9. (a, d): Since x = t − sin t
v = 1 − cos t
s ub
Distance travelled = Area AOC + Area BCD
and a = sin t
x (t) > 0, for all t > 0
At t = 0, v(t) = 0. So, v(t) can be zero for one value
ht P
1 1 of t
= (4 × 2) + (4 × 2)
2 2 At t = 0 and π, a (t) = 0
= 8 m. If t = 0, v (t) = 0, if t = π, v(t) = 1 − (−1) = 2
ig rn
The correct option is (b). So v(t) lies between 0 and 2.

3.6. (c): Let L be the total distance travelled on the Here we can see that v(t) is also equal to zero at
escalator. certain instants and hence is not always greater
lr e
L than zero. So option (b) is not correct.

Velocity of girl, vg =
t1
Al od
The correct options are (a) and (d).

L 3.10 (a, c): For a stretched spring, restoring force
Velocity of escalator, va =
t2 F = −kx
1
Relative velocity of girl w.r.t. escalator Potential energy, P.E. = kx2
M
2
= vg + va
When particle is just released, displacement x = xmax
L L
= + Fmax kxmax
t1 t2 ∴ a= = = maximum
©
m m
If t is the time taken by her to walk up on the
At equilibrium, x = 0, so a = 0, and the P.E. is
moving escalator, then
converted into K.E. and hence speed of mass is
L L L maximum at equilibrium position.
= +
t t1 t2 The correct options are (a) and (c).
1 3.11 (b, c, d): The ball is moving with the moving train.
1 1
or = + So, the direction of motion of the ball is same as
t t1 t2 that of the train.
t1t2 Speed of the ball as seen from the ground before
or t=
t1 + t2 collision with the wall on the other side of the train
The correct option is (c). = 10 + 1 = 11 m/s.
Speed of the ball after elastic collision with the wall
NCERT Exemplar Problems: MCQs Type-II = 10 − 1 = 9 m/s
3.7. (a, c, d): Option (a) is correct as quantity B may The collision is perfectly elastic. So, momentum
represent time. and kinetic energy are both conserved. So, average
Here option (b) is wrong because for uniform motion, speed of the ball over an interval of 20 sec is fixed.
v − t graph is simply a straight line parallel to the The velocity of train is constant (= 10 m/s). So, the
time axis (velocity remains constant in uniform ball is in inertial frame and hence, the acceleration
motion). If the motion is uniform, displacement- of the ball is the same as from the train.
time graph is a straight line with a positive slope. The correct options are (b), (c) and (d).

Time Allowed: 2 hours Maximum Marks: 35
ed s.
1. When can we say that circular motion is periodic?(1)
rv er
2. What are vector quantities? Give some examples. (1)
3. What is the use of speedometer? (1)
se sh
4. What does negative slope of a position-time graph signify? (1)
.
5. Is it possible for a uniformly accelerating object to change its direction of velocity? (1)
6. Define instantaneous acceleration with example. (2)
re li
7. How are rest and motion relative? Explain with an example. (2)
s ub
8. What parameters can be determined from velocity-time graph of motion?
9. Calculate the acceleration of an object if its velocity is given by v = ( )
12t − 2 .
(2)
(3)
ht P
10.
A stone is dropped from 100 m high cliff. Another stone is thrown upward from ground with a velocity
10 m/s. At what time both the stones will meet each other? (3)
11.
A car is moving on a straight road. After covering a distance of 420 m in 18 s, it turns back and stops after
ig rn
8 s half the way. Calculate the average velocity of the car in first 20 s. (3)
12. What is significance of (a) positive and (b) negative slope in distance-time graph of an object in uniformly
lr e
accelerated motion? (3)

13. Derive the equations of motion for constant acceleration using method of calculus. (3)
Al od
14. Differentiate between (a) distance and displacement (b) speed and velocity.(3)
15. For an object moving along X-axis the position is given by S = a + bt2. Calculate its velocity at time t = 0
M
and t = 3 s, if value of a = 8 m and b = 3 m s−2. Also calculate the average velocity between time interval
t = 3 s and t = 6 s. (3)
16. Briefly explain relative velocity of an object w.r.t. another with example. Represent the motion of two
objects with (a) zero (b) non-zero relative velocity using position-time graph.(3)
©
► To check your performance, see HINTS AND SOLUTIONS TO SOME QUESTIONS at the end of
Part I of the book.

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Uttam Narayan Tripathi

Shardul (IIT Delhi Alumnus)

REVISED AND UPDATED EDITION 2020–2021

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 Every chapter has detailed solutions of NCERT and NCERT Exemplar.

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6. Work, Energy and Power

Unit–VII PROPERTIES OF BULK MATTER

11. Thermal Properties of Matter

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Law of conservation of linear momentum and its applications.

a level circular road, vehicle on a banked road).

work-energy theorem, power.

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Unit–VII PROPERTIES OF BULK MATTER 24 Periods

Unit–IX BEHAVIOUR OF PERFECT GASES AND KINETIC THEORY OF GASES 08 Periods

Kinetic theory of gases - assumptions, concept of pressure. Kinetic interpretation of temperature;

Unit–X OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 26 Periods

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15. Dielectric constant of air Kair 1.005

17. Mass of Sun Ms 2.0 × 1030 kg

19. Mass of Earth Me 5.98 × 1024 kg

21. Nuclear magneton mN 5.05 × 10–27 A m2

24. Permeability of free space m0 4π × 10–7 T m A–1

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S. No. Physical quantity Unit Symbol

7. Luminous intensity candela cd

Some Non-SI Units

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Objective Physics Objective Mathematics

Self Evaluation Tests.

Coverage of previous years'

objective and subjective questions of

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3. Motion in a Straight Line 3/1 – 3/94

4. Motion in a Plane 4/1 – 4/124

5. Laws of Motion 5/1 – 5/134

6. Work, Energy and Power 6/1 – 6/127

7. Systems of Particles and Rotational Motion 7/1 – 7/140

8. Gravitation 8/1 – 8/94

Hints and Solutions to Chapter Practice Tests PT/1 – PT/4

Nobel Prize Winners in Physics (i) – (ii)

Logarithmic and Mathematical Tables (i) – (vii)

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5. a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 – 3ab(a + b) = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2) • Standard Formulae of Logarithm 4

6. a3 – b3 = (a – b)3 + 3ab(a – b) = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2) • Characteristic and Mantissa of

HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 1 1/31/2020 3:50:02 PM

Degree Name of Polynomial Form of

(ii) Sum of n terms. Sn = [2a + (n – 1)d].

• Solution of this quadratic is x = a, b  a + b

HFI_PHY_G11_C0.indd 2 1/31/2020 3:50:04 PM

5. a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 – 3ab(a + b) = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2) • Standard Formulae of Logarithm 4

6. a3 – b3 = (a – b)3 + 3ab(a – b) = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2) • Characteristic and Mantissa of

Logarithm with a base of 10 are called common

(a) Unity has been excluded from the base of the

8.3. Logarithmic Expansion 8.4.2.

(iii) In case the logarithm of a number is negative,

Further if c = 0 then y = mx is a line passing represents the equation of rectangular

1. The differential co-efficient of a constant is zero. Solution:

11.4.1. Differential Coefficients of Logarithmic 1− x