REAL ANALYSIS¿1

Project Report on
Study of Real Analysis with function
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the
Requirement of the degree of
Master of science (M.Sc.)
By
Amrita Patel
DS1600414
Under the supervision of
Dr. Deepak Patidar

IPS Academy
Department of mathematics , Indore
DEVI AHILYA VISHWAVIDHYALAYA,
INDORE (M.P)
Year 2019-2021

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿2

Recommendation

The is to certify that the project report here has been

carried out independently by AMRITA PATEL under the
guidance of Dr. DEEPAK PATIDAR as a project in the
topic REAL ANALYSIS His/her is original and Bonafide
work.

He/she collected material for the project from online

and e-library of IPS Academy in the virtual presence
and guide and head of department and carried out 60
hours work for completing the project

AMRITA PATEL Dr. DEEPAK

PATIDAR
Student Project guide

Dr.PRADEEP JOSHI
HOD
IPS Academy, Indore

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿3

Candidate’s declaration

This is certified that work, which is being presented in the

project entitled REAL ANALYSIS submitted by undersigned
student of final year M.Sc. (Mathematics) in partial fulfilment
for degree of Master of science (M.Sc.) (Mathematics) is a
record of our own work carried out by under guidance and
supervision of Dr. DEEPAK PATIDAR

This work has not submitted elsewhere for award of any

other degree

Date: AMRITA PATEL

Place: IPS Academy
Department of mathematics
Indore

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The satisfaction that accompanies that the successful completion of
any task would be incomplete without the mention of people whose
ceaseless corporation made it possible whose constant guidance and
encouragement crown all efforts with success
We are graceful to our guide Dr. DEEPAK PATIDAR for the
guidance, inspiration and constructive suggestion that helpful us in
preparation of this project.
We also thanks who have helped in successful completion of the
project.

Date: Amrita Patel

Place: IPS Academy DS1600414
Department of mathematics, Indore M.SC. (IV Semester)

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿5

Dissertation Approval Sheet

The dissertation entitled REAL ANALYSIS submitted by AMRITA PATEL

is approved as partial fulfilment for the award of Master of Science
(M.Sc.) degree by Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya, Indore.

Signature signature

Internal Examiner External Examiner

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿6

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
Elementary set Theory
1. SET
2. Equivalent set/Similar set
3. Finite set
4. Infinite set
5. Countable set
6. Uncountable set
7. Point set theory
8. Neighborhood of a point
9. Delete Neighborhood of a point
10. Open set
11. Open set
12. Limit Point of a set
13. Derived set
14. Closure of a set
15. Dense set

CHAPTER-2
Sequence of real number
1. Sequence
2. Range set of sequence
3. Bounded sequence
4. Limit of sequence
5. Monotonic sequence
6. Convergent sequence
7. Cauchy sequence
8. Divergent sequence
9. Oscillatory sequence
10.Subsequence
11.Limit superior & Limit Inferior

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿7

CHAPTER-3
Series
1. Series
2. Comparison test
3. Cauchy Condensation
4. Cauchy Integral Test
5. Alternating Series

CHAPTER-4
Riemann Integrable, Bounded variation & Improper
Integral
 Riemann Integrable
 Partition
 Subinterval
 Refinement of partition
 Upper Riemann sum
 Lower Riemann sum
 Oscillatory sum
 Upper Riemann Integrable
 Bounded Variation
 Function of Bounded variation
 Improper Integral
 Type of Improper Integrable

QUESTION………...

 Introduction:

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿8

In mathematical, real analysis is the branch of mathematical

analysis that studies the behavior of real number, sequence and series of
real number and real function. Some Particular properties of real-valued
sequence and function that real analysis studies included convergence,
Limits, continuity
Smoothness, differentiability and integrability.
Real analysis is distinguished from complex analysis, which deal with the
study of complex number and their function

Karal Weierstrass was one of the leaders in rigor in analysis and was known
as the “father of modern analysis.” In addition, he is considered one of the
greatest mathematics teachers of all-time.

Real analysis is an enormous field with application to many areas of

mathematics It has application to any setting where one integrates
function,
Ranging from harmonic analysis on Euclidean space to partial differential
equation on manifolds, from representation theory to number theory to
integral geometry, from ergodic theory to quantum mechanics.

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿9

Chapter -1 ELEMENTARY SET THEORY

1 SET

A collection of well-defined and distinct objects is called set

Example: S = {a, e, I, o, u} set of Vowels.

N =Set of natural number.
R=Set of real number.
Z=set of integers.
1. Classification of function
I. One-One function: - A function f : A → B is said to be one-
one if f ( x 1 ) =f ( x 2 ) ⟹ x 1=x 2
∀ X 1,X 2∈ A

Example: Let A = {1, 2,3} & B= {2, 4,6,8}

A function f : A → B
s.t f ( x )=2 x , X ϵ A is one−one function because
f ( 1 ) =2,
f ( 2 ) =4
f ( 3 )=6

Hence x 1 ≠ x 2 then f (x 1) ≠ f ( x 2 )

Number of one-one function: - Let A and B are two set with

cardinality
m & n respectively
n P m≤ n
then number of one-one function f : A → B are { m

0 m>n

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿10

Example: The number of one-one function f : A → B are

4 p 3 where| A|=3∧|B|=4
4!
= 1 ! =24

II. Onto-function: - A function f : A → B is said to be an onto

function or surjective function if each element of B has
pre-image in A i.e.
If f ( A )=B∨Range of f is co−domain of f

Number of onto function: - Let A & B sets with cardinality m

&n Respectively, then number of onto function from A to B i.e.
n

f : A → B are
{
∑ (−1)n−r nC r m if m≥ n
r =1
r

0 if m<n

Example: - Let | A|=3∧|B|=2then number of onto function

f : A→B are
2

∑ (−1)2−r 2C r Here m= 3 & n=2

r
3

r=1

=−1 2 c1 +2c
2
23

2!
=(−¿ [ ]
1!
+8

= 8−2=6
2 Equivalent set/ similar sets: -
Two set are said to be equivalent if ∃ abijection, i.e., a one-one
and onto function, from the set A to B and is written as A B .
Equivalent set are also called equipotential.

A and B are similar iff | A|=|B|

Example: - A{ 1,2,3 }∧B={ p ,q , r } are similar sets

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿11

3 Finite sets: - Let N m =( 1,2,3 ….. , m ). A set which is either empty

or equivalent to N mis said to be a finite set. Thus a set S is finite
if S =∅∨S N m for some natural number m.

Infinite set: - A set S which is not finite is called an infinite set

Thus S is an infinite set, then S is not equivalent to N m for any
m∈ N

5. Countable set: - A set S is said to be countable if it is either

finite or countably infinite or S N the set of all natural number.

Example: - (I) The set of all rational number is countable

(II) The set of all positive rational rational number is
Countable
(III)The set N∗N is countable
(IV) The set of algebraic number is countable
(V) The set of all finite subsets of N is countable

6. Uncountable set: - A set which is not a countable set is said to

Be an uncountable set. Thus, a set A is
uncountable if Ais not finite and A is not equivalent to N
Example of uncountable set: (1) The set of real number is
uncountable
(b) The set of irrational number is
uncountable.
(c) The set of all function from R to R is uncountable
(d) The derived set of an uncountable set is uncountable

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿12

Properties of set:
(1) Every countable set is similar to subset of N
(2)A set is infinite if it contains infinite subset
(3) Every infinite set is similar to at least one of its proper subsets.
(4)Countable union of countable sets is countable
(5)Family of all finite subsets of a countable set is countable
(6)Family of all subsets of countable infinite set is uncountable
(7)Finite cartisian product of countable sets is countable
(8)Infinite cartesian product of countable sets A1 , A 2 ,… … .. A i ,i ≥2
Is uncountable

7. Point set theory: - Let S⊆ R∧α ∈ R

(I)Supremum of a set: Let S⊆R, then the smallest of all upper bounds
of
a set S is called supremum of the sets.
(II) Infimum of the set: let S⊆R, then the greatest of all the lower
bound
Of a set S is called the infimum of the set S.
Example:
2. Let S= [ O , 1 ]
Sups=1 ∈ S∧Infs=0∈ S

8.Neighbourhood of a Point: -A subset S of R is called a

neighborhood
a point ‘a’ if there exists an open interval I

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿13

containing ‘a’ and itself is contained in S, i.e., ‘a’ subset Sof R is called
a neighborhood of a point ‘a’ if ∋ an open interval I containing a
such that I ⊂ S

9.Deleted Neighborhood of a point: - If from the neighborhood of

a
Point, the point itself is excluded, then we get the neighborhood of
that point. Thus, if S is a neighborhood of a point ‘a’ then the set S
−{ a } is called deleted neighbourhood of a.

Interior Point: - Let S⊆R,α ∈ R , α issaid to be Interior point of S if S

is neighborhood ofα
Example: (I) Every point of the open interval (a, b) is its interior
Point.
(II) a and b are not interior points of the closed interval
[a, b] since, [a, b] is not a neighborhood of a and b
(III) S=N then no real number is interior point of S.

Interior of a set: - The set of all interior points of a set S is called

the
Interior of S and is denoted by s0 .
Example: (I) If A=( a , b ) ,then A0 =A , because every point of A is an
Interior point of A.
(II) If A=[ a , b ] , then A0 =( a , b ) , because every point of A

is an interior point of A except the end point a and

b.

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿14

(III) R0 =R because R is a neighbourhood of each point

and so, every point of R is an interior point of R
(IV) If A is non empty finite set, then A0 =∅

(V) N 0=∅ , z 0=∅ , Q0=∅ because N, Z, Q are

Neighborhood of any of its points and therefore,
no
Point is an interior point of N, Z, Q.
10. Open set: - Let S be a subset of R, then S is said to be open if it
is a
Neighborhood of each point of its points. Equivalently
S is open if for each x ∈ S, ∃ ϵ >0 such that ( x−ϵ , x +ϵ )⊂ S
And if s0=S THEN S is open set.
Result on open set: -
(i) The Union of two open set is an open set.
(ii) The union of arbitrary family of an open set is open set.
(iii) The interaction of two open set is open.
(iv) The interaction of finite number of open set is an open
set.
(v) The interaction of infinite family of sets may or may not
be an open set.

Example (I) S= (0, 1)

Here S0= (0,1)
Then S= s0
⇒ S is open set

(II) S= [0, 1]
s0= ( 0 ,1 )

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿15

Then s0 ≠ s
⟹S is not open set.

11. Limit Point of a set: - A Point a ∈ R is said to be a limit point of a

Subset of R if every neighborhood of a point
of S other than a.
In symbol, a point a∈ R is said to be a limit point of a subset Sof R if
for every ϵ > 0such that ( a−ϵ , a+ ϵ ) ∩ S−{a }≠ ∅

Example: - (I) S¿ {1n :n ∈ N } then 0 is only limit point of S.

(II) S= [0, 1) Then set of all limit points of S is [0,1].

(III) N, Z, ∅ have no limit point.

12. Derived set: - The set of all limit point of set is called derived
set and Denoted by s'
Example: - (I) S= (0, 1) Then s' =[ 0 , 1 ]
(II) S=Q then s' ⋅=R
(III) N ' =∅ , z' =∅ , ϕ ' =∅
(IV) S=R then S' =R
13. Closure of a set: -The union of set A and it derived set A' i.e. A
∪ A' is Called the closure of the set A and denoted by Á=A ∪ A ' .

Closed set: - Let S be a subset of R, Then Sis said to be a closed if it

Contain all its limit point.

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿16

Result on closed set: - (I)The union of an infinite family of closed

set.
Need not be a closed set.
(II)Every finite set is closed set.
(III) Set of real number is open and closed
set both.

Example: (I) The set Z of all integers is closed set.

(II) Every countable set is a closed set.
(III) The sets [a, b) and (a, b] are neither open nor closed
In R
(IV) R and ∅ are the only two sets which are both open
and
Closed in R

14. Dense set: - Let A and B be two subsets of R such that A

⊂B.

The set A is said to dense in B if B⊂ A' .A set S is

said to be no where dense if complement of the closure of the
set
S is S is dense in R i.e., S is nowhere dense if closure of the
complement of the set is dense in R.
A set ‘A’ is said to be dense in itself if its every point is a limit
point of the set A, i.e., A⊆ A'

CHAPTER-2 SEQUENCE OF REAL NUMBER

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿17

1. Sequence: - A sequence on a set S is a function ‘f’ whose

domain
is the set N of all natural number and range is a
subset of S. In other words, a sequence on a set S is a rule which
assign to each natural number, a unique element of S. A
sequence is usually denoted by {a n } or⟨ an ⟩ Where f ( n )=a n , a n is
callednth term of sequence.
1
Example: -( I ) an = ⟨⟩
n

( II ¿ an= ⟨ (−1)n ⟩
(−1 )n
( III ) an = ⟨ ⟩
n

( IV ) an =⟨ n ⟩

( V ) an= ⟨−n ⟩

Result on sequence:
(i) A monotonic sequence is convergent ⟺it is
bounded.
(ii) A convergent sequence need not be monotonic.
(iii) Monotonic sequence can have atmost one limit
point.
(iv) Every sequence has a monotonic sequence.
(v) Every bounded sequence has convergent sequence.

2. Range set of sequence: -The Range set of a sequence is the

set consisting of all distinct element of sequence.
Example: ( I ) a n=⟨ (−1)n ⟩
¿ ⟨ −1, 1 ,−1 , 1,−1 ,1 ,−1 , 1 … … … . ⟩

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿18

Then range set ={−1 , 1 }

1
( II ¿ an= ⟨⟩
n

1 1 1
=⟨ ⟩
1 , , , , … …..
2 3 4

1 1 1 1
Then range set ={ 1, , , , ,… … ..
2 3 4 5 }
3. Bounded sequence: -A sequence ⟨ un ⟩ is defined as bounded if
Its range set is bounded. Hence ⟨ un ⟩ is
bounded if there exist real number k ' and k such that
k ' ≤u n ≤ k ∀ n ∈ N

Example: (I) a n=⟨ (−1)n ⟩ is bounded sequence.

4. Limit of sequence: -Let {a n } be a sequence and l ∈ R .l is said

to be limit of sequence {a n } if for each
ϵ > 0 ,∃ m∈ N ( m depending ϵ ) such that |a n−l|< ϵ ∀ n ≥ m.

Algebra of limits: If nlim

→∞
an =a and lim bn =b , then
n→∞

(A) lim ka n=ka , where k is

n→∞

constant
(II)nlim
→∞
|a n|=|a|

(III)nlim ( a n+ bn )=a+b ¿
→∞ ¿

5. Monotonic Sequence: -
i. A sequence {a n } is said to be monotonically increasing
if a n+1 ≥ a n ∀ n ∈ N ,i.e., if a 1 ≤ a2 ≤ … … .. ≤ an ≤ a n+1 ≤ … … . .
ii. As sequence {a n }is said to be monotonically decreasing
ifa n+1 ≤ a n ∀ n ∈ N , i . e . , if a 1 ≥ a2 ≥… … ≥ an +1 ≥ … . .

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿19

iii. A sequence {a n } is said to be monotonic if it is either

monotonically increasing or monotonically
decreasing.
iv. A sequence {a n } is said to be strictly monotonically
increasing if a n+1 >an ∀ n ∈ N
v. A sequence {a n } is said to be strictly monotonic
decreasing if a n+1 >an ∀ n ∈ N
vi. A sequence {a n } is said to be strictly monotonic if it
either strictly monotonically increasing or strictly
monotonically decreasing
Example: (I) a n=nis strictly increasing sequence.
(II) a n=−nis strictly decreasing sequence.
(III) (−1)n is non-monotonic sequence.

6. Convergent sequence: -If lim an =l, then we say that the

n→∞

Sequence {a n } converges to l

Example: nlim
→∞
( 1n )=0 , we say that sequence {1n }
Converges to 0.
Result on convergent sequence:
(i) Every convergent sequence has a unique limit point or a
sequence cannot converges to more than one limit.
(ii) Every convergent sequence is bounded. The converse is not
true, i.e., a bounded sequence is not necessarily convergent.
e.g., The sequence {a n } defined by a n=(−1)n. Clearly sequences
is bounded -1 is its g.l.b. and 1 is its l.u.b., but it is not
convergent.

7. Cauchy Sequence: -A sequence ⟨ an ⟩ is said to be a Cauchy

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿20

Sequence for given ϵ > 0 , however small,

there exists a positive integer m (depending on ϵ ¿Such that
|a n−a m|≪¿ ϵ ∀ n ≥ m or A sequence ⟨ an ⟩ is said to be a Cauchy
sequence if for given ϵ > 0 ,however small, there exists
a positive integer m (depending on ϵ ) such that
|a m+ p −am|< ϵ ∀ p> 0 , p ∈ N .

Result on Cauchy sequence:

 In general, every convergent sequence is Cauchy but
converse need not to be true, i.e., a Cauchy sequence
may or may not be convergent.
 In real, a sequence is convergent if and only if it is a
Cauchy sequence.
 A Cauchy sequence is always bounded.

1
Example: a n= ⟨ ⟩is convergent sequences.
n

(II) a n=⟨ (−1)n ⟩ is not convergent it has two limit point 1

And -1 but limit point does not exist.

8. Divergent sequences: -A Sequence {a n } is said to be diverge to

+ ∞ if given any positive real number K, however
large there exists a positive integer m (depending on K) such that
a n> K ∀ n ≥ mand we write nlim
→∞
an =∞∨a n → ∞ as n → ∞

A Sequence {an } is said to be diverges to −∞ if given any positive real

number K, however large, there exists a positive integer m
(depending on K) such that a n← K ∀ n ≥ m
and we write nlim
→∞
an =−∞∨an →−∞ as n → ∞

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿21

A sequence {a n } is said to be divergent sequence if it diverges to

+ ∞∨−∞ ,i.e., a n → ∞∨a n →−∞as n →∞

Example: (I) a n=⟨ n ⟩

(II)a n=⟨−n ⟩
9. Oscillatory sequence: - If a sequence {an } neither converges to a
finite number nor diverges to+ ∞∨−∞
then it is called an oscillatory sequences.

Oscillatory sequence are of two types-

(i) A bounded sequence which does not converge is said to
oscillate finitely.
Example: {(−1)n }
(ii) An unbounded sequence which does not diverge is said to
oscillate infinitely.
Example: {(−1)n n }

10. Subsequence: -Let ⟨ an ⟩be a given sequence. If ⟨ nk ⟩ is a

strictly increasing sequence of natural
number (i.e., n1 ≪n2 <n3 < … …. ¿ , then ⟨ a n ⟩ is called a sequence of⟨ nk ⟩
k

Result on subsequence:
(i) Every sequence is a subsequence of itself.
(ii) If a sequence ⟨ an ⟩ converges tol then every subsequence of
⟨ an ⟩ also converges tol .
(iii) If all sequence of a sequence ⟨ an ⟩ converges to the same
limit l , then ⟨ an ⟩ converges tol .
(iv) If all sequence ⟨ a2 n−1 ⟩ ∧⟨ a2 n ⟩ converges to same limit l then
the sequence ⟨ an ⟩ converges tol .
(v) If a sequence ⟨ an ⟩ diverges to ∞ , then every subsequence of
⟨ an ⟩ also diverges to ∞ .

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿22

(vi) If a sequence ⟨ an ⟩ diverges to −∞ , then every subsequence

of ⟨ an ⟩ also diverges to −∞ .
(vii) Every sequence contains a monotonic subsequence.
(viii) Every bounded sequence in R contain a converges
subsequence.

11. Limit superior and limit inferior:

 Limit superior: Let ⟨ an ⟩ be any sequence, define
a ,a ,a , …… }
b n ={ ¿, i.e., n n+ 1 n+ 2

a1, a2, a3 ,….. ]

b 1 =[ ¿
a2 , a3, a3, …. }
b 2 ={ ¿
a3 , a4 ,a5 , a6 ,….. }
b 3 ={ ¿

Here b 1 ≥ b2 ≥b 3 ≥ … … . ,i . e . , ⟨ b n ⟩ is monotonically decreasing, then

lim´ an=inf { b1 , b 2 , b3 , … … . }
❑

I.e., infimum of ⟨ bn ⟩ is called limit superior of ⟨ an ⟩ .

 Limit inferior: Let {a n } be any sequence, define
c n=inf { an , an+1 , an+2 , … … }, i.e.,
c 1=inf { a1 , a2 , a 3 , … . }
c 2=inf { a2 , a3 ,a 4 , … . }
c 3=inf { a3 , a4 , a5 , … . } And so on.
Here, c 1 ≥ c 2 ≥ c3 ≥≥ … … . ,i.e., ⟨ c n ⟩ is monotonically increasing,
then
lim an =inf { c1 , c 2 , c 3 , … …. } i.e., supremum of ⟨ c n ⟩ is called limit
❑

inferior of ⟨ an ⟩

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿23

CHAPTER-3 SERIES OF REAL NUMBER

1. Series: -Let {a n } be a sequence of real number, the expression

a 1+ a2+ … … ..a n+ … . , is called an infinite series and
∞

is denoted by ∑ an or simply ∑ an and a n is called nth

n=0

terms. With ∑ an we associate a sequence sn converges to

s,
n

we say that the series converges and write sn=∑ ak .

k=1

sn is called nth partial sum of the series. If {s n } converges to s,

∞

we say that the series converges and write ∑ an=s , s is

n =1

called the sum of the series. If { sn } diverges, the series is

said
to diverges. Sometime, for convenience of notation, we
shall
∞

consider series of the form ∑ an.

n=0

Necessary condition for convergence of series:

 If ∑ anconverges, then nlim →∞
an =0.

 a n → 0 is not sufficient to ensure convergent of ∑ an .

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿24

 Test for convergence:

1
 P-series Test: A positive term series ∑ n p is convergent
1
iff p¿1. ∑ n p is called Hyper Harmonic series or p-series.
1 1 1 1 1
i.e., the series ∑ n p = 1 p + 2 p + 3 p +… … n p + …converges if p¿1
and diverges if p ≤1.

2. Comparison test (Also called limit comparison test): -

I f ∑ an and ∑ bn are two positive term series such that

an
lim
n→∞ ( ) bn
=l [ finite and non-zero], then both the series
behave alike, i.e., both converges and diverges
together.

Example: Check converges or diverges of the series

1
∑ 1
=∑ an
1+
n
n
1

()
1
1+
1
Let ∑ bn= n , then lim a n =lim n
n
Solution:
n→ ∞ bn n→∞( )1
n
an 1 1
Thus n → ∞ lim ( )=lim
bn n→ ∞ ( ) ( )
n
1
1+ −1
n
=lim
n→∞
n
1
n
=1 ≠0 , ∞

∴ By above comparison test ∑ bn and∑ an converges

or
diverges together, but ∑ bnis divergent.
∴ ∑ an is also divergent.

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿25

 Cauchy’s nth Root test: -

Let ∑ an be a positive terms series and α =lim ¿ √n an .
n→∞

Then

(a) ∑ an converges, for α <1 ,

(b) ∑ andiverges for α >1 .

n
Example: ∑ an=∑ 2n is convergent.
1
1 n
( )
( a n ) =¿n
2n
n

1 1
n
lim ( a ) =lim ( )
n
n
n
n
n→∞ 2 n→∞
1
n
n 1
¿ lim = <1.
n→∞ 2 2

3. Cauchy Condensation test: -If ⟨ an ⟩ is a decreasing

sequence of positive real number,
then the two series ∑ an and∑ a2 2n converges or n

diverges together.
log n
Example: Check whether the series ∑ ,
n is
convergent or divergent.
log 2n
Solution: ∑ 2 a 2 =∑ 2 2n =∑ 2n n log
n
n
2 n
2 n
=log2 ∑ n

Here ∑ 2 n a 2 =log 2 ∑ n is divergent

n

log n
⟹∑ is divergent.
n

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿26

4. Cauchy Integral Test: - If U ( x ) is non-negative

Monotonically
decreasing
and integral function.
S.t u ( x )=u ∀ n∈ N . n
∞
1
Example: ∑ n log n n =2
1
Here u ( x )= x log x
∞ ❑
dx dt
∫ x log
2
=
x ❑ [ ]

5. Alternating series: - A series 0f the form

u1−u 2+u 3−u4 + … … … .
Where u >0 , ∀ n ∈ N is called an Alternating series & it is
n
∞
n−1
denoted by ∑ (−1) n =1
un

1 1 1 n−1 1 1
Example: ∑ (−1) √2 =1− √2 + √ 2 − √ 4 + √ 4

6. Lebnitz test for Convergence of alternating Series

n
Let ∑ (−1) a is a alternating series & it is convergent if
n

(i) a is decreasing Sequence

n

lim a =0
(ii) n→∞
n

7. Absolute Convergence: -If ∑ a is series of real number n

s.t ∑|a |is convergent Series n

Then ∑ a is called absolutely Convergent Series.

n

1 n
Example: -∑ (−1 ) n 2

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿27

1 1
| |
∑ (−1)n n2 =∑ n 2
n 1
Which is convergent ∑ (−1) n is absolutely convergent
Series.

CHAPTER-4 Riemann Integration, Bo Integral :under

Variation And Improper

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿28

1. Riemann Integration: -
Some definition
 Partition: -Let [ a , b ] ⊂R be an interval we define P
0
¿ { a=x , x , x ,… …. x =b } where x < x then p is called a
0 1 2 n 1 i+1

partition of[ a , b ] & Δ x =x −x is length of i subinterval.

i i+ 1 i
th

Example: I =[ 0,4 ] then p={ 0,1,2,3,4 } is called partition of

p= [ 0,4 ]

 Sub Interval: -Let p= { x , x , … .. , x :a=x < x <… .< x =b } be a

0 1 n 0 1 n

partition of[ a , b ]. For each i=1,2,3 , .. n,

Let Δ x =x −x is the length of sub interval [ x , x ] .
i i i−1 i−1 i

Norm or mesh of a partition P is denoted by ‖ p‖ and

defined as ‖ p‖=maxΔ x . i

 Refinement of partition: -Let P be a partition of[ a , b ], then

a partition p is called a refinement of P if P⊂ p
¿

 Upper Riemann sum: - U ( P , F ) =∑ M i Δ x i

i=1
is called upper
Riemann sum of f with respect to the partition P of [ a , b ]
n

 Lower Riemann sum: - L ( P , f )=∑ m Δ x is called lower i=1

i i

Riemann sum of f with respect to the partition P of [a , b]

 Oscillatory sum: W ( P , f )=U ( P , f )−L ( P , f ) is called the
oscillatory sum with respect to the partition P of [ a , b ]
b́

 Upper Riemann Integral: -infU ( P , f ) is denoted by ∫ f ( x ) dx a

and is called upper Riemann integral of f on[ a , b ]

b́

i.e., ∫ f ( x ) dx=infU (P , f )
a

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿29

b
¿⏟ L( P , f )
 Lower Riemann Integral: - p
is denoted by∫ f ( x ) dx and
a

called lower Riemann integral of f on ⌈ a , b ⌉

b

i.e.,∫ f ( x ) dx=¿⏟ L(P , f )

a p

 Riemann integrable: -A bounded real valued function f

defined on [a, b] is said to be Riemann integrable if
b b b

∫ f ( x ) dx=∫ f ( x ) dx . The common value is denoted by∫ f ( x ) dx

a a a

and is called Riemann integral of f on [a, b]

If f is Riemann integrable on [a, b], we write f ∈ R[a , b]

 Result: -
1. Every constant function on [a, b] is Riemann integrable
on [a, b].
2. If f is a bounded real valued function defined on [a, b]
and P P are partition of [a, b], then L ( P f ) ≤ U ( P f ) ,Hence
1, 2 1, 2

b b

∫ f ( x ) dx ≤∫ f ( x ) dx .
a a

3. A continuous function on [a, b] is Riemann integrable on

[a, b].
4. A monotonic function on [a, b] is Riemann integrable on
[a, b].
5. If a bounded function f defined on [ a , b ] has only finitely
many points of discontinuity on [a, b], then f is Riemann
integrable on [ a , b ] .
6. If the set of points of discontinuities of a bounded
function f on [a, b] is countable, then f is Riemann
integrable on [ a , b ] .

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿30

7. If the set of points of discontinuity of a bounded

function f on [a, b] has finite number of limit point then
f is Riemann integrable on [a, b]

Example: -Let f be a function on [a, b] by

{
f ( x )=
1,x ≠

0 , x=
2
1
2
1

Show that f is Riemann integrable on [a , b] and evaluate ∫ f ( x ) dx 0

1
Solution: We know that f ( x )is discontinuous at 2

It is discontinuous at countable point.

⇒ f (x ) is Riemann integrable
1
1

And ∫ f ( x ) dx=∫ ( 1 ) dx=1 ¿

0
0
¿

2. Bounded Variation: -
1. Variation of function: Let f (x) be a function defined
on [a, b] and P is the partition of [a, b]
P= { a=x , x , x … … x =b } then f ( x )−f ¿
0 1 2, n r

¿|f ( x ) −f ( x )|+|f ( x )−f ( x )|… f ¿

1 0 2 1

f ( x ) is called a variation of f over P and it is

n−1

denoted by V (f , P)

Note: -Variation of f (x) is vary according to P

2
Example: let f ( x )=x on ⌈−1 , 1⌉
P = {−1,0,1 } be the partition of ⌈−1,1 ⌉
1

then V ( f , p )=⌈ 0−1⌉ +|1−0| 1

¿ 1+1=2

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿31

3. Function of Bounded Variation: -

Total variation: Let P= { x x … . x :a=x < x < ….< x =b } be a 0, 1, n 0 1 n

partition of [ a , b ] and sub-interval can be taken as

[ x 0 , x 1 ] , [ x 1 , x 2 ] … .. [ x i−1 , x i ] , … .. [ xn −1 , x n ]
If f ( x ) isa function on [ a , b ] , then corresponding to each partition
P of [ a , b ] ,∃a sum
n n

i.e., ∑|f ( x )−f ( x )| supremum of sum i.e., ¿⏟ ∑ ¿ ¿ is known as

i=1
i i−1
P i=1

variation or total variation in [a, b]

Function of bounded variation: - Let f be a function and
if variation of the function is bounded in a given interval,
then function is known as function of bounded variation
in that interval.

 Results on bounded variation: -

I. If f ( x ) is bounded monotonic function in [a, b], then f (x)
is a function of bounded variation.
II. If a function is differentiable in [a, b] and its derivative
is bounded in [a, b], then f (x) is a function of bounded
variation and also the variation is given by
v ( f ,a ,b ) ≤ M ( b−a ) , where M is upper limit of derivative of

a function.
III. If f (x) is a function of bounded variation in an interval,
then it is bounded in that interval, i.e., function of
bounded variation⟹function is bounded
IV. If f (x) is function of bounded variation in [a, b] and if
c ∈ ( a , b ) be any point, then f (x) is function of bounded

variation in [a, c] and also in [c, b]. Moreover

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿32

v ( f ,a ,b )=v ( f ,a ,c ) + v (f , c ,b)
V. If f ( x ) is of bounded variation in [a, b], then it can be
expressed as difference of two monotonic non-
decreasing function and conversely

4. Improper Integral: -A function f on [a, b] is

Riemann Integrable if:
I. Domain of the function f is the closed interval
[a, b],a , b ∈ R , a< b
II. f is bounded on [a, b]

If either a or b (or both) become infinite or f is

b

not bounded on [a, b], then ∫ f ( x ) dx is called

a

improper integral.

Type of Improper integral: -

I. Improper Integral of first kind: -A definite
b

Integral ∫ f ( x ) dx is said to be improper if either a

a

or b or both are infinite so that interval is

unbounded but the function is bounded.
∞ ∞

Example: -∫ sinx2 dx ,∫ e− x dx
0 0

(i) When ‘b’ is infinite:

Let f be bounded and integrable for x ≥ a ,
∞ t

then ∫ f ( x ) dx=lim ∫ f ( x ) dx
a t →∞ a

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿33

Convergence: If lim ∫ f ( x ) dx exists

t→∞ a
and is finite,
∞

then the improper integral ∫ f ( x ) dx is said to a

be converge, otherwise it is called

divergent.
(ii) When ‘a’ is infinite:
Let f be bounded and integrable for x ≤ b ,then
b b

∫ f ( x ) dx=lim ∫ f ( x ) dx
t →∞ t
−∞

Convergence: If lim ∫ f ( x ) dx exists and is finite,

t→∞ t
b

then the improper integral ∫ f ( x ) dx is said to −∞

converges, otherwise it is divergent.

(iii) When both ‘a’ and ‘b’ are infinite:

Let f be bounded and integrable on R, then
∞ c ∞

∫ f ( x ) dx= ∫ f ( x ) dx+∫ f ( x ) dx ,
−∞ −∞ c

Where ‘c’ is any real number

c t2

¿ lim ∫ f ( x ) dx+ lim ∫ f ( x ) dx .

t1 → ∞ t t 2 →∞ c
1

c t2

Convergence: If lim ∫ f ( x ) dx∧ lim ∫ f ( x ) dx

t1 → ∞ t t2 → ∞ c
both
1

exists and are finite, then ∫ f ( x ) dx is said to −∞

converges, otherwise it is divergent.

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿34

II. Improper Integral of second kind: -The definite

b

integral ∫ f ( x ) dx is said to be improper integral of

a

second kind if ‘a’ and ‘b’ are finite but f has

one or more point of infinite discontinuity, i.e.,
f is not bounded on [a, b]
1 2

Example: - ∫ dx2
,
dx
∫ 2−x
0 x 1

(i) Let ‘a’ be the only point of infinite

discontinuity of a function f in [a, b]. The
b

improper integral ∫ f ( x ) dx is defined as a

b

∫ f ( x ) dx= lim
b
¿¿
a +¿
ϵ →o ∫ f (x ) dx
a+ ϵ

lim ¿
Convergence: If ϵ→o +¿
b

∫ f ( x ) dx ¿ exists and is finite,

a+ ϵ

then the improper integral ∫ f ( x ) dx is said to a

converge at a , otherwise it is called divergent.

(ii) Let ‘b’ be the only point of infinite

discontinuity of a function f in [a, b]. The
b

improper integral ∫ f ( x ) dx is defined as a

b

∫ f ( x ) dx= lim
b−ϵ
¿¿
a −¿
ϵ →o ∫ f ( x ) dx
a

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿35

lim ¿
Convergence: If ϵ→o −¿
b−ϵ

∫a f ( x ) dx¿ exists and is finite,

b

then the improper integral ∫ f ( x ) dx is said to be a

converges at b, otherwise it is called

divergent.

(iii) Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ are the only point of infinite
discontinuity of a function f in [a, b]. The
b b

improper integral ∫ f ( x ) dx is defined as ∫ f ( x ) dx is

a a
b

∫ f ( x ) dx= lim ¿¿
defined as a
ϵ →o
+¿
c

∫ f (x ) dx+ lim
'
¿¿ ¿
a+ ϵ ' +¿
b−ϵ

ϵ →0 ∫a f ( x )dx ,

Where a< c< b .

QUESTION
1. Let G be the set of all rational number. The interior and
0
closure of G are denoted by G and Ǵ respectively. Then
0 0
(a) G =∅ , Ǵ=G (b)G =R , Ǵ=R
0 0
©G =∅ , Ǵ=R (d)G =G , Ǵ=R

1
{
2. The set U = x ∈ R∨sinx= 2
(a) Open b) closed
©both open and closed d) neither open nor
Closed

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿36

3. Let A be non-empty subset of R. Let I(A) denote the set

of interior point of A. Then I(A) can be
(a)Empty b) singleton

(c)a finite set containing d) countable but

not finite
More than one element
solution: (a)
Let A be any closed subset of R, say singleton set
{ x }, where x∈ R

i.e., A¿ { x }, then I(A)¿ ∅ [ ∴ finite set have no interior point ] .

Hence, option (a) is true

4. The set {1n sin 1n ; n ∈ N } has
(a)One limit point & it is O
(b)One limit point & it is 1
(c)One limit point & it is -1
(d)There limit point & these are -1, 0, 1

5. Let P(x) be a polynomial in the real variable of degree 5.

p( n)
Then limn→∞ n is
(a)5 (b)1
(c)0 (d)∞

2
Solution: P(x)=n
n2
lim =0
n→∞ 2n

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿37

x
6. If f(x) ¿ √1−cosx then lim f (x ) is
n→ 0

(a)doesn’t exist (b)√ 2

1
(c)−√ 2 (d) √2

x x
lim =lim
Solution: √ 1−cosx n →o x
n→ 0

x
√ 2 sin 2
2
¿ lim
n→o x
√ 2 sin
2
1 1
¿ lim
x→ 0 √ 2 cos x 1
22
1
¿ ∗2
√2
2
∗√ 2
√ 2
¿
√2
2√ 2
¿
2
¿ √2

7. Which of the following are of bounded variation?

(a) x 2+ x+1 x∈ (-1,1)
(b) ( π2x )
tan ⁡ x∈ (-1,1)
x
(c) sin( 2 ) x∈ (−π , π )
(d) √ 1−x 2
x∈ (−1,1 )

Solution: (a), (c), (d)

Option (a) is correct.

IPS Academy, Indore

 REAL ANALYSIS¿38

Every polynomial is continuous and bounded domain

So, it is of bounded variation

Option © is correct.
x
sin x ∈(−π , π ) is continuous + bounded in given domain. so,
2
it is of bounded variation

Option (d) is correct

√ 1−x is continuous +bounded in (-1,1)
2

So, it is of bounded variation

Option (b) is incorrect
Unbounded variation is never of bounded variation.

IPS Academy, Indore