Sayyid Ahmad Kasravi Historian Language Reformer and Thinker (1969) Durhan University
Sayyid Ahmad Kasravi Historian Language Reformer and Thinker (1969) Durhan University
Sayyid Ahmad Kasravi Historian Language Reformer and Thinker (1969) Durhan University
and thinker
Ramyar, Minoo
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Ramyar, Minoo (1969) Sayyed Ahmad Kasravi historian, language reformer and thinker, Durham theses,
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ABSTRACT
Sayyed Ahmad K a s r a v i
p o l i t i c s c h a l l e n g e d t r a d i t i o n a l I r a n i a n ways o f t h i n k i n g .
c a r e e r a r e o u t l i n e d , and i n f l u e n c e s w h i c h h e l p e d t o shape
h i s thought are i n d i c a t e d .
Chapter I I c o n t a i n s summaries o f t h e c o n t e n t s o f
a p p r a i s a l s o f h i s achievements as a h i s t o r i a n .
t o g e t h e r w i t h assessments o f h i s work.
as a l i t e r r f f a r y t h e o r i s t , and d i s c u s s e s h i s h o s t i l i t y t o
m y s t i c and p a n e g y r i c p o e t r y .
Chapter V c o n t a i n s summaries o f K a s r a v i ' s views on
e x i s t i n g r e l i g i o n s and o f M B own. r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s .
Comments by h i s c r i t i c s and some comments of our own a r e
appended*
by
Minoo Ramyar
Thesis submitted t o t h e F a c u l t y o f A r t s i n t h e
i' •.
1
University o f Durham f o r t h e degree o f trto^TrS <f
o f kiF&SdJixjtfc.
4ltfLy 1 9 6 ^ . School o f O r i e n t a l S t u d i e s ,
Elvet H i l l ,
Durham.
I
Table o f Contents.
Page.
Transliteration IV
Preface 1
Chapter One
Kasravi's biography.
Kasravi's p r i v a t e l i f e . H i s f a m i l y , b i r t h p l a c e , and
K a s r a v i * s a r t i c l e s on h i s t o r i c a l s u b j e c t s .
5. Shams a l - D i n T o g h r i a ' i .
6. Taymur Malek.
7. The B a y o n d o r i s .
8.. H i s t o r y and t h e H i s t o r i a n .
Easravi's s t y l e of h i s t o r y w r i t i n g .
Kasragi's. l i n g u i s t i c s t u d i e s - a n d t h e o r i e s .
Kasrav^s studies of r e l i g i o n .
religious beliefs.
Ill
Page
I n t e r n a t i o n a l coexistence. C a p i t a l punishment.
and g o v e r n m e n t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n .
r e l i g i o u s ideas.
materialism.
K a s r a v i ' s p o l i t i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l i d e a s .
Comment.
TRANSLITERATION
The t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n i n t h i s t h e s i s i s p h o n e t i c , except
are w r i t t e n i n t h e u s u a l E n g l i s h s p e l l i n g s . We have t r i e d
t o r e p r o d u c e t h e P e r s i a n words as t h e y a r e pronounced i n
can he i d e n t i f i e d ; h u t because o f t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f t y p i n g
d i a c r i t i c a l p o i n t s , we have n o t d i s t i n g u i s h e d between t h e
d i f f e r e n t A r a b o - P e r s i a n l e t t e r s w h i c h a r e pronounced e x a c t l y
l i k e an o r d i n a r y s i n g l e consonant. We have r e p r e s e n t e d
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PREFACE
Human b e i n g s , a c c o r d i n g t o s o c i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h , a r e
c r e a t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t p h y s i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l c h a r a c -
teristics. Among them we sometimes f i n d people o f g e n i u s ,
who a r e indeed r a r e and e x c e p t i o n a l p e r s o n s . I t seems t h a t
God wishes t o show H i s power when He c r e a t e s such g e n i u s e s .
Although d u r i n g t h e c e n t u r i e s t h e i r numbers have been l i m i t e d ,
t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s caused f a r - r e a c h i n g p o l i t i c a l , scientific
and s o c i a l e f f e c t s . No doubt Sayyed Ahmad K a s r a v i was one
of t h e most b r i l l i a n t geniuses i n t h e I r a n i a n w o r l d o f
learning. Few persons comparable w i t h h i m have appeared i n
recent centuries i n I r a n . As w i l l be mentioned l a t e r i n
4
his biography/ K a s r a v i was b o r n o f an o r d i n a r y f a t h e r and
2
an a b s o l u t e l y i l l i t e r a t e mother; o n l y t h r o u g h h i s own
p e r s o n a l a b i l i t y and e f f o r t d i d he a c h i e v e a w e l l deserved
renown.
On t h e o t h e r hand, h i s t o r y shows t h a t most b r i l l i a n t
men and p e o p l e o f g e n i u s possessed o n l y a l i m i t e d range o f
a b i l i t y , and a c q u i r e d o n l y s u f f i c i e n t knowledge f o r t h e
p a r t i c u l a r subject o f t h e i r i n t e r e s t . They concentrated
t h e i r minds on t h e s u b j e c t w h i c h a t t r a c t e d them, and some-
t i m e s were so obsessed w i t h i t t h a t t h e y remained q u i t e
i g n o r a n t o f o t h e r aspects o f l i f e . T h i s i s n o t t r u e o f
1. K a s r a v i , Zendegani-ye man. Tehran 1 3 2 3 / 1 9 4 4 .
2 . M. K. Azadeh, Chera K a s r a v i r a k o s h t a n d . Tehran 1 3 2 5 / 1 9 4 7 ,
p.23.
2
K a s r a v i . The v a r i e t y o f h i s i n t e r e s t s and w r i t i n g s i n
w i d e l y d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s was t h e most c o n s p i c i o u s f e a t u r e
o f h i s c h a r a c t e r . I t i s h a r d t o "believe t h a t a s i n g l e
i n d i v i d u a l c o u l d have "been so t a l e n t e d and have possessed
such v e r s a t i l i t y o f e x p r e s s i o n . He was a h i s t o r i a n w i t h
an i n t e n s e i n t e r e s t i n a l l phases o f h i s t o r y , a j o u r n a l i s t
i n a v e r y p r o g r e s s i v e way, a s c h o l a r l y man o f l e t t e r s , and
a proponent o f s o c i o l o g i c a l and p o l i t i c a l i d e a s f o r b u i l d i n g
a more advanced s o c i e t y . Undoubtedly a person w i t h such
e x t r a o r d i n a r y b r a i n - p o w e r and energy deserves a d m i r a t i o n .
He was b r o u g h t up i n a v e r y p r i m i t i v e h o u s e h o l d , where even
t h e n e c e s s i t i e s o f l i f e were l a c k i n g , and h i s mind was
developed and shaped i n a v e r y s i m p l e i n t e l l e c t u a l e n v i r o n -
ment. H i s t e a c h e r was a m o l l a i n t h e maktab (Qor'an
s c h o o l ) o f Hokmabad, a v i l l a g e on t h e o u t s k i r t s o f T a b r i z ,
and t h e o n l y a v a i l a b l e books f o r him were Sa'di's G o l e s t a n ,
a few c h a p t e r s ( s u r e h s ) o f t h e Qor'an, and some r e l i g i o u s
tracts.
i s so v a s t t h a t w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f t h i s t h e s i s I u n f o r -
u n d e r t a k e t h i s t a s k i n t h e B r i t i s h I s l e s ; and I hope t h a t
My t h a n k s go f i r s t and f o r e m o s t t o my supervisor
KASRAVI'S BIOGRAPHY
t
Kasravi's P r i v a t e L i f e . H i s F a m i l y , B i r t h p l a c e , and C h i l d h o o d .
I n Hokmabad, j u s t o u t s i d e T a b r i z , t h e r e l i v e d i h t h e
1 9 t h c e n t u r y a f a m i l y o f t h e Moslem ( S h i ' i t e ) c l e r g y .
f i n i s h e d t h e p r e l i m i n a r y p a r t o f h i s e d u c a t i o n , which lasted
sistent i n t h i s respect.
e n t e r e d a s c h o o l a t T a b r i z , c a l l e d t h e Madraseh T a l e b i y e h ,
I n 1915 K a s r a v i "became i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e E n g l i s h
language, and e n t e r e d t h e American Memorial School a t
T a b r i z , a t f i r s t as a s t u d e n t , even though he was o l d
enough t o "be a t e a c h e r ; l a t e r t h e y gave him a l e c t u r e r s h i p
i n A r a b i c . He s t a r t e d t o l e a r n E n g l i s h s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
f r o m " t e a c h y o u r s e l f books" and f r o m a f e l l o w t e a c h e r named
0 0 0 H
r e s o l v e d t o go back i n t o t h e c a r p e t b u s i n e s s , as t h i s h a d
as a r e p l a c e m e n t . Soon a f t e r w a r d s i t s n e e d l e b r o k e * and no
t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s K a s r a v i never l o s t i n t e r e s t i n h i s s t u d i e s .
D u r i n g t h i s t i m e he was m o s t l y s t u d y i n g h i s t o r y and d o i n g
He s t a r t e d as a p r o s e c u t o r , b u t as w i l l be mentioned l a t e r ,
r e b e l l e d a g a i n s t t h e c e n t r a l government. He was o b l i g e d t o
under t h e M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n as t e a c h e r o f A r a b i c i n a
h i g h school c a l l e d Servat. I n t h e w i n t e r o f 1921 the
M i n i s t e r o f J u s t i c e d e c i d e d t o r e f o r m t h e j u d i c i a l system
i n A z a r b a i j a n , and i n v i t e d K a s r a v i t o t h e M i n i s t r y ' s s e r v i c e .
c l o s e d t h e M i n i s t r y o f J u s t i c e and sent a t e l e g r a m t o T a b r i z ,
K a s r a v i s e r i o u s h a r d s h i p ; b u t he had an amazing a b i l i t y t o
cope w i t h a l l s i t u a t i o n s . He l i v e d a t f i r s t by borrowing
money f r o m h i s r e l a t i v e s . A f t e r c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h a number
d e v e l o p i n g t h e Esperanto language a t T a b r i z . A t t h i s t i m e
1 . P a r v i z S h a h r i a r i and Mahdi N e ' m a t o l l a h i , Ahmad K a s r a v i , p.11.
12
h i s w i f e d i e d , and t h i s sad event was one o f h i s g r e a t e s t
sorrows; he mourned and lamented f o r many days.
> * * * *
K a s r a v i ' s journeys t o Tefaran, Mazandaran. Zan.ian, Khuzestan
and Damavand.
I n 1922 K a s r a v i l e f t h i s two m o t h e r l e s s d a u g h t e r s with
h i s b r o t h e r , and s e t out f o r T e h r a n . A f t e r t w e n t y - t w o days
o f e x h a u s t i n g t r a v e l , he a r r i v e d a t t h e c a p i t a l and p r e s e n t e d
himself t o the Ministry of Justice. The M i n i s t e r a p o l o g i z e d
f o r n o t h a v i n g a vacancy f o r h i m i n T e h r a n , and suggested
t h a t he might serve i n one o f t h e p r o v i n c i a l c i t i e s . In
s p i t e o f h i s d i s a p p o i n t m e n t , he accepted t h e s u g g e s t i o n .
He was sent t o S a r i ^ i n Mazandaran; b u t a f t e r two months
t h e M i n i s t r y a g a i n c l o s e d h i s o f f i c e , and he h a d t o l e a v e
t h e p l a c e , which had i n s p i r e d h i m w i t h i t s n a t u r a l beauty
about t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e T u r k i s h language.
i n 1921+, a f t e r Sardar-e-Sepah ( l a t e r t o be Reza Shah)
had become p r i m e m i n i s t e r , t h e government resolved t o estab-
l i s h an e f f i c i e n t system o f j u s t i c e i n a l l p a r t s o f the-
c o u n t r y , i n c l u d i n g Khuzestan w h i c h had been governed semi-
independent l y f o r many y e a r s by Shaykh K h a z ' a l . One of the
government's most i m p o r t a n t t a s k s was t o i n s t a l l a b r a n c h
o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f J u s t i c e and s e t up r e g u l a r law c o u r t s i n
that province. The M i n i s t r y o f J u s t i c e d e c i d e d t o a p p o i n t
K a s r a v i t o Khuzestan, t h i n k i n g t h a t he w o u l d be a v e r y
s u i t a b l e p e r s o n t o u n d e r t a k e t h i s mission,, K a s r a v i agreed
t o go t o Khuzestan, b u t i n s i s t e d t h a t he s h o u l d have freedom
1 . Chera K a s r a v i - r a K o s h t a n d , p . 1 1 .
2. P. S h a h r i a r i and M. N e ' m a t o l l a h i , Ahmad K a s r a v i , p.12.
Ik
two y e a r s i n K h u z e s t a n , where he s t r o v e v e r y h a r d t o
e s t a b l i s h a j u d i c i a l organisation. A f t e r t h e reform o f
4
t h e M i n i s t r y o f J u s t i c e b y A l i Akbar Davar, K a s r a v i f o i f
a short time held the p o s i t i o n o f p u b l i c prosecutor i n
Tehran? b u t a© he s t a t e s i n h i s book, Ten Years i n t h e
M i n i s t r y o f J u s t i c e , h e r e f u s e d t o conform w i t h c e r t a i n
r e q u e s t s o f t h e p o l i c e and o f t h e M i n i s t e r . As a r e s u l t
he r e s i g n e d h i s p o s t i n 1928, and s e t up i n p r i v a t e law
2
p r a c t i c e , w h i c h b r o u g h t h i m m a t e r i a l ease. I n 1929 K a s r a v i
was a g a i n i n v i t e d t o j o i n t h e s t a f f o f t h e c r i m i n a l l a w c o u r t
o f Tehran. He s e r v e d t h e r e f o r t w e n t y - f o u r months, f i n a l l y
a t t a i n i n g the p o s i t i o n of public prosecutor of the criminal
c o u r t o f Tehran. T h i s was h i s l a s t o f f i c i a l p o s t . He
resigned, and t h e r e a f t e r d i s a s s o c i a t e d , h i m s e l f f o r e v e r
from p u b l i c l e g a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . H i s enemies, however,
were n o t s a t i s f i e d , and i n 1933 > when Sadr o l - A s h r a f became
t h e M i n i s t e r o f J u s t i c e , K a s r a v i ' s l i c e n c e t o p r a c t i s e as a
p r i v a t e l a w y e r was w i t h d r a w n .
College Teaching.
A f t e r Kasravi's resignation from the service o f t h e
M i n i s t r y o f J u s t i c e , he a g a i n s u f f e r e d m a t e r i a l h a r d s h i p .
He c o n t i n u e d w i t h h i s researches i n t o language and h i s t o r y ,
and was i n v i t e d t o t e a c h i n t h e M i l i t a r y Academy, and i n
1 . Pah s a l d a r ' A d l i e h , Tehran 1325/19U7, vx> 237-239.
2. Chera K a s r a v i - r a Koshtand, p.12.
15
the C o l l e g e o f Theology (Ma*qui va Manqul) i n T e h r a n ,
K a s r a v i ' s S o c i a l and P o l i t i c a l A c t i v i t i e s .
I n t h e y e a r s a f t e r t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u g g l e and t h e
f i r s t w o r l d war, t h e d e s i r e f o r change p e r v a d e d I r a n , and
on October 31, 1925, t h e Q a j a r d y n a s t y was deposed.
N a t u r a l l y K a s r a v i WBB d e e p l y s t i r r e d "by t h i s e v e n t . His
e m o t i o n a l involvement l e d h i m t o produce n o t o n l y s c h o l a r l y
w o r k s , h u t a l s o w r i t i n g s o f a s o c i o l o g i c a l and p o l i t i c a l
nature. T a b r i z had been t h e c e n t r e o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y move-
ments i n I r a n , and t h e i n s t i g a t o r s f i r e d t h e minds o f t h e
p e o p l e by denouncing monarchy as a d i c t a t o r i a l and c r u e l
method o f government. T h e i r words b r o u g h t f e v e r t o t h e
h e a r t s o f the people. Sometimes K a s r a v i w o u l d go t o r e v o l u -
t i o n a r y m e e t i n g s , and i t was t h e r e t h a t t h e seeds o f h i s
p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t s were f i r s t sown. His f i r s t teacher i n
p o l i t i c s had been a broad-minded young man c a l l e d H a j j Aqa
Khan, who was a l s o e x p e r t i n t h e F r e n c h l a n g u a g e . Ha
f a m i l i a r i z e d K a s r a v i w i t h t h e meaning o f monarchy, and
recommended t o h i m two books w h i c h were t o open h i s eyes t o
t h a t t h e people s h o u l d g e t b r e a d f r o m t h e Democrat o r g a n i -
2 **
zation. Soon, however, t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e Hokmab&d
a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e and t h e i r c h i l d r e n were s t a r v i n g .
K a s r a v i ' s Disagreement w i t h K h i a b a n i .
From t h e day when K a s r a v i j o i n e d t h e Democrat p a r t y ,
Ottoman T u r k i s h t r o o p s r e p l a c e d t h e Russians i n A z a r h a i j a n .
p a r t i s a n s , t h e Ottoman t r o o p s p u t o u t a g r e a t d e a l o f
o r g a n i s e d an a s s o c i a t i o n c a l l e d E t t e h a d o l - E s l a m . Fortunately
and r e v o l u t i o n . A t these m e e t i n g s t h e y d e c i d e d t o e x p e l
any o t h e r a s s o c i a t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e y d i d n o t make a g r e a t
a l t h o u g h i t does n o t p u b l i s h a g r e a t d e a l o f propaganda.
1 *
The a s s o c i a t i o n was f i r s t e s t a b l i s h e d i n Tehran i n 1933»
other. As t h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f t h e i r newspaper g r a d u a l l y
his books.
While c a r r y i n g on h i s r e s e a r c h e s i n h i s t o r y and o t h e r
s u b j e c t s , K a s r a v i used t o w r i t e s c h o l a r l y a r t i c l e s f o r news-
f o r g u i d i n g I r a n i a n s o c i e t y towards a b e t t e r way of l i v i n g .
He t h o u g h t t h a t i t was a n e c e s s i t y i n every s o c i e t y . He
D u r i n g t h e f i r s t years. K a s r a v i f r e q u e n t l y w r o t e about t h e
1 . Ruz beh Payman k2 Tehran 1964 ( p u b l i s h e d b y t h e
t
Azadegan p a r t y ) p.3*
$
K a s r a v i ' s R e l i g i o u s and S o c i o l o g i c a l I d e a s .
I n 1928, when K a s r a v i l e f t t h e M i n i s t r y o f J u s t i c e ,
he w i t h d r e w f o r a w h i l e f r o m s o c i a l l i f e and i n t h e same
f u l God has g i v e n h i m e v e r y t h i n g : so i f t h e r e i s s t i l l
f a i t h he c o u l d f i n d t h e p o i n t e r t o t h e r i g h t way o f l i v i n g .
He c o n s i d e r e d t h e s e m a t t e r s f o r t h r e e y e a r s , and e v e n t u a l l y
1
w r o t e a "book Ay i n w h i c h c o n t a i n s h i s i d e a s about l i f e and
about u l t i m a t e t r u t h . T h i s book was banned and has l o n g
been u n o b t a i n a b l e . I n a l l h i s books and w r i t i n g s on
r e l i g i o u s and p o l i t i c a l m a t t e r s , K a s r a v i t r i e d t o show t h e
i m m a t u r i t y o f t h e d i f f e r e n t s e c t s o f I s l a m , and a l s o openly
d i s c u s s e d C h r i s t i a n i t y and i t s d e f e c t s . He s a i d t h a t a l l
r e l i g i o n s exercise a benevolent i n f l u e n c e and serve as,
guides f o r s o c i e t y . C h r i s t i a n i t y and I s l a m , i n h i s o p i n i o n
were d e v i s e d s i m p l y t o g u i d e and l e a d mankind towards
1
happiness t h r o u g h t h e ages; b u t people had changed t h e s e
two g r e a t r e l i g i o n s and debased them. H i s t o r y shows t h a t
I s l a m b r o u g h t t h e u n c i v i l i z e d Arabs t o g e t h e r and p r o d u c e d
an empire o u t o f t h e p r i m i t i v e and s i m p l e Arab s o c i e t y .
T h i s was n o t j u s t because o f Mohammad's u n d e r s t a n d i n g , so
K a s r a v i t h o u g h t , b u t thanks t o God's w i l l . K a s r a v i held.
Mohammad i n h i g h r e s p e c t , and c o n s i d e r e d h i m one o f t h e
g r e a t e s t men i n t h e w o r l d . He was f i r m l y opposed t o sects.
w h i c h b r o k e away f r o m I s l a m , such as t h e B a h a ' i s , whose
p h i l o s o p h y and way o f l i v i n g were b o t h repugnant t o h i m .
2
K a s r a v i b e l i e v e d i n God, f o r he says "This organized world
1
K a s r a v i s S c h o l a r l y Achievements.
The v a l u e o f K a s r a v i ' s researches i n the f i e l d s o f
opponents. Even i f we n e g l e c t o r f o r g e t a l l h i s e f f o r t s
t i t u t i o n a l movement. H i s method o f r e c o r d i n g h i s t o r i c a l
e v e n t s was e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f p r e v i o u s
I r a n i a n h i s t o r i a n s . He searched t o f i n d t h e t r u t h o f
every s t a t e m e n t and n e v e r a c c e p t e d as s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t
the a u t h o r i t y of previous h i s t o r i a n s . His e f f o r t s i n
w r i t i n g o t h e r h i s t o r i c a l "books such as T a r i k h - e Pansad Saleh-rye
Khuzestan and Shahriaran-e G-omnam were a l s o v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e .
Needless t o say he i s one o f I r a n ' s most i m p o r t a n t h i s t o r i a n s .
H i s v a l u a b l e researches and i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o language p u t
him among t h e c o u n t r y ' s g r e a t l i n g u i s t s . D u r i n g h i s s h o r t
l i f e he p r o d u c e d more t h a n e i g h t y books on d i f f e r e n t s u b j e c t s ,
i n c l u d i n g h i s t o r y , l a n g u a g e s , p o l i t i c s , s o c i o l o g y , and
l i t e r a t u r e , and a l s o t r a n s l a t i o n s . He d i d a l l t h i s i n s p i t e
o f t h e f a c t t h a t most o f t h e t i m e he had no r e g u l a r means o f
l i v e l i h o o d . There a r e v e r y few examples i n I r a n or e l s e -
where o f such a p r o l i f i c and m e t i c u l o u s w r i t e r . He became
w e l l known n o t o n l y i n I r a n , b u t a l s o i n s c h o l a r l y and
academic c i r c l e s abroad. A l t h o u g h K a s r a v i was c e r t a i n l y an
a m b i t i o u s man, he d i d n o t w r i t e books t o w i n fame o r f a v o u r ,
b u t worked p u r e l y f o r t h e sake o f g i v i n g f u l l e x p r e s s i o n t o
h i s t h o u g h t s and knowledge. He became a member o f t h e
29
1. Royal A s i a t i c S o c i e t y o f London
2
2. Royal G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y o f London
3
3. Academy o f Science o f L e n i n g r a d .
K a s r a v i was n o t o n l y one o f t h e most p r o d u c t i v e w r i t e r s i n
I r a n , "but a l s o one o f t h e most v e r s a t i l e . A u t h o r s who can
w r i t e about such a wide range o f s u b j e c t s a r e indeed rare.
In a d d i t i o n t o h i s books he w r o t e a r t i c l e s , w h i c h , as has
been m e n t i o n e d , were p u b l i s h e d i n f o r e i g n and I r a n i a n
newspapers.
The f i r s t a t t a c k .
B e s i d e s b e i n g a h i s t o r i a n and w r i t e r , K a s r a v i was a
p o l i t i c i a n who c r i t i c i z e d t h e f l a w s o f h i s s o c i e t y ; and
such a man cannot hope t o l e a d an u n e v e n t f u l l i f e . Kasravi's
g r e a t e s t enemies, as a l r e a d y s t a t e d , were t h e m o l l a s . At
l a s t ^ " one day, when he was w i t h two f r i e n d s , he was a t t a c k e d
b y t h e l e a d e r o f t h e Feda'ian-e S l a m ( a n e x t r e m i s t p o l i t i c o -
r e l i g i o u s g r o u p ) , namely Navvab S a f a v i , who shot and s t o n e d
5
him. He was t a k e n t o h o s p i t a l . Kasravi s a i d ; " I w i l l not
die. A l t h o u g h I am p h y s i c a l l y f r a i l , I am s t r o n g i n d e t e r -
m i n a t i o n , and I have so much t o do." The d o c t o r s saved
1. K a s r a v i became a,member o f t h i s S o c i e t y a f t e r he had pub-
l i s h e d h i s book A z a r i . L a t e r S i r Denison Ross made a
summarized E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f pattt o f i t ( s e e below p.
2. Pah s a l d a r A d l i ^ h , p.2*4-5-
3. The R u s s i a n Embassy bought t e n c o p i e s o f Ka§ravi's book A z a r i
h> T h i s a t t a c k t o o k p l a c e i n 132*4-/19*4-6 i n Tehran.
5. Ahmad K a s r a v i , p.14.
3°
k i l l e d him i n t h e M i n i s t r y o f J u s t i c e , f o r t h e r e can he no
doubt t h a t t h e i r t r e a c h e r o u s deed w i l l he permanently
recorded i n h i s t o r y . Even a f t e r K a s r a v i ' s d e a t h , h i s
enemies were n o t s a t i s f i e d . They r e f u s e d h i m Moslem " b u r i a l .
A f t e r t h r e e days h i s f a m i l y and f r i e n d s removed h i s body t o
a p l a c e c a l l e d Abak i n t h e Shemiran ( n o r t h e r n suburbs o f
Tehran). The two Emami b r o t h e r s , h a v i n g completed their
assignment, l e f t the Ministry of Justice quite f e a r l e s s l y .
They were sentenced t o a s h o r t p e r i o d i n p r i s o n , b u t were
soon r e l e a s e d . N a t u r e , however, i s r e v e n g e f u l , and most
c r i m i n a l s have t o pay sooner o r l a t e r f o r t h e i r crimes.
One o f t h e Emami b r o t h e r s was hanged some y e a r s l a t e r f o r
•j
k i l l i n g a f o r m e r Prime M i n i s t e r H a z h i r . Kasravi died i n
t h i s way a f t e r f i f t y - f i v e y e a r s o f s t r u g g l e and honourable
l i f e ; b u t r e a l l y he i s n o t dead, because h i s works l i v e on.
CHAPTER TWO
KASRAVI AS A HISTORIAN
research. He c e r t a i n l y m e r i t s t h e t i t l e o f great h i s t o r i a n .
w i l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r , a f t e r p a r t i c u l a r s of h i s h i s t o r i c a l
( H i s t o r y of Mosha'sha*is, o r F i v e c e n t u r i e s of t h e
h i s t o r y o f K h u z e s t a n ) , Tehran 1312/1933» r e p r i n t e d
1324/1946.
Ar da s h i r ) ; Tehran 1324/1945.
7» Ttejikh-e Blashruteh-ye I r a n ( H i s t o r y o f t h e I r a n i a n
suasive n a r r a t i v e .
p r i n t i n g - p r e s s e s mid-way), m i s p r i n t s a r e not n o t i c e a b l e .
Plutarch's Lives.
h i s t o r y a c q u i r e d something of a f a i r y t a l e appearance.
Kings sometimes recorded h i s t o r i c a l events i n i n s c r i p t i o n s
Shaykh S a f i v a Tabar-ash
i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s i s t e n t about t h i s h o l y S a f a v i d genealogy.
of the c l a i m s of l a t e r h i s t o r i a n s , d i d not i n f a c t l i v e a s a
change s i
2
1. Shaykh S a f i was not a sayyed by o r i g i n , hut h i s
descendants usurped t h i s title.
2. Shaykh S a f i was a S u n n i t e , but i n the 15th century A.D.
his descendants, and i n p a r t i c u l a r Shah E s m a ' i l , went over
4
to Shi ism.
3. Shaykh S a f i spoke P e r s i a n , but h i s descendants chose
to speak T u r k i s h .
K a s r a v i p o i n t s out t h a t the only remaining h i s t o r y o f
the S a f a v i d s w r i t t e n before they came t o t h e throne i s t h e
«3 *
Safvat ol-Safa w r i t t e n a t an unknown date by Ebn Bazzaz
Ardabili. T h i s book was a l t e r e d during the c e n t u r i e s , and
Shah Tahmasb i n s t r u c t e d Mir Abu'l-Path t o make a c o r r e c t e d
v e r s i o n of i t . * * Other h i s t o r i a n s alsoteiat to prove t h a t t h e
1. Shaykh S a f i v a Tabar-ash. p.ii-.
2. I b i d .
3« I b i d . , p.5.
h. I b i d . , p . 3 1 -
Safavidswere sayyeds t such as t h e Hahih o l - S j y a r w r i t t e n i n
not p o s s i b l e i n t h e l i m i t e d space of t h i s t h e s i s t o go
f u r t h e r i n t o the d e t a i l s of t h i s i n t e r e s t i n g book.
Tbrikh-e Mosha'Bha'ian ya
Pansad-saleh-ye Khuzestan
w r i t t e n by K a s r a v i . I t i s an o r i g i n a l work, not t r a n s l a t e d
2
nor taken from any other book. Kasravi d i d a l l the r e s e a r c h
h i m s e l f and t r i e d hard t o c o l l e c t m a t e r i a l from v a r i o u s
sources. He covers t h e f i v e c e n t u r i e s up t o A.D. 1925* and
shows how Arab t r i b e s came t o Khuzestan i n t h e l a t e r middle
ages. He says much about the Mosha*sha'i and K a ' b i (Bani
Ka'h) t r i b e s , which were unknown t o h i s t o r i a n s and o r i e n t a -
l i s t s before K a s r a v i . The book thus c o n t a i n s a great d e a l
of p r e v i o u s l y u n a v a i l a b l e information, and from t h i s point
of view can undoubtedly be considered one o f the most
1 • Shaykh S a f i v a Tabar-ash. pp 3 0 - 3 2 .
2 . K a s r a v i ^ g a t h e r e d h i s information from a. few books, i n c l u d i n g
( 1 ) Ketab-e Sayyed ' A l i , ( 2 ) Mesv^d4eha-ye J a v a h e r i ,
(3) Takmelat ol-Akhbar. by ' A l i ebn Bto'men, (h) Zad o l -
Mosafer by Shaykh F a t h o l l a h • <>~£fcv ^ty^ic-o -^u^^^/TA^ZO^ t*^
h2
l i s h e d a s t h e s t a t e r e l i g i o n of I r a n . S i n c e the Mosha'sha'i
1 . Mosha'sha'ian. p.88.
so Ignorant t h a t i t was almost impossible t o u n i t e them.
1. Mosha'sha'ian. p.123.
2 . Laurence Lockhart, The F a l l of the S a f a v i d Dynasty and the
Afghan Occupation of P e r s i a . Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
1958, p.515.
3 . Paydayesh-e America. Tehran 1325/1946.
h5
h i s impressive s t y l e of w r i t i n g he c a r e f u l l y d e s c r i b e s
As he h i m s e l f mentions i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n , the d i s c o v e r y
h i s t o r i a n i s h i s t r a n s l a t i o n of the Karnamak-e A r d a s h i r - e
T a r i k h - e Maahruteh-ye I r a n
Tarikh-e hejdah-saleh-ye A z a r b a i j a n
1 • Tarikh-e Mashruteh-ye I r a n . p . 3 »
2 . Ibid.» p.5.
50
1. T a r i k h - e Mashruteh. p..7».
2. I b i d . , pp 7-8.
3» I b l d . i n.7.
h. Ibid.
1
5
While he h e l d the p o s i t i o n of C h i e f M i n i s t e r , he t r i e d t o
get r i d of the main o b s t a c l e s t o reform and attempted to
1. T a r i k h - e Mashruteh-ve I r a n , p.8.
2. He became M i n i s t e r of J u s t i c e i n 1871*
3. T a r i k h - e Mashruteh-ye I r a n , p.8.
52
1 - M i n i s t r y of I n t e r n a l A f f a i r s (Omur-e Dakheleh).
1
2 - M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s (Omur-e Khiare.leh).
3 - M i n i s t r y of War (Jang).
h - M i n i s t r y of Finance (fflilieh).
5 - M i n i s t r y of J u s t i c e ('Adlieh).
6 - M i n i s t r y of Education COlum).
9 - M i n i s t r y of Court ( D a r b a r ) .
1. T a r i k h - e Mashruteh. p.8.
2. I b i d . j p.10.
53
a c o n c e s s i o n to b u i l d a r a i l w a y between Bushehrand G i l a n ,
of Maragheh i n A z a r b a i j a n . He l i v e d much of h i s l i f e as a
Khan Badi'.
of Tehran.
2
The Emam Jom'eh o f Tehran was working f o r 'Ayn o l -
Dowleh, who was then C h i e f M i n i s t e r . One day when a c e r t a i n
mollia was a d d r e s s i n g the people i n the Masjed-e Jom'eh, t h e
Emam Jom'eh a r r i v e d i n the company o f some s o l d i e r s and
accused him o f d i s l o y a l t y t o t h e Shah, thereby causing a
•x
great scandal i n t h e mosque. The merchants then took
the number rose t o over 12,000. At the same time the Grown
of g e t t i n g r i d of 'Ayn bl-Dowleh. H i s p l a c e as c h i e f
1
1 • T h e Shah (Mohammad ' A l i Mirza) must p e r s o n a l l y s i g n
the C o n s t i t u t i o n .
3. No f o r e i g n e r should be appointed as a M i n i s t e r .
4. I n every c i t y a l o c a l a s s o c i a t i o n (an.1oman-e m a h a l l i )
c i t y , r a i l w a y s and f a c t o r i e s , and g e n e r a l l y t o i n d u s t r i a l i z e
be r e p l a c e d by I s l a m i c l a w ( S h a r i ' a t ) . K a s r a v i ^ remarks t h a t
i n f a c t t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v o l u t i o n was o r i g i n a l l y r e l i g i o u s ,
4
and e v e n t u a l l y was signed by Mohammad A l i Shah on October y,
1 ?'
1907* When the C o n s t i t u t i o n had thus been completed, many
r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r s s t a r t e d t o express d i s a p p r o v a l , a l l e g i n g
t h a t i t was c o n t r a r y t o I s l a m i c law. T h i s gave a great
opportunity f o r the enemies of C o n s t i t u t i o n a l government.
The Prime M i n i s t e r Atabeg-e A'zam t r i e d t o discourage revo-
l u t i o n a r y t e n d e n c i e s , and most mollas d i s a s s o c i a t e d them-
s e l v e s from the C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s , whom they even accused
of d i s b e l i e v i n g and denying Cod.
1. T a r i k h - e Mashruteh. p.1+65.
2. Ibld.,p.375.
3. Ibid., p.ii45.
69
Atabeg's a s s a s s i n a t i o n , a number of a n t i - c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t
Atabeg's h i r e l i n g s .
i n t e r f e r e w i t h the r i g h t s o f h i s s u b j e c t s , and a l s o t h a t t h e
c o n f l i c t which l a y ahead.
o
As K a s r a v i s e e s i t , Iran's constitutional revolution
passed through t h r e e phases:
1. I n the f i r s t phase t h e r e was unanimity among the whole;
nation.
2. I n the second phase r e l i g i o u s a u t h o r i t i e s e x e r c i s e d
most i n f l u e n c e on the masses, the c h i e f motive of t h e i r
a c t i v i t y being the advancement of r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s .
3» I n the t h i r d phase the people l o s t a l l t h e i r e a r l i e r
enthusiasm, except i n a few b i g c i t i e s such as T a b r i z
and Tehran where they continued t o s t r i v e f o r c o n s t i -
tutional government.
As soon a s the molllas r e a l i z e d t h a t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
government would be of no use t o them and might perhaps even
decrease t h e i r power, they gave up the s t r u g g l e and j o i n e d
the c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s . The Shah took the opportunity
t o prepare a p l o t t o overthrow the C o n s t i t u t i o n . He ordered
1• P u b l i s h e d a t T a b r i z and e d i t e d by Sayyed Mohammad Beza
Shirazi.
2. T a r i k h - e Mashruteh. p.568.
72
R
C o l o n e l Lyakhov, the u s s l a n commander o f the I r a n i a n
Cossacks, to bombard the M a j l e s . T h i s deed (which could
not have "been done without the approval of the R u s s i a n s )
was c a r r i e d out on June 23» 1908, and Mohammad ' A l i Mirza
then repudiated the C o n s t i t u t i o n which he had sworn t o
m a i n t a i n . There was not much r e s i s t a n c e except a t T a b r i z ,
where the people never gave up the s t r u g g l e , especially-
a f t e r l e a r n i n g t h a t the great r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r s (mojtaheds)
at N a j a f i n Ottoman t e r r i t o r y had condemned Mohammad. ' A l i
Mirza's a c t i o n i n Tehran. Supporters of the C o n s t i t u t i o n
s e c r e t l y founded two a s s o c i a t i o n s c a l l e d the "War A s s o c i a -
t i o n " (An.loman-e Jang) and the " M i l i t a r y A s s o c i a t i o n "
(An.loman-e Nezam) under the l e a d e r s h i p o f Sardar Mo'azzam
Khorasani and other l e a d e r s w e l l acquainted w i t h European
c i v i l i z a t i o n . The bombardment ordered by the Shah and
c a r r i e d out by Lyakhov and h i s troops devastated the Majles
"building (Baharesten p a l a c e ) , and was followed by the a r r e s t
of many Deputies, some of whom were put t o death. The
people gave up the s t r u g g l e a f t e r a while, and the r o y a l
autocracy was r e s t o r e d . The B r i t i s h L e g a t i o n i n Tehran
1. T a r i k h - e Mashruteh. p.678.
Ih
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s l a s t e d f o r e l e v e n months. T h i s i s one o f
the most t r a g i c i n c i d e n t s o f I r a n ' s h i s t o r y ; "but on t h e o t h e r
hand i t forms a v e r y h e r o i p c h a p t e r . Kasravi describes i t
all fully, i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e defence o f T a b r i z b y the:
Mojtahedin. I n t h e end t h e champions o f the. C o n s t i t u t i o n won
the freedom which t h e p e o p l e deserved., t h e r e b y opening a new
chapter i n I r a n ' s h i s t o r y . Kasravi observes t h a t w i t h their
v i c t o r y t h e r e appeared a tremendous change i n t h e people's
way of thinking. For t h e f i r s t time I r a n i a n s had found t h a t
t h e y c o u l d g a i n power and e n f o r c e t h e i r w i l l i f t h e y k e p t
their unity. The s t r u g g l e t a u g h t them t h a t t h e y must n o t
accept any k i n d o f f o r e i g n d o m i n a t i o n o r i n f l u e n c e , b u t must
aim f o r complete independence.
The l a s t phase o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l
Revolution.
I n s p i t e o f the successful resistance o f the T a b r i z i s ,
v e r y a p o l o g e t i c towards t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s ; l a t e r he l e f t
escaped t o R u s s i a .
2
Russian s o l d i e r s . The R u s s i a n troops, being more powerful,
opposed to t h i s i d e a , i n s p i t e of the R u s s i a n d e s i r e f o r i t .
According to the newspaper Hekmat. which was p u b l i s h e d i n
Egypt, the number of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s k i l l e d by Samad Khan
amounted to 2h3» Some of the T a b r i z i c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s
1 • T a r i k h - e he j d a h - s a l e h . p.l+l^.
2. Ibid..V.U12.
82
A f t e r the B o l s h e v i k r e v o l u t i o n i n R u s s i a , v a r i o u s
1. T a r i k h - e he.ldah-saleh. p.725.
8h
1. S t a r t e d a t T a b r i z i n 1916.
2. T a r i k h - e he.1dah-saleh. p.877.
8
?
ol-Dowleh was eager t o remove K h i a b a n i , but not strong enough
to do s o . The only body of men at T a b r i z which r e f u s e d to
s t i l l commanded by R u s s i a n ( a n t i - B o l s h e v i k ) o f f i c e r s . The
C o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v o l u t i o n cannot be completely r e l i a b l e ,
t h a t K a s r a v i admired i l l i t e r a t e people's e f f o r t s f o r t h e
he a t t r a c t e d the a t t e n t i o n of many o r i e n t a l i s t s . He l i k e n s
Tehran, I32i|/1945.
91
accuses K a s r a v i of having i n d i r e c t l y encouraged the
A z a r b a i j a n i s - to consider themselves a d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n from
K a s r a v i ' s a r t i c l e s on h i s t o r i c a l s u b j e c t s .
1
2• H i s t o r y of Tabarestan and My Notes. Kasravi
natural f o r t i f i c a t i o n s . T h i s p a r t of I r a n always a t t r a c t e d
0 0
a city.
1
h. The Afshar T r i b e ( I l - e A f s h a r ) . Kasravi i n h i s i n v e s t i -
A f s h a r s migrated t o I r a n during t h e S a l j u q i d p e r i o d , i . e . i n
the 6 t h century A.H./I2th century A.D. and f i r s t of a l l
;
*. 1
5» ShamB o l - D i n Toghra'i. T h i s brave I r a n i a n twice saved
T a b r i z when t h e Mongols invaded I r a n . During t h a t time t h e
people were s u f f e r i n g great h a r d s h i p , a s the barbarous
Mongols showed no mercy and d i d not spare even innocent
children. When the Mongols advanced towards Azarbaidan,
Shams o l - D i n Toghra'i prepared t o defend T a b r i z , and the
people were ready t o f i g h t . Knowing t h i s , t h e Mongols d i d
not approach T a b r i z but i n s t e a d a t t a c k e d Sarab and k i l l e d
many people i n t h a t a r e a . When they again intended t o
a t t a c k T a b r i z , Shams o l - D i n Toghra'i through h i s c l e v e r n e s s
2
and diplomacy saved the people from the Mongols. Kasravi
a t t e n t i o n to such h e r o i c p e r s o n a l i t i e s i n t h e i r country's
1
8. H i s t o r y and t h e H i s t o r i a n ( T a r i k h v a Tarikh-negar)-
to w r i t e any s o r t of h i s t o r y a t a l l . A h i s t o r y of t h e r e v o -
general s i t u a t i o n of c o u n t r i e s i n past t i m e s , t h e i r s e c u r i t y ,
r e b e l l i o n s , f r i e n d s h i p s or h o s t i l i t i e s w i t h t h e i r neigbours
power which he e x e r c i s e d .
On t h e whole, K a s r a v i t h i n k s , I r a n i a n h i s t o r i a n s have
acceptable. I r a n i a n h i s t o r i a n s must t r y t o do t h e i r r e s e a r c h e s
who d i d r e s e a r c h i n t o t h i s s u b j e c t and s t u d i e d i t s s i g n i f i -
t h i s great r e v o l u t i o n . I t w i l l c e r t a i n l y be u s e f u l i f
t o be c a l l e d an e f f i c i e n t and c o n s c i e n t i o u s h i s t o r i a n .
CHAPTER THREE
t h i s goal:
understood.
1
I n K a s r a v i ' s o p i n i o n , a language i s independent i f i t
c o n t a i n s a number of words which belong to i t , and i f people
obey the same r u l e s i n t h e i r way of w r i t i n g and reading it.
The P e r s i a n language, however, has been l i k e a toy i n the
hands of the w r i t e r s , who have shaped i t i n any way they
liked. One w r i t e r would use a moderate amount of A r a b i c
words, another would use them to excess,and another would make
a mixture of the two languages. There a r e many examples of
t h i s confusion, as one can see by reading e.g. Perdowsi's
Shahnameh. w i t h i t s simple s t y l e and pure P e r s i a n vocabulary,
and the Anvar-e S o h a y l i . a h i g h l y ornamented and a r a b i c i z e d
v e r s i o n of the animal f a b l e s K a l i l e h va Demneh composed by
1. Zaban-e Pak. p. k.
109
f i n d or invent p u r e l y P e r s i a n words, he s t u d i e d n e a r l y a l l
the P e r s i a n d i a l e c t s spoken i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of I r a n ; and
he appears to have "been the f i r s t I r a n i a n t o do t h i s . His
immense i n t e r e s t i n the subject helped him to achieve a
great deal of what he had i n view. Apart from h i s
enthusiasm, t h e s e c r e t of h i s success l a y i n h i s p r o f i c i e n c y
1
in Pahlavi, Armenian and A r a b i c , a s w e l l a s P e r s i a n . He
put h i s knowledge o f a l l these languages to good use i n h i s
r e s e a r c h e s , which a r e s o l i d l y based and c a r e f u l l y reasoned.
The books which he has l e f t behind on these s u b j e c t s have
been a great help to subsequent l i n g u i s t s . They a r e the
following:
I r a n i a n p l a c e names by t h e i r s u f f i x e s as f o l l o w s :
1. Van, avail, v i n : e.g. Madavan,Marvan, Andavan, Khiavan,
Shirvan.
2. gan, kan, ghan, yan, j a n , g i n , y i n ; e.g. Zangan,
A z a r b a i j a n , Ardakan, Mamaaaru.
3. han, han. Vargahan, Ardahan, Zarhan.
U. Khan, khun. khanat e.g. Haftkhun, Kordkhun,
5. dan; e.g. Ramadan; Sardan.
6. zan, zan; e.g. Zuzan, Razan.
7. I a n , a l a n , lam; e.g. Maralan, Sulan.
* 1
I n the l i t e r a r y p e r i o d i c a l Armaghan, a certain
d i v i d e d i n t o three categories.
as T a b r i z , Khoy, Salmas.
1. A z a r i , pp 9-11.
2. I b i d . , p.13.
3. I n the e a r l y days a l l these t e r r i t o r i e s were under one
governor's r u l e .
119
S a l j u q i d p e r i o d by the immigration of T u r k i s h t r i b e s .
S y r i a and A s i a Minor.
2
I n the next chapter, Kasravi discusses the first
settlement of Turks i n Azarbiaijan. Although the boundaries
of I r a n were opened to T u r k i s h immigration by the Saljjuq,
conquest, K a s r a v i f i n d s evidence^ t h a t a l i m i t e d number of
T u r k s had s e t t l e d i n Azarbaijtan before t h a t time. Soltan
Mahmud of Ghazneh, a f t e r invading Bokhara and Transoxianat
i n 1025, brought back a group of Turks and s e t t l e d them i n
Khoriasan, A minority of them separated and made t h e i r way
v i a Kerman to Esfahan, Mahraud ordered 'Ala ol-Dowleh, t h e
governor of EsfabJan, to r e t u r n them or k i l l them, but some
1• A z a r i . pp 5-17«
7
2. I b i d .x>.17 .
f
3 . Ibid., p.19.
121
of them l e a r n t of t h i s and escaped to A z a r b a i j a n . These
•1
I n t h e f o l l o w i n g chapter, K a s r a v i s t u d i e s the p o s i t i o n
i n A z a r b a i j a n a f t e r the f a l l o f the Mongol I l k h a n i d dynasty.
T h i s occurred when Abu S a ' i d died i n 1334 l e a v i n g no h e i r t o
the throne. There ensued a great s t r u g g l e amongst the Mongol
l e a d e r s , i n which t h e i r c a p i t a l T a b r i z was badly damaged. I n
the f o l l o w i n g period, a great number o f Turks came to Azar-
b a i j a n , p a r t i c u l a r l y with the armies of Timur-e Lang (1381-
li+05). Although the Turks were always; f i g h t i n g among them-
s e l v e s , they became the dominant power, and a s a r e s u l t t h e i r
1 . A z a r i . p.20.
123
• »
4. I b i d , i pp 27-28.
5. I b i d . pp. 28-29.
;
126
d i a l e c t l i k e K u r d i s h or T a l e s h i .
2
In another chapter, K a s r a v i quotes a few examples of
language d a l ( d ) changed t o r g ( r ) .
1. A c e r t a i n Mr. Naser Rava'i sent a few examples of the
K h a l k h a l i d i a l e c t of A z a r i t o K a s r a v i , which K a s r a v i
found very u s e f u l f o r h i s r e s e a r c h e s i n t h i s f i e l d .
2. izsSl, P.34. ,
3. Safvat ol-Safa: . p.25.
127
f > / y 1 Propnet 8
<&J)~tf/^^S ' ^l/uJ^^J -™* " '
p e a r s ( i . e . the best pears$* Today when the T a b r i z i s see
q u a t r a i n s a r e by Shaykh S a f i o l - D i n , and i t i s a l s o c l e a r
I go there i s t r o u b l e . "
3
K a s r a v i then, i n another chapter, c o n s i d e r s what
i n f l u e n c e s may be drawn from the examples j u s t quoted.
He r e c o g n i s e s that the q u a t r a i n s a r e a v e r y l i m i t e d source
of information about A z a r i and cannot be a c o n c l u s i v e t e s t i -
mony f o r A z a r i ; but they b r i n g t o l i g h t c e r t a i n words which
K a s r a v i proceeds to d i s c u s s .
1• A z a r i . pp 40-49.
2 . They might perhaps be o l d G i i a k i (Gi^an d i a l e c t ) , because
Shaykh S a f i spent a long time i n G i l a n studying under
Shaykh Zahed u n t i l the l a t t e r ' s death.
3 . A z a r i , p.46.
129
*
Azari English Persian
1
(fj - f>\ tear
)ys> I tomorrow
p you
Os^h to t e l l (JvJ
y
/ j j j J desert £j \j U
w i t h musk-scented l o c k s ! "
1. A z a r i , pp 50-51.
131
1
• A z a r i . p.52. My heart i s a l i v e with l o v e f o r the prophet.
2. Ibid.,p.53.
3 . I b i d . , p.54.
132
1• A z a r i , p.54.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
k. Ibid.
5. Ibid., -p.56. The t e x t has mja ( u s ) , but K a s r a v i t h i n k s t h a t
i t must have been corrupted because the meaning c a l l s f o r
teh (you).
6. A z a r i . p.57.
133
^ O ^ (J* ^ 6 ^ )JJ>
0 h e a r t , where s h a l l I come?
0 t e a r f u l , b l o o d - s t a i n e d eyes, where s h a l l I go
A l l the people d r i v e me from t h e i r doors,
I f you a l s o d r i v e me from your door, where s h a l l I go?
(])/ ) )ss y y
T
Maralan ( ) , a q u a r t e r of T a b r i z . h e name i s
a compound o f t h e two s y l l a b l e s Mar and lSan. Mar i s the
word Mad (Medes). I n (Old) A z a r i d ( d a l ) was o f t e n changed
to r (r&). Lan ( (DJJ ) i s another word f o r place; so
Maralan means "place o f the Medes".
Maragheh ( (S )/> ) . The c o r r e c t o r i g i n a l p r o n u n c i a -
t i o n was Marava ( )/j^> ) , meaning "land o f the Medes."
Hashtad sar ( ^CSj* ) , meaning e i g h t y peaks, was
the name o f a mountain i n A z a r h a i j a n , today c a l l e d Hash<teli~-
Sar ( ^ > ).
S i r Edward Denison Ross t r a n s l a t e d a passage o f Kasravi's
book A z a r i i n a review^ which was published i n the Journal
of the Royal A s i a t i c Society o f London i n 1321. He describes
Kasravi as a man o f great l e a r n i n g , versed not only i n Arabic
and Persian l i e t e r a t u r e b u t also i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f Western
scholars. He f e l t t h a t i t would be a p i t y t h a t a s c h o l a r l y
work o f t h i s nature should r u n the r i s k o f passing unnoticed,
f o r i t was r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h a t new s p i r i t o f l i t e r a r y and
h i s t o r i c a l research which had only r e c e n t l y begun t o manifest
i t s e l f among the Persians, and which deserved a l l p o s s i b l e
encouragement. Kasravi had p a t i e n t l y devoted h i m s e l f t o the
study of A z a r i .
* * 1
At the "beginning o f h i s book Kafnameh, Kasravi l i k e n s
the Persian language t o a t r e e , which i f i t i s t o be fruitful
must have v i t a l i t y i n i t s v e i n s , and these, according t o
K a s r a v i , are i t s p r e f i x e s (•plshvand) and s u f f i x e s (pjysyand).
The Eastern languages have evolved i n two ways: f i r s t l y by
the compounding of words, and secondly by the a d d i t i o n o f
p r e f i x e s and s u f f i x e s t o them. I n these ways vocabulary can
be increased. Sometimes two words, each w i t h i t s own meaning,
are compounded t o form a t h i r d word w i t h a new meaning. For
instance the word rah (road) can be compounded w i t h other
words t o form new words such as: b i - r a h ( m i s l e d ) , gom-rah
( l o s t ) , rah-zan ( b a n d i t ) , rah-bar ( l e a d e r ) , r'ah-shenas (road
e x p e r t ) , rah-nama. ( g u i d e ) , rah-row (passage), rah-var (easy
g o i n g ) , rah-namun ( g u i d e ) , Shah-rah (main r o a d ) , rah-avard
(present brought back from a j o u r n e y ) , B a r be-rah ( d o c i l e ) ,
chahar-rah (cross roa<3$, rah-se-par (bound f o r ) , rah-gozar (
(passer-by). The disease which has i n j u r e d Persian and h e l d
back i t s progress i s c o r r u p t i o n w i t h Arabic, and the treatment
w i l l depend on study o f the meanings and o r i g i n s o f the
Persian p r e f i x e s and s u f f i x e s . Cure by means o f p r e f i x e s and
s u f f i x e s w i l l a f t e r a short time f r e e the Persian language
from the need t o use Arabic words, or words from any other
language.
1. K a s r a v i , Kafnameh. e d i t e d by Yahya Zoka, Tehran 1331/1952.
138
As regards t h e h i s t o r y o f Persian s u f f i x e s , many words
end w i t h t h e l e t t e r h ( h a ) , which i n t h e spoken language i s
not pronounced a t a l l , "but i n t h e w r i t t e n language has t o he
w r i t t e n : e.g. reshteh ( s t r i n g ) , .1ameh (garment), nameh
( l e t t e r ) , s'ayeh (shadow), f e r e s h t e h ( a n g e l ) . I n the P a h l a v i
language, which was the n a t i v e language o f t h e I r a n i a n s
during t h e Ashkanid ( P a r t h i a n ) and Sasanid p e r i o d s , i n s t e a d
o f h the l e t t e r k was used. This i s proved "by a passage from
the Karnamak-e Ardashir Babakan,^ which Kasravi quotes,
c o n t a i n i n g the two wards r a k and do-ganak. today pronounced
and w r i t t e n r a h ( r o a d ) , do-ganeh ( t w o - f o l d ) . Afterwards, a t
the end o f t h e Sasanid p e r i o d , g was s u b s t i t u t e d f o r k, and
l a t e r i n southern I r a n t h e g was changed t o j . The f a c t must
be borne i n mind t h a t there has always been a d i f f e r e n c e
between t h e d i a l e c t s o f southern and n o r t h e r n I r a n . Signi-
f i c a n t instances o f t h i s d i f f e r e n c e a r e :
1. Most n o r t h e r n words c o n t a i n i n g the l e t t e r shin (sh) are
pronounced i n the south w i t h s i n ( s ) : e.g. i n t h e n o r t h they
say f e r e s h t a n ( t o send), but i n the south ferestadan.
2. Instead o f t h e l e t t e r ze ( z ) , d a l (d) i s used i n
southern I r a n , and t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s also seen i n t h e o l d e s t
Persian d i a l e c t s and i n t h e Jewish Persian o f Hamadan: e.g.
i n t h e south they say damad (son-in-law) and i n the n o r t h
1. Kasravi ( t r . ) , Karnamak-e Ardashir Babakan, Tehran 13W/
I96I1.5 p.22.
2. Kafnameh. p.6.
139
*
zuma.
3. % o s t n o r t h e r n words "beginning w i t h gaf (g) change t o
,ilm ( j ) i n the south: e.g. G-ahram, the name o f a v i l l a g e i n
the n o r t h , becomes Jahrom, the name o f a town i n the south.
On the other hand, the Arabs, who were i n close touch w i t h
the Persians through the c e n t u r i e s , replaced the gaf w i t h
e i t h e r q'af ( q j or Jim. They had t o do t h i s because there
i s no l e t t e r f o r g i n the Arabic alphabet: e.g. khandaq
( t r e n c h ) from Persian kandeh ( d u g ) , f i r u z a . i ( t u r q u o i s e ) from
Persian f i r u z e h . For a long time these n o r t h e r n and
southern forms o f the s u f f i x remained unchanged, but even-
t u a l l y the gaf and the .1im gave place t o he (h) which i s
used today. I n the o l d A z a r i language, which was the n a t i v e
* * *
1• Kafnameh, pp 12-15.
2. I b i d . , pp 12-13.
3. I b i d . , p.15.
Ik2
1• Kafnameh. p.36.
2
" I ^ i d . , p.37.
3. I b i d . , pp 39-te.
ihh
T
.1ameh (garment), khameh ( o l d word f o r pen). here i s nothing
t o show t h e meaning o f t h e p a r t preceding t h e s u f f i x . These
words are very o l d , and i n the course o f t h e ages t h e i r
o r i g i n a l meanings have "been f o r g o t t e n , Kasravi draws a t t e n -
t i o n t o t h e need f o r o b j e c t i v e , and not f a n c i f u l , study o f
the evolutions, o f such words. He also mentions t h a t t h e
* * * 1 m
s u f f i x k a f i s sometimes replaced "by kan o r gan. This i s
seen i n the names o f many I r a n i a n v i l l a g e s and c i t i e s , e.g.
Zangan (Zanjan).
I n an important "book c a l l e d Zaban-e Pak (Pure language),
Kasravi begins by discussing t h e problem o f v a r i a n t forms of
Persian y&£j&*d, which has caused a l o t o f confusion. Many
verbs have two forms o f theirout***, and Kasravi regards this
3
as a great defect o f t h e Persian language. For example, i n
the verb " t o w r i t e " (neveshtan) J* we f i n d p a r t s o f the verb
such as (m:0-nevesht (he was w r i t i n g ) , (beVnevis ( w r i t e ) ,
neveshteh ( w r i t t e n ) , (mi)nev|sad (he w r i t e s ) , nevisandeh
(writer). Kasravi t h i n k s t h a t t h i s defect ought t o be
remedied by forming the p a r t s o f t h e verb from one root o n l y ,
e.g. n e v i s i d a n ( t o w r i t e ) , ( m i - ) n e v i B i d (he was w r i t i n g ) ,
(be-)nevis (write), nevisideh (written). This treatment
must be a p p l i e d g r a d u a l l y , Kasravi says, i n order t h a t the
1 . Kafnameh. p.ij-1.
2. K a s r a v i , Zaban-e Pak. Tehran 1323/19^4.
3. I b i d . , p.12.
k. I b i d . , pp. 12-13.
5. I b i d . , p.13.
6. I b i d . , pp. 13-14.
145
ears may get t h e h a b i t o f i t .
Another serious defect o f Persian i s i t s possession of
t o o many a u x i l i a r y verbs, most o f which are q u i t e unnecessary.
Thus, instead o f saying khandeh namud (he laughed), naleh
kard (he groaned), z a r i kard (he lamented), one should say
khandid. n a l i d . z a r i d . Kasravi considers t h a t t h e excessive
use of a u x i l i a r i e s was a r e s u l t o f the m i n g l i n g o f Persian
w i t h many other languages.
Lack o f v a l i d r u l e s i s another defect o f Persian d i s -
cussed by K a s r a v i . For c e n t u r i e s t h e I r a n i a n s have been
i n c l i n e d t o use f o r e i g n words instead o f Persian words, and
the language has consequently become r a t h e r s l a c k and i n e f -
ficient. For instance, I n Persian three a c t i v e p a r t i c i p l e s
can be made from each v e r b a l r o o t r e.g. juyan, .iUya. juyandeh
( a l l meaning "seeker"))or ravandeh ( g o e r ) , ravan ( f l o w i n g ,
also s o u l ) , rava ( p e r m i s s i b l e ) .
Another great d i f f i c u l t y i s t h e disordered s t a t e o f
p r e f i x e s and s u f f i x e s . Transitiveness or i n t r a n s i t i v e n e s s
o f verbs also presents problems. C e r t a i n verbs i n Persian
are used sometimes t r a n s i t i v e l y and sometimes i n t r a n s i t i v e l y ,
and t h i s causes a l o t o f complication i n the language. The
use o f the past p a r t i c i p l e w i t h passive and a c t i v e meanings
3
i s y e t another source o f c o n f u s i o n . There i s an i r r e g u l a r
1 . K a s r a v i , Zaban-e Pak. p.13.
2. I b i d .
3. I b i d . , p. 15.
h T-. p
ike
To c o r r e c t t h i s s t a t e of a f f a i r s , Kasravi t h i n k s t h a t
1
several remedies are needed:
1. Some words of Arabic o r i g i n , such as ketab (book), .ield
(volume), do not need t o be replaced, as t h e i r meanings are
c l e a r and everywhere understood; they may be allowed t o
remain.
2. Old Persian words can be found and brought back i n t o use
w i t h t h e i r proper meanings; t h i s task must be c a r r i e d out
gradually.
3. Words must be made capable of showing a d e f i n i t e meaning,
which i s o f t e n not t h e case i n Persian, and i n c o r r e c t usages
must be e l i m i n a t e d ; f o r example the use o f dorost-kar ( c o r r e c t
doer) w i t h the meaning "honest" i s wrong and should be r e -
placed by r a s t - k a r ( r i g h t d o e r ) . Many Persian words have no
c l e a r meanings but are s t i l l used i n a vague and imprecise
way. Kasravi c i t e s as an instance the word farhang, which
2
means education; b u t i f somebody i s asked i t s meaning, he
w i l l say "'elmofazl o adab" ("science, l e a r n i n g and l i t e r a -
t u r e " ) , which suggests t h a t he i s puzzled!
The question a r i s e s , how have Persian words l o s t t h e i r
meanings? Kasravi regards t h i s phenomenon as a great defect
of t h e Persian language, and t h i n k s t h a t i t was caused by
the mixing of Persian w i t h a l i e n languages. For i n s t a n c e ,
1 . Zaban-e Pak. pp.11-12.
2. The word also means d i c t i o n a r y .
3« Zaban-e Pak. pp. 3k-h0.
149
0 0 0
1Persian
. A c h rwords
o n i c l eand modern
o f the words.
Qarjars and hHe
i s tdoirdy not r e a l Emams
o f the i z e t hby
at the
Mohammad Taqi Sepehr (d.1880), who was court h i s t o r i a n
t o Naser o l - D i n Shah.
2. A h i s t o r y o f I r a n up,to the Zands, w r i t t e n i n 1891-1894
by J a l a l o l - D i n Mirza, a son o f Fath ' A l i Shah. I t
contains no Arabic words.
159
2. I b i d .
162
I f a few i n s i n c e r e persons i n s i s t on a t t r i b u t i n g t o
Azarbaijan a d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l i t y and considering the
» » * »
1
who was p a r t i c u l a r l y c r i t i c a l o f K a s r a v i s s t y l e o f w r i t i n g .
He s a i d t h a t Kasravi used so many u n f a m i l i a r words i n h i s
w r i t i n g s t h a t people could not understand h i s meaning.
Kasravi i n h i s book Zaban-e Pak also discusses an idea
which busied the minds o f many people, e s p e c i a l l y i n the
2
l a s t century, namely the c r e a t i o n of a u n i v e r s a l language.
A great deal o f e f f o r t has been made i n t h i s f i e l d , but no
p o s i t i v e r e s u l t has been achieved. Today w i t h new inventions
and easier t r a v e l l i n g , the remotest p a r t s o f the world are i n
touch w i t h one another. Indeed the w o r l d has become a small
place. The maintenance o f so many d i f f e r e n t ways o f speaking
i s consequently r a t h e r unwise. According t o the researches
of the l i n g u i s t s (so Kasravi says), we cannot choose one o f
the present languages as a u n i v e r s a l one, because i t would
be d i f f i c u l t t o l e a r n and would need too much time and con-
c e n t r a t i o n t o be r e a d i l y used. For t h i s reason a number o f
l i n g u i s t s t r i e d t o create a new language. Dr. Zamenhof, a
P o l i s h l i n g u i s t , invented Esperanto, which i s very easy t o
l e a r n j f o r an average person t h r e e months would be enough.
Although Esperanto i s so easy, i t has not made much progress,
and Dr. Zamenhof's hope has not been f u l f i l l e d . His r e -
searches showed t h a t a language only becomes d i f f i c u l t
rK
^i Dav Pasokh-e Kasravian. Tehran 1335/l966>B3.DaVati, pp 11-12.
2. Zaban-e Pak. pp 6 l - 6 I u
3. I b i d .
k. I b i d . , p.77.
170
CHAPTER FOUR
1
KASRAVI S LITERARY STUDIES
"Long "before now what i s t o "be has "been marked down f o r ever.
The pen w r i t e s t i r e l e s s l y of good and "bad. Destiny, gave you
•i
(f&j I ;j c^yj ^
" I f you wish t o cast o f f the cares o f s t a t e , begging i s
b e t t e r than k i n g s h i p . " ^
k. I b i d .
196
m* *1 * 2
the Tarikh-e Vassaf and the Tarikh-e Mo .jam, whose authors
were a l l more i n t e r e s t e d i n w r i t i n g f l o w e r y language than i n
recording h i s t o r i c a l f a c t s . To Ferdowsi, however, Kasravi
as already s a i d , gives ample p r a i s e . He t h i n k s t h a t Ferdowsi
rendered the highest service t o I r a n "by p u t t i n g the n a t i o n a l
epic (Shahnameh) i n t o Persian verse. I n t h i s great poem,
Kasravi says, Ferdowsi t r i e d t o arouse the people's p a t r i o t i s m ,
"by showing them how precious l i b e r t y i s and how mighty I r a n
had once been; he thereby encouraged the people t o f i g h t f o r
t h e i r freedom and defend themselves against t h e i r enemies.
Kasravi observes t h a t the a r t o f w r i t i n g Persian poetry
was f i r s t p r a c t i s e d a t the courts o f k i n g s , who were t h e
great patrons, and t h a t consequently the poets, i n order t o
earn t h e i r l i v i n g , busied themselves w i t h p r a i s i n g the k i n g s ;
1 . W r i t t e n , f o r the Ilkh§n Oljay^u Khoda-bandeh (13-5-1316) ,by
'Abdoll^iebn F a z l o l l a h S h i r a z i who h e l d the l i t t l e Vassaf;
an important source f o r the I l k h a n i d p e r i o d , but n o t o r i o u s l y
the most verbose and tedious h i s t o r y book ever w r i t t e n i n
Persian.
2. W r i t t e n i n 730, 1330 by Hamdollah Mostawfi Qazvini.
3. Abul-Qasem Hasan-ebn * A l i Ferdowsi (c.932-1020). He was
commissioned by Soltan Mahmud o f Ghaznah, who according
t o the s t o r y promised a,reward o f one g o l d dinar f o r
every l i n e o f the Shahnameh» but when a f t e r t w e n t y - f i v e
years i t was f i n i s h e d , o f f e r e d him only one s i l v e r derham
f o r each o f the 60,000 l i n e s . Ferdowsi spurned t h i s
o f f e r and f l e d ; he afterwards wrote a famous s a t i r e (to
Mahmud's meanness, According t o the Ohahar Ma^aleh o f
the secretary Nezami 'Aruzi ( w r i t t e n 1160), Ferdowsi
was a S h i * i t e .
199
1/
"When y o u s i t a t t a b l e w i t h d e s t i n y , t h r o w me some bones.
For I boast o f b e i n g y o u r dog, I boast o f t h e g l o r y o f b e i n g
2
your slave;."
As f o r S u f i s m (Moslem m y s t i c i s m ) , K a s r a v i t h i n k s t h a t i t
became e x t r e m e l y h a r m f u l f o r I r a n i a n s o c i e t y . The e a r l i e s t
p e o p l e , and n o t t o s t r i v e f o r m a t e r i a l w e a l t h b u t t o t r y t o
o f t h e m y s t i c s began t o w r i t e p o e t r y i n w h i c h t h e y combined
h a n d f u l w r o t e r e a s o n a b l e o r harmless p o e t r y . The o t h e r s w r o t e
p e r n i c i o u s verse which continues t o poison t h e I r a n i a n people's
•j
mind. Above a l l , K a s r a v i says, i t i s important that future
g e n e r a t i o n s s h o u l d n o t r e a d such s t u f f and s h o u l d n o t he
persuaded b y i t t o g i v e up a c t i v i t y and f e e l indifferent
towards t h e w o r l d . The young people o f I r a n must r e f o r m
t h e i r way o f t h i n k i n g . A complete change o f i n t e l l e c t u a l
o u t l o o k i n I r a n i a n s o c i e t y i s u r g e n t l y needed; and w i t h t h i s
i n view, K a s r a v i presents h i s suggestions f o r t h e reform o f
P e r s i a n p o e t r y and l i t e r a t u r e .
p
and w h i c h b r i n g b e n e f i t b y s t i r r i n g p e o p l e t o p a t r i o t i s m
o r h e r o i s m i s v e r y s m a l l . U n f o r t u n a t e l y many p o e t s have,
p e r s i s t e d i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e i r f e e l i n g s and d e s i r e s i n a
v e r y immoral way. K a s r a v i r e c o g n i s e s t h a t p o e t r y i s an
a r t so s t r o n g l y r o o t e d i n t h e I r a n i a n people's mind t h a t
i t can n e v e r be c o m p l e t e l y e l i m i n a t e d ; b u t he i n s i s t s t h a t
immoral p o e t r y books s h o u l d be banned o r e x p u r g a t e d and
t h a t contemporary p o e t s s h o u l d be u r g e d t o w r i t e i n a more
and d e s i r e s a r e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t f e e l i n g s , such as
i n others. As a r e s u l t t h e y d e s c r i b e t h e i r m e n t a l and s p i -
t o impress t h e i r r e a d e r s ; t h e y t h e r e f o r e compose p o e t r y ,
s o c i e t y f r o m t h e e t h i c a l and moral v i e w p o i n t . K a s r a v i
3
r1 e•p lPar
i e s Payramun-e
as f o l l o w s .She'r" A ol lSmy
h a ' oe br ji e, cpp
t i oU3-hk*
n s are against those
2. I b i d , .-p. 50.
3. I b i d . J p p U-5-U-6.
205
have w r i t t e n about h i s t o r i c a l , s o c i a l , o r n a t i o n a l v i c t o r i e s .
t h e y d e c l a r e d t h a t p o e t r y i s t h e language o f n a t u r e and
p
t h a t K a s r a v i had no r i g h t t o a t t a c k p o e t s . He r e p l i e d : "To
n a t u r e , I have no o b j e c t i o n . My main r e a s o n f o r o p p o s i n g
t o w r i t e i n a v e r y p l e a s i n g and p e r s u a s i v e way, w i t h t h e
r e s u l t t h a t t h e p e o p l e , e s p e c i a l l y t h e younger g e n e r a t i o n ,
s h o u l d n o t j u s t w r i t e about h i s i m a g i n a r y f e e l i n g s o r h a l l u -
"That b i t t e r - l i k e ( s u b s t a n c e ) , w h i c h t h e S u f i c a l l s , t h e mother
good P e r s i a n language.
K a s r a v i observes t h a t t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f p o e t r y were
r e p l i e s , ^ s a y i n g "Your o b j e c t i o n i s n o t l o g i c a l . Firstly
poet s i t s i n a c o r n e r and f o r g e t s a l l h i s d u t y t o s o c i e t y .
He becomes a b s o l u t e l y i n a c t i v e , b u t e a t s t h e f r u i t o f o t h e r
me t h i s i s n o t b e i n g g r e a t . We I r a n i a n s as a n a t i o n have
n o t g a i n e d t h e s l i g h t e s t b e n e f i t f r o m Mowlavi's t h i c k and
1 . Dar Pa.vramun-e She'r o S h a ' e r i , p.73.
2. I b i d . , p.79.
3. I b i d . , p p 79-8U.
211
3.
2. DarI b i d .Payramun-e
, p.87. She'r o S h a ' e r i , p.85.
213
r e s t r i c t e d ; and he a p p r e c i a t e s K a s r a v i ' s e f f o r t s i n t h i s
t h a t h a r m f u l n a t u r e o f , f o r i n s t a n c e , I r a j Mirza's c o l l e c t e d
E d u c a t i o n assumes t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f such
l i n e s he p r a i s e s K a s r a v i ' s e f f o r t as f o l l o w s :
f a m i l i a r w i t h K a s r a v i ' s i d e a s , he s t a r t e d t o w r i t e respectable
N o v e l i s t s who w r i t e p u r e l y i m a g i n a r y s t o r i e s come i n f o r
severe c r i t i c i s m f r o m K a s r a v i , i i i > s p i t e o f t h e i r g r e a t
popularity. He r e c o g n i s e s t h a t t h e n o v e l i s r e g a r d e d as
•i
a b r a n c h o f l i t e r a t u r e i n Europe, Where n o v e l - w r i t i n g , he
says, i s even t a u g h t t o s t u d e n t s i n t h e s c h o o l s . Neverthe-
2
less Kasravi t h i n k s t h a t n o v e l w r i t i n g i s on t h e whole use-
l e s s , and he i s s o r r y t h a t t h e E a s t e r n peoples;, i n t h i s as
c h i l d i s h occupation n o t s u i t a b l e f o r a d u l t s . Even i f t h e
n o v e l i s t wants t o g i v e moral l e s s o n s , t h e n o v e l i s u s e l e s s
i m a g i n a r y s t o r i e s , whereas t h e y w i l l t a k e n o t i c e o f t r u e
by a n o v e l . People a r e c a p t i v a t e d by n o v e l s , most o f w h i c h
young g i r l s o r boys r e a d s e n s a t i o n a l l o v e s t o r i e s , we d r a g
them towards i m m o r a l i t y , because t h e i r minds a r e immature,
beliefs." As f o r A l e x a n d r e Dumas, h i s n o v e l s a r e no b e t t e r
l o o k d e e p l y i n t o i t , we s h a l l s t i l l f i n d i t i l l o g i c a l and
-i
who produced t h e f i f t h c h a p t e r o f t h e G o l e s t a n , t e a c h t h e
Comments.
w r i t i n g s about p o e t r y i s t h a t he c o n s i d e r e d t h e I r a n i a n p o e t s
any k i n d o f l i t e r a t u r e i s u s e l e s s u n l e s s a m o r a l or m a t e r i a l
o f t h e most d i s t i n g u i s h e d f i g u r e s i n P e r s i a n l i t e r a t u r e ; f o r
need d i s c u s s i o n .
2. K a s r a v i l a y s g r e a t s t r e s s on t h e i m m o r a l i t y o f t h e
f i f t h c h a p t e r o f Sa'di's Golejstan, w h i c h , as he r i g h t l y
i n t o account t h e h i g h moral s t a n d a r d o f t h e a d v i c e w h i c h
l i n e s i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r a l o n e s u f f i c e t o redeem Sa'di*s
sins; ^ ^
t h i n k i n g depends v e r y l a r g e l y on h i s e n v i r o n m e n t . Every
t h e i r t i m e s and i n t h e i r s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t s . They d i d n o t
b» K a s r a v i t r i e d t o demonstrate weaknesses i n t h e p o e t r y
purpose w h i l e i n a s t a t e o f h a l l u c i n a t i o n , and t h a t he m e r e l y
a few l i n e s o f t h e p o e t r y o f Hafez, b u t n e g l e c t s o t h e r s .
c r i t i c i z e d t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e p o e t s , i n c l u d i n g even F e r d o w s i ,
value. I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r s t a n d why a s c h o l a r l i k e
r e a s o n a b l y be accepted. We know t h a t i n t h e p a s t , r i g h t up
b o t h a r e necessary t o human l i f e .
7» A c c o r d i n g t o K a s r a v i , many p o e t s produced t h e i r p o e t r y
produced t h e i r p o e t r y . T h i s i s a l s o an u n f a i r criticism,
d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e i r c i r c u m s t a n c e s and environment; t h o u g h
p r a i s e d k i n g s t o g a i n something f r o m them.
"but a l s o s c i e n t i s t s , t h i n k e r s , a r t i s t s and a l s o p o e t s . I f
a p o e t l i v e s i n h i s own s h e l l o r h i s own s m a l l g r o u p , t h i s
i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y wrong o r o h j e c t i o n a b l e . Most p o e t s
a f a c t o r y worker's e x i s t e n c e , f o r t h e sake o f t h e i r a r t .
9. K a s r a v i t h i n k s t h a t as t h e p o e t s l i v e d on s a l a r i e s f r o m
mass o f t h e p e o p l e i n I r a n were n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n p o e t r y ,
t h a t he confused p o e t and p o e t r y . He f o r g o t t h e A r a b i c
proverb
i s q u i t e r i g h t i n emphasizing t h a t p o e t r y i n I r a n was n o t
•i
t h e language o f t h e masses; b u t he i s n o t r i g h t i n s a y i n g
that i t i s therefore valueless.
10. K a s r a v i r e a d t h e p o e t r y o f Khayyam, Sa'di and H a f e z ,
and censured c e r t a i n passages. He d i d n o t concern h i m s e l f
1 . Sokhanrani-ye K a s r a v i d a r An.joman-e A d a b i , pp 27-30.
228
and o t h e r E a s t e r n p e o p l e s , so he s a i d , i n o r d e r t h a t the
and p r o g r e s s , t h i s c e r t a i n l y was n o t t r u e o f a l l o r i e n t a l i s t s .
t h i n g he c o u l d t o s u p p o r t t h e I r a n i a n people i n t h e i r C o n s t i -
t u t i o n a l s t r u g g l e . Moreover c e r t a i n o r i e n t a l i s t s t o i l e d h a r d
1 . Dar Payramun-e A d a b i a t , pp 116-128.
2. I b i d . , p. 119.
229
t o g a i n a c c u r a t e knowledge o f I r a n i a n p o e t r y , l i t e r a t u r e ,
h i s t o r y and c i v i l i z a t i o n , and p u b l i s h e d t h e i r knowledge i n
v a l u a b l e books, w h i c h t o d a y are s t u d i e d and a p p r e c i a t e d by
I r a n i a n s as w e l l as f o r e i g n e r s . Mr. M h d i M o j t a h e d i , a u t h o r
a
i n t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u g g l e , i s one of the I r a n i a n w r i t e r s
who has c r i t i c i z e d K a s r a v i ' s a t t i t u d e t o European o r i e n t a l i s t s .
I n h i s opinion, Kasravi's accusation that a l l o r i e n t a l i s t s
worked f o r t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e i r own c o u n t r i e s cannot p o s s i b l y
by a c c e p t e d . K a s r a v i was p a r t i c u l a r l y u n f a i r when he said
I r a n ' s g r e a t s c h o l a r s were b r i b e d by f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s t o r e -
p u b l i s h e d p o e t i c a l t e x t s and w r i t e books about t h e ideas of
philosophers.
Not u n n a t u r a l l y , K a s r a v i ' s d e n u n c i a t i o n s o f most o f the,
P e r s i a n c l a s s i c s o f t e n i n s p i r e d v e r y extreme r e a c t i o n s . To
some modern p o e t s he i s t h e symbol o f e v e r y t h i n g infamous and
d e g e n e r a t e , whose i n f l u e n c e c o u l d o n l y be e v i l and perverse.
For i n s t a n c e Malek ol-Sho*ara Bahar (1850-1951), by general
consent t h e g r e a t e s t poet o f modern t i m e s , and A d i b o l - S l a n t a n e l
Sami'i b o t h wrote poems i n w h i c h t h e y b i t t e r l y criticiased
,* 2
kasravi. Bahar i n these v e r s e s c a l l s him
0 \)£s(f> rs^s'
(J
" s t u p i d , ignorant, befuddled w i t h rebelliousness and
1. M o j t a h e d i , Re.jial-e i & z a r b a i j a n dar a s r M a s h r u t i a t , p.126.
2. Malek ol-Sho'aria Bahar, Divan-e Ashar, v o l . 2 . Tehran
1336/19U7, PP 507-508.
230
f_ ^>'y ^y ^
"an i g n o r a n t , i l l i t e r a t e Sayyed, who w i t h h i s l a c k o f thought
I h x s p i t e o f such c r i t i c i s m s , K a s r a v i b e l i e v e d , and h i s
s o c i a l l y h a r m f u l and s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be c o m p l e t e l y e r a d i c a t e d .
f u l t h i n g s , a w i s e r e a d e r w i l l n o t be a f f e c t e d by i t . At
t h e same t i m e , i n I r a n as i n many o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , t h e
and i f t h e r e s p o n s i b l e a u t h o r i t i e s c o n s i d e r a book t o be
p o l i t i c a l l y or s o c i a l l y h a r m f u l , t h e y can ban i t or r e s t r i c t i t ,
P r i v a t e b u r n i n g of "books i s t h e r e f o r e u s e l e s s as w e l l as
foolish.
t h e h a r m f u l f e a t u r e s of c e r t a i n p o e t i c a l works w i t h o u t going
g r e a t l y he r e s p e c t s t h e Qor'ian.
1 . K a s r a v i , D&dgjah, pp 27-28.
233
i d l e n e s s and f a n a t i c i s m ; b u t i t was n o t a b n o r m a l , as a l l
CHAPTER FIVE
K a s r a v i d i d a g r e a t d e a l o f r e s e a r c h on r e l i g i o u s matters.
of r e l i g i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o three s e c t i o n s .
religious beliefs.
The t h i r d s e c t i o n s e t s f o r t h t h e o p i n i o n s o f r e l i g i o u s
Kasravi's r e l i g i o u s ideas.
SECTION I
K a s r a v i ' s a n a l y s e s of d i f f e r e n t r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s .
K a s r a v i i n a book c a l l e d Rah-e R a s t e g a r i ("The Path to
S a l v a t i o n ^ s t r o n g l y c r i t i c i z e s c e r t a i n s e c t s o f I s l a m , and
1
f i r s t of a l l the E s m a * i l i t e or B a t e n i t e s e c t . I n h i s opinion,
1. Rah-e R a s t e g a r i . p. 73.
2. K a s r a v i , P a r Payramun-e Eslam. Tehran ,3325/191+6.
237
1. P a r Payramun-e Eslam. p. 5.
238
of I s l a m .
and u n s c i e n t i f i c i d e a s ; according to K a s r a v i , i t i s c o n t r a r y
1
to God's w i l l .
t r a n s l a t e d T h e Shi'ism business".
p
K a s r a v i begins w i t h a h i s t o r i c a l s k e t c h . S h i * i s m arose
them.
the tragedy of K a r b a l a .
_Y
1. K a s r a v i , Payman-e man be-Sharq, Tehran 13W+/1965, pp ^0-1+8.
2^7
our problems s i d e by s i d e .
1
K a s r a v i ' s book Baha* i g a r i i s important because i t i s a
s c h o l a r l y h i s t o r i c a l study o f the development o f the Baha'i
s e c t , and ( a s f a r a s we know) the only study of t h i s k i n d
w r i t t e n and p u b l i s h e d in Iran. While c r i t i c i z i n g Baha'ism
s e v e r e l y , K a s r a v i t r i e s to be o b j e c t i v e .
1. K a s r a v i , B a h a * i g a r i . Tbhran 1321/19U2.
2. Mr. P e t e r Avery i n h i s book Modern Iran.Iiondon 1965, pp 5L4.—55.
quotes K a s r a v i ' s a n a l y s i s of the spread o f the Mahdi idea
in Iran.
3. B a h a ' i g a r i . p. 12.
249
A f t e r t h i s h i s t o r i c a l o u t l i n e , K a s r a v i p o i n t s out the
d e f i c i e n c i e s of the Baha'i s e c t a s he sees them. He t h i n k s
1. B a h a i g a r i . p. U2.
2. Ibfld.. p. 51.
251
1
I n a pamphlet Qoft va Shanid (Dialogue); Kasravi
1
to us through s c i e n c e . The human being i s God's chosen
SECTION I I
K a s r a v i ' s own r e l i g i o u s beliefs.
K a s r a v i i n h i s important books A y i n ("The Model"),
Var.lavand Bonvad ("Basic H o l i n e s s " ) , ^ and Rah-e R a s t e g a r i
4
("The Path to Salvation"),* " has s e t f o r t h h i s own r e l i g i o u s
b e l i e f s , which he c a l l e d P a k d i n i ("Pure F a i t h " ) . As
mentioned above we u n f o r t u n a t e l y c o u l d not obtain a copy of
Ayin. K a s r a v i i n the other two books summarizes h i s b e l i e f s
God and c r e a t i o n
As f o r the s t a r t of c r e a t i o n , K a s r a v i t h i n k s t h a t t h i s i s
1
not w i t h i n the range of the human i n t e l l e c t . I n t h i s world
we a r e not capable of knowing e v e r y t h i n g . Man has been
t r y i n g to l e a r n about God s i n c e the stone age, and earlier
people used to worship a p i e c e of stone or wood and b e l i e v e t h a t
i t was s u p e r i o r to them; they even s a c r i f i c e d t h e i r innocent
c h i l d r e n f o r the sake of these wooden or stone gods. Greek
p h i l o s o p h e r s proved God's e x i s t e n c e by l i n k i n g cause and
e f f e c t ; they s a i d t h a t God i s the cause of c r e a t i o n . Some
s a i d t h a t cause and e f f e c t a r e i n s e p a r a b l e , l i k e f i r e which i s
1. Varjavand Bonyad, p. 9.
257
Spirit
K a s r a v i i s convinced t h a t man i s the highest of a l l
c r e a t u r e s and t h a t Darwin was wrong i n t h i n k i n g t h a t man is
merely a decendant of monkeys.^ Even i f we accept Darwin's
theory from the b i o l o g i c a l viewpoint, we must admit that the
human being possesses something superior to the r e s t of the
creatures. Man does not c o n s i s t of f l e s h and blood alone;
i n a d d i t i o n to h i s p h y s i c a l strength, he has the power of
thought. Materialism c l a i m s t h a t the source of human a c t i o n
i s i n d i v i d u a l s e l f i s h n e s s ; but we cannot p o s s i b l y accept this
view. Although we come acuoss the man who k i l l s h i s brother
to get h i s wealth, we a l s o come a c r o s s the man who on a c o l d
Reason
Some groups of r e l i g i o u s people, e s p e c i a l l y m y s t i c s ,
Infidelity
Today, according to K a s r a v i , the m a j o r i t y of people have
got the notion t h a t they no longer need r e l i g i o n . He i s
1
convinced t h a t they a r e m i s t a k e n . R e l i g i o n , he b e l i e v e s ,
shows the main road to happiness. I t i s "the language of
nature;" A l l r e a l i t y can be understood through r e l i g i o n .
R e l i g i o n i s f o r humanity, not humanity f o r religion,Human
beings need r e l i g i o n , and r e l i g i o n can never be e l i m i n a t e d
from human l i f e .
Life
K a s r a v i b e l i e v e s t h a t God's main i n t e n t i o n i n c r e a t i n g
Pro-phethood
For h i s own r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s , K a s r a v i a s a l r e a d y
mentioned invented the name P a k d i n i ("Pure R e l i g i o n " ) .
An e s s e n t i a l p r i n c i p l e o f P a k d i n i i s t h a t man should face
the r e a l i t i e s of l i f e and t r y t o solve i t s problems, and
should a v o i d t h i n k i n g about u s e l e s s t h i n g s . Of course
P a k d i n i i s concerned with much more than j u s t the r e a l i t i e s
of l i f e . K a s r a v i always h e l d t h a t P a k d i n i i s p a r t o f I s l a m
2
and t h a t i t s foundation i s p u r e l y I s l a m i c . I t d i f f e r s from
wrongly understood and corrupted forms of I s l a m , but not
from the r e a l I s l a m .
Everybody i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the conduct o f h i s l i f e i n
t h i s world; h i s happiness or otherwise depends ori h i s own
initiative. Human beings, however, are c r e a t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t
p h y s i c a l and mental powers, and l i v e i n d i f f e r e n t environments.
Man's d u t i e s .
Men and women l i v i n g i n a n a t i o n , who have chosen a
l a n d a s t h e i r country, should be l o y a l to t h a t l a n d and t r y
to develop i t i n every .way. The sources o f l i f e , according to
1. Be-khwanand va d a v a r i konand. p. &5.
2. K a s r a v i . . Par pasokh-e bad-khwahan. Tehran, n.d. pp 1+8H$9. y
Kasravi, are land, water, and a i r ; man should value them
and t r y to make use of them. Every individual should take
the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of a job, not merely because he needs t o
earn h i s l i v i n g , but also as a contribution to human progress.
Man must t r y t o eliminate wickedness from h i s society. He
must also t r y to eliminate disease. Every individual should
t r y to l i v e hygienically and look a f t e r h i s health, because
only with a healthy body can a person think correctly.
Religion gives some i n s t r u c t i o n i n t h i s respect and people
should submit t o i t s commands, which enjoin care about
personal cleanliness and s t r i c t abstention from any kind of
alchohol.
2
International Coexistence.
Every nation should be free t o l i v e i t s own l i f e i n i t s
own land. Patriotism means devotion t o one's country, and
does not mean h o s t i l i t y towards other nations, whidh i s very
far from being p a t r i o t i c . Nations can l i v e peacefully
together j u s t as members of a family can. I t i s most
important that representatives of the d i f f e r e n t nations
should meet t o discuss t h e i r mutual a f f a i r s and to work f o r
peaceful relationships amongst a l l nations. The main reason
why man's l i f e today i s not as happy as i t should be, i n
1. Varjavand Bonyad, pp 109-111.
2. Ibid., pp 50-52.
spite of tremendous improvements Drought "by science, i s that
man i s ignoring the importance of international coexistence.
Capital Punishment
Kasravi thinks that punishment of persons who have
committed crimes i s necessary, hut that keeping criminals
i n prison f o r long periods never produces good r e s u l t s .
I n Europe and America prisons are becoming resthouses f o r
2
criminals. Kasravi divides lawbreakers i n t o two groups.
The f i r s t consists of those who commit crime impulsively;
they should d e f i n i t e l y be punished but they can and should
be r e h a b i l i t a t e d . The second group consists of those who
deliberately commit crime out of wickedness and bad
characterj f o r them imprisonment, or a l t e r n a t i v e l y ,
corporal punishment, are necessary. Those whose existence
i s harmful to a society and whose minds cannot be cured
should be punished by death, j u s t as scorpions and dangerous
snakes have to be put to death. Deliberate murder, i n
p a r t i c u l a r , deserves the death penalty.
Land Ownership
Land must be c u l t i v a t e d and u t i l i z e d to supply food f o r
mankind. Ownership of land should belong solely to those
who actually c u l t i v a t e i t .
1. Var.lavand Bonyad. pp 15L-157.
2. Ibid. pp 158-160.
;
265
Importance of agriculture.
Kasravi regards agriculture as a peculiarly admirable
1
vocation. He feels strongly that there ought not to he any
difference between c i t i e s and v i l l a g e s (whereas i n Iran
farming villages were impoverished and wealth was concentrated
i n the b i g c i t i e s ) . He thinks that we must develop the
v i l l a g e s and even impose l i m i t s on the development of the
big cities. God w i l l appreciate those who make use of the
land and water.
Social and governmental organization.
Every society needs a r u l e r , who should be one of i t s
members, and also a number of elected representatives of the
masses. They should communicate with each other about the
problems of the people's l i f e . God w i l l bless those rulers
who are devoted to t h e i r country and who l o y a l l y and
d u t i f u l l y f u l f i l l t h e i r tasks.
Kasravi lays p a r t i c u l a r stress on the social duties of
2
government. There must be control over prices. There must
also, he says be a l i m i t a t i o n on the number of businessmen..^
The i n d i v i d u a l businessman's capital must not be allowed to
exceed a certain amount. A g r i c u l t u r a l lands must be divided
and d i s t r i b u t e d i n accordance with the needs of the i n d i v i d u a l
1. Kar ya Pisheh ya Pul, p. 32.
2. Var.lavand Bonyad. p. 12+3.
3. Kar va Pisheh va Pul, p. 1+3.
266
"We only send prophets who speak the language o f the people,
1. Nabard ba B i - d i n i . p. 128.
2. Ibid..pp 130-133.
3. I b i d . , pp 135-H+O.
U. I b i d . p. mi.
289
t h a t i t i s i n f a c t only a c o l l e c t i o n o f e t h i c a l ideas.
Admittedly Kasravi d i d not claim t h a t i t was o r i g i n a l , h u t
regarded i t a a s a branch or "road" o f Islam. As we have
mentioned e a r l i e r , he h i m s e l f deserves c r i t i c i s m because he
does not e x p l a i n what the "pure" Islam o f e a r l y Moslem times
r e a l l y was, nor what the p u r i f i e d Islam or "Pure R e l i g i o n "
(Pak-dini) o f modern times ought t o be. He also leaves other
problems unanswered; e.g. are the Qor'anic laws o f marriage,
divorce and i n h e r i t a n c e wholly s u i t a b l e i n modern c o n d i t i o n s ,
and what should a modern Moslem or Pak-din do about these
problems?
U n f o r t u n a t e l y K a s r a v i , when he wrote Var.javand Bonyad.
chose the name Pak-dmi f o r h i s p a r t i c u l a r r e l i g i o u s and
e t h i c a l ideas. Although modern man r e j e c t s s u p e r s t i t i o n and
h a l l u c i n a t i o n , and does not f o l l o w h i s r e l i g i o n as b l i n d l y
as h i s f o r e f a t h e r s d i d , up t o now a l l attempts t o put new
r e l i g i o n s i n Islam's place have u l t i m a t e l y f a i l e d . When
Pak-dini was i n t r o d u c e d , people suspected Kasravi o f wanting
t o r u i n Islam and put a f a l s e new r e l i g i o n i n i t s place.
Some I r a n i a n s were reminded o f Mirza Mohammad * A l i Bab
( d . 1267A®S2)) and h i s successor Baha'ollah ( d . 1310/1892),
who completely broke away from Islam and provoked a l o t o f
disorder and bloodshed. For these reasons Kasravi's w r i t i n g s
305
CHAPTER SIX
i n s t i n c t i v e d e s i r e s and p u t reason i n t h e i r p l a c e ; b u t
b e i n g t r y t o s t r e n g t h e n i t s i n s t i n c t i v e f e e l i n g s and f u l f i l
i t s i n s t i n c t i v e desires. K a s r a v i r e p l i e s t h a t t h e "reason"
t r y t o s t r e n g t h e n h i s i n s t i n c t s f o r t h e sake o f h i s w e l l -
K a s r a v i i s c o n v i n c e d t h a t i f we a r e t o e l i m i n a t e e v i l and
v i s e u s , and t h a t t h i s g u i d e i s r e a s o n i n i t s r e a l meaning.
CHAPTER SEVEN
h. I b i d . / p.6.
329
o l - D i n Shah s i g n e d t h e c h a r t e r o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government
culated. T h i s i s an a n n i v e r s a r y which a l l I r a n i a n s s h o u l d
I t must be a d m i t t e d , K a s r a v i c o n t i n u e s , t h a t t h e g r e a t
m a j o r i t y o f t h e people are s t i l l u n a c q u a i n t e d w i t h G p n s t i -
which w e l l - i n f o r m e d I r a n i a n s s h o u l d t a k e i s t o a l e r t t h e
w h i l e t h e y say t h a t a p r i m i t i v e s o c i e t y needs a r e v o l u t i o n ;
t h e y s h o u l d r e a l i z e , however, t h a t a r e v o l u t i o n , i f i t i s t o
be good, ought t o t a k e p l a c e a c c o r d i n g t o a d e f i n i t e p l a n ,
f o r an u n p l a n n e d and u n o r g a n i z e d r e v o l u t i o n w i l l g i v e no
r e v o l u t i o n , a g r e a t number o f m o l l a s d i s a p p r o v e d o f i t s aims,
1. Parcham, y e a r 1, v o l . 10, 1322/19U3*
2. gnqelab c h i s t . p.10.
330
and were v e r y h o s t i l e t o w a r d s t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s . As a
r e s u l t , t h e r e v o l u t i o n d i d n o t w o r k , and t h e p e o p l e were
C o n s t i t u t i o n a l government f o r y e a r s , i m a g i n i n g t h a t this
t h a t i n I r a n C o n s t i t u t i o n a l government i n i t s t r u e meaning
d i d n o t come i n t o b e i n g . The I r a n i a n n a t i o n i s j u s t as
b u t a n a t i o n w i l l o n l y g a i n s t r e n g t h i f i t has u n i t y , and
u n f o r t u n a t e l y i n I r a n everybody seems t o be an i n d i v i d u a l i s t
people's p a t r i o t i s m .
K a s r a v i t h e n d e f i n e s p a t r i o t i s m as concern f o r one's
f u l dynasty o f Romanovs,
a s o c i e t y about t h e d u t i e s o f I r a n i a n s t o t h e i r c o u n t r y i n
•i
the then e x i s t i n g circumstances. Being a p r o f o u n d and
p
remarkable speech, i t was l a t e r p r i n t e d and p u b l i s h e d . He
b e g i n s b y s a y i n g t h a t t o d a y t h e I r a n i a n s must p r e s s f o r
masses o f t h e p e o p l e must be t r a i n e d f o r C o n s t i t u t i o n a l
have d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e n e i g h b o u r s .
I n I r a n , great f i g u r e s s a c r i f i c e d t h e i r l i v e s f o r the
sake o f l i b e r t y , and e v e n t u a l l y a c h i e v e d t h e i r g o a l , t h e r e b y
w i n n i n g a g r e a t v i c t o r y f o r t h e whole n a t i o n . The I r a n i a n s
s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e a p p r e c i a t e and r e s p e c t t h e i r G o n s t i t u t i o n a l
w i t h i t l i k e a t o y J and as a r e s u l t i t seemed no d i f f e r e n t
f o l l o w e d t h e i r l e a d e r s and were c o n t e n t w i t h t h e i r l o t .
t a k e a c t i o n f o r t h e common b e n e f i t , t h e y e l e c t a c e r t a i n
number o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t o a c t on t h e i r b e h a l f . This
I r a n , however, t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f t h e p e a s a n t s , moll'as.
c i a t e t h e v a l u e o f freedom f o r t h e i r c o u n t r y . Although
a r e n o t aware o f i t .
K a s r a v i i s s t r o n g l y opposed t o t h o s e I r a n i a n s who t r y
•i
K a s r a v i holds t h a t i n I r a n i t i s u s e l e s s t o organize
• C o n s t i t u t i o n a l government i s an o l d f a s h i o n e d method o f r u l i n g
s i m p l y t h e e x i s t e n c e o f law, b u t a l s o t h e f a c t t h a t i n a
even t h e y d i d n o t r e a l l y u n d e r s t a n d t h e n a t u r e o f Q o n s t i t u -
•i
t i o n a l government.
monarchy ( M a s h r u t i y a t ) i s t h e b e s t f o r m o f government, p r o -
2
vided t h a t i t s values are followed s t r i c t l y and i n d e t a i l .
He p o i n t s o u t i n s e v e r a l o f h i s books t h a t t h e I r a n i a n s d i d
n o t l e a r n t h e t r u e meaning o f C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , but instead
p o s i t i v e l y misused i t . A l t h o u g h t h e change f r o m a u t o c r a c y t o
C o n s t i t u t i o n a l monarchy was a g r e a t event i n I r a n ' s history,
t h e c o u n t r y ' s p r o g r e s s under C o n s t i t u t i o n a l government was
v e r y s l o w , f i r s t l y because many o f t h e l e a d e r s were d i s h o n e s t ,
1 . garcham, No.8, 1319/19^0, p.20.
2. Mashruteh b e h t a r i n s h e k l - e hokumat, p.12.
335
u n f a m i l i a r w i t h t h i s t y p e o f government.
K a s r a v i remarks t h a t i f man l e d t h e same l i f e as o t h e r
the a u t o c r a t i c r u l e o f s e l f - o p i n i o n a t e d k i n g s such as L o u i s
t r e a t y o f 1907 f o r d i v i d i n g I r a n i n t o spheres o f i n f l u e n c e ,
o f 1921, and t h e T r i p a r t i t e ( A n g l o - R u s s i a n - I r a n i a n ) t r e a t y
o f 191*2.
•1
achieved t h e i r p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e help o f p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s ,
t h a t a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c o u n t r y s h o u l d be l e d by a s t r o n g
r e g a r d s h i s a c t i o n i n f o u n d i n g a p a r t y o f h i s own, namely,
t h e Azadegan p a r t y i n 1933» he s t a t e s t h a t h i s b a s i c i n t e n -
s t a r t e d t o p u b l i s h p o l i t i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l a r t i c l e s i n a
1. Mashruteh b e h t a r i n s h e k l - e hokumat, p.67.
2. See f o o t n o t e 3 1S& page 333 •
22 (
As f o r t h e economy o f a c o u n t r y , K a s r a v i "believes t h a t i t
2
depends b a s i c a l l y on a g r i c u l t u r e and can o n l y "be improved i f
I r a n ought t o be an a g r i c u l t u r a l s t a t e r a t h e r t h a n an indus-
t a t i o n are v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e economic l i f e o f a c o u n t r y ,
T h i s w i l l o n l y be p o s s i b l e i f t h e p e o p l e work f o r t h e common
o p i n i o n , v i l l a g e s s h o u l d be expanded, i n s t e a d o f b i g c i t i e s
the necessities of l i f e .
K a s r a v i ' s s o c i o l o g i c a l and p o l i t i c a l ideas were o r i g i n a l
and were n o t t a k e n f r o m t h e s o c i o l o g i s t s , even though he
agrees w i t h them i n some ways, w h i l e r e j e c t i n g t h e i r m a t e r i a -
e s t a b l i s h e d by i n d i v i d u a l s p o s s e s s i n g adequate c a p i t a l .
d i c t o r y p h i l o s o p h i c a l and p o e t i c a l i d e a s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y i n
1• S a l a r i e s of c i v i l s e r v a n t s i n I r a n used t o be very low and
often months i n a r r e a r .
2. Parcham. v o l . lh, 1319/1940.
340
i n d i v i d u a l has a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o h i s f a t h e r l a n d . The
w i t h wrong i d e a s .
provide h i m s e l f w i t h b e t t e r s h e l t e r and a m e n i t i e s . As a
p l a y a u s e f u l p a r t ; we cannot a l l l i v e by s t e a l i n g t h e f r u i t s
of other people's l a b o u r . K a s r a v i here again v e r y s t r o n g l y
•j
denounces i d l e r s . He a l s o condemns c e r t a i n p r o f e s s i o n s
which, he s a y s , a r e u s e l e s s and v i r t u a l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o
i d l e n e s s : e.g. p o e t r y - w r i t i n g by sycophants who used t o earn
t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d through f l a t t e r i n g p a t r o n s , d i s h o n e s t
j o u r n a l i s t s who p u b l i s h harmful a r t i c l e s , and merchants and
t h e r e f o r e n e i t h e r d i s r e g a r d European c i v i l i z a t i o n completely
nor i m i t a t e i t b l i n d l y .
On t h e s u b j e c t o f money, K a s r a v i emphasizes t h a t i t i s
2
only an instrument of exchange and otherwise u s e l e s s . Gold
and s i l v e r i n themselves a r e not a s v a l u a b l e a s people t h i n k .
I n s t e a d of these two, i t would be q u i t e p o s s i b l e t o use other
metals. Businessmen say that t h e l e v e l of exports must be
i n c r e a s e d i n order t o b e t t e r the c o n s t i t u t i o n ; K a s r a v i agrees
with them, but a l s o t h i n k s t h a t t h e purchase of luxury goods
from abroad should be p r o h i b i t e d . He b e l i e v e s that a country's
l a n d i s i t s b a s i c wealth and c a p i t a l , and that t h e I r a n i a n s
could l i v e i n p r o s p e r i t y i f they would make g r e a t e r e f f o r t s
to u t i l i z e the n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s of t h e i r l a n d . I n I r a n , he
1• Kar o p i s h e h o p u l , p.14.
2 . I b i d , p.38.
3 . I b i d , pp 21-23.
3k5
t h i n k s , i t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important to t r y to modernize
be t r e a t e d as equals of I r a n (not as m a s t e r s ) .
n a t i o n w i l l be unable to f a c e i t s d i f f i c u l t i e s and f i g h t f o r
p o l i c i e s needed i n t h e i r country,
democracy, but u n f o r t u n a t e l y w i t h u n s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s ,
improve.
K a s r a v i s t r e s s e s v e r y s t r o n g l y t h a t education must be
i n the I r a n i a n C o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e v o l u t i o n n i n e t y p e r cent o f
1• P a r rah-e s i a s a t , pp 39-40.
350
as i t a f f e c t s the d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s of t h e i r lives.
K a s r a v i then t u r n s to i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s . Today,
p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g i e s ; R u s s i a i s a communist s t a t e , England
r i t y of I r a n and a l l i t s . t e r r i t o r i e s , because i t i s t h e i r
to s u p e r v i s e them.^ Secondly, t h e s o c i a l i s t s t h i n k t h a t a l l
3. Ibid. p.IIP.
;
h» Ibid..p.64.
5. Ibid. p.109.
;
353
i d e a o f e s t a b l i s h i n g such a meeting p l a c e f o r a l l t h e
•j
n a t i o n s seems t o K a s r a v i a l t o g e t h e r praiseworthy.
K a s r a v i then observes t h a t even today the m a j o r i t y o f
2
p o l i t i c i a n s t h i n k i n a v e r y m a t e r i a l i s t i c way. They assume
that t h e i r own country must become strong i n order to over-
come other c o u n t r i e s , A f t e r s i x y e a r s of f i g h t i n g and des-
t r u c t i o n and untold thousands of deaths ( i n the 1939-1945
w a r ) , Europe was s t i l l s u f f e r i n g from hunger. As long a s
c o n f l i c t continues t o be the b a s i s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l life,
no improvement on the p r e s e n t s t a t e of a f f a i r s i s l i k e l y t o
be achieved. People a r e l i v i n g i n constant f e a r of a t h i r d
world war, which w i l l be atomic, and w i l l probably d e s t r o y
the human r a c e a l t o g e t h e r . The need f o r an i n t e r n a t i o n a l
seat of j u s t i c e i s t h e r e f o r e urgent, but obviously t h i s
wish w i l l not be brought t o r e a l i t y without difficulties*
1, Dar rah-e siasat.PP.116-127.
2. I b i d . , p.119.
354
other n a t i o n s .
t o be s o l v e d d e c e n t l y .
t u r e and p o l i c y .
i n f l u e n c e i n t h e i r country? F o r t h i s t a s k I r a n needs s t r o n g -
ills.
an e f f i c i e n t army f o r I r a n , b e t t e r e d t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f l i f e t
o b j e c t s t o p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l s ; he has no .enmity w i t h
harm.
l u t e l y i m p a r t i a l and d i s i n t e r e s t e d . I t i sdifficult to
c o u n t r i e s a r e under one f l a g .
I n t h i s pamphlet, K a s r a v i d i s c u s s e s the a c t i v i t i e s o f
•i
membership of the United Nations O r g a n i z a t i o n . A f t e r the
second world war, t h i s p a r t y s e i z e d c o n t r o l i n A z e r b a i j a n ,
and when a f o r c e of I r a n i a n troops was sent out ( i n November
1945) to stop i t s i l l e g a l a c t i v i t i e s , R u s s i a complained and
prevented them from e n t e r i n g the p r o v i n c e , I r a n then asked
f o r h e l p from the United Nations O r g a n i z a t i o n . K a s r a v i
2
goes on t o say the d i f f i c u l t y i n I r a n i s l a c k of p o l i c y .
The people do not know where they stand. T h i s country i s
run "by M i n i s t e r s who are not as capable as they should he.
Most I r a n i a n l e a d e r s , K a s r a v i s a y s , have been l i k e t o o l s i n
the E n g l i s h government's hand. They have even f o r g o t t e n
t h e i r b a s i c duty, which i s to take care of I r a n ' s i n t e r e s t s .
I n s t e a d they have worked e x c l u s i v e l y f o r the E n g l i s h govern-
ment. As a r e s u l t , I r a n has become weaker? day by day. At
the same time R u s s i a c a r r i e s on a great r i v a l r y w i t h England,
and does not l i k e t o see England become i n f l u e n t i a l i n I r a n .
K a s r a v i here as elsewhere i n s i s t s t h a t the only wise p o l i c y
f o r I r a n i s t o remain a l o o f from "both R u s s i a and England.^
I r a n i s a l s o t o r n between c a p i t a l i s m and s o c i a l i s m . On the
other hand, I r a n p o s s e s s e s a very important geographical
position. K a s r a v i t h i n k s t h a t membership of the U.N.O. i s
very important f o r I r a n , which needs i t s p r o t e c t i o n . ^ At
1 • Az Sazman-e Melal-e Mottafeq cheh n a t i j e h tavanad hud, p.1+6.
2. I b i d , pp ii.6-64.
3« Par rah-e sifesat. pp 78-79•
i+. Az Sazman-e Melal-e Mottafeq cheh nati.jeh tavanad bud, p.56.
360
women i n I r a n i a n s o c i e t y .
K a s r a v i d i s c u s s e s t h e f a c t t h a t f o r c e n t u r i e s I r a n i a n women
p
were v e i l e d from head t o t o e . During the I r a n i a n C o n s t i -
t o improve t h e i r p o s i t i o n .
K a s r a v i r e c o g n i s e s that i n t h e v i l l a g e s and t r i b e s o f
to p l a y any p a r t a t a l l .
2. I b i d . , vv 27-28.
363
A
for women. person cannot be e f f i c i e n t i n two completely
d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s of work, and a woman cannot simultaneously
be s u c c e s s f u l i n an outside job and i n her work i n the home;
t a k i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n both jobs w i l l be too heavy as.
burden f o r any woman t o c a r r y . At t h e same time, K a s r a v i
t h i n k s that a wife c l e a r l y ought t o a s s o c i a t e with her hus-
band i n every aspect of h i s l i f e (and not j u s t i n the home).
I n some c o u n t r i e s women were then being e l e c t e d a s members of
parliament and appointed t o p o l i t i c a l and governmental p o s t s .
2
K a s r a v i says about t h i s : " I s t i l l think that t h i s i s a
mistake i n today's conditions of l i f e . At the present moment
every s o c i e t y and government f i n d s i t very d i f f i c u l t t o
ensure t h a t enough employment i n s o c i a l l y u s e f u l a c t i v i t i e s
and p u b l i c s e r v i c e s i s a v a i l a b l e f o r the men. When employ-
ment i s l a c k i n g even f o r men who are expert i n t h e i r j o b s ,
why should women be engaged? Needless t o say t h i s would make
the t r o u b l e worse." While i n s i s t i n g t h a t g i r l s must be
educated a s w e l l a s boys, K a s r a v i t h i n k s that t h e curriculum
for g i r l s should be d i f f e r e n t . I t should i n c l u d e the t e a c h i n g
of domestic s c i e n c e and mothercraft.
I n t h i s book, marriage and i t s laws and customs are a l s o
discussed. K a s r a v i c o n s i d e r s g e t t i n g married t o be a duty
which no man or woman should a v o i d . A boy becomes p h y s i c a l l y
1. KMwiaharan v a Dokhtaran-e p.U3«
2. Ibid./pp 28-29.
3. Ibid..v.hG,
364
•J
wife t o be a v a l i d ground f o r d i v o r c e .
s t i t i o n s ) , ^ and h i s c h i e f i n t e n t i o n i n i t i s t o combat
p a r t i c u l a r l y women, i n I r a n .
by f o r t u n e - t e l l i n g , whereas i n r e a l i t y i t i s impossible f o r
v a l u e the p r e d i c t i o n s of f o r t u n e - t e l l e r s i n so many s i t u a -
a mask of r e l i g i o n and s t i l l s u p e r s t i t i o u s l y b e l i e v e t h a t
3. I b i d . p . 4 6 .
f
370
i
of f r e e w i l l .
Comment.
p a i d enough a t t e n t i o n to the p r a c t i c a l s i d e of p o l i t i c a l
u n i v e r s a l p r i n c i p l e s , v a l i d for a l l s o c i e t i e s . Although
most of h i s ideas are admirable i n theory, many of them are
v i r t u a l l y p r o h i b i t s future polygamy i n I r a n .
374
CONCLUSION
p e l l i n g s u p e r s t i t i o n s and i l l u s i o n s . No s c h o l a r , however,
A w r i t e r who s i g n e d h i m s e l f J . M. w r o t e i n t h e newspaper
I r a n - e Ilia t h a t K a s r a v i spent a l l h i s l i f e t r y i n g t o g u i d e
An a r t i c l e i n a magazine c a l l e d P u l a d s a i d t h a t many
showed t h e e x t e n t o f i g n o r a n c e i n I r a n i a n s o c i e t y . Kasravi's
through t h i s l o s s .
392
1 . Ahmad K a s r a v i , pp 106-108.
393
t h o u g h t s were s t i l l w i t h u s ,
f i r s t b e g i n n i n g up t o now. K a s r a v i was a g r e a t h i s t o r i a n ,
He n e v e r c o v e t e d w e a l t h o r p o s i t i o n . His w r i t i n g s revolu-
f i l l h i s w i s h e s by p u t t i n g h i s i d e a s i n t o p r a c t i c e . "
A l a w s t u d e n t w r o t e : "Shame on t h e n a t i o n w h i c h , i n s t e a d
Kasravi."
I f we g l i m p s e a t t h e b i o g r a p h i e s o f g r e a t t h i n k e r s , we
f i n d t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f them t o i l e d a l l t h r o u g h t h e i r lives,
h e a r d o f K a s r a v i , o r , i f t h e y have, a r e m i s i n f o r m e d about
t h e i r m a t e r i a l i n t e r e s t s or t h e i r r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s ; w h i l e
to ideas o f g r e a t r e f o r m e r s . I r a n seems l i k e l y t o do t h e
c o u n t r y by h i s f o l l o w e r s . We f e e l sure t h a t h i s many
v a l u a b l e t e a c h i n g s w i l l soon be b e t t e r a p p r e c i a t e d , and
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Works b y K a s r a v i .
,
1. T a r i k h - e Mashruteh-ye I r a n . Tehran 13l|>i/1Q^5 (Amir K a b i r ) .
2. T a r i k h - e He.idah-saleh-ye Azarbai.lan. Tehran 1314,0/1961 /S
(Amir K a b i r P u b l i c a t i o n s ) .
133^/195^:
1325/19U6 (Payman P u b l i c a t i o n s ) .
I4.. Ebrahim Monaqqah, Maykhaneh-ye Khwa.ieh Hafez. Meftah-e
Bayan ya K e l i d - e Zaban-e Hafez. Tehran 132U/19U5.
5. M i r A b u ' l - F a t h P a ' v a t i , Par Pasokh-e K a s r a v i a n ,
Tehran 13144-/1965.
6. Qasem E s l a m i , Atesh-e Engelab, Tehran 1325/19U7
(Aftab P u b l i c a t i o n s ) .
7. Mortaza Mahdavi, K a j r a v i p c a r i , 2 v o l s . , Tehran 1325/19U5
(Sepehr P u b l i c a t i o n s ) .
(lunar)/l957.
J a d i d , Tehran 13kk/l965 ( T a h u r i P u b l i c a t i o n s ) .
Tehran 1333/l95k.
19. V. M i n o r s k y , I r a n i c a , t w e n t y a r t i c l e s , p u b l i s h e d by t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f T e h r a n , 196k.
20. L. L o c k h a r t , The f a l l o f t h e S a f a v i d y n a s t y and t h e
Afghan o c c u p a t i o n o f P e r s i a . Cambridge 1958 (University
Press).
21. Feraydun Adamiat, Fekr-e A z a d i va Moqaddameh-ye Mehzat-e
M a s h r u t i a t Tehran 1 3 k 0 / l 9 6 l .
22. Dr. Mahdi Malekzadeh, T a r i k h En,qelab-e M a s h r u t i a t - e
Iran, 7 vols. 1328/19U9 - 1332/1953 ( S e p e l r P u b l i c a t i o n s ) .
23. E n g i n e e r Karim Taherzadeh Behruz, Qiam-e Azarbai.ian dar
p. I k 8 .
25. Mohammad 'Abd ol-Vahhab Q a z v i n i , B i s t Maqaleh-ye
Q a z v i n i , e d i t e d by E. Pur-Davud, v o l . 1, Bombay 1306/
1928 (Zoroastrian Society P u b l i c a t i o n s ) .
UOl
Tehran 1323/19UU.
F u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n on K a s r a v i ' s l i f e and
p e r s o n a l i t y and t h e sources o f h i s i d e a s .
The most i m p o r t a n t f o r m a t i v e i n f l u e n c e s on K a s r a v i w e r e
his t r a i n i n g and e a r l y s e r v i c e s as a mollia; h i s s t u d y and
t e a c h i n g a t t h e American Memorial School, and h i s u p b r i n g i n g
i n t h e contemporary environment o f T a b r i z .
2. See above p , l 6 .
3.
Kasravi's support f o r t h e I r a n i a n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s , a n d
i n p a r t i c u l a r f o r t h e T a b r i z ! Mojahedin and t h e Democrats,
need n o t be r e i t e r a t e d h e r e . What i s l e s s c l e a r i s h i s
a t t i t u d e towards t h e "October" r e v o l u t i o n i n R u s s i a and t h e
Communist S o v i e t r e g i m e .
On p.10 we m e n t i o n e d t h a t K a s r a v i a t f i r s t actually
s u p p o r t e d Shaykh Mohammad K h i a b a n i when t h e Shaykh f o u n d e d a
new Democrat p a r t y a t T a b r i z , b u t b r o k e away f r o m h i m even
b e f o r e he r e b e l l e d a g a i n s t t h e C e n t r a l Government and s e t up
the " R e p u b l i c o f Azladestan" (February-September 1 9 2 0 ) . Sayyed
A l i A z a r i , i n h i s book on Khiablani's r e v o l t ^ m e n t i o n s t h a t
Khiabiani f e l t a g r e a t r e s p e c t f o r K a s r a v i and s a i d t h a t modern
I r a n needed men such as h i m , w h i l e K a s r a v i a f t e r K h i a b a n i * s
d e f e a t and d e a t h p r a y e d f o r g i v e n e s s f o r i Khiabani's s o u l .
K a s r a v i , b e i n g b o t h a r e f o r m i s t and a n a t i o n a l i s t , p r o b a b l y
sympathized w i t h KhiablanL' s p l a n f o r r e f o r m b u t f e a r e d t h a t
his p l a n s f o r r e v o l t might endanger I r a n i a n s o v e r e i g n t y i n
A z a r b & i j a n ; he may a l s o have t h o u g h t t h a t K h i a b a n i and h i s .
f o l l o w e r s were t o o much i n f l u e n c e d b y Russian i d e a s .
K a s r a v i ' s n a t i o n a l i s m a l s o need n o t be r e i t e r a t e d h e r e ;
b u t i t must be s t r e s s e d t h a t K a s r a v i was a l s o an i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t ,
because he b e l i e v e d t h a t a l l t h e n a t i o n s s h o u l d r e c o g n i s e each
s h o u l d a l s o a c t i v e l y h e l p one a n o t h e r . A l t h o u g h K a s r a v i was
so d e v o t e d t o t h e I r a n i a n C o n s t i t u t i o n and so h o s t i l e t o
despotism, i t i s perhaps t r u e t h a t he v a l u e d , n a t i o n a l
independence even more t h a n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government.
A t t h e same t i m e , K a s r a v i s i n c e r e l y b e l i e v e d i n t h e need!
f o r i n d i v i d u a l freedom. I n Rezia Shah's r e i g n , and p a r t i c u l a r l y
a f t e r t h e passage o f a l a w a g a i n s t communist subversian i n
1931» freedom o f speech was s e v e r e l y r e s t r i c t e d b y censorship,
and t h e number o f newspapers w h i c h were p e r m i t t e d t o appear
e v o l u t i o n i s d i f f e r e n t from t h a t of s y n t h e s i s and a n t i t h e s i s
i d e a s to an i n q u i s i t i o n i s an abominable t h i n g to do i n t h i s
present age.
On the other hand, K a s r a v i was denounced by a member of
the Tudeh p a r t y named Jahandar i n a pamphlet c r i t i c i z i n g h i s
book Sameveshfr*e I r a n cheh khwahad bud. According to
Jahandar, K a s r a v i showed i n t h i s book t h a t he d i d not know
(1 )
v
the r e a l meaning of p o l i t i c s , ' and consequently was not
w e l l informed about p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s . I n Jahandar*s opinion,
K a s r a v i ' s c r i t i c i s m of the Tudeh p a r t y i s not j u s t and honest. '
The Tudeh p a r t y ' s aim (according to Jahandiar) was t o save
I r a n ' s independence, and i t was the most p r o g r e s s i v e p a r t y
(3)
w /
ever organized i n I r a n .
K a s r a v i had b e l i e v e d t h a t the Tudeh p a r t y never considered
I r a n ' s needs; but Jahandiar t h i n k s t h a t t h i s p a r t y always
r e a l i z e d the extent of poverty i n I r a n and t r i e d hard to
(h.} ' * the
eliminate i t . * ' Jahandar p o i n t s out that/Tudeh p a r t y made
progress during the f i r s t few y e a r s a f t e r i t s establishment,
whereas K a s r a v i ' s p a r t y (founded i n 1933) was s t i l l i n i t s
infancy. He goes on to say t h a t such movements ( i . e . such as
K a s r a v i ' s p a r t y ) have no s o l i d b a s i s and consequently cannot
b r i n g about b i g changes i n a n a t i o n ' s l i f e . We must f i r s t
produce the bare n e c c e s s i t i e s f o r the s o c i e t y , Jahanda*r s a y s ,
I r a n to two reasonst
(1) The l a c k of s i n c e r e and well-informed p o l i t i t i a n s .
(2) The l a c k of a s t r a i g h t path and d i r e c t i o n t o follow.
Jahandar t h i n k s t h a t K a s r a v i was r i g h t i n t h i s , hut that
he forgot that c o l o n i a l powers s e c r e t l y use agents to win
dominance i n under-developed s t a t e s . H i s t o r y proves t h a t men
l i k e Dr. A r a n i and Amir K a b i r were put to death because they
refused t o c a r r y out the d e s i r e s of these s p i e s and to work
f o r the b e n e f i t of f o r e i g n e r s . '
A s c i e n c e student w r i t i n g i n Payman i n 1946 observed
t h a t i n I r a n many things have l o s t t h e i r r e a l meanings.
Molias throughout h i s t o r y were the group who supressed the
people's f e e l i n g s and the ideas of anybody with a new and
progressive outlook. They behaved l i k e the b r u t a l men who
used t e r r o r t o enforce the i n q u i s i t i o n i n Europe i n the
2
Middle A g e s / )
For a long p e r i o d r e l i g i o n was a t o o l i n the hands of
dishonest people. A group of jnollias had accused K a s r a v i of
t r y i n g to destroy I s l a m and t o introduce a new religion in
i t s place. When Nader Shah had t r i e d to b r i n g about a
reformation i n order to make peace between I r a n and the
Ottoman Empire and Afghanistan, he had been accused i n j u s t
the same way.
1. P i r u z Klazemziadeh, I r a n i a n H i s t o r i o g r a p h y , pp 431-43U.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.