P R E C I S I O N

A New Approach
To Conmunication
HowToGet Пи
М т ш И и

Yo>Keed
It Get Kesills
 Published by
Grinder, Delozler & Associates
P.O. Box 67359
Scotts Valley, CA 95067-7359

Master Distributor
Metamorphous Advanced Product Services
P.O. Box 10616
Portland, OR 97210-0616

Ail rights reserved. No part of this book may be

utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by
any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the authors.

Copyright © 1993 by John Grinder and Michael McMaster

Editorial and Art Direction by Lori Stephens
Printed in the United States of America

McMaster, Michael D .t 1943 *

Precision : a new approach to communication / Michael McMaster & John Grlndei
p. cm.
ISBN 1‘55552-049-9
1. Management information systems. 2. Communication In management.
3. Neurolinguistic programming. I. Grinder, John. II. Title.
HD30.213.M39 1993
6Rfi 4'fi~rta20 ЭЭ-2А602
 .. he must stay alert to these and count­
less other options. A desk is a dangerous
place from which to watch the world.”
The Honourable Schoolboy
John Le Carre
 WARNING TO THE READER

Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP) represents a significant advance in the develop­

ment of human choice. It places at the discretion of the skilled and balanced practitioner
options for living with quality which were previously assigned variously to fate, chance»
genetics, accidents and divine influence. It is important to me to explicate at least
partially what I intend by the descriptive phrase, skilled and balanced.

The skill issue points to the requirement in the mastery of any interesting human skill sei
for a commitment to practice, the personal discipline on the part of the would-be NLP
practitioner to arrange his or her own context for exploring, learning and ultimately
mastering of the actual body of patterning called NLP, Success at this task identifies a
learner, and the result a technician*

The balanced issue refers to two requirements, first, the learner's ability to integrate the
skill set (mastered by the technician) into each and every area of their life, personal as
well as professional. Secondly, once this integration of the technical skill set has
occurred, the individual is faced with the awesome responsibility of exercising these
choices with some wisdom. At this point, the caterpillar bursts the confinement of the
cocoon, the technician transforms herself/himself into an artist.

All the above is a somewhat circuitous way of cautioning the would-be NLP practitioner
The world at the moment seems rather overflowing with people purporting to offer
training in NLP, It is here in selecting a mentor that you, the reader, may begin to exercisc
one of the most crucial abilities associated with artistry in the practice of NLP— namely,
that of assessing the congruency of the purported trainer. If your intuitions caution you,
if you detect a discrepancy between the verbal presentation of such a person and their
actual behavior and performance, keep moving and looking for an appropriate model.

If you are seriously interested in having access to quality training or business consulting
applications which rest firmly on the foundation of NLP which I intended when 1 co­
created the discipline, I invite you to contact me at:

John Grinder
QUANTUM LEAP
P.O. Box 67359
Scotts Valley, CA 95067-7359
TEL) 408-457-0529
FAX) 408-457-2834
Foreword

One test of good theory is that it should provide obvious and immedi-
tate implications for action. As a practitioner and researcher in the
Held of human behavior for twenty-five years, I have been deeply
concerned with translating management development theory into
practical and useful action: suggesting behaviors that managers can
learn quickly and employ immediately to improve their effectiveness
with the people they lead.

In this volume John Grinder and Michael McMaster have provided

•uch useful theory; they have explained how and when to apply it.
Their theory and the style in which they present it are congruent.

The value of this book is that it provides all of us with an approach

to improving our communication and, thereby, our ability to influ­
ence others successfully. As the authors point out so aptly in the text,
the closer our words are to experience, the more likely we are to be
understood. Creating high quality verbal and non-verbal representa­
tions of the ideas we want to communicate has been recognized as
n line and valuable art for centuries. In this volume, we have a theory
Ilint makes this art an easily leamable skill, with the potential to
(шprove dramatically the effectiveness of organizational and per-
m o iiu I relationships.

Paul Hersey, Ph.D.

Center for Leadership Studies
Escondido, California
Preface

It is our purpose in writing this book to provide the manager with

a personal technology for the development and use of information
appropriate to successful business communications. We stand next
in a rather distinguished line of authors who have appropriately
identified the ability to handle information as the single most power­
ful determinant of success for managers in business. We too lament
the fact that there has been no specific training, no practical proce­
dures to explicate successful information processing for managers.
And with diffidence to our predecessors we intend to change that
situation—we offer the Precision Model as a practical, explicit tech­
nology for information processing.
For information flow in a business organization to be both effective
and efficient, it must meet two conditions—specifically, it must in­
clude:
(1) need to know information and
(2) need not to know information.
Our professional experience has led us to the judgement that the
information network in the typical business contains all or nearly all
of the need to know information. Typically, however, it is scattered
throughout a morass of irrelevant or need not to know information.
The Precision Model offers an explicit set of communication pat­
terns called Frames designed to allow the using manager to exercise
control over the relevancy of information being developed while
promoting participation. The Outcome Frame, for example, allows
the manager to explicitly communicate what the boundary condi­
tions of a transaction are. Once the boundary conditions are iden­
tified, they may be used in a rather obvious fashion to insure the
information being developed is relevant—that it lies within the
boundary conditions explicitly presented.
Our consulting experience also has led us to note that large sums
 PREFACE vii

of money, time, human and physical resources are alt too often
squandered in the misdirection and confusion resulting from the
inability of managers to be explicit enough to effectively instruct and
direct their organization. The directions issued by a manager may
seem crystal clear to him or her. Whether such directives are effective
for reaching the economic goals which motivate them may be en­
tirely another issue—more specifically, those directives need to con­
nect with the perceptions and understandings of the individuals who
will actually carry those directives out.
The Precision Model offers an explicit set of communication pat­
terns called Pointers which automatically lead to the development of
higher quality information; that is, more specific, thus more con­
nected with the perceptions of the rest of the business organization.
This book differs from other treatments of the subject of
managerial success in information processing in that it is explicit.
Slqi-by-step procedures are offered throughout which, when fol­
lowed by the reader will yield the results desired. Located at the front
ttf this soft cover book is a short pamphlet extract of some of the
major points covered by the Precision Model. In it we have touched
light ly on portions of the model. The reader who is in a hurry may
deni re to examine this abbreviated version first. The hard cover book
HRcIf is a more detailed, extended, logically developed representation
of the Precision Model complete with procedures which the serious
render may use to train him or herself in the model. We have discov­
ered in our training seminars that many business people find it useful
In be offered the Precision Model in both an explicit direct form uh
well as in metaphor or story form. Thus, we have included meta­
phors—should any particular reader find them less than useful, noth­
ing will be lost by moving directly to the text. We wish you succcas
iiul invite you to join us in any of the Precision Model seminars being
offered in the U.S. or Canada.
John Grinder
Michael McMaster
Precision—An Overview

The raw material of management is information. The preponder­

ance of this information is coded in language. The personal success
of men and women in business and the survival and growth of their
companies depend in large part on the effectiveness and efficiency
with which information is handled within those organizations. The
criteria for determining whether the information flow within a busi-
ncMi organization is effective and efficient are quite simple—the infor­
mation flow must meet two conditions:

1 the need to know

I. the need not to know

lUch member of a business organization has some particular set of

Гит-lions. In order to know how and when specifically to carry out
•’.a ll of those particular functions that person needs to know certain
information. Within that organization the information flowing to
•«>у particular individual must include the information he or she
to execute their functions—the information they need to
know. Rarely does one find in business organizations that the various
Individuals do not have available, in some form, the need to know
Information. What one does find is that the need to know informa­
tion riMential for an appropriate, timely execution of the business
functions is buried within an enormous quantity of need not to know
tiitormiition which is simultaneously presented to the members of
( I i a i huHincss organization. It may be difficult to find a needle in a
h*y*t*ck but it is even more difficult to find specific straws in a
ImyHnck. And this is precisely the situation faced by present day
тинпцп я nt tempting to operate successfully in the era of the infor*
(tint ion mploNion. The net result is that the particular individuals are
•.с.- пн,-,in about which information they should attend to and act
x PRECISION

upon—which information they need to know. They become cai-

tious, their behavior hesitant and their personal effectiveness anl
efficiency and that of their business organizations is significant^
reduced.
This book—Precision—is primarily designed to address in pract-
cal terms the need of managers to control verbal information flov
within their areas of accountibiiity—to provide then with explici,
learnable, step-by-step techniques which lead to effective commun-
cation and personal and professional success in business. Communi­
cation which supports an effective and efficient transfer of verbil
information is in large part a process of matching one set of exper-
ences, a model of the world, with another. If you read these worcs
and cannot relate them to your own experience, no communicatioi
will take place. If you tell an employee that she should work co­
operatively for a common goal and she thinks only of being ex­
ploited, it is likely that neither you nor she will get satisfactoty
results. The models of experience allowed no shared meaning and no
base for working toward the same end.
Language allows us to share experience by a commonly unde:»
stood set of signals. Or is it commonly understood? The more thinp
or actions in experience that a word could refer to, the less likely t
is to be understood in the way the speaker intends. Common busines
words—such as productivity, motivation, company policy, returi,
profits—are of low quality. Quality is a measure of the word's rek-
tionship to direct sensory experience. The highest quality is what cm
actually be seen, heard or felt. The highest quality words descrite
things or actions in the world which could not be confused with
others—such as machine #42 in plant #65, machinist Joe Walke',
conveyor belt # 6 moving at 4 miles per hour. Many managemett
mistakes are the result of acting on a belief in a common underslanc­
ing of words which, in fact, doesn’t exist. To prevent actions takei
on this type of inadequate communication, two verbal level skills aie
needed. The first is the ability to ask explicit questions to get precisely
the information needed in an explicit manner. The second is a re­
quirement to determine the level of quality needed in each particultr
situation or context.
The Precision Model is an explicit set of responses to particulir
types of words to elicit exactly the information desired and respett
both the need to know and the need not to know of a manager. Eadi
question or response asks for precisely that piece of experience
 PRECISION xi

(higher quality information) which the manager needs to make sense

of a statement in reference to his own mode] or understanding. A
statement such as “sales are dropping and we need training for all
the representatives” would have the following appropriate responses
within the model:

Which sales specifically?

How specifically are they dropping?

Dropping? Compared to what?

Wh&t will happen if we don't give more training?

Which training in particular?

All the representatives?

Within the context established by the reporting relationship, prior

knowledge and relative importance of the issue, these questions will
lead directly towards explicit representations needed before decisions
or actions can be taken. It is precisely at this point that the model
we have designed and are presenting distinguishes itself from other
guides for effective communication. Models for successful communi­
cation prior to Precision have invariably been constructed on the
principle of the check list. That is, men and women who are ex­
perienced and successful in the world of business have explicated the
set of questions which they have noticed seems to be repetative and
effective in the specific phase of business they have mastered. There
are two significant shortcomings of such models:
(1) the questions in the checklist model will be appropriate to a
rather limited number of situations, all within the specific phase of
business from which it was developed. In actuality, managers typi­
cally are required to handle effectively a much larger number of
business situations than any of these models are designed for. In
other words, the business world is variable where the checklist model
is fixed and rigid.
(2) the questions in the checklist model are the questions which
were effectively used by the author of that mode) within the context
of their particular business organizations and with their own particu­
xii PRECISION

lar style of non-verbal communication. The author’s non-verbal style

of communication is never explicated in these models. Thus, the
effectiveness of the checklist model for any particular manager will
be largely an issue of whether their non-verbal style and the non­
verbal style of the author (unknown) of the checklist coincide.
The Precision Model represents a radical departure from previous
models in that (1) the questions are based entirely on the form of the
language and (2) the model is entirely feedback determined. The
questions the manager asks to secure the next chunk of need to know
information is determined entirely by the form of the information;
not the content. This insures that the model will be equally applica­
ble to communication about any phase of business activity. It can
easily be used effectively by a manager in an area where he or she
is not technically qualified. Notice in addition that the model is
feedback determined—the question the manager asks next is deter­
mined soley by the form of the information just received. Thus the
integrity and personal style of the staff and employees the manager
communicates with is respected while the task of passing only need
to know information is accomplished effectively and efficiently. This
model does not force human beings into pre-set categories or pigeon
holes as checklist models with their fixed questions invariably do.
The second requirement in an appropriate verbal model for busi­
ness is the ability to establish and maintain a framework or context
for what is appropriate. Business is the human outcome oriented
activity. It is an activity continually seeking to change an existing
state of affairs to a different, more desired state. It changes raw
material into useful goods, time and effort into services—and con­
tinually seeks better ways to do it.
The Precision Model has an organizing structure which matches
the outcome oriented nature of business. A set of Frames was devel­
oped based on a guiding model of knowing the present state, defining
the desired state (the situation to be achieved) and developing strate­
gies to move in the desired direction. The responses above are part
of these strategies. The frames or contexts are established for econ­
omy of movement and to set appropriate boundary conditions on
information relevant to the task. They provide focus or an explicit
way of sorting the appropriate out of the myriad options potentially
available. They may, for example, gather resources for a common
starting point or expand boundaries which are too restrictive for a
particular outcomc. They may access resources which even the
holder was not aware he or she had.
 PRECISION xiii

The first of these Frames is the Outcome Frame. The Outcome

Frame is a description of the state the manager desires to achieve at
the end of a particular communication. It specifies which comments
or contributions, which experiences or resources, are appropriate in
the context of that particular communication or meeting. The out­
come will be specified in a manner precise enough for the manager,
and others if shared overtly, to recognize when it is achieved and
whether any particular communication is leading forward into real­
ization or not.
The Outcome Frame applies from the overall goal right down to
a specific question asked. Each part of a communication has a pur­
pose and will either contribute to or inhibit reaching the desired
outcome. Each step of a process, say for a meeting to solve a problem,
will have its own Outcome Frame.
The overall outcome for a meeting may be “to find 3 potential
ways to increase sales”. Ideas related to increasing sales will be
accepted, ideas related to cutting costs or other problems will not.
The next level of outcome will be for the first phase, “to define in high
quality language the desired state". Comments about the present
state, who is to blame for the current lack of sales, etc. will all be
ruled out by this control of the process. At the lowest level the
outcome for a response to the question, “which people specifically"
is an answer in the class of “those in department B’ or some other
refinement and not non-responses such as “they never do what
they’re told over there".
Each piece of communication needs a test, the Outcome Frame,
to determine its relevancy. Any not within the Outcome Frame
should be challenged. If it is relevant, the information and its connec­
tion is a valuable contribution. If not, it needs to be rejected or a great
deal of time and good will may be jeopardized. Hidden agenda,
reacting to the wrong situation and getting lost in side tracks are all
problems which commonly occur without explicit use of the Out­
come Frame.
The presentation includes procedures of elegance for obtaining
fast, efficient results with the basic tools provided in the language
model. The details and specific step-by-step procedures of the Preci­
sion Model are presented within the context of a model for problem
solving in our book Precision. We have also applied it to models for
planning and for performance. We refer you to that book or to our
management workshops to increase your ability to succeed in such
situations.
Beyond Words

This volume of the Precision Model addresses itself primarily to

information coded in language. This is consistent with the conscious
perceptions of the business community. It is, however, our experi­
ence that the non-verbal component of communication is easily the
most influential factor in face-to-face communication. In creating the
Precision Model by studying the communication patterns of ex­
tremely successful managers, we were consistently impressed by the
strong influence exerted by the personal power of the individual
involved. A large component of personal power is the ability to
appreciate behavioral signals such as voice tone, tempo of speech,
body postures, breathing pattern, eye movements, voice timbre qual­
ity in others and to use these non-verbal channels of communication
oneself to actively influence the behavior of others. These skills creatc
a communication context which supports the systematic and elegant
use of the verbal portion of the Precision Model. These skills move
the individual from adequacy to artistry. In a future volume of
Precision as well as in our Precision training seminars we explicate
this component of personal power. These are behavioral skill»
grounded in sensory perception and eminently learnable and not
interpretations in the sense of “body languages” . They are specific
communication responses to body movement and posture, eye move­
ments and types of representations which require only sensory
awareness. No guessing at content is required—in fact, we ask you
to avoid such activity.
We offer an example of these skills for the reader’s consideration.
We call this area representational systems. We obtain information
through our senses. That is, we see, hear, feel things or events. Wc
also represent or store these experiences in similar ways. We have Ilip
ability to recall pictures, sounds and feelings just as they happened
or as we create them. Planning is the ability to create represent»lions
 BEYOND WORDS xv

of future possibilities from past experiences by combining them in

different ways. Our minds record all of our experience in all of these
wuyn.
Most people develop favored ways of representing the world and
Ihnr experience. Some are primarily conscious of visual memory and
i«presentation, some of sounds and talking, and others of feelings.
I'hrwc are the essentially private maps or model of the world which
mcIi of us creates. These are the source of the words, the language
tin ms which are the focus of this first volume of Precision. These
i epi mentations are one step closer to the actual experiences we have.
I lirnr representational systems may be thought of as the way that
|K>o|ilc think. The storage, sorting and retrieval of information is
ilouc in some sequence of these forms. To choose between two alter-
imllvrs, the manager creates images of the first; talks to himself about
It, irlbies the images; finally checks his feelings about it. He does the
tuiuf with the second alternative. Finally, he compares the feelings
he IimI for 1 and 2 and makes a choice. The structure of our thoughts
I» Ihr representations of our experience.
К uowing how a person is thinking—that is, what representational
tyilein or sequence of systems they are using—is a powerful piece of
litfni innlion. Communication can be tailored to have maximum im-
i l-'or case of understanding, fewer mistakes and greater motiva­
tion. , ummunication matched to the favored representional system
hI (In ireipient is most effective.
hi. ii i rpresentational system or mode of thinking has a unique set
r,i •kjiii-i iutl signals which accompanies it. The easiest ones to identify
«t# rve movements and predicates used. Others include vocal pat-
ы on, bi milling patterns and skin color changes. Predicates for vi-
«м«1 H'lii cjiciitation include such words as see, look, picture, imagine,
4-1w. for auditory representations such words as hear, listen,
♦onW, Mil, harmony, tone; for kinesthetic (feeling) representations
**« h words as feel, touch, smooth, handle, grasp, rough. You might
t* *11 hr иit ng a manager back from humanistic training involved in
fit* lot Iowing exchange:

'(iihoitliuate: [ can really get a clear picture of how that will

work.
Mmiflgrr: Feels good to you?
MhU. •hIIiikIc: Well, uh, I can really see it'll be effective.
M erger; Yeahl It’s something you can really get a handle on.
xvi PRECISION

Subordinate: Well, anyway, it looks good to me.

If this mismatch of representational systems (compare the predi­

cates) is extended much longer, the subordinate will come to doubt
his original enthusiastic endorsement and communication will grind
to a halt as rapport between the two people deteriorates.
Eye movements are also reliable indicators of the representational
system being employed by the person communicating. Specifically,
as you look at a person and see eye movements which match below
the representation is at the end of each arrow.

Visual constructions Visual memory (things

(things the person has the person has seen before)
not seen before)

Auditory Auditory representation

representation

Kinesthetic Auditory representation

representation

For the right handed population.

The eye movements are an amazingly robust indicator of mode of

thinking or representation, even cross culturally.

Systematic unconscious use of the information offered by represen­

tational system indicators—predicates and eye movements—is one
of the most pervasive characteristics of top managers and executives.
Such information has wide applicability and its systematic use gives
the user the ability to:

— rapidly establish and maintain rapport

— gain access to high quality information and resources
— insure directives and instructions are thoroughly understood
— motivate others
— make group presentations appealing to all group members

Such choices move the manager from competency to artistry.

This first volume of Precision offers leamable step-by-step proce-
 BEYOND WORDS xvii

dures for effective verbal communication. This book is intended as

a guide for behavior—the exercises and procedures must be con­
verted into behavioral patterns if the reader is to reap the benefit of
the technology presented.
Precision

A long time ago in the Canton province of China, there was a

famous and very wealthy merchant who had, it was said, an amazing
ability to choose just the right person for the job in his organization.
Indeed, it was said that it was just this skill which had made the
merchant so successful and rich.
It came about that this merchant was seeking a young man to serve
as the coordinator and director of his vast fleet of ships. The job
entailed tremendous responsibilities as well as great rewards. A large
number of men applied for the position—some were skilled in ac­
counting, some in the maritime arts, some had worked in nearly every
phase of commerce. The wily old merchant knew how to go about
selecting the right man for this complex task of coordinating and
directing his fleet. As each candidate who had applied entered the
merchant's offices, he was sworn to secrecy by the merchant—so that
no matter what the result of the interview the man had to agree to
keep the details of what occurred there secret. The candidate was
then instructed that he had to complete a certain task. The merchant
next led the candidate to the rear of his office where the wall was
covered by a fine tapestry. Pulling the tapestry aside, the merchant
pointed to a door of bronze, richly inlaid with silver from which hung
a huge chain and padlock. Addressing the candidate, the merchant
stated that his personal treasure house lay behind that door and that
the task was for the candidate to gain entry to this storehouse of vast
wealth. Further, the merchant continued, the only point of entry to
be attempted was through the bronze door, and that the candidate
could expect to find behind the door additional obstacles. The mer­
chant then led the man to the center of the large office where, resting
XX PRECISION

on a small table, was a large Chinese box. Pointing to the box, the
merchant simply stated that within this box the candidate might find
objects which would assist him in his task. With an air of finality, the
merchant warned the candidate that there was a time limit for the
task which he would not reveal until eiLher the candidate had gained
entry to the treasure house or the time had expired. So saying, the
merchant turned and strode to his desk which was placed at the
opposite end of the room and apparently occupied himself with some
papers.
To the merchant's disappointment, candidate after candidate fol­
lowed one of two courses. Some of the candidates would ransack the
entire assemblage of Chinese boxes—opening the entire collection
until all of the various objects contained within—candle, matchas,
incense sticks,. . . —were secured, at which point the candidate would
gather up the objects and carry them to the door. Selecting from the
pile of objects all of the keys which were of a size and shape which
suggested that they might fit the padlock which hung on the chain
on the bronze door, the candidate would frantically attempt to open
the padlock to no avail as none of the keys would fit the lock. At this
point the merchant would approach the candidate and announce in
a clear, resonant voice that the time limit for the task had been
exceeded. If the candidate maintained his composure at this an­
nouncement, the merchant would invite him to apply for a position
as a trader for his organization.
The second course of action chosen by the candidates was that as
soon as the merchant had occupied himself at his desk, the candidate
would open the first of the Chinese boxes, and then the second and
so forth until they had discovered the first of the keys which was of
a size and shape that suggested that it might fit the padlock hung on
the chain on the bronze door. Once the candidate had secured the first
of the keys, he would move quickly to the bronze door where to his
disappointment he would discover that the key failed to fit the pad­
lock. He would then return to the Chinese boxes and open further
boxes until he found a second key of the appropriate size and shape.
After this procedure had been repeated several times, the merchant
would approach and announce that the time limit had expired. Again,
if the candidate retained his poise in the face of this announcement,
the merchant would invite him to apply for a position in the organiza­
tion—only this time, he would mention the position of accountant
The merchant was about to despair when the next candidate ar­
 xxi

rived. This candidate had a different air about him. While remaining
attentive and courteous in the presence of the famous merchant* he
seemed to take in his surroundings with a sense of confidence. The
merchant repeated his instructions and retired to his desk to await
further developments. The young candidate paused for several min­
utes as if repeating the instructions offered by the merchant. He then
turned to the Chinese boxes, picked up the table and boxes and
carried them to the immediate vicinity of the bronze door. Arriving
there> he then turned his attention to the door itself. He examined the
fit of the door in the recess in the wall. He examined with great care
the chain and padlock until with a soft laugh, he planted himself
firmly and placing both hands on the bronze door, he pushed hard.
To his delight, the door swung open, revealing a beautifully worked
wrought iron door. Examining this new obstacle, he determined that
it was indeed secured by a lock built into the door itself. T uming to
the Chinese boxes, the candidate began to open the boxes which
revealed in turn, a candle, matches, and the next, a key. Securing the
key the candidate turned back to the door and again to his pleasure,
the door yielded. As the door opened inward, it revealed a darkened
chamber in which ail the candidate could distinguish was a pair of
yellow eyes which peered out of the darkness with seeming malevo­
lence. Pulling the wrought iron door closed with a quick, sure move­
ment, the candidate hurried back into the room where the merchant
stood watching with intense interest. The candidate hurried to a
comer of the room where he had earlier noted the presence of a long
slender knife. He seized the weapon and hastened back to the
wrought iron door. Pushing the door open cautiously, he thrust the
lighted candle into the chamber by the light of which he could see
&large cobra sitting inside a cage, the door of which was standing
open. Lunging forward, he used the knife to flip the door of the cage
closed and secured it quickly. Striding around the cage, he drew back
a large piece of finely worked silk and his eyes fell upon treasures
beyond his wildest dreams. Hearing the soft tread of a sandal behind
him, the candidate turned and looked into the eyes of the merchant
Extending the knife toward the merchant handle first, the candidate
thanked the merchant for the temporary use of the knife, explaining
that he would need it no longer since he had already accomplished
everything with it that he needed to accomplish. The merchant,
needless to say, had found his man, and their association was marked
by supreme success.
Table of Contents

Title Page i
quote iii
Preface v
Foreword vii
Overview ix
Metaphor xix
Table of Contents xxi
Chapter 1 The Context 1
Information & Representation 11
Language as a Representational System for Informa­
tion 19
Information & the Information Processor 21
The Information Processor’s Task 26
The Personal Context of the Manager 28
The Overall Model 32
Backtrack 34
Chapter 2 Defining the Difference 35
The Model for Defining the Difference 39
Present State 41
Desired State 46
Case Study I 49
Commentary 51
Pointers 53
First Pointer—Noun Blockbusting 54
Second Pointer—Action Blockbusting 57
Third Pointer—Universal Blockbusting 62
Frames 67
Backtrack Frame 67
Outcome Frame 68
The Evidence Question 69
««tv n U O M O N
Tht Rdovaiicy Challenge 70
i ll* Difference Question 73
VirlanU on Cu.sc Study 1 74
Vuilnnt I 74
Vnriiuit II 78
Commentary 81
Case Study II 83
Fourth Pointer—The Comparator 86
The Difference Procedure 89
Backtrack 104
Chapter 3 Pathfinding 106
Present State 110
Desired State 112
Brainstorming 116
Missing Link Procedure 129
Recycle Procedure 130
As If Frame 134
Case Study I (segment 2) 137
Comments 141
Common Errors 143
Case Study II—Variant 147
Case Study II 150
Diagramming 158
Backtrack 164
Chapter 4 Surveying 168
Present State 174
Fifth Pointer—Boundary Crossing 176
Efficiency Procedure 183
Desired State 186
Case Study I (segment 3) 191
Case Study II 202
Case Study 220
Backtrack 222
Chapter 5 Evaluating 226
Present State 229
Format for Evaluating 232
The Decision Point 236
Case Study I (Segment 4) 240
Case Study II 253
Backtrack 263
Chapter 6 Conclusion 264
Chapter 1

THE CONTEXT

How can the manager improve his performance in analyzing prob­

lems? The key to the answer lies in the fundamental fact that the raw
material of management is information. This is all that any manager
has to work with—information about the world around him, about
his organization and its plans, about the performance of that segment
of the organization where he is responsible for carrying out those
plans, about people and things and conditions. He has to know what
information he has about any problem, what information he doesn’t
have and how he can get it, and how he can use all the information
he has to the best advantage in getting the problem solved. He must
be as perceptive in recognizing, before the fact, what information will
be relevant and important and what will not as he is in recognizing,
with the benefit of hindsight, the obvious relevance and importance
of certain information.

Kepner and Tregoe,

The Rational Manager, p. 39

The highest quality information is behavioral. The actual perform­

ance of an individual or organization offers the attentive observer/lis­
tener the richest source of information regarding that individual’s or
that organization’s present capability.
Some of the human beings who are involved in the world of
business work directly with raw or partially processed material to
shape and mold such material into products or services which are
offered in the marketplace—we call these people laborers. Some of
the human beings who are involved in the world of business interact
directly with sophisticated machines, to produce products or services
available to the public—we call these people technicians. The re­
2 PRECISION

mainder of us who are involved in the world of business process

information. This information is offered to us in diverse forms—
reports, conferences, movements of restlessness, telephone calls, pre­
dictions, smiles, planning meetings, looks of attentiveness, interrup­
tions, technical brochures, . . . In the midst of the daily flurry of
words and paper, it is useful to keep in mind that no matter in what
form the information is presented, the single most powerful determi­
nant of our personal success and the success of our organization is
the effectiveness with which we process that information.
The carpenter who shapes raw and semi-processed materials into
a cabinet or a stairway does so with the aid of specialized tools—the
saw to cut, the plane to trim, the hammer to nail. Each of these
implements offers the carpenter a way to interact with the raw or
semi-processed material to transform it into the finished product
effectively and with some degree of precision.
The crane operator uses the tremendous mechanical advantages
offered by the motor which drives the crane to accomplish work
which would take the unaided worker a great deal longer. He oper­
ates on raw or semi-processed material through the medium of the
crane just as the carpenter uses his hammer and saw.
The console operator directing the operations of a computer at an
automated processing plant has before her a keyboard, light indica­
tors, an array of buttons and switches, . . . These devices offer her
the points of interaction with the computer which she chooses from
in order to direct the complex machine which in turn will dictate the
operation of less complex machines which accomplish the actual
work.
What, then, of the rest of us? Where are the tools of our trade?
What device offers us the advantage of specialized interaction with
the material we handle? Which is the tool to cut and trim the infor­
mation we are presented with? Which device offers us the tremen­
dous mechanical advantages of the crane? Where are the keyboards,
light indicators and array of buttons and switches that we may
choose from?
The carpenter who is building a cabinet knows immediately as he
begins to assemble the pieces of wood he has measured and cut
whether they fit together. He has his direct sensory experience of
assembling the cabinet—what he sees, hears and feels—to allow him
to make accurate judgments of whether he is accomplishing his task
or not.
 THE CONTEXT 3

In the cab of the crane, the operator has a set of dials and gauges
as well as his direct experience of observing the effect of the complex
interplay of his hands and feet on the levers and ped»k on the task
he is attempting to accomplish. He has little difficulty determining
whether the bucket is rising or falling as the result of bis manipula­
tions. There is a direct experiential base to his judgm ents and deci­
sions in this matter.
The console operator monitors the various console indicators to
insure that they are reporting operating conditions which show the
machines controlled by the computer are functioning properly.
When a light indicator on the keyboard signals that sonic portion of
the operation requires the console operator's attention, the operator
relies on her knowledge of the console operating proccdures to select
the appropriate response. Again» once she has selected and made her
response, there is little or no ambiguity as to whether it >s effective
—the light indicator will go off, the keyboard will immediately indi­
cate to the operator whether operating conditions have returned to
•heir appropriate levels. She sees the result directly.
The information processor reads the reports, talks on the tele­
phone, attends meetings, issues instructions, decides on a specific
plan of action, selects a person for promotion, questions his staff.
What in that seemingly endless flow of information distinguishes
the indicators, the signals which demand the inform ation handler’s
attention and require his assertive action from the information
which he may usefully and safely ignore? Where in this complex
•trcam of activity is that special class of information called ‘‘feed­
back’' which allows the information handler to d eterm in e whether
Ihc reports were accurate, the talks on the telephone productive,
the time in meetings well spent, the instructions understood, the
decisions wise, the selection optimal, the questions penetrating and
precise enough?
The carpenter reaches for his level to verify what looks and feels
like a horizontal plane; the crane operator listens to the hum of the
jHiwcrful motor as he edges the lever gently forward guiding the
bucket toward the material to be picked up; the console operator
wntchcs the light indicator as she enters the new instruction through
the keyboard.
What does the information processor reach for, what does he listen
to, what does he watch to know that he has identified tbe appropriate
•Ignalt and that he is performing successfully?
4 PRECISION

A REFINEMENT

The logic behind the strategy of control outlined above is so subtly

persuasive that it is difficult to argue against it: Every manager is
responsible for results within that portion of the organization which
is under his supervision. He is held accountable by those above him.
Obviously he cannot fulfill this responsibility unless (1) he knows
what is going on within the unit, and (2) he is able to do something
about things that go wrong.

McGregor,
The Human Side o f Enterprise, p. 151

Sorting the human beings involved in the world of business into

categories such as laborer, technician, and information processor
solely on the basis of information yields an interesting—even provoc­
ative—picture of the business world around us, but as with most
language categories, a closer examination shows a more complex
situation.
As we stated earlier, the highest quality information is behavioral.
If you wish to know the present capability of an individual or organi­
zation, the most complete and trustworthy information will be avail­
able through direct observation of that individual’s or organization’s
present performance.
The carpenter assembling the cabinet has the highest quality infor­
mation possible available to him. He has direct sensory grounded
feedback to guide him.

The carpenter is following a familiar path—he knows how to build

a cabinet, and at each point in the process he is offered directly, at
the sensory level, information as to how he is progressing. As he
 A REFINEMENT 5

drives a nail, he can see whether he is striking the nail squarely. Note
that the same information is offered to him by the sound the hammer
makes as it strikes the nail as well as by the feeling of the hammer
striking the nail transmitted by vibration through the hammer to his
hand. The time lag between the movement of the carpenter’s hand
grasping the hammer and swinging it toward the nail, and the infor­
mation about how effective that movement was is minimal.
The crane operator guiding the bucket toward the pile of material
to be picked up uses both direct experience of the task at hand as well
as arbitrary signal codes to know whether he is being effective. The
operator’s ability to judge visually the distance between the leading
edge of the bucket and the pile of material is again the highest quality
information possible—direct sensory grounded (in this case—visual)
information as to his effectiveness. At the same time the crane opera­
tor is monitoring the various gauges and dials in the cab of the crane.
The gauges which signal him as to the temperature of the motor or
the amount of fuel in the tank are examples of arbitrary signal codes
arranged by the designer of the crane to provide a symbolic represen­
tation of the actual state of affairs of engine temperature and fuel
level. These gauges are arbitrary in the sense that the form the
information is displayed in for the operator is entirely independent
of the original information and could be varied while maintaining the
effectiveness of the signal offered. For example, the information re­
garding the temperature of the motor could equally effectively be
displayed in any of the following forms:

Danger light which

shows blue
Hot when cold
green when
Cold Hot Danger
■floating needle hot and
red when
Cold danger

The levers and pedals the operator uses to operate the crane are
themselves an interesting blend of natural and arbitrary information
display codes. By pushing on the right braking pedal, the operator
causes the crane to swing to the right front—the same movement
that the child makes on a sled by dragging his right foot when he
6 PRECISION

wishes to turn to the right. The movement of the levers forward and
back is a reduced reflection of the up and down movements of the
bucket.
For those portions of his performance where the crane operator
is dependent on information arriving through an engineered input
channel, he is performing with less than the highest quality informa­
tion. The information is no longer the direct perception of the task
itself; rather it is information about that experience filtered through
an arbitrary signal system. For those portions of his task where he
has direct sensory access to the effect of his actions on the task itself,
he operates as does the carpenter.

For those portions where he must depend on arbitrary signal codes

in the engineered input channel, he is one step removed from a direct
sensory grounded source of information about his progress with the
task and the effects of his actions on the task itself.

i
engineered

-------------- S
channel T,

The console operator is even further removed from the actual

experience which is the justification for the business activity. By the
time the information about the operation of the automated process­
ing plant which is the end result of the business activity arrives at
the computer it has been coded and re-coded in arbitrary signal codes
to the extent that it is rare to find a computer console operator who
 A REFINEMENT 7

cun even guess at the experiential significance of the information

being processed by the computer.

The console operator is many steps removed from the direct sensory
grounded source of information of what effects her activities have on
the task itself.
The console operator is provided information about the actual
functioning of the plant through engineered input channels only.
Mere, however, there is an additional separation of the human from
the plant operation—not only is the information flowing from the
actual operation of the plant filtered through an engineered input
t hnnnel, but the set of appropriate responses to be made by the
Human operator to the signals received at the console is fixed. The
Information flowing from the human operator is also filtered as it
moves back through the console to control the functioning of the
plnnt machinery. In the design and development of the automated
pliint machinery, the computer and the linkage between them, the
choices not only regarding what the human operator should pay
«Mention to (the engineered input channels) but also the set of re-
njnmses that the human is allowed to make (engineered output chan­
nel) have been made.
In this situation the quality of both the information moving from
Ihe point of production to the human operator and of the informa­
tion moving from the human operator to the machines operating at
Ihe point of production, although appropriate to the context, is less
ihnn the highest quality. The operator’s responsibility is limited to
я IInit e set of engineered inputs—the arbitrary signal codes she must
Icnrn to identify—and a finite set of engineered responses—the class
of procedures which specify which console response she is required
to ninke.
The particular classification for business activities we have been
I I'KIM INtON

Й**«|м|||||ц hri с bused on communication principles such as the type

•ml «|ii*lify of information the person is required to handle is, no
novel to the reader. Whatever attractiveness it may or may
шИ have for the reader, there is a simple but convincing way to
demonstrate that it has a behavioral reality, and profound repercus­
sions in the world of business. We point to one of the most basic of
it11 the organizing principles of business activity—that of account­
ability. More specifically, we refer to the relationship between how
close to or distant from the point of the economic activity the human
being involved is and whether he is accountable for that activity.
In the case of the carpenter, there is no distance involved and the
responsibility is entirely the carpenter’s. In the case of the crane
operator, the situation is more complex. If in running the fcrane
during a job, the operator makes an error of judgment visually about
the relative position of the leading edge of the bucket and a wall the
material to be picked up is located next to, and the bucket swings
into the wall damaging it severely, the crane operator will be held
accountable. If, however, the operator can demonstrate that a lever
jammed or a pedal malfunctioned (an engineered output channel) as
the incident occurred, then he is relieved of the responsibility—the
incident becomes an accident. If the crane motor heats up to the
danger point and catches fire, the operator will be held responsible
for the damage if it can be shown that the temperature gauge (an
engineered input channel) was functioning properly and he simply
failed to detect and respond appropriately to the gauge. If the gauge
—the arbitrary signal code for engine temperature—is defective then
the crane operator is absolved of all blame in the incident. Similarly,
if the computer console operator can demonstrate that she responded
appropriately (engineered output) to the signals (engineered input)
offered her at the console, she is entirely blameless even if the plant
explodes during her shift. Her responsibility stops at the bank of
signals and discrete responses available to her on the console.
An examination of the cases offered reveals a powerful and basic
organizing principle of business:

Accountability follows information flow

An individual in the world of business can be held accountable for

only those portions of the sequence of business activities for which
he or she has either direct sensory grounded information or is pro-
 A REFINEMENT 9

vided engineered channels of information flow. In the case where the

individual is provided with engineered channels of information flow,
hi$ or her accountability is limited to the timely detection of informa'
tion presented in the form of the arbitrary signal codes (engineered
input) and the selection of an appropriate response from the set of
responses available (engineered output).
There is one extremely important exception to the accountability
following information flow rule—the information processors them­
selves—the managers, the executives, the directors. Managers are
held accountable for results which they have no direct experience of
nor been provided engineered channels of information for. Consider
the question again:

What does the information processor reach for; what does he listen
to; what does he watch to know whether he has identified the appro*
priate signals and that he is performing successfully?

The ultimate answer is the performance of the business organization

—the financial statements—the annual report.
The information processor is held accountable for the final out­
come of the entire business venture. His or her personal success is
invariably tied up with the success of the full chain of activities
reaching from the manager’s office to the point of production or
services. The final measure of the effectiveness of those words and
paper is profits. If return on invested capital is up, then the informa­
tion processor did, in fact, identify the appropriate signals and did
perform successfully.
After the flurry of words and paper has subsided, there is the
proverbial bottom line.
The ultimate feedback to the information processor is the survival
and growth of the business organization he runs.
The implications of this characterization of the manager’s position
as an exception to the accountability follows information flow rule
are enormous. The rule states that an individual can be held account­
able for only those portions of the business activity for which he or
she either has direct sensory grounded information or is provided
engineered channels of information flow. The information processors
surely fail to have direct sensory grounded information regarding the
activity at the points between them and the point of production or
service. Some information processors make it a practice to visit
10 PRECISION

different parts of the production/service process. We applaud such

practices. These same information processors will be the first to
confess that their position precludes using the practice as the primary
source of information.
It is equally obvious that the information processor is provided
with no engineered channels of information: an engineered informa­
tion channel being one through which only information that respects
both the need to know and the need not to know flows. We gratefully
acknowledge Curt Symonds as the source for the happy phrase "need
not to know”, although we use it in a somewhat different manner.
Such engineered channels are referred to as “clean.” The manager’s
typical information channels—face-to-face meetings, periodic writ­
ten reports . . . fail both of these requirements primarily since" these
channels use one of the dirtiest or noisiest codes—language—as their
base. Unless some device such as the Precision Model is available for
engineering or controlling the quality of the information being car­
ried by the language code, these channels of information flow will
continue to be inadequate and the source of costly errors.
Thus the information processor is held accountable for a complex
sequence of business activities stretching from his or her office to the
point of production without the conditions of information flow for
accountability being met. Further, the information system they use
to determine what is occurring and to exercise control over the
complex activities taking place within the business they are account­
able for is of uncertain quality. Yet the success of the information
processor will in large part be a function of the effectiveness with
which he or she handles information.

What does the information processor reach for: what does he listen
to; what does he watch for to know whether he has identified the
appropriate signals and that he is performing successfully?

The easy answer—the financial statements, the annual report—is

nearly useless. It is the final feedback for an information processor.
However, the delay involved renders it useless as a guide to the
day-to-day operation of the business.
The information concerning the business activities of the organiza­
tion which flows up and down the information processor’s lines of
accountability is the life blood of the organization. The effectiveness
with which the information processor employs this information is the
 A REFINEMENT 11

single most powerful determinant of success. A prerequisite for the

effective handling of information is that the information be of con­
trolled quality. No matter how skilled the information processor is,
if the information he or she is using their skills with is of uncertain
quality, so will the results of their actions based on it tend to be of
uncertain quality. The vast bulk of this information is coded in a
special arbitrary code called language.
In both its written and spoken form, language carries the informa­
tion which decides the economic fate of the members of the business
organization through which it flows whether worker, technician, or
information processor; and especially information processor.
Any systematic way of controlling the quality of the language
information the information processor works with will increase
that individual’s success and the success of his organization. This
book presents a model of an explicit and learnable set of techniques
which, when systematically applied in the day-to-day business activ­
ities of the manager, the executive, the director will yield the most
nppropriate quality language information possible—the Precision
Model.

INFORMATION AND REPRESENTATION

In the 15th and 16th centuries. Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish and

English mariners venturedforth on voyages of discovery. Many of these
voyages were financed by the governments of those countries and had
as their primary objective the discovery of maritime routes which led
to parts of the world where unusual (for occidentals) products, herbs,
spices, perfumes, . . . were availablefor trade. The ruling members of
those nations understood clearly that charted, mapped, reliable routes
to heretofore undiscovered civilizations or routes topreviously contacted
civilizations which were more reliable, shorter or safer than previously
discovered ones would give the finders of such routes domination in
trade with their competitors. Each of the various competing nations
entered the contest with different attitudes, personnel and ships. Some
of the ships sacrificed stability for speed,—others, robustness for load
capacity. In this intensely competitive era, the most widely recognized
and closely guarded of objects which gave its possessor the critical
advantage in this contest was the rutter—a personal log religiously kept
by the pilot/navigator on these voyages o f discovery.
12 PRECISION
As James Clavell expressed it in his magnificent historical novel
Shogun:

“A rutter was a small book containing the detailed observa­

tions of a pilot who had been there before. It recorded magnetic
compass courses between ports and capes, headlands and chan­
nels. It noted the sounding and depths and color of the water
and the nature of the seabed. It set down the how we got there
and how we got back; how many days on a special tack, the
pattern of the wind, when it blew and from where; the time of
storms and the time of fair winds; where to careen the ship and
where to water; where there were friends and where foes;
shoals, reefs, tides, havens; at best, everything necessary for a'
safe voyage.
The English, Dutch, and French had rutters for their own
waters, but the waters of the rest of the world had been sailed
only by captains from Portugal and Spain, and these two coun­
tries considered all rutters secret, Rutters that revealed the
seaways to the New World or unravelled the mysteries of the
Pass of Magellan and the Cape of Good Hope—both Por­
tuguese discoveries—and thence the seaways to Asia were
guarded as national treasures by the Portuguese and Spanish,
and sought after with equal ferocity by their Dutch and English
enemies/1

James Clavell
Shogun, 1978 p. 11

The rutter, then, was a chronicle of a voyage—a series of sensory

grounded descriptions which could be used as a guide to travel safely
and efficiently to a destination and back again.
The basis of our personal success is the knowledge we possess
regarding appropriate and effective actions we may take in the situa­
tions we find ourselves in. The individual who finds himself in a
canoe on a raging river will succeed in extricating himself from that
situation if he has adequate knowledge regarding the possible effec­
tive courses of action appropriate to him in that situation and takes
such action. This knowledge in turn is the result of experience ac­
cumulated by that person in the course of his lifetime. Our experi­
ence is the sum total of all the stimulation we have been exposed to
 INFORMATION AND REPRESENTATION 13

which we have detected through our sensory channels. Exposure to

stimulation at the sensory level is, of course, no guarantee of knowl­
edge. All of us can remember a person in our experience who seems
nearly impervious to experience—no matter how frequently or in­
tensely he is subjected to certain experiences, he seems to glean little
or nothing from it and persists in inappropriate or naive behavior.
Thus knowledge requires a second step—one which follows exposure
to sensory stimulation. This second step is the construction of inter­
nal representations or maps. In the world of business these internal
representations or maps are usually called ideas, thoughts, hunches,
plans. The principles of construction of these internal representa­
tions have, until recently (see second volume in this series as well as
Neuro Linguistic Programming, Volume f) has been considered beyond
the grasp and perception of systematic study. Hence, the subject of
effective representation in the world of business has been focused
almost exclusively on external or shared representations—the flip
chart, the graph, the five year plan. Even here, the solid, clear gains
which have been made regarding the principles of effective shared
representation have been minimal; the men and women who are
noted for their success in this area operate intuitively, without an
explicit understanding of their personal effectiveness. To our way of
thinking, this limited success in making explicit and precise the
principles of effective shared representations is a natural outcome of
the fact that the principles of construction of internal maps are
unavailable. The effectiveness of external shared representations is
judged intuitively by humans on the basis of how well they match
and organize their internal representations. Thus without an explicit
understanding of the construction principles of internal maps, the
very limited success achieved in making precise the principles of
external representation construction is fully understandable.
Each of us has at our disposal several systems which we can use
to create effective detailed internal representations of our experience
—thereby making ourselves the beneficiary of our own experience.
Most commonly, in North American culture, these systems are visu-
iilization—the ability to make detailed, vivid internal images; audi­
tory digital—the ability to use language internally to plan, analyze,
. . . ; and kinesthetics—the ability to sense through physical sensation
how we feel about a situation, plan, possibility. Within North Ameri­
can culture in the world of business, the first two of these representa­
tional systems are overtly the most highly valued. The visualization
14 PRECISION

system and the auditory digital system differ in several important

respects. Of special interest to us here is the fact that the internal
visual images created by a business person are not directly communi­
cable to another person while the auditory digital system—language
—can be directly communicated. Indeed, the experience of having
an exciting and detailed insight into a problem or of having a new
perspective on a lucrative business venture and then being faced with
the task of translating that picture into a form that can be com­
municated to others for implementation is altogether too well known
to planners, decision makers, executives and managers to require
documentation. In fact, in most cases the business person in question
falls back on the auditory digital representation system to communi­
cate that original insight—that is, he talks to his associates. Thus the
nature of internal visual representations is rather personal while the
auditory digital system has the flexibility to be used either internally
or externally. Hence, of the various internal systems used by business
people, the most immediately accessible is language.
In addition to being the only one of the major representational
systems culturally available which serves for both internal personal
use as well as external shared use, language has several other features
of value in business. Suppose that you have been assigned the task
of presenting information to the board of directors about inventory
levels. There are several choices you have—first, you could transport
the directors to the warehouse, conduct guided tours, and point out
the various inventory items; secondly, you might have laborers carry
the inventory through the board room, pointing out the various
inventory items; thirdly, you might make your representation in
language to the board of directors. The example is deliberately ridic­
ulous to point up the fact that language has a particularly powerful
feature as a representational system. Specifically, it has the ability to
refer to things, events, activities, etc., which are not physically pre­
sent. The savings in time and energy are obvious. Thus the symbolic
nature of language is, in the example, an important asset. This same
feature, an asset in the example given, can inadvertently become a
liability. Thousands of volumes of philosophy (and the trees from
which the paper came) have been utterly wasted by some philoso­
phers who have been seduced into arguing about whether if we can
say something, must it then exist. Within the business world, billions
of dollars have been wasted on this same difficulty. When I talk about
the Washington Monument, the reader/listener understands the spe­
cific real world object I am pointing to with my words. When,
 INFORMATION AND REPRESENTATION 15

however, I talk about customer relations or human resources I would

be quite surprised if any two readers/listeners could agree on what
my words were pointing to. The meaning of a segment of language
—a word, a phrase, a sentence,. . . —is the sum total of the individual
reader/listener's experience of the thing or activity the word repre­
sents. Since each of us have but a single stabilized, uniform experi­
ence corresponding to the Washington Monument, those words are
efficacious in eliciting the same experience in the reader/listener.
The words ‘customer relations’ or ‘human resources’, however,
refer to such a diverse collection of activities, widely divergent in the
experience of the reader/listener, that there will be as many experi­
ences elicited by those words as there are readers/listeners. Accept­
ing the illusion that we understand what a person is saying when they
use such low quality words is the basis for untold numbers of costly
errors in the world of business. Much of this book is devoted to
offering the reader procedures by which they can exercise control
over the quality of information represented in the language/re­
presentation system—thereby having the ability to avoid the costly
errors which result from the illusion that low quality language was
understood.

If you and I were sitting in a circle of people on the prairie, and

if I were then to place a painted drum or an eagle feather in the middle
of this circle, each of us would perceive these objects differently. Our
vision of them would vary according to our individual positions in the
circle, each of which would be unique.
Our personal perceptions of these objects would also depend upon
much more than just the different positions from which we looked
upon them. For example, one or more of us might suffer from color
blindness, or from weak eyesight. Either of these two physical differ­
ences would influence our perceptions of the objects.
There are levels upon levels of perspectives we must consider when
we try to understand our individual perceptions of things, or when
we try to relate our own perceptions to those of our brothers and
sisters. Every single one of our previous experiences in life will affect
in some way the mental perspective from which we see the world
around us.
Because of this, a particular object or event may appear fearful to
you at the same time that it gives pleasure to me, or appears com­
pletely uninteresting to a third person. All things that we perceive
16 PRECISION
stimulate our individual imaginations in different ways, which in turn
causes us to create our own unique interpretations of them. Love,
hate, fear, confusion, happiness, envy, and all the other emotions we
feel, act upon us to paint our perceptions of things in different colors.
If the thing ( were to place within our circle should be an abstrac­
tion, such as an idea, a reeling, or a philosophy, our perceptions of
it would then be even more complicated than if the object had been
a tangible thing. And farther, the number of different perceptions of
it would become greater and greater as more and more people were
added to our circle. The perception of any object, either tangible or
abstract, is ultimately made a thousand times more complicated
whenever it is viewed within the circle of an entire people as a whole.
The understanding of this truth is the first lesson of the Medicine
Wheel, and it is a vital part of Sun Dance Teaching.

Hyeneyohsts Storm
Seven Arrows, p. 13

An experienced manager will be effective to the extent his personal

representation, his rutter, is richer than others. The technology pre­
sented in this book is the means to create and refine your own rutter
and gain, access to the resources provided by the rutlers of others.
The ability to develop information, organize that information into
some useful representation and take effective action on the basis of
that information is one of the most highly valued skills in the com­
plex world of business today. Among the men and women of the
business world who perform these tasks in a satisfactory manner,
there are individuals who excel. Such individuals are presented with
the same initial information as the rest of us, yet they seem to do
something extra with it. Somehow they always seem to come up with
an action which is a little more precisely to the point; an action which
doesn’t seem to occur to the rest of us; an action which has some
degree of novelty or surprise to it while exhibiting the clean effective­
ness that we all have come to strive for. These same individuals, in
a situation where the initial plan or action they have set out upon
runs into some unanticipated obstacle, always seem to have another
choice—another take on the activity—another pathway which leads
where we want to go. Where do these a little more precise, a little
bit novel yet cleanly effective choices come from? How is it that these
individuals always have that extra pathway to our objective?
Each of us is bombarded during our waking hours with large
 INFORMATION AND REPRESENTATION 17

nmounts of information. The portions of the information available

10 us that we actually pay attention to is rather small and is deter­
mined largely by what we have come to understand is useful for us
to know about. Naturally, what is useful for us to know about is in
turn a function of what we are doing, what task or activity we are
involved in at the point in our day when the information becomes
available. Each of us carries within us representations of the experi­
ences and events we typically encounter in our daily lives—internal
maps of the various situations, tasks and activities that we are com­
petent to involve ourselves with.
The secretary who arranges the material her boss will need for a
business conference knows from her experience that certain items
will be required. She also knows the order in which she can arrange
the material to make it fit best with the way her boss typically runs
his conference. As she sets about preparing the material, she will talk
to herself, reminding herself of the specific material to be included;
she might visualize the last time she successfully prepared the mate­
rial for the conference using those images as a guide for her present
activity. Having organized the material, she will sit back, scan the
material, its appearance, the order it is in, and ask herself whether
she has finished, whether there is anything left to be done. In all these
activities she is using internally stored maps, representations, guides
formed by her experience in having done this or similar tasks success­
fully in the past to know how in this particular case to accomplish
the task that she is involved in successfully. The previous experience
is available to her through the internally stored maps. The more
complete, detailed and organized these internal maps, the higher the
probability that somewhere within these representations created by
her past experience is an example of the optimal solution for the task
she is presently engaged in. The vaguer, the less explicit and well
organized her internal maps, the less likely she will perform effec­
tively in this task. If she is a shared secretary who works for a number
of people, she will be sought after and appreciated just in case she
has the flexibility to create and keep separate the idiosyncrasies of the
various people for whom she acts as secretary. If she can recognize
nnd store in her internal representations, the preferences of the vari­
ous people for whom she performs tasks, she will have the ability to
tailor her secretarial services for each of the individual members of
her officc, much to their satisfaction and appreciation. If she is
unable or unwilling to detect and store in her internal maps these
differences, her response to each of the members of the office will be
18 PRECISION

uniform and in the perceptions of the office members less satisfac­

tory, and much less appreciated by them.
The difference between these two cases is the richness and detail
of the internally stored map. The secretary who performs adequately
has a single map or guide for her behavior in preparing material for
a conference—thus, her preparations will be the same for all such
occasions. The secretary with the ability to tailor her services to the
individual preferences of the members of the office also has a single
map for the activity of preparing material for a conference—how­
ever, her map, if we were able to examine it directly, would be a much
expanded version of the map the other secretary uses. In it we would
find many more distinctions—distinctions like the preferred order of
material, the detail with which the agenda should be prepared, the
placement of tables, graphs and statistics,. . . for each of the office
members she works for.
One useful way of discussing this difference is to point out that the
secretary with the more extended, detailed and organized map liter­
ally has choices where the other secretary has none. We may now
offer a preliminary answer to the questions we raised earlier—Where
do these a little more precise, a little bit novel yet cleanly effective
choices come from? How is it that these individuals always have that
extra pathway to our objective? The answer, of course, is the only
place such a little more precise, a little bit novel yet cleanly effective
choices and extra pathways could come from—the rich, detailed
internal maps of the specific individuals who performed with excel­
lence.
Business is not the only domain where differences in the richness
and detail of internal maps dictates a person’s effectiveness and
success. Take, for example, the skilled athlete—a tournament class
golfer. The primary difference between this man or woman and those
of us who manage a round or so on weekends and, if things are
running right, sometimes a round during the week, is the detail and
richncss of the internal maps we use as a guide for our behavior while
playing golf. Indeed, those individuals who have achieved excellence
in some sport—those individuals who have just such extended and
detailed internal maps to guide their behavior—are called profession­
als. Those of us with relatively impoverished maps—ones with sig­
nificantly fewer distinctions, less detail and which cover a more
limited area of the sport—have to make do with the designation of
amateur.
 INFORMATION AND REPRESENTATION 19

The point is obvious—the more precise, detailed and extended the

internally stored maps that an individual operating in the complex
world of business has, the wider the range of choices he or she will
have available in responding to those complex situations. The wider
the range of choices represented in the internal map, the more effec­
tively the information processor will be able to tailor the actions
which he or she takes in responding to the situations which arise in
(he business world with excellence.
For purposes of exposition, the involved process by which a mem­
ber of the business community comes to have such extended, detailed
nnd effective maps can be represented as having three phases.

1. information 2. information 3. information

elicitation representation application

These phases are, оГ course, intimately interwoven in practice—

the representation of information will yield a rich detailed internal
шар only if the information which is elicited is of sufficiently high
quality. The application of the information to some specific transac­
tion in business will be effective only if the internal map has an
nilcquately rich and detailed representation for the specific kind of
trunsaction the information is being applied to.
This series—High Quality Information Processing in Business—
treats the three phases of high quality information processing in
three volumes, one for each of the phases. Thus, this volume—
Precision—addresses itself to the presentation of an explicit model
which gives the user the ability to develop high quality, contextually
Appropriate information during the elicitation phase of high quality
information processing. The Precision Model is a technology which
allows the user full control over the quality of the information car­
ried by the language code. An overall understanding of the code
which carries the vast bulk of this information is thus in order.

LANGUAGE AS A REPRESENTATIONAL SYSTEM FOR

INFORMATION

Ая we noted in the opening section, language is a special symbolic

code. This statement deserves some elaboration. Language is a code
-by this, we mean to point out that language is symbolic. The words
20 PRECISION

—an IBM typewriter—are not an IBM typewriter. This is precisely

parallel to the situation regarding the temperature gauge in the cab
of the crane or the indicators on the computer console—the gauges
and indicators themselves are not the thing they are signaling about.
The temperature gauge is not itself hot when the gauge is reporting
information that the engine is hot. The console indicator is not itself
wet when it signals that one of the vats of liquid is overflowing.
Language is likewise a symbol system in which a set of objects—
words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs—are used in certain specified
orders to refer to things and activities which are going on at the level
of real experience. As in the case of the temperature gauge in the cab
of the crane, the particular form the information can be represented
in is variable. The fact that the information regarding the tempera­
ture of the engine is presented in a vertical scale with the low temper­
ature located at the bottom of the vertical line and the high tempera­
ture located at the top is wholly arbitrary as we pointed out earlier.
Language is special in that encoding the things and activities at the
level of real experience—creating the language representations
which refer to the world of experience—the encoder has a great deal
of freedom of choice in the selection of the specific words and
phrases. An example will serve well here. Suppose that we were given
the task .of describing the activity of a carpenter finishing the last
piece of labor required to complete the construction of a cabinet. Any
of the following descriptions would suffice:
The carpenter, sweat dripping from his brow, hammer gripped tightly
in his hand, leans forward, swinging the hammer in a two foot arc
which terminates in a solid strike on the last nail in the upper right
hand corner of the cabinet, driving it home with a polished and
practiced movement.

The carpenter finished the cabinet by driving home the last nail with
a practiced motion.

The carpenter finished the cabinet.

The cabinet is finished.

The job is complete.

Everything is ready.
 LANGUAGE AS A REPRESENTATIONAL SYSTEM 21

Any of the above descriptions are accurate representations of the

Nituation concerning the carpenter and the cabinet. Thus any of them
would satisfy the task. However, as the reader is no doubt aware, the
<|iiality of information each of the descriptions offers is profoundly
different. In fact there is a gradient of quality which runs through
llie sequence of descriptions—the first description being of the high-
phI quality, the last of the lowest quality.
Notice, for example, that the number of real world experiences
lluil each of the descriptions could accurately refer to expands as the
description become more attenuated—as the distance between the
original scene of the carpenter working and the language representa-
llnn increases. The first description—the most vivid and richest of
Ihe lot—could actually apply to only a limited number of real world
fvcnts. The next in line—lower in quality—could refer accurately to
more real world events, and so forth until by the time we arrive at
(he description:

P.verything is ready.

(he number of real world events that the sentence could accurately
refer to is astronomical. The description in question could even refer
to the fact that the reader has just completed reading this sentence.
1 anguage allows a series of descriptions or encodings of real world
experiences to be created by a language user—all of which are accu-
rule representations of the original raw experience but which differ
from one another in quality.
The greater the number of real world situations which the descrip­
tion is an accurate representation of, the lower the quality of the
Information represented in the language description. Conversely, the
fewer the real world situations which the language description could
accurately represent, the higher the quality of information.

INFORMATION AND THE INFORMATION PROCESSOR

We return now to the issue raised earlier—namely, the relation-

«hip between accountability and information. Specifically, the for­
mulation we offered earlier of one of the most basic organizing
principles in the world of business:
22 PRECISION

Accountability follows information flow

And, more specifically to the exception to that rule—the information

processor. The general manager, for example, is held accountable for
the entire chain of business activities which stretch from his desk to
the point of production or services which is the justification for that
chain of activities. Yet, as we pointed out, he has neither direct
sensory experience of the vast bulk of those events, nor does he have
engineered information flow channels which allow him to read,
through some simple set of dials, gauges and indicators, the status
of these various activities.
The ideal solution to this dilemma would be to provide the infor­
mation processor with a device which accomplished for information
coded in language the same thing that the blow-up process associated
with aerial photography does for information coded in photos. There
is a procedure in photography which provides a good substitute, an
engineered channel, for direct visual inspection. Duplicated for ver­
bal information it would be extremely effective. It would provide the
techniques for creating the engineered channel presently missing.
Suppose that you were the general manager for a huge paper
manufacturer, and that your organization was vertically integrated,
stretching from the harvesting of timber to the marketing of the
resulting products. Suppose further that you had decided to visit
several of the harvesting sites which were scattered at great distances
from one another. Because of a shortage of time, you were unable
to schedule in a stop at one of the sites but by an accident of the
itinerary noted that you would be flying nearly over the site on your
return to the home office. You instruct the pilot to fly over the site
using the aerial photography cameras. Later, of course, at your
leisure in your office you might examine the photos. It is quite likely
from an examination of the medium level blow-ups you could arrive
at a reasonably accurate assessment of the level of activity on the site.
You could determine whether all of the burning towers, rigs and
other equipment were being used or, indeed, whether some were idle.
You could determine the amount of actual harvesting which had
occurred since the opening of the site. There would be enough infor­
mation for you to reassure yourself that the operation was generally
in good shape. In other words, that level of blow-up—that refined
a representation—would satisfy the basic questions in the assess­
ment. In fact, for you to request more refined blow-ups with higher
 INFORMATION 23

quality detail would be inappropriate—the process of blowing the

photos up is a costly one involving technicians and expensive equip­
ment. In addition, it might, in fact, make it more difficult for you to
arrive at an overall assessment of the situation on the site—you
might become so involved in the details that the larger picture
becomes difficult to appreciate. Suppose further that a report arrives
»1 your desk that there is a problem that has come up at that particu­
lar site. One excellent choice would be for you, knowing what the
problem is reported to be, to figure out what you could see on the
site that would give you precisely the information you need to fully
understand the situation there—perhaps, even to identify an effective
Holution. At that point, it would be entirely appropriate for you to
order a set of high quality blow-ups of exactly those portions of the
nite where the information will be apparent. Or, alternatively, sup­
pose that you were personally convinced that, while the operation on
(hat site was a profitable one consistent with the margins the other
nites were showing, the operation on that site could be upgraded to
it significantly higher level of productivity. Again, knowing the out­
come you desired to achieve, you could figure out what specific
changes you would institute in order to bring about this significantly
higher level of productivity. Having decided on a number of possible
pathways any one of which might lead to the desired outcome, it
would then be appropriate for you to order higher quality blow-ups
of those portions of the operation which contained the information
that you needed to complete your planning. The technology of aerial
photography and of the blow-up process allows the user to select the
level of refinement of visual information. This decision about the
level of refinement of the information will be dictated by the specific
context of the issue or problem that the information processor re­
quires information for.
As we indicated, the ideal solution would be to provide the infor­
mation processor with a device which did for information coded in
Innguage what the technology of aerial photography and the blow-up
process do for information stored in a visual representation. Such a
dcvice could accept as input a starting point of extremely low quality
information and offer as output any level of refinement desired by the
uiier. The device would operate on an input as low quality as the one
following:

Kverything is ready.
24 PRECISION

and from such a starting point elicit any grade ofinformation re­
quired by the context set by the task the informationprocessor is
involved in.

Everything is ready.

Q: what specifically is ready?

A: the job—the job is ready.
Q: which job specifically is ready?
A: the cabinet is ready.
Q: how specifically is the cabinet ready?
A: the cabinet is finished.
Q: who finished the cabinet?
A: the carpenter finished the cabinet.
Q: how specifically did the carpenter finish the cabinet?
A: the carpenter finished the cabinet by driving home the last
nail.
Q: how specifically did the carpenter drive home the lastnail?
A: the carpenter finished the cabinet driving . . .

The reader no doubt recognized that the questioning technique is

eliciting precisely increasingly high quality information which leads
back, drawing closer and closer to the original experience that the
initial low quality information alluded to. The parallelism to the
aerial photography will be apparent to the reader. The questioning
technique employed in the question/answer exchange is, of course,
a sample of the set of questions drawn from the Precision Model
which is the subject of this book.
If the Precision Model question techniques were fully employed in
the exchange, the questioner would come up with information which
matches the information presented in the original high quality de­
scription. Rarely, of coursc, would a manager, executive or director
of a business organization require the quality of information con­
tained in the original high quality description. Such a large amount
of detail would be inappropriate in most situations. Herein lies the
advantage—the full Precision Model allows the user to select pre­
cisely the quality of information required for the user to accomplish
the task confronting him or her. The Precision Model device known
as Frames maintains a context which determines what is appropriate.
The information processor’s area of accountability extends from
 INFORMATION 25

bis or her office to the point of production or service. What such

ini information processor needs is the choice of travelling infor­
mationally to any point along that chain of activities to elicit pre­
cisely the information he or she requires to exercise the influence
necessary.
Each of you, no doubt, has encountered the manager who consis­
tently demands so much detail from his subordinates that they are
completely demoralized and feel that their services and skills are not
being utilized. At the opposite end of the continuum, the reader can
remember a manager who consistently mistakes abdication for dele­
gation. No two situations which the manager is confronted with are
exactly the same. In one, it may be appropriate to elicit a great deal
of detail while in another, a simple go/no go signal from those
reporting is precisely what is required. The quality of information
must be tailored on a situation to situation basis to respect both the
need to know and the need not to know.
The Precision Model offers exactly that control over the quality
<>!' information which flows along the lines of accountability of con­
cern to the information processor.
We may now offer a more useful answer to the question we raised
ttl ihc beginning of this book:

What does the information processor reach for, what does he listen
lo, what does he watch tn know that he has identified the appropriate
nignais and that he is performing successfully?

The answer we offer is a set of language engineering tools which

develop for the user precise information. By precise information we
intend the following:

Information coded in language will be said to be precise if the infor­

mation is of the highest quality appropriate to the context in which
it is used.

Thus, as this definition implies, the Precision Model must deliver

two kinds of tools—a set of Frames which identify and establish the
mii(ext or boundary conditions within which information is being
rliLited, and a set of Precision Model questions which develop the
hi|[h quality information within that context.
26 PRECISION

THE INFORMATION PROCESSOR’S TASK

In the remainder of this book we will use the word manager to

refer to that group of individuals in the world of business whose
primary task is information processing—the manager, the executive,
the director. This is for convenience only—we find the title informa­
tion processor both accurate and awkward. We mention here briefly
certain issues which, while they may be obvious to the reader are
important enough that they deserve, in the authors’ opinion, con­
stant reiteration.
First, in the context of the day to day tasks of the manager, the
effectiveness of his actions is strongly connected with the quality of
the information which is used to assess as well as influence the
operation that he is accountable for. The computer field has devel-
oped an idiom which we find wholly appropriate here:

garbage in, garbage out

This rule applies to the inbound information as well as the outbound

information. The information elicited by the manager to assess the
situation in the operation must be of the appropriate level of quality
to allow effective action. However, it is as critical that the informa­
tion in the form of directives and instructions also be of an appropri­
ate level of quality. The fact that the present state information used
by the manager is of the appropriate quality will be of little comfort
when it is subsequently discovered that the quality of information in
the directives and instructions was of too low a quality to adequately
influence and guide the members of the organization in carrying out
the potentially effective actions. As suggested later in the context of
particular issues, the manager might well consider having members
of the organization who consistently report to him trained in the
Precision Model to insure the outbound information is of adequate
high quality.
Secondly, the typical situation which the modern manager finds
himself in is one of increasing technological complexity. It is rare
these days to find a manager who happens to be technically compe­
tent with respect to the entire set of activities which he is accountable
for. Thus the modern manager must rely more and more on informa­
tion processing skills which will allow him to deal effectively and
efficiently with information which he is not technically qualified to
 THE INFORMATION PROCESSOR'S TASK 27

understand* Such a demand cries out for an explicit set of procedures

lor information processing—the point of this book*
Kepner and Tregoe describe the situation elegantly*

Perhaps the most significant implication of the concepts and proce­

dures described in this book is that they anticipate the kind of man­
ager that will be needed in the future. As the authors have pointed
out, the continuing increases in technology inevitably mean that
managers will know less and less about the skills and knowledge of
those they are managing, and will have to depend more and more on
their ability to manage the operating techniques of those reporting to
them. And in order to manage the way a subordinate handles prob­
lems and decisions, a manager has to know how to ask just the right
questions.

Kepner and Tregoe

The Rational Manager p. 6

But suppose a manager develops the skill of asking the kind of

questions that will tap relevant information about problems? Sup­
pose, for instance, he learns how to probe to determine whether the
nuspected cause of a problem is likely or not? Or whether the problem
he has selected is really important? With such skill it is clear that he
would need relatively less experience and specialized knowledge in
order to manage the way his subordinates solved problems. In fact,
the manager today has no choice. With management growing
progressively more complex, and experience more obsolete more ra­
pidly, the manager must rely more and more on skillful, rational
questioning, and less and less on experience*

Kepner and Tregoe,

The Rational Manager, pp. 23

Further, note that in those cases where a manager happens to be

KvhnicaUy competent with respect to the activities which he is ac-
«oimtuble for, it would be disastrous for him to employ that technical
competency directly to his area of accountability in any consistent
inniiner. If he were to consistently, for example, solve technical
ptohlcms which came up, he would be behaving as a technician, not a
mulinger. We are not proposing that technically qualified managers
28 PRECISION

who know of a solution to some technical problem hide such informa­

tion from their subordinates. Rather we are referring to the mistake
some managers inadvertently make—that of continuing in a behavior
which was appropriate and successful when they occupied the posi­
tion of a technician when, in fact, they now have a different position
and function—that of manager. This situation is common enough
that the business community has identified it and awarded it a title—
the Peter Principle—from the book by Lawrence Peter. The techni­
cally qualified manager who persists in technical problem solving is
not managing. Further, as many authors have documented, the net
effect of a manager who does technical problem solving at the expense
of managing is a disastrous lowering of the morale in his subordinates
—especially, the technicians whose functions are being inadvertently
usurped by the would-be manager. This demoralization is an under­
standable response to a situation where a technician's resources and
training are not being employed. The would-be manager can easily
become trapped in a vicious cycle once this pattern is established. The
technicians' demoralization proceeds to the point where the quality of
their work drops, thereby creating further technical problems which
demand an increasing amount of the would-be manager's time and
resources. Therefore, the manager spends even less time and energy
managing_and more fire fighting, and the cycle continues. The Preci­
sion Model offers a welcome exit from such vicious loops.

THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF THE MANAGER

This book deals exclusively with information coded in language.

As we have insisted from the opening sentence of this book, the
highest quality information is behavioral—the actual performance of
the individual or organization. The point of the Precision Model is
to give the manager tools which will allow as high a quality of
language information as is appropriate for the context in which he
is operating. During each language interchange with another mem­
ber of the business organization, there is passed a large amount of
this highest quality information. We are here referring to the non­
verbal component of communication which inevitably accompanies
but is not limited to, the occasions on which there is a language
exchange among the members of a business organization. The au­
thors have taken a position in other books and workshops that the
non-verbal component of any communication interchange will, over
 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF THE MANAGER 29

Ilie long run, be the most influential, the most dominant of the two
classes of communication—verbal (language) and non-verbal.
Thus, no matter how well organized the verbal transactions of the
manager, unless the underlying, accompanying non-verbal behavior
—the voice tone, the tempo of speech, the gestures, the body pos-
uires,. . .—support the information being offered or requested, the
result will be less than optimal. The issues here are those of rapport
-the skill of finding and developing working interpersonal relation-
•hips which recognize that certain business tasks must be accom­
plished and accomplished in a way which respects the integrity of the
people involved—and congruency—the skill of matching the non­
verbal and verbal behavior so that they reinforce and support one
tuiother. The appreciation and use of non-verbal communication is
* vital and fascinating topic; unfortunately outside the domain of this
volume.
Business is the human outcome oriented activity. The bottom line
in Ihe economic survival and growth of the business organization as
well as the personal development and advancement of the human
(icings in that organization. The executive or manager who sacrifices
•pccific business outcomes for positive interpersonal relationships in
Ilie business context is doing the people with whom he has those
pmitive interpersonal relationships, as well as the business organiza­
tion, a disservice. It is of little consolation to those people that they
hiul fine interpersonal relationships with the managers and execu­
tive of a business organization when that organization folds because
nf и failure to meet specific business outcomes. Over the last decade
%number of theories which originated in humanistic psychology
tinvc been imported into portions of the world of business. While
(here have been gains resulting from the importation of some of these
theories, the most obvious consequence has been a reduction in
pftlcicncy. The issue here is one of control. The manager is held
it<4'oiintable for the complete chain of economic activities which
Mretches from his or her office down to the point of production or
m*rvicc. In order to be effective, the manager must exercise control
over those activities to the extent required to insure that the goals
of Ihat organization are met. For us, the term control implies the
•htlily both to know what is occurring along that chain of activities
which the manager is accountable for and the ability to access the
irMiurccs of the personnel operating in that chain and direct those
i«*i)oiirccs to insure success. The word control itself is an example of
low quality language representation. One may accurately say:
30 PRECISION
The carpenter controlled the hammer, swinging it through a two foot
arc to drive home the last nail.

In this case the control over the hammer that the carpenter exercises
is very close—his control determines completely the movement and
position of the hammer. One may equally accurately say:

The foreman controlled the carpenter’s activities.

In this case, a much looser relationship is indicated. If, for example,

the foreman were to attempt to control the carpenter’s activities in
the close way that the carpenter controls the movement and position
of the hammer, he should be dismissed. Rather, the foreman controls
the activity of the carpenter by setting tasks or outcomes for him
which are within his competence and through feedback—-inspection
and instruction—to ensure that the carpenter is producing the re­
quired products in the required time frame. By virtue of his or her
position, the manager needs to exercise control over the economic
activities of the personnel in his sphere of accountability. The first
order of business is information both inbound—reports about the
present state of the economic activity—and outbound—instructions
and directives to continue in the present state or to move to some new
target state. The effective manager insists on a close relationship
between the inbound and the outbound information in the sense of
using the inbound information to set goals in conjunction with his
personnel which are within the competence of those personnel. A
high quality set of instructions and directives conveying information
regarding a new business plan will be ineffective unless they are based
on a high quality representation about the present state of the organi­
zation. Conversely, the manager who insists on high quality informa­
tion from those reporting to him about the present situation but fails
to demand of himself and his staff the same high quality information
flow outbound for implementation will likewise be ineffective.
Thus the manager needs tools to exercise control over the quality
of information in his domain of accountability. The bulk of this work
is aimed precisely at providing the manager with tools to engineer
those information flow channels. Time and again, in seminars and
workshops, managers have indicated to the authors that they find the
processes of both eliciting information, and insuring that the instruc­
tions and directives they issue are understood, both painful and dis­
tasteful. This common situation is expressed in the following quote:
 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF THE MANAGER 31

(The manager) often has neither the time nor the talent required to
challenge the validity of the reports he receives, and in many cases
might even consider it somewhat imprudent to do so.

Curtis W. Symonds,
A Design for Business Intelligence, p. 6

Nearly all of the cases fall into one of the two categories—first,
«Huations where the manager requires some information concerning
mi activity in his domain of accountability and he ends up wading
through an enormous amount of largely irrelevant information to
««cure the information he needs; second, situations where the man­
ager is reluctant to probe for the information required as he is fearful
of intruding on the initiative of his subordinates. The first is an
»'*iimple of what we refer to as a failure to respect the need not to
know—the manager is not exercising adequate control over the in­
formation he needs in the sense of excluding information irrelevant
fur his purposes. The second is an example of failure to secure
information that he needs to know and should have access to by
virtue of his position—the fact that he is accountable for the eco­
nomic activities for which he needs the information. Managers who
Imvc presented this situation to us report a hesitation to exercise
H(lci|uate control over the information being offered by personnel
i<‘|w>rting to them primarily because of a fear that such control would
i «milt in the deterioration of interpersonal relationships with the
|)ггноп, a reduction in rapport, even a destruction of the environment
urccssary for making the creative individual resources of the person
nvnilable. These managers often explain that their hesitation stems
from some set of learning experiences where the consultant or in-
Mructor used a humanistically oriented psychological base. Our ex-
twhence leads us to believe that this is a particularly unhappy appli-
i-*llon of such theories resulting in a net reduction in efficiency. We
Mkc the position here that rapport, positive interpersonal relations,
• iruling an environment where the creative resources of the person­
nel of a business organization are available is an essential part of the
nrl of management; further that there is no necessary antagonism
Iк-t ween efficiency and the humanistic goals stated above. Indeed, in
<lic nuthors’ experience, a necessary component of the foundation of
mccllent business rapport is the competence of the manager—espe-
i'!*lly the manager’s ability to be effective in indicating with precision
the information which he requires (the need to know) as well as the
32 PRECISION

information which he does not wish to have at that particular time

(the need not to know). One of the most powerful skills a manager
can have is his ability to communicate explicitly to those personnel
reporting to him what information he needs at any time. Such a skill
offers the subordinates an orientation, a specific understanding of
what exactly their job entails. An explicit set of requirements which
define the job a person is employed to meet allows that person to
know how to proceed in order to succeed. Where the requirements
remain vague and unspecified, the employees are typically unable to
mobilize their creative resources in an effective manner, and there is
a resulting deterioration in the rapport and interpersonal relations.
Business is the human outcome oriented activity. The effective man­
ager sets explicit outcomes for his personnel and offers specific feed­
back to let them know whether they are satisfying those goals. The
Precision Model is a specific way of approaching such behavior. It
allows, for example, the manager to designate high quality outcomes
for each phase of the business transaction which provides an explicit
standard of relevance. Thus the issue of the need to know and the
need not to know is made perfectly explicit, thereby removing it from
the realm of the interpersonal and of personal power struggles. We
have been gratified with the tremendous increases in efficiency in
meetings, problem solving, planning sessions, decision making,
. . . which result from the application of the Precision Model by
managers trained in the system. We have been equally delighted to
note the concommitant improvement in rapport, interpersonal rela­
tions and the environment promoting access to the creative resources
of the personnel which result from their discovery, through the
consistent behavior of their managers, of what is required from them.

THE OVERALL MODEL

The primary and most pervasive organizing principle in this vol­

ume is what we call the Present State/Desired State model. The term
Present State refers to the situation which the individual or organiza­
tion finds itself in—what is presently going on—while the term
Desired State refers to a target situation which the individual or
organization identifies as more highly valued than the present situa­
tion—what the goal or desirable outcome is.
Here we are referring to the fact that each business transaction is
 THE OVERALL MODEL 33

mi attempt by the organization to track itself from some present level

of effectiveness to some other situation which is characterized by an
increase in effectiveness—a change for the better. This very general
conceptual schema applies with equal force to goals of any size—a
meeting, a five year plan, the elicitation of information, getting a cup
of coffee. The mechanics of the application of this principle will be
treated extensively in the remainder of the book.
While the Precision Model is appropriately and powerfully appli­
cable to the entire range of business transactions, we are faced with
the task of picking some specific set of examples to present in this
volume. We have biased what follows toward the area of business
transactions usually referred to as problem solving and decision
ninking. The justification for this choice resides solely in the fact that
our perception is that this area of business transactions consumes the
greatest amount of time and energy on the part of the manager in
(he everyday execution of his or her responsibility. We include more
Abbreviated examples of the application of the Precision Model to the
contexts of meetings, conflict management, and planning. Having
«elected the area of problem solving and decision making as the
primary example of the application of the Precision Model, we are
left with the task of organizing this complex area of business activity.
We propose a four stage model:
IMining
ilir___________ |______ Path-________| Surveying > Evaluating i
I Hffcrence • finding I I ^

In creating this model for the purposes of exposition, we are

Indebted to the fine work of Kepner and Tregoe in their classic work
The Rational Manager.
We hasten to add that the Precision Model itself is entirely inde­
pendent of any particular organization of the complex activity called
problem solving and decision making. Any method for organizing
this complex area of business activity into specified stages with expli­
cit outcomes is an appropriate environment for the implementation
of fhe Precision Model.
Should the reader have a favored model which he uses to organize
Ilie complex human activity called business, we invite him to discard
Ihe proposals here in favor of his own organization and to note that
the relocation of the Precision Model to another model has no effect
on its effectiveness and power.
34 PRECISION

BACKTRACK

The highest quality information is behavioral. Our direct experi­

ence, or what we call sensory grounded information, is the highest
possible quality. As we move away from this direct contact by our
own senses, the information we receive becomes lower quality. Engi­
neered channels for carrying information can provide adequate reli­
ability upon which to base actions. The more that irrelevant material
is permitted in the channel of communication, the lower the quality
of that information, the less reliable it is for action.
Accountability in the process of producing goods and services is
usually limited to those areas where there is direct sensory experience
of relevant data or carefully engineered channels. Management, how­
ever, is a notable exception. Managers seldom have either direct
sensory experience of the results of operations which are their re­
sponsibility nor are they provided with adequate information chan­
nels. Language is a means for sharing the representations of our
experience. It is the most common one in business. We use language
to understand the ideas of others and to gain understanding of their
experience of business operations. An event does not become a disas­
ter simply because one observer thinks it is. More information is
needed before we can decide for ourselves. Similarly, because a ser­
vice representative believes that a series of complaints is no cause for
concern, a manager requires information before he can agree or
disagree.
We are presenting an explicit technique which will obtain any
desired amount of information. It provides a model which will get
precise information. We define information to be adequately precise
when it is of the highest quality appropriate to the situation.
We introduce the present state/desired state model which will
recur throughout. This concept is used as an organizing principle in
all communication. Its use permits the determination of adequate
precision in any given context.
Chapter 2

DEFINING THE DIFFERENCE

It is true, as the saying goes, that a problem clearly stated is already

half solved. It is also true that a problem cannot be efficiently solved
unless it is precisely described. . . .
The kind of precise specification of a problem to be described in
this chapter is, therefore, the most valuable single tool a manager can
have for solving any kind of problem,

Kepner and Tregoe*

The Rational Manager, p, 73» 74

This chapter deals with the first phase of the overall model of
business activity presented in the preceding chapter. The reader will
recognize the following visualrepresentation from theintroduction:

Present | Defining the | Pathfinding | Surveying |Evaluating i Desired

Slate I Difference *^ ' I I State

Present
I1, Defining the______________
ч 'V Desired
Stale Difference State

In 196S Charles Kepner and Benjamin Tregoe published a book

which was destined to become a classic in the field of business— The
Rational Manager. The effectiveness of their work can be measured
by the thousands of managers they have successfully trained in their
methods as well as by the fact that the particular components that
(hey identified in the model in their book continue to dominate
discussions of problem solving and decision making even now, some
fifteen years after (heir book was published. These components—for
36 PRECISION

example, specifying the problem or analyzing for distinctions and

changes—have proven their utility again and again. Thus it is only
appropriate that we begin our presentation with a word of acknowl­
edgement to the fine piece of work created by these two men that has
so well stood the test of time.
Problems are generally recognized to exist when deviations from
standards are recognized. For example, the manager of an auto
assembly plant receives reports from his production manager that
over the last quarter, actual production has fallen off 10% when
compared with the budget which in turn was based on the produc­
tion of the prior year’s quarter. The standard of performance is the
production achieved previously while the 10% reduction in produc­
tion this quarter is easily identified as the deviation from that stan­
dard that the manager will now concern himself with.
The personnel manager brings the general manager of a textile
factory figures which indicate that absenteeism on work days follow­
ing weekends and holidays is up 13% in the last three month period.
Again, the comparison is immediately available. The general man­
ager understands that the standard of performance is the average
number of workers absent on workdays following weekends and
holidays during the previous three month (or longer) period, and
that the deviation he will now initiate problem analysis with is the
increase in that number.
The quality control manager notes that the number of quality
rejected units has tripled on assembly line 6 on the night shift for
three nights running. It requires no special skill to recognize the
deviation which he will now begin to search for the cause of. The
sales manager of a furniture company discovers that the total num­
ber of sales of household goods has dropped 33% in the last month.
Again, it requires no special training to recognize the deviation. The
sales manager for a photographic products company reports that his
customers have returned whole shipments of film which cannot be
developed clearly. The plant manager recognizes immediately that a
previous satisfactory performance has become potentially disastrous
and initiates appropriate action.
As the reader is no doubt well aware, reports of changes which are
presented in percentage form have contained within them implicitly
the standard of performance. The percentage increase or decrease in
some figure is only intelligible when referred to some comparable
performance period.
 DEFINING THE DIFFERENCE 37

What the reader may or may not have noted is that there is a
characteristic common to all the examples listed above—namely that
in each case the deviation identified was a deviation from an histori­
cally defined standard o f performance. That is to say, in each case
the operation had at one point in the organization’s recent history
been functioning at a level of performance which was accepted as
satisfactory. Thus, all the deviations were changes from this histori­
cally defined satisfactory standard of performance.
Our own experience has been that this characteristic is almost
invariably present when the method of problem analysis is employed
by skilled managers in their day-to-day operation. While most works
on problem solving explicitly state that their notion of standard of
performance should not be restricted to past performance or statisti­
cal averages, in practice the actual use of their models seems to be
overwhelmingly oriented to historically defined standards of per­
formance.
Given the day-to-day pressures experienced by managers in the
actual performance of their functions, it is not surprising that the
standard of performance which is unconsciously and systematically
selected by managers in employing this powerful model is the histori­
cally defined standard or the actual track record of the organization.
It is, however, unfortunate that the models in their implementation
have this one-sided bias—this strong tendency to measure present
functioning against previous functioning. It is possible to drive a car
forward down a road using only the position of the car relative to
the boundaries of the road as seen through the rear view mirror,
however it severely limits the speed at which it is safe to travel and
it offers little in the way of protection or warning regarding drastic
changes in the direction of the road or obstacles which may be lying
in the roadway.
Most problem solving models are initiated when there is a recogni­
tion on the part of the manager that something has gone wrong. The
consequences of this are profound—specifically, it places the man­
ager in a reactive position. Problem analysis has become a remedial
approach to managing. Since the manager is in a reactive position,
little or no time is left to attempt to achieve levels of excellence. The
world of business is often perceived by the manager as a series of
problems to be reacted to and solved—a sequence of deviations from
previously existing satisfactory states of performance—a series of
things to be fixed.
38 PRECISION

As mentioned above, while there is good evidence that Kepner &

Tregoe and others intended their models not to be restricted simply
to reactive, remedial situations but to serve as an effective guide for
achieving maximum performance levels, it is easy to find within their
works a bias in favor of past performance oriented standards. In
other words, if a problem is defined as a deviation from a standard
of performance and the cause of a problem is always a change that
has taken place, then it follows that the cause of a problem is always
a deviation or change from some standard of performance which
existed prior to the change occurring.
We propose, then, a new terminology—one which we introduced
in the preface—in order to leave no ambiguity about our intent with
regard to the Precision Model presented here. We desire to make
available to managers a model which is perfectly general in its appli­
cation—a model which is as relevant for reactive problem solving as
it is for planning—in order to achieve maximum performance levels.
We shall use the terms, PRESENT STATE and DESIRED STATE
to refer to the two areas where high quality information is essential
for successful and efficient business functioning. The Present State is
a description of the situation the organization finds itself in at the
present time. The Desired State (sometimes called the Outcome
State) is a description of the situation which the organization desires
to achieve. A problem, then, can be easily defined:

A problem is defined as any difference between the Present State and

the Desired State.

If Present State Ф Desired State

then a problem exists

This more general model now includes the common definition of a

problem as a special case—specifically, when the Desired Stale is
determined to be identical to a standard of performance which is
historically available within the past performance of the organiza­
tion. However, the new terms also immediately suggest that the
 DEFINING THE DIFFERENCE 39

definition of the Desired State need not be limited to historically

defined standards of performance—sources for the definition of
Desired States can be as diverse as performance of excellence
achieved by competitors, performance of excellence achieved by or­
ganizations in other closely related product or service lines, planning
based on the maximum capacity of the machinery and manpower
available within the organization.
Examples of non-historically defined Desired States could include:
The production manager states he cannot meet the budgeted unit
production even though it represents only a 10% increase over the
previous year, the machine capacity is rated considerably above the
demand and those production levels had been achieved in peak
months in the past. The standard of performance is an explicit,
behavioral one which is based on optimum performance. The differ­
ence is clear and will cause the general manager to initiate analysis
of the situation.
The computing center manager reports that he cannot get reports
out as fast as agreed. The increase in business has slowed processing
until, with additional applications, expected performance standards
cannot be met. Although reports are still on time according to an
older but inadequate standard, a problem analysis will be generated
by comparison to a newly created standard.
An unsatisfactory condition which will initiate problem analysis
may be due to standards which were required and expected to meet
increases in demand or scope of operations. Growth, or even re­
trenchment, require standards which are not historical.
Hence, the model incorporates both the traditional area of prob­
lem analysis—the reactive situation to be remedied—as well as posi­
tive states of high quality performance defined by planning teams
based on whatever inputs they might choose to consider.

THE MODEL FOR DEFINING THE DIFFERENCE

The Present State/Desired State model presented in the introduc­

tion is extremely comprehensive—it applies with full power to the
entire business model as well as applying to each individual compo­
nent of the overall business model.
The Present State for the segment Defining the Difference arises
whenever a responsible party in an organization recognizes that there
40 PRECISION

is a difference between a Desired State and the present functioning

of that organization. The question of recognition of difference is itself
a complex and fascinating topic which lies outside of the boundaries
of this particular book. However, for our purposes here, it is irrele­
vant how the manager or responsible party comes to notice the
difference. It may be the result of reading a report compiled by one
of the employees complete with specific facts and figures. It may be
the result of a complex largely unconscious thought process within
the manager initiated by the observation of some of the employees
at work. It may be the result of an explicit directive from the plan­
ning committee or board of directors insisting that certain produc­
tion or sales goals be adopted and met in the next reporting period.
It is unimportant for our purposes how specifically the recognition
that there is a difference between the Desired State and the Present
State arises. The important point is that once the recognition that
there is a difference occurs the conditions for activating the model
for Defining the Difference are met. Nor is it relevant how articulate
or inarticulate the manager or responsible party is, or how thorough
their initial understanding of the difference is, the Precision Model
is designed specifically to elicit high quality information no matter
what the conscious appreciation of the difference by the manager or
responsible-party is. It simply requires that the manager notice that
there is a difference between what he wants (Desired State) and what
he is getting (Present State). The simple realization that things could
be different in some useful way is adequate to begin the process of
Defining the Difference.
1 The outcome for this segment of the process—Defining the Differ-
|ence—is achieved when the manager has a high quality description
of the difference between that state of affairs which is the target—
the overall Desired State—and the present state of the organization.
When he has such a description, he has successfully Defined the
D ifference, and is ready to move onto the next segment—Pathfind-
ing. The point of the Defining the Difference segment is to establish
a high quality representation which identifies the end points of the
entire process. A manager with an explicit, high quality representa­
tion of where he and his organization presently are and where they
wish to arrive at is a manager who is well prepared to make that
journey. Such information will provide a trajectory for the manager
—knowing where he is and where he is going will tremendously
increase the efficiency with which the manager can move. It allows
 THE MODEL FOR DEFINING THE DIFFERENCE 41

him to make effective judgments about which classes of information

he will need and equally importantly, which classes of information
he will not need. His actions will, therefore, be characterized by an
economy of movement.

PRESENT STATE

/ had the occasion some years ago to travel to a remote part o f East
Africa where I was to meet a good friend whom I had not seen in years.
My original travel arrangements involved my journeying first by com­
mercial airlines to a major airport near one o f the few urban areas in
that part o f the world, arriving early in the afternoon, and then by a
small chartered plane to a jungle airstrip some few miles from my final
destination— my friend's ranch home. Unfortunately, as is all too often
the case these days, the commercial airliner was delayed some hours
and I arrived late in the afternoon at the airport where I was to meet
the small chartered aircraft I was somewhat uneasy about my late
arrival, having more than once in my traveling career experienced the
bewilderment and disorientation which typically accompany missed
connections in a part o f the world where one is unfamiliar with the
language and culture> I chose on this particular day to adopt the
attitude that whatever consequences the missed connections had, I
would treat them as part o f my larger adventure♦Having settled myself
into a more advantageous fram e o f mind, I noted with much apprecia­
tion the canopy o f the jungle over which we flew as well as the glimpses
o f wild life I could catch through the breaks in the green surface o f the
jungle below. / was nevertheless relieved when a tall, dignified and
extremely competent looking man detached himself from the crowd o f
on-lookers at the arrival gate and approached me with an expectant
look. Having satisfied ourselves as to our respective identities, he
quickly guided me to his aircraft and only moments later we were
winging our way on the next leg o f my journey. We touched down at
the small jungle airstrip several hours later, shortly before an astonish­
ing African sunset M y pilot taxied his craft to the far end o f the field
where a Landrover was parked. As the small craft rolled to a stop a
short distance from the parked vehicle, I was puzzled that my friend
who presumably was waiting and who surely had heard the noise o f our
aircraft had yet to emerge from the car. This mystery was soon resolved
as I discovered a hastily scrawled note from my friend that indicated
42 PRECISION
that a rather tragic accident had occurred some distance from his home
and he had been obliged to render medical assistance to some neigh­
bors who had been involvedHe expressed his sincere apologies that he
was unable to meet me and stated that he would join me at his home
sometime during the evening. Again apologizing for the inconvenience,
he explained that he had had to take with him his entire crew to assist
at the scene o f the tragedy but that he had left the Landrover fully
equipped including a detailed map and a compass which I could use
to find my way to his home. The pilot approached and asked whether
everything was in order. Remembering my earlier resolve to treat such
situations as part o f my adventure, / quickly explained the circum­
stances to him. Together we verified the presence o f the compass and
map. After several reassurances, he politely took his leave and I тогё
heard than saw his departure. I now turned to the task at hand.
Securing a flashlight from the glovebox I examined the map. It was
a very good piece o f work— detailed as to topography, the location o f
manmade objects, . - . Having had extensive experience with traveling
by map and compass,, I rather looked forward to the land navigation.
My usual practice under such circumstances would be to locate on the
map some land feature— a ridgeline, a sheer cliff, a river— which was
located near my final destination and which was distinctive enough
that I could identify it from a distance. Having accomplished this I
then had a great deal offreedom o f choice in selecting my precise route
to that natural land feature. Having arrived at this object by whatever
route struck my fancy, it would be easy to move to my final destination
by closer navigation. However; since I was wholly unfamiliar with the
territory and darkness had fallen, this practice offered nothing o f value
to те. I therefore quite naturally decided to employ a second method
I had some skill and experience in— that o f close navigation. In this
second method one need only determine the point o f origin and final
destination and then first on the map and subsequently on the ground
guided by the map, select a route which connects the two points. An
examination o f the map revealed the location o f my friend's home
clearly marked from which led a number o f passable roads. With a
sudden realization that announced itself first by a contraction o f my
stomach muscles as i f I had teen struck a severe blow, I became aware
that while I had a servicabU vehicle capable o f covering the ground,
a compass; a detailed topo map o f the region, and the personal skills
required, I had no idea as to my present location— nowhere on the map
could I find any mark which identified the airfield— my present loca-
 PRESENT STATE 43
tion. O f course, without such information J had little hope o f reaching
my destination.

In developing a high quality description of the present state, one

of the major traps which a manager in the midst of his fast moving
high pressure day must be wary of is the assumption that he knows
what is going on within his organization. Further, and even less
probable, is the assumption that the understanding which the man­
ager has of what is happening within his organization is the same
understanding which the individual members of staff have arrived at.
It would be reassuring to think your staff is as alert and attentive to
the information flow as you are. It would be reassuring to believe the
alertness that did exist would be included in that flow in an appropri-
nte manner. However, these are usually dangerous assumptions
which lead to low quality information and consequently low quality
performance at best. It is even more reassuring to think that your
staff is able to draw conclusions from that information flow which
match your own; and it is even more dangerous.
In the authors’ experience discussions of present state functioning
within an organization by members of that organization tend to be
extremely low quality. References are made to a series of stock
vocabulary items which are the particular buzz words of business
nnd of that organization. We have heard descriptions of present state
discussions from consultants which sometimes take on the appear­
ance of a ritual during which members of the organizational tribe
Heated in their appropriate places utter their appropriate lines in the
nppropriate order.
During a recent executive training workshop conducted by one of
Ilie authors, a participant offered the following episode which had
occurred within his organization as an example of the consequences
of the failure on the part of a manager to insist on a high quality
description of the present state. During a meeting called by the GM
to review operations, the subject of present inventory levels came
tip.

GM: So you think that some of the inventory levels are too high?

Staff: Yes, we are operating right at our maximum capacity as far

as storage space is concerned and the cost of constructing
additional storage space for . . .
44 PRECISION

GM: (interrupting) Yeah, don’t even bother to consider that one.

] want to know how we can move some of that stuff.

Staff: Well, you know, we could pick out some of the inventory
and create a campaign to move them—maybe even with a
special price.

GM: What do you propose that we push?

Staff: The easiest way would be to single out the slow moving stuff
and push there.

GM: Okay, stick with the slow moving inventory then. What
about the special pricing you mentioned? . .. How much of
a decrease do you think necessary to move that inventory?

Staff: Well, I can’t be certain, of course, but I think that if I had

the authorization to reduce prices, say, up to 10% of present
price, I could design a campaign which would really move
things.

GM: OK, you’ve got it—get cracking on this one.

The manager in our workshop who had been present at this meet-
ing then related that the sales campaign with a special pricing was
organized and launched in a relatively short period of time. After it
had been underway for some months, the GM discovered to his
horror that “the slow moving inventory” that he had authorized a
price reduction and sales campaign for in order to reduce inventory
was a very high margin item which had for years sold to a fixed
market at a stable rate of sales. This item had been a major positive
contributing component of overall margins because of its stability
and high margins. A hurried review of the special price sales cam­
paign to date revealed to everyone's chagrin that, indeed, there had
been a rise in sales but that the sales were being made to the custom­
ers in the fixed market that the company had control over anyway.
The result of this maneuver was painfully predictable over the next
reporting period when sales on this item dropped an amount almost
equivalent to the increase in sales during the special price campaign.
Simply put, the company had sold a formerly high margin item at
 PRESENT STATE 45

a reduced rate to its regular customers. While the inventory levels

on this “slow moving inventory” dipped during the period of the
special campaign, it rose again to the original levels in the period
immediately following. Thus the company ended up simply reducing
its margins by the maneuver.
Our understanding is that this unprofitable situation arose primar­
ily because of the failure of the GM and staff to demand high quality
information regarding the present state of the company’s operation.
Specifically, there was an assumption on the part of the GM and his
staff that they knew what the staff member was referring to when he
used the term “slow moving inventory.” While it is impossible to
know at this time what specific understanding the GM had of this
term, his actions strongly suggest that he was thinking of some part
of the inventory other than the high margin, stabilized item that the
campaign was ultimately concerned with. In other words, had the
GM demanded high quality information for the low quality phrase
“slow moving inventory,” he would have immediately recognized
that he was dealing with a high margin, stabilized, limited market
item which formed part of the foundation for overall positive mar­
gins. With such information, he would have immediately directed his
staff toward other items which might have more appropriately been
the subject of a special sales campaign which would have allowed
him to decrease inventory and hold or raise margins at the same time.
His failure to demand this high quality information resulted in a
serious and costly error.
It is perhaps slightly paradoxical that the set of words most fre­
quently used to describe portions of the business process are just the
set of words which when challenged for high quality information
during discussions of the present state yield the highest returns. The
use of these general terms day after day exercises an almost hypnotic
efTect whereby the hearer comes to have the illusion that he under­
stands what the speaker is referring to. Such illusions of shared maps
and understandings of the world of business are rarely useful. Even
(or especially) those members of a business organization who work
aide by side on a day to day basis, exposed to the same flow of
Information, will arrive at radically different perceptions and under­
fundings of that information. We emphasize the need for tools
which allow low grade information in communication to be con­
verted into the high quality information necessary for precise plan­
ning and execution in business. Without a thoroughly explicit and
46 PRECISION

sensory grounded shared understanding of the present functioning of

your business organization, the most creative and intelligent of plans
and operations will be rendered ineffective. It is a distinct disadvan­
tage if you are interested in traveling somewhere to fail to identify
the place you are leaving from.

DESIRED STATE

In business, the situation in which detailed discussions of desired

states most frequently occur is in the area of planning. During a
planning session the identification of what the business concern will
attempt to achieve for some future period of time is the primary
topic. The tools of the Precision Model will therefore prove a power­
ful asset in such a setting. As every planner knows, the higher the
quality of information used to develop and elucidate business plans,
the more probable the plan will meet with success. Hence, no special
comments are necessary as a planner will recognize the value of the
Present State/Desired State model.
It has been the authors’ experience that most of the desired state
planning that goes on in business occurs covertly—when we ask the
members of a meeting whether planning occurred during a meeting
not called for that specific purpose their response typically is nega­
tive. The discussion of desired states is all too often confined to the
mentioning of a few highly valued phrases such as “higher profit
margins,” “increased productivity,” “customer service,” “public re­
lations,” or “higher quality.” We agree that these phrases point in
the general direction of the most important outcomes for a business
organization—the desired states that effective business people will
concern themselves with. However, unless these general phrases are
used as a point of departure for the creation of precision statements
which will allow the business people to recognize when they have
achieved the desired state, mentioning them offers little other than
the comfort of a ritual. Similarly, adding numbers is only one step
in the right direction. It will be easier to agree on whether a goal has
been reached or not by comparison of numbers. However, this is not
a sufficient condition unless stated in appropriate chunks. That is, if
only a final outcome is known, no action may be taken for adjustment
until the final result is already known. Action is thereby limited to
trying again next time—a less than optimal response. For example,
 DESIRED STATE 47

"higher profit margins” is less adequate than “return on investment

is to increase to 12%’’. Clearer still would be, “sales are to increase
8% and costs remain the same with no additions to capital.” Finally,
the method to be employed to increase sales would have to be stated
in behavioral terms. The use of the Present State/Desired State
model with the Precision techniques will allow the development of
specific indicators which will appropriately signal the information
processors that the Desired State has been reached.
The failure to develop specific, appropriate descriptions of the
Desired State has a number of adverse consequences. The same
businessman who accepts as adequate the formulation of Desired
State as “increased productivity within the next three months”
would seriously consider firing a secretary who told him he had a
business appointment at 3:30 Friday somewhere in Los Angeles.
A participant in one of our workshops once objected to this anal­
ogy pointing out that the secretary could easily get to information
which was more refined than somewhere in Los Angeles but that no
such information was available in the case of the Desired State.
While we are not convinced that a secretary would agree that such
information regarding appointments is always easily available, we
gently reminded the participant who had made the comment that the
entire point of the Precision Model was to elicit such high quality
information within Frames such as the Desired State. A precise
formulation of the Desired State allows many people doing many
different tasks to move toward a commonly identified destination.
The more specific the destination, the more likely they will all arrive
there at the appointed time. An explicit Desired State establishes a
trajectory, a sense of direction and movement, which coordinates the
efforts of different parts of an organization effectively. Failure to
make a Desired State explicit typically leads to a situation where
people know something is expected of them—thus they must act,
they must move from their present position—however, without the
appropriate maps and road signs their actions are random or even
at times antagonistic to one another.
A second consequence of the failure to adequately define a Desired
State is best given by an example brought to the attention of one of
the authors during an Executive Training Workshop. This executive
had been present at a meeting where discussions of solutions to the
problem of decreased profits had occupied the bulk of the time. After
ihe presentation of a number of possible solutions, it was decided that
48 PRECISION

given the particulars of this situation, the company could best rem­
edy the profits problem by increasing sales. The sales manager was
eager to take on the task, and requested some training for a number
of his reps and a graduated incentive program for all his sales reps.
He stated that he was convinced that with this training and the
incentive program, he could increase the sales by the amount that
would return margins to the appropriate levels. Thus, the Desired
State was characterized as rising margins which would result from
increased sales. The Desired State was not defined further. Six
months later the same sales manager sat in bewilderment studying
a set of figures which indicated that sales had risen only slightly. He
protested that the figures "just didn’t match what I see going on.”
He said that calls per sales rep was up, complaints were down and
that the verbal reports as well as the orders which passed through
him to production had given him the distinct impression that his
special efforts in increasing sales was working well. A check of the
figures verified their accuracy. Since the figures indicated the incen­
tive program had not been effective in increasing sales, it was
dropped. As the meeting ended, it was obvious to all that the sales
manager was confused and demoralized by the results his special
efforts had failed to produce, and worried about the effect of inform­
ing his sales, reps that the incentive program was being dropped. The
sense of frustration and demoralization spread through the sales
division following the cancellation of the incentive program. Thus,
everyone concerned was surprised and puzzled when an interim (3
month) report on sales showed an amazing jump in sales in the
period immediately succeeding the cancellation of the incentive pro­
gram. The executive stated that he knew the sales manager person­
ally and thought highly of his abilities. Hence, when the interim
report was issued, he determined to sort out what had occurred. The
mystery was solved when he demanded the order dates on the figures
that accounting had used to compute the sales for the two reporting
periods in question. What he discovered was that the information
that accounting had used to determine sales increase was the number
of units shipped to customers, which was the normal practice, rather
than the number of units ordered by customers during the period in
question. Thus when the figures were re-computed using the number
of orders placed by customers, the sales manager’s intuitions regard­
ing the success of his efforts were fully supported by the new figures.
The point, of course, is that if the Desired State had been determined
 DESIRED STATE 49

with higher quality at the beginning of the program, the appropriate

measure or signal of having achieved that Desired State would have
been identified—in this case, since there was a sizable lag time be­
tween order and shipment, the number of orders would easily have
been identified as the appropriate measure, and the resulting confu­
sion and demoralization would have been avoided. In addition, the
company would have avoided the falling margins which occurred as
the result of decreased sales in the period following the cancellation
of the incentive program (which showed up in the number of units
shipped six months later). Such expensive mistakes can be easily
uvoided by the use of the Precision Model in eliciting adequately high
quality information which will allow the information processor to
explicate the Desired State.

CASE STUDY I

We turn now to the presentation of a case in which the Precision

Model is utilized to effectively and efficiently Define the Difference.
The transactions are presented first, followed by commentary.

(after greetings have been exchanged, a few minutes into the meeting
between the General Manager (GM) and the Divisional Manager
(DM))

DM: . . . I’ve got a problem here I wanted to bring up.

GM: Go right ahead, Tom (pause) . . . you have a problem with

what specifically?

DM: Well, it’s just that my margins have been sliding some this
last reporting period, and I’m concerned.

GM: How specifically have your margins been sliding?

DM: It’s the same old story—my costs are up.

GM: Which costs in particular are up, Tom?

50 PRECISION

DM: Well, frankly, the costs are up because of head office over­
charge.

GM: Head office overcharges on what in particular?

DM: Well, I’ve looked carefully at that—it boils down to the

interest figures.

GM: The interest figures on what, Tom?

DM: On some of the inventory.

GM: On what specific part of the inventory?

DM: Well, primarily on all those motors.

GM: On all those motors?

DM: No, not really on all the motors.

GM: Well, then, on which motors in particular?

DM: On those newer type В motors.

GM: Let me make sure I’ve got this now—your margins are down
because your costs are up. Specifically, the head office charges
for interest on your inventory of type В motors have in­
creased. (pause) . . . That’s the picture I’ve got—does that
match your understanding?

DM: Yes, I think that we’ve tracked the problem down.

GM: Now, Tom, before we jump into figuring out what to do

about this situation, let’s make sure we agree about where
we’re going. Set a target for yourself. What evidence could
you use to know that you have solved this problem.

DM: That’s easy—if my margins are up.

GM: Up to what, Tom?

 CASE STUDY I 51

DM: . . . I’m not sure that I understand what you’re asking.

GM: You said if your margins are up—and I’m asking up how
much—what are you shooting for?

DM: Oh, all right, well . . . 1 thought that we did really well in
the reporting period before this last one. If I could get us back
to that level of margins, I’d be satisfied.

GM: And the principle difference between the performance in the

reporting period before the last and the last reporting period
is what, Tom?

DM: Like I said, the interest charges on inventory—everything

else showed up pretty much the same.

GM: OK, Tom. Your goal would be the following—you’ll get

your margins back up by reducing costs—specifically by de­
creasing the interest charges on your inventory of type В
motors.

DM: Right! That’s my target.

COMMENTARY

The situation portrayed in the transcript is one of the most common

that managers face in their daily schedules, and one of the most
important. One of the GM’s managers has stated that he has a
problem and implicitly by this statement requests the GM’s skill and
assistance in resolving this problem. The sensitivity and efficiency
with which the GM responds to this request will be a major determi­
nant of his success as the GM. Not only is the solution to this
particular problem at issue in this meeting, but also the overall
margins for the company as well as the relationship between the two
men—a relationship which will effect all their future negotiations.
The authors recognize that, depending on the reader’s personal
style and situation, some of the dialogues will seem somewhat unreal­
istic. We assure you that these dialogues occur frequently and, even
when the context is different, the same kinds of information blocks
52 PRECISION

occur—the same precise questions are needed. We also recognize

that some managers would refuse to deal with the issues involved and
simply turn the problem back to the subordinate. We recommend
that, in determining the desired outcome of a meeting, one of the first
questions to ask yourself is, “Is there a basis or explicit purpose to
the meeting proposed?”
In terms of the model being presented here, the information that
there is a difference between the Present State and Desired State is
stated baldly by the DM in his opening remark.
“I’ve got a problem here I wanted to bring up.” The word problem
always identifies a Present State/Desired State difference. Thus the
condition for initiating the Defining the Difference model is met—
namely, a responsible party (the DM) has recognized there is a
difference between the present functioning of his division and the
Desired State—specifically, that present margins are lower than de­
sirable.
The GM tracks first from the initial low quality information to an
adequately precise formulation of the Present State.

. . . your margins are down because your costs are up. Specifically,
the head office charges for interest on your inventory of type В motors
have increased . . .

Having arrived at an adequately precise statement for the Present

State, the GM now elicits the representation of the Desired State
which turns out to be;

... your margins back up by reducing costs—specifically by decreas­

ing the interest charges on your inventory of type В motors . . .

Thus, at this point he has an adequately precise picture of the

state of affairs in Tom’s division, and what it is that Tom wants to
achieve. The difference between the two states is given by each
of the paired entries which defines the two states—note that the
terms “up” and “down” are relative terms and that they are relative
to the two states being considered—the reference “margins down”
is to be understood as the margins are down relative to the margins
of some comparable period—in this case “up” and “down” when
compared to the corresponding item in the other reporting period.
 COMMENTARY 53
Present State Difference Desired State
(last reporting (reporting period
period) prior to last one)

Margins down compared to Margins

Costs up compared to Costs
interest on inventory up compared to interest on inventory
inventory of type up compared to inventory of type
В motors В motors

The question of consequence at this point is—how specifically did

the GM accomplish these things. In a few minutes of conversation
he has completed the first component of the overall model—he has
Defined the Difference adequately to move to the second stage—
Pathfinding. What techniques allowed him to accomplish this effi­
ciently? The answer lies in his ability to control the quality of the
information by the use of questioning.

POINTERS

The effectiveness of the GM’s questioning resides in the fact that

he systematically tracks from low quality information to successively
higher quality representations. He accompUshes this by questioning
which explicitly leads the DM to the area of information the GM
wishes more refined information on. When offered a low quality
representation which would, left unchallenged, block access to the
information the manager requires to understand the Present State,
the manager points precisely to what he needs to know. The results
me an efficient and effective elicitation of increasingly high quality
information. By using questions which point to precisely the infor­
mation he needs, the manager also respects the need not to know
condition of high quality information processing.
Each of his questions is dictated by the form of the statement that
Ihe DM has just offered—more specifically, as the DM begins to offer
information, the GM examines the information to determine
whether what he is being offered is specific enough for him to under­
stood what the DM is referring to. Consider the following exchanges:
54 PRECISION

DM GM
. . . I’ve got a problem . . . . . . you have a problem with
what specifically? . . .
, . . my costs are up . . . . . . which costs in particular are
up? . . .
... up because of head office over- . . . head office overcharges on
charges. . . what in particular? . . .
. . . boils down to interest figures . . . the interest figures on what,
Tom? . . .
. . . on some of the inventory . . . on what specific part of the
inventory? . . .
. . . not really on all the motors . . . then, on which motors in
... particular? . . .

FIRST POINTER—NOUN BLOCKBUSTING

One useful way to understand these exchanges is to consider the
relationship between the statements made by the DM and the Ques­
tions which are the responses the GM makes to those statements.
One characteristic of this relationship is that in each of the above
cases the DM offers a very general low quality statement; the GM
responds by requesting a more specific or higher quality representa­
tion in the same area that was pointed to by the DM’s original
statement. Each of the GM’s Precision maneuvers introduces a
refinement to the original broad area the DM is pointing to with his
words.
We can represent the situation visually as follows:
-interest figures^

investments . . . machinery * . . inventory . . . receivables

In words, then, when the DM states that it “boils down to interest

figures”, the GM pictures the area of the divisional operation which
the DM could be referring to and realizes that he doesn’t know
what part of the area the DM could be talking about he intends to
point to. As specified in the Precision Model, he selects the question
which will elicit precisely that piece of information which will pick
 POINTERS 55

out the area of the operation that the DM is referring to—the

question:

. . .interest figures on what, Tom?. . .

The DM now supplies precisely the piece of information which the

GM needs to refine his understanding of the situation in the division.
The transaction is precise and elicits only the information required
for the GM to appreciate the divisional situation—it meets both the
need to know and the need not to know conditions.
interest figures

investments. . . machinery . . . inventory . . . receivables

interest figures on inventory

The same pattern can be found in all of the other examples presented.
For example:
-head office overcharges

.administrative salaries. . .advertising. . .interest. . .researcl

head office overcharges on interest

The systematic use of this pattern—called Noun Blockbusting in

the Precision Model—allows the GM to elicit from the DM exactly
the high quality information he needs to refine the low quality in­
formation initially presented. Each of the statements offered by the
DM can usefully be thought of as containing words—problem,
costs, interest figures, . . .—which cover such a large number of
activities that if accepted unchallenged, constitute a block to the
high quality information required. The noun Blockbuster pene­
trates the vague and low quality word block and elicits precisely
the information needed by the manager. The Blockbuster allows
the manager to track from the original extremely general and low
quality statement by the DM to a specific high quality representa­
tion of the Present State.
56 PRECISION

The GM’s ability to use Blockbusters to efficiently track from a

general low quality verbal statement to a high quality formulation
can be usefully represented as having two steps:
1. a perceptual recognition program which allows him to know
when he has been presented with a low quality statement
and
2. a response program to know which of the Precision Model
questions is appropriate
Accordingly, we first present an explicit procedure which will
allow the reader to likewise identify the low quality nouns to be
challenged by the Blockbuster. When presented with a statement, the
information processor picks out the nouns (the words which purport
to refer to things). For each noun he proceeds as follows:

Noun Blockbuster

1. Write down the words which are nouns

2. Directly beneath write all the words which describe specific
examples of the word placed above
3. If there is more than one word on the second line, form a
Precision Model question.

For example, when presented with the statement:

My costs are up

Step one entails noticing the low quality noun costs

and

Step two requires writing below that word all the words which are
examples of that word.
 POINTERS 57

Step 3 involves a test condition—if there is more than one word,

ask the Noun Blockbusting question. Since in the example there is
more than one word, the information processor knows to proceed to
the response program. With a small investment of time and practice,
the manager can master this recognition program for Blockbusting.
The selection and asking of the appropriate Precision Model ques­
tion—the Noun Blockbuster—is also a three step procedure:

1. Identify the noun word placed on the top line

2. Place that noun word in the language frame (the blank) “which
specifically?”
3. Ask the resulting question of the information source

Step 1 in carrying out this response program is complete when the

manager identifies the word costs from the visual representation.
Step 2 requires the placing of that word in the language frame
“which _____ specifically?” thereby resulting in the question,
“which costs specifically?”. This Blockbuster question is then di­
rected to the source of information.
An examination of the verbal behavior of the GM in the transcript
will reveal that all of the question asked by the GM during the
elicitation of Present State information fall into the Noun Blockbust­
ing category presented above with two exceptions.

DM GM
. . . just that my margins have . . . how specifically have your
been sliding this last . . . margins been sliding? . . .
. .. primarily on all those motors . . . on all those motors? . . .

SECOND POINTER—ACTIO N BLOCKBUSTING

The first of these examples is rather similar to the Blockbusting

examples offered previously in that the phrase “margins have been
uliding” points to a wide area of business activity. The number of
ways in which margins could be sliding is quite large. The number
of actual business actions which that phrase could accurately refer
58 PRECISION

to is great Thus the phrase is an example of low quality information

much like the situation with nouns such as the ones we recently
examined from the same transcript—nouns such as costs, head office
overcharges, motors, . . . The primary difference between the previous
pattern and this one is that this one involves Action Blockbusting—
verbs—process words, relational words which are used to refer to
complex activity. Note that the same visual representation serves
well in the case of Action Blockbusting.

Fmargins have been sliding

costs up sales prices unfavorable

down product
sales mix

Further, as in the case of the noun pattern, the Action Blockbuster

question picks out from the class of activities that the phrase could
refer to exactly the activity the DM had in mind.

cost up

The principle difference between this pattern—Action Blockbust­

ing—and the previous one—Noun Blockbusting—is that in this case
the search for specificity is carried out in the domain of verbs. The
set that the original phrase—“margins have been sliding"—could be
referring to are activities or processes as opposed to things, people,
objects in the world—the traditional difference between nouns and
verbs.
Some additional examples will be useful to assist the reader in
appreciating the pattern under discussion:
 SECOND POINTER—ACTION BLOCKBUSTING 59

. . . improve customer relations . . . how specifically will you im­

prove customer relations? . . .
. . . increase profits . . . . .. how specifically will you in­
crease profits?
. . . prepare a new sales campaign . . . how specifically will you pre­
pare a new sales campaign?
. . . enhance the company image . . . how specifically will you en­
hance the company image? . . .

In each of the phrases presented the action words point to a wide

range of human business activity which could be the intention of the
speaker—however, the range is so wide that the information con­
veyed by the word representation is very low quality. Hence, the
importance of having the ability to request with precision higher
quality information by the pattern—Action Blockbuster. Visually,
using the phrase improve customer relations, we have:

'improve customer relations-

establish mail distribution

.customer . . .Canvassing. of qucstionaires
service
centers

In words, the phrase improve customer relations includes a large

number of possible activities such as those listed below it—that is,
hearing or reading the phrase improve customer relations activates in
Ilie attentive receiver of that phrase a large number of possible activi­
ties which might lead to the outcome stated in the phrase. The
quality of the information carried by the phrase can be easily up­
graded by the use of the Action Blockbusting question. As in the case
of Noun Blockbusting, the skill of selecting the precise question
which will elicit the higher quality information is usefully presented
<1.4 a two stage procedure—involving a perceptual recognition pro-
grnm followed by a responsive program. The perceptual recognition
program consists of three steps:
60 PRECISION

Action Blockbuster
1. Write down the action words in question
2. Directly below it write down all of the action words which
describe more specific actions which are examples of the action
written above.
3. If there is more than one item plus accompanying words on the
second line, ask the Precision Model question

Step 1 specifies the creation of an external visual representation

similar to the one following:

. . . improve customer relations . . .

Step 2 involves placing below that action word all the action word
phrases which are descriptions of activities which are examples of the
action originally written:

Step three is the test condition—if there is more than one item on
the second line, ask the Action Blockbuster Precision Model ques­
tion. The response program for selecting the appropriate Precision
Model question has three steps as well:

1. find the action phrase placed on the top line

2. if the action phrase has words in front of the verb, place the
phrase in the language frame “how specifically have ?”
if there are no words in front of the verb phrase place the phrase
in the language frame “how specifically will you ?”
3. ask the resulting question of the information source.

Again, applying the procedure to the example from the transcript,

we have:
 SECOND POINTER—ACTION BLOCKBUSTING 61

1. the phrase “improve customer relations”

2. place the phrase in the appropriate language frame—“improve
customer relations, how, specifically?”
3. ask the question formed in step 2 of the person involved

There is one other important class of the verbs which the Action
Blockbuster covers. These are sentences which superficially have the
verb to be as their main verb. For example, sentences such as:

. .margins are down . . .

. .morale is not what it should be. .
. .it is ridiculous to consider. .
. .that the production quota is very messy. .

In these cases the verb to be is followed by single words (down,

ridiculous, messy) or an entire phrase (what it should be). Thus, the
form of the sentence when recognized as having a low quality verb
of this special class is:

. . . word1, verb to be, words1 . . .

The question (the Blockbuster) to be used is the language frame:

. . . how specifically, verb to be, word1, word2 . . .

Applying these forms to the phrases above, we have the unspecified

verb questions:

. .margins are down . . . . . . how specifically are margins

down . . .
, . . morale is not what it should . .. how specifically is morale not
be . . . what it should be? . . .
. . . it is ridiculous to . . . . . . how specifically is it ridicu­
lous to . . . ?
. that the production quota is . . . how specifically is the pro-
messy . . . duction quota messy? . . .
62 PRECISION

In the world of business, numbers are used' extensively for pur­

poses of understanding certain portions of the operation. Because of
the relative importance of numbers, we offer one additional question
which is relevant in questioning low quality Action descriptions—
the quantification question. If in the process of developing high
quality information about the specifics of some activity by use of the
Blockbuster question, it is useful to elicit numbers, then challenge the
low quality verb with the quantification variant of the Blockbusting
question:

. . .margins have been sliding . . . how much have margins been

. . sliding? . . .
. . .program to increase profits . . . how much will the program
increase profits? . . .
. . ,the margins are up. . . . . how much are the margins
up? . . .

In general, it is an effective strategy to penetrate the verb rather

closely using the regular Action Blockbuster question prior to resort­
ing to the quantification variant of the Action Blockbuster question.
The application of the two forms of the Blockbuster question—the
regular followed by the quantification question—is typically optimal
as the regular form introduces refinements and distinctions within
the general area of activities covered by the low quality Action
phrases first offered. Once the refinements and distinction required
for an adequately precise representation of the area of activity under
question have been elicited, the quantification variant of the Block­
buster question can be usefully applied.

THIRD POINTER— UNIVERSAL BLOCKBUSTER

The second of the exception examples involves the use of universal

quantifiers.

DM GM

. primarily on all those motors . . . on all those motors?

 THIRD POINTER—UNIVERSAL BLOCKBUSTER 63

Once again the visual representation we have been utilizing for the
other Blockbusting patterns is effective in this case.

all those motors

type A type В type С X .

^<Tseries motors . . . series motors . . . series motors,

The phrase all those motors when uttered by the DM elicits two
pieces of information in the understanding of the GM—first, it iden­
tifies a set of objects in the world—the motors—and secondly, it
quantifies the class—the word all Consider the verbal context in
which the phrase all those motors occurs. The GM and the DM are
tracking down the chain of events which has resulted in an unaccept-
nble Present State (margins sliding). Collapsing several exchanges
just prior to the use of the phrase in question, we have:

interest figures on some^of.the_in«entory

The GM, recognizing that the underlined phrase is low quality,

requests more specificity and the following exchange occurs:

GM: on what specific part of the inventory?

DM: well, primarily on all of those motors

Adding this information to that already extracted from the tran­

script, we have:

interest figures on the inventory of all those motors

Thus, in this verbal context the phrase all those motors makes the
i-lniin that the class of motors—that is, all of the motors—is the
i nlprit with respect to interest charges.
The GM, sensitive to the potential blocks to refined high quality
information in the form of universal quantifiers, challenges the lan­
guage representation offered by the DM. The DM’s response
i nnfirms what might well be suspected whenever universal quantifi­
 64 PRECISION

ers are encountered during the elicitation of high quality information

—namely, that the speaker is being less than precise in his thinking,
and that a more refined representation is available upon challenge.

'all those motorsv,

r. type A . . . type В . . . type С 7N

series series series
motors motors motors

type В series motors

Here, as in the two Blockbusting patterns already presented, the skill

displayed by the GM in challenging the verbal representation is a two
part procedure:

Universal Blockbusting

1. a perceptual recognition program—in this case, the Precision

Modeler hears the universal quantifier, recognizing it from the
short list of universal quantifiers in English
all none
every never
each no one
always nothing
any nobody

2. a response program which challenges the representation—in

this case by echoing the phrase with stress on the universal
quantifier and a rising (question) intonation at the end of the
phrase

. . . on all those motors? . . .

\

There is another common form which the universal quantifier

takes in English which is not included on the list just offered. Con­
sider the following phrases:
 THIRD POINTER-UNIVERSAL BLOCKBUSTER 65
. . . the maintenance on the motors on line # 3 is high . . .

. . . talked to the workers in plant 5 . . .

. .contact the customers who have orders overdue to . . .

The reader may notice that the portion of the phrases in italics are
understood as blocks to more refined information—that is, as if they
bad an explicit universal quantifier—that is, there is an equivalence
relationship:

. on the motors on . . . . . . on all of the motors on . . .

. . . to the workers in . . . . . . to all of the workers in . . .
. . . contact the customers.................. contact all of the customers

Generic names (motors, workers, . . . ) or the names of whole

сlusses or categories usually imply a universal quantifier. The reader
therefore might consider learning to recognize such examples of
covert universal quantifiers. The Precision Model question simply
trquires the insertion of the overt quantifier prior to the use of the
«ч'Ьо. If the reader chooses not to learn this skill, small loss is
nustained since any generic words which contain an implicit univer-
iii I quantifier will fall under the category of the Precision Model
Noun Blockbusting question:

. . . on the motors on . . . . . . on which of the motors on

.. .?

The reader interested in mastering Universal Blockbusting ques­

tions may choose either the auditory based test just presented—
recognizing the universal quantifier when he or she hears it as be­
longing to the list presented, or, if preferred, may choose the visually
biwed test identical to the ones offered for the previous two Block-
hunting patterns involving the display of the phrase with the noun
«ml a second line of more specific nouns which are possible examples
of the original noun listed above them. The response program would
Ik*identical to the one already stated—echo the original phrase with
«tress on the universal quantifier and a rising (question) intonation
•I the end of the phrase.
66 PRECISION

The overall movement of the information elicitation regarding the

Present State as the GM uses Blockbusting patterns to track from
a low quality representation to an adequately precise high quality
representation can be represented visually as follows:

Tracking to high quality information—Present State

problem

. . labor . . . machinery . * . personnel . . . production . . .

------------- margins sliding ™

sate price down . . , material cost up . . . production down

- costs up ~~ ~

labor * . . capital . , . interest . . . advertising

. . . advertising . . . research . . , interest . . .

------------ head office overcharges

* . advertising . , . research . . * interest . . .

-------------- interest ------------

investments . . . machinery . . * receivables

■■ inventory —

power units . . . motors . . . kits

I motors

□
♦ type A . . . type

type A
 THIRD POINTER—UNIVERSAL BLOCKBUSTER 67

Thus, as the visual representation makes clear the Precision Model

Blockbusting questions move the discussion from low quality infor­
mation to an adequately precise high quality representation of the
Present State with effectiveness and economy of effort.

FRAMES

A review of the transcript shows that at the point where the GM

has used the set of Precision Model pointers he has succeeded in
eliciting an adequately precise representation of the Present State—
that is, he understands what the current situation is in the division
with respect to margins. The GM now uses one of the Frames
provided by the Precision Model to verify a shared map or under-
utanding and to establish a context for the next step in the discussion
—specifically, he backtracks:

BACKTRACK FRAME

GM: Let me make sure I’ve got this now—your margins are down
because your costs are up. Specifically, the head office charges
for interest on your inventory of type В motors have in­
creased.

Having satisfied himself that he has an adequate understanding of

the Present State, the GM verbally walks back through the track that
lie established through his Precision questioning of the DM. This
truming has two positive consequences—first, it states in a concise
verbal format the track which the two men have just established.
This orients the information processors specifically to the Present
Stutc description. Secondly, having summarized the track they have
pursued, the GM pauses and insures that the DM agrees—that no
Important components of the discussion have been lost; no essential
pieces of information have been dropped. The agreement he secures
from the DM insures that they are operating together in a smooth
juid coordinated manner in the exchange.

GM: . .That's the picture I’ve got—does that match your under­
standing?
68 PRECISION

DM: Yes, I think that we’ve tracked the problem down.

The contextualizing pattern that the GM uses is referred to as the

Backtrack Frame:

The Backtrack Frame is appropriate when either the manager has

reached what he or she considers an adequately precise understand­
ing of some segment of the transaction or when a great deal of
information has been elicited and in the opinion of the manager, there
is danger of the participants losing track of the trajectory they are
working on or the outcome they are working toward. The use of the
Backtrack Frame is also indicated when new members join the group
or meeting after some information has been elicited which they need
to carry out their responsibilities. The Backtrack Frame is simply a
verbal recapitulation of the information elicited in the immediately
preceeding portion of the discussion (since the last Backtrack Frame).
The purpose of the Backtrack Frame is to refresh the participants’
memory or to establish in the new member’s understanding the track
the discussion has taken up to that point and to secure their agree­
ment as to what the important information thus far brought to light
is.

OUTCOME FRAME

Having insured that the DM is also satisfied with the description

of the Present State, the GM presents the next contextualizing Frame
—specifically, he identifies the next step to be taken to arrive at a
precise formulation which will complete the first stage of the segment
Defining the Difference:

GM: Now, Tom, before we jump into figuring out what to do

about this situation, let’s make sure we agree about where
we’re going. Set a target for yourself.

Trained in the Precision Model, the GM knows precisely where

in the process he is—he has succeeded in eliciting adequately precise
information regarding the Present State. This leaves only the devel­
opment of an adequately precise statement of the Desired State to
complete Defining the Difference. From the transcript, it is also
 OUTCOME FRAME 69

obvious that he knows about the tendency many managers have to

jump into the development of solutions without a Arm grasp on the
Desired State that they are attempting to achieve. The GM forestalls
this possibility explicitly:

GM: Now, Tom, before we jump into figuring out what to do

about this situation . . .

The GM then identifies the outcome he wishes to pursue as the next

step:

GM: . . . make sure we agree about where we are going. Set a

target for yourself.

The GM here is using the Frame known in the Precision Model

as the Outcome Frame:

The Outcome Frame is appropriate when either beginning the elicita­

tion of high quality information which is designed to lead to some
specified outcome or when, during some segment of developing high
quality information leading to some specified outcome, the informa­
tion processor determines that the participants have lost their direc­
tion. The Outcome Frame is simply a statement of what the point of
the present step in the procedure or discussion is—a verbal reminder
to the participants to orient themselves toward reaching the outcome
established as the point of the present discussion. The purpose of the
Outcome Frame is to orient or re-orient the participants of the discus­
sion to reach the outcome and to specify explicitly what information
is relevant to the present discussion in order to complete the next step
of the process.

EVIDENCE QUESTION

The Outcome Frame is one of the most powerful organizing de­

vices available to a skilled manager to enable him or her to demand
and get in a principled way contextualized to the point information.
The gain in efficiency through the use of this Frame is tremendous.
One of the most frequent uses of the Outcome Frame is to remind
participants of a group to orient specifically to the Desired State they
70 PRECISION

are attempting to achieve. One specific way of accomplishing this is

a question associated with the Outcome Frame called the Evidence
Question—the exchange in the transcript:

GM: . . . set a target for yourself. What evidence could you use
to know that you’ve solved the problem?

The GM’s first statement—set a target for yourself—is an example

of the Outcome Frame. It is a specific instruction to the DM to orient
to the next step of the process which is the development of high
quality information defining the characteristics of the overall desired
state. The second utterance—what evidence could you . . . —is an
example of the Evidence Question so often used in conjunction with
Outcome Frame. It requests of the information source that he or she
make a mental leap to the state which is the target for their activity
and describe the characteristics of that desired state—the question:
. . . what evidence could you . . . —forces that leap and allows the
information source to decide how they would know when they had
solved the problem—high quality information which defines the
characteristics of the desired state. The specific form of the Evidence
Question is variable—any verbalization which elicits a description of
the characteristics of the outcome state is adequate—we offer several
variants:

. . . what evidence could you use to know th at. . .

. . . how would you know that you had succeeded in . . .
. . . what specifically would you see and hear that would let you know
that . . .
. . . what would convince you that you had arrived at a solution to

We invite the reader to develop his or her own variant of this

Evidence Question—some variant which is consistent with the style
of their own verbal communication.

THE RELEVANCY CHALLENGE

There is a second maneuver associated with the Outcome Frame.

This is called the Relevancy Challenge. All too often in the authors'
 THE RELEVANCY CHALLENGE 71

experience, enormous amounts of time, energy and, therefore, money

are expended in interminable meetings in which the discussion drifts
from point to point with little or no direction, and with even less in
the way of high quality results.
The Outcome Frame represents a giant step in the direction of
creating a movement, a trajectory toward an explicitly identified goal
or target state. The question remains, however, of how specifically
to deal effectively with comments, questions and other contributions
by participants, after the Outcome Frame has been established,
which are off the verbal point—verbal offerings which have nothing
lo do with the point under discussion. The issue is an extremely
important one as it has been the authors’ observation that in most
cases it is precisely these off the verbal point, out of context contribu­
tions which are the starting point for extended low quality and
disconnected discussions of the type to be avoided. One off the point,
out of context remark left unchallenged is usually a signal which
unleases a veritable avalanche of free associations—a technique more
appropriate for a psychiatrist’s couch than for a board room meeting.
Historically, the movement seems to be been away from efficiency in
icrms of meetings. One of the contributing factors to this loss of
efficiency is the incorporation in recent years of a number of “psycho­
logically oriented” theories about how meetings “should” be run. As
we stated in the introduction, we believe that it is unwise and, more
Npccifically, unprofitable to mix information regarding the relation-
•hips of the individuals who make up the business organization and
information regarding the actual conduct of the business. Both of
Ihese classes of information are valid concerns of managers in the
world of business. In any case, as we indicated earlier, we suspect
from our observations of and later discussions with managers run­
ning or, in many cases, not running meetings that the recent empha-
on these “psychologically oriented” theories has had the effect of
inhibiting these men and women from exercising the guidance and
control needed to elicit high quality information in an efficient man­
ner. They fear leaving someone out or hurting the feelings of some
of the participants or failing to create an environment where the
creative resources of the personnel emerge. The Outcome Frame
removes the question of relevancy in a meeting from the realm of
Interpersonal relationships and creates an explicit test thereby mak­
ing it solely an informational issue. It offers the information proces-
юг in charge an outside standard which can be used in a principled
72 PRECISION

way to make the elicitation of information effective and efficient and

which simultaneously respects the integrity of the participants. The
specific way in which the person in charge may enforce the Outcome
Frame is quite simple. When managers detect a remark, comment,
question, statement which they do not recognize as being relevant to
the established Outcome Frame, they immediately and courteously
enter the discussion at that point and make the Relevancy Challenge
—that is, they request that the contributor who made the remark,
question, . . . connect that offering with the outcome the group is
working towards. Verbalizations such as the following are examples
of how the Relevancy Challenge might be presented:

. . . would you please connect that question with the outcome we’re
presently working on? . . .

. . . I don’t understand the relevance of that remark with respect to

what we’re doing here right now—please explain . . .

. . . your last statement throws me—how is that pertinent to what this

part of the meeting is about?

Most frequently, it is unnecessary to ask the contributor for a

justification—it is usually sufficient for the manager to state that he
does not believe that the offering is relevant to the outcome being
worked on. If the contributor still insists on making the point, the
manager would use the full Relevancy Challenge (the questions, for
example, listed above). If after the Relevancy Challenge is made, the
contributor can explain the relevancy of the contribution, then the
manager welcomes the contribution and the discussion continues. If
the contributor cannot demonstrate the relevancy of the contribu­
tion, then the discussion returns to the point just prior to that contri­
bution. The point here is that the issue is decided entirely indepen­
dent of personalities or of interpersonal issues—rather it is decided
with respect to an agreed upon Outcome Frame, an outside standard
which all participants have equal access to.
Many of the out of context remarks and questions which the
Relevancy Challenge takes care of are interesting contribution*
which properly belong in the discussion of some related outcome—
the manager may choose to lighten the challenge by instructing the
contributor to save that contribution until some later point where it
 THE RELEVANCY CHALLENGE 73

will be both relevant and welcome. In organizations where the CEO

or GM has been trained in the use of the Precision Model Outcome
Frame and the Relevancy Challenge, the efficiency of meetings is
upgraded many times over previous standard, and the participants
of such meetings begin to look forward to meetings as they become
efficient, have direction and lead to high quality outcomes. Thus, the
meetings become an occasion for them to actually get important
nspects of the overall business activity accomplished. The portions
of transcript which occur in following segments contain a series of
examples of the potential uses of the Relevancy Challenge in con­
junction with established Outcome Frames—we recommend them to
the reader’s careful study.
To the instruction to select a target, the DM responds by selecting
nn historically defined standard of performance as the target or
Desired State. The GM here exercises some discretion—he accepts
n previously occurring state as an adequate target without insisting
either on a specific exploration of that historical state or without
insisting on the DM considering any additional alternatives—both
mIho effective maneuvers at that point in the exchange.
Since the GM has accepted the historically defined state as a target
•tnte, and the DM has expressed his satisfaction with this choice, he
irmy move directly to the difference between the two states with the
question:

GM: and the principle difference between the performance in the

reporting period before the last (now identified also as the
target state) and the last reporting period is what, Tom?

This maneuver—called the Difference Question— is appropriate

whenever information regarding both a Present State and a Desired
Hintс has been elicited. At that point the manager may ask directly
for the difference. This will be treated more fully following the
«ccond case study.
The segment Defining the Difference now terminates effectively
with a Backtrack Frame by the GM. This particular backtrack which
U (he completion of the first segment, the Desired State of Defining
the Difference, is the initiation point—the Present State—of the
M<cond segment—Finding Pathways.
74 PRECISION

VARIANTS ON CASE STUDY I

VARIANT I

In the next few pages we present for the purposes of comparison

several short transcripts. These transcripts are different from the one
we have just analyzed in that the Precision Model is available to
neither of the participants in the exchange. The same opening is used
and the content—that portion of it which the two men manage to
get to—is the same. The characters in the scenario are the same as
in the last transcript. While the transcript which you are about to
read never actually occurred, we are convinced that the experienced
information processor reading the exchange will all too readily rec­
ognize the various elements in the communication between the two
men. It may remind you of some manager you have been acquainted
with: Or possibly, even yourself on one of your “off” days. One of
the advantages of a perfectly explicit model such as the Precision
Model is that you need never have another “off” day.

. . . (after small talk or middle of the meeting) . . .

DM: I’ve got a problem here I wanted to bring up

GM: Go right ahead, Tom . . . What’s the problem?

DM: Well, it’s my margins—they’ve slid some this last reporting

period.

GM: Yeah, I know, and you’re right. When your margins slide,
you’ve got a problem.

DM: Yeah, well, I hope that you keep in mind that this is the first
reporting period since I’ve taken over as division manager
that my division profit margins have dropped.

GM: I’m well aware of that, Tom. And as we both know, your
margins are the bottom line. They are your primary responsi­
bility as division manager. Now what’s the problem?
 VARIANT I 75

DM: Well, I’ve looked carefully at the situation and I really be­
lieve that the problem is head office overcharges.

GM: What the hell is that supposed to mean—overcharges, head

office overcharges? Are you trying to tell me that we charge
your division higher prices for advertising or material or
something? Look, I can show the figures for the charges
against the other divisions and you can compare them with
the charges against your division and you’ll see that we play
no favorites up here.

DM: Wait, George, I didn’t mean that you play favorites or that
you charge my division more than other divisions.

GM: Well, if you believe that we’re charging your division the
same as the others then what’s this talk about head office
overcharges? It seems to me that you’d better look a little
closer at your own operation.

DM: OK, I understand. I’ll take a closer look. Maybe I can

tighten up production a b i t . . . and have a talk with my sales
manager.

GM: That’s right! Get those sales reps of yours moving, Tom. If
they know you’re watching and interested in their perform­
ance they’ll pick it up some. What’s your sales manager’s
name, Tom? I remember him as being really good.

DM: Larry Gindaster, and he is really good, a real hustler.

GM: Yes, old Larry. By the way, you’re really fortunate to have
old Larry. In fact, I recommend strongly that you call Larry
in and explain the situation to him—you know, build a fire
under him. Once he understands the situation your division
is in, he’ll get his people out there—I remember Larry as
being a real team man. You get my meaning, Tom?

DM: I think so, George. I’ll get together with Larry this coming
week.
76 PRECISION

GM: The sooner the better, Tom. You have got to get your mar­
gins uj>—that’s your job. I’ll be watching those figures . . .
and, Tom, if you need any more help on this, remember, my
office door is open to you as division manager any time you
want to use it.

DM: Ahh, sure, George, I’ve got the picture.

COMMENTARY

The most telling comment to be made with respect to the tran­

script is that the meeting between the two men terminated without
the “problem” the DM initiated the conversation with ever being
defined. U is highly unlikely that any effective action will result from
this exchange on the part of either man. In fact, the odds are high
that a similar meeting will occur between these two men with pre­
cisely the same “problem” in exactly six months. The communica­
tion patterns between the two men can only be judged by their
ultimate effectiveness relative to the survival and growth of the orga­
nization. Therefore, necessarily, there can be no “right” way to
approach the problem the DM has. Business is the human outcome
oriented activity—therefore, any patterns which consistently result in
the success states as defined by the business community are to be
valued. It is the thesis of this book and the point of the Precision
Model presented here that there is a strong positive relationship
between successful control of the quality of the information used in
business transactions and the success of those transactions—the more
appropriate the quality of the information which forms the basis of
action in business the more probable the success of those actions. The
value of the Precision Model rests directly on the fact that it is a
completely explicit model—therefore guaranteed learnable—which
allows the user to develop with precision the quality of information
required for the success of the specific transaction he is presently
confronted with. With this understanding we tuirn to a discussion of
specifics of how this transcript differs from the previous one.
The reader will note that the quality of information presented in
the transcript is uniformly low. For example» at no point is the
general block or area referred to by the phrase head office over­
charges penetrated. The original “problem” is refined minimally—
 COMMENTARY 77

the sole gain in informational quality as the result of the various

exchanges is the movement from the general area referred to as
“problem” to the general area referred to as “head office charges.”
The information regarding the Present State is inadequate to define
the difference between the present state and some entirely implicit
desired state. The mechanics of this failure to elicit adequately high
quality information are instructive. For example, consider the fol­
lowing exchange:

DM GM
. . . believe that the problem is . . . what the hell is that supposed
head office overcharges. . to mean—overcharges, head
office overcharges? Are you try­
ing to tell me that . . .

Whatever else one might legitimately say regarding this exchange,

it is obvious that the DM has made a poor choice of words as far as
the GM is concerned. Contrast this exchange with the one which
occurred in the originaltranscript at roughly the same point:

DM GM
up because of head office over- . . . head office overcharges on
liiurges . . . what in particular? . . .

The GM’s response in this case is designed to elicit a higher grade

of information—he is using the Precision Model to come to an
understanding of the divisional situation. The GM’s response in the
nUtrtive transcript has nothing to do with information. If anything,
it more appropriate characterization would be that the GM is behav­
ing as if he had to justify head office practices. Most relevantly, in
nity case, the GM’s response blocks any further exploration of the
general area referred to by the phrase head office overcharges—
(hereby preventing an upgrading of the information initially offered.
In the context of the DM, the GM’s response itself would be chal­
lenged, and thereby removed, by a Relevancy Challenge as inappro-
l>i utic (o the outcome of eliciting high quality information defining
ilie Present State.
78 PRECISION

The second feature of this abortive transcript which distinguishes

it from the original is the movement both men made to the segment
of the overall model phase we refer to as Pathfinding prior to having
any clear notion of the Present State. The leap to solution without
any high quality information regarding the present state typically
occurs in undisciplined information processors or those who have no
systematic way of approaching information handling. The leap in
this case seems to be spurred by a remark by GM:

GM DM
. .better look a little closer at . . . I’ll take a closer look. Maybe
your own operation . . . I can tighten production a bit,
. . . and have a talk with my sales
manager . . .

It is unlikely that the stock maneuvers proposed by the DM

in response to the GM’s comment to “look . . . closer at your
own operation” will have much effect as they at best would be
applied without any adequate representation of the present situa­
tion and how specifically it is different from some more desirable
state.
Again, it is worth mentioning in passing that the authors have no
disagreement with the informational content of the remark by the
GM. The difficulty arises as the result of the timing of the remark
(thus inappropriate in the context of attempting to reach an under­
standing of the Present State—the Relevancy Challenge).

VARIANT II

We shall assume for the purposes of continuing that the DM

survives the outburst by the GM to his use of the term head offict
overcharges and we pick up the exchange just at the GM has finished
justifying his head office charges and is instructing the DM to lool
to his own operation.

GM: . . . seems to me that you’d better look a little closer at your

own operation.
 VARIANT II 79

DM: Yes sir, I understand. As a matter of fact, I spent some

serious time studying the difference between my division’s
performance last reporting period and the performance dur­
ing the period prior to that one. One of the big things that’s
killing us with respect to the margins is the amount of interest
we’ve been allocated this last period.

GM: Is that a fact? What do you intend to do about bringing that

figure down?

DM: Well, a minute ago when I brought up the issue about head
office charges, I had the thought that perhaps you and I could
look more closely at the figures. I would like to try to con­
vince you that the interest figures are too high and perhaps
you could take the question up with . . .

GM: (interrupting) Tom, I’ll be blunt with you about this interest
question. The head office has almost no freedom of action in
this case. The interest charges imposed on you are determined
by the going interest rates we are presented with. Remember
you and I agreed last year that even though the interest was
going to hurt for a while, those new machines would cover the
difference because of their higher production capacity, and
lower maintenance. Are you using those newer machines at
capacity, Tom? That might be where your real problem lies.

DM: Huh, Oh no, no, sorry, George, I wasn't talking about the
interest charges on the new machines. The radically increased
charges are the interest charges on the inventory, not on the
new model machines—they’re paying for themselves and
then some.

GM: Interest allocated to your inventory, oh, I understand.

DM: Yeah, that’s what’s really killing us. Would you like to take
a look at some of those figures with me? I can show you
exactly where the differences are.

GM: Sure, Tom I'm willing to look at your figures but I’ll tell you
right now that the practice of charging interest to your divi-
80 PRECISION

sion on inventory was established a long time ago and with

good reasons. It’s really basic economics, Tom. The invento­
ries your division carries, over the authorized levels of course,
represents a capital investment, and if it's sitting in the ware­
house doing nothing, we’re losing money—so you get the
interest charges. Do you follow me, Tom?

DM: Yes, but I believe that we ought to . . .

GM: Sorry, but let me finish. In addition to the question of capi­

tal, if we didn’t have interest as a way of controlling the level
of inventory, who knows what would happen in the divisions?
We could have huge excesses, stockpiling is not a profitable
way for us to conduct our business. Surely, you can see my
point?

DM: OK, I understand what you are saying but I still feel that
the key to solving this is the high interest charges on the
inventory and I think . . .

GM: Let me interrupt with one other fact that’s important for you
to understand clearly. We’re wasting our time sitting here
talking about the issue of interest charges on inventory. That
is company policy—has been since before I took over as GM.
We’d just be spinning our wheels to go over this ground again.

DM: Well, all right but I still feel like we’re not getting a fair
shake on the interest on inventory thing here.

GM: Well, I really don’t see any point in continuing this discus­
sion—company policy is company policy, (pause) . . . Look,
Tom, I can appreciate your position. You’ve got to get your
margins back up and so you look around for the easiest and
quickest way to accomplish that and that’s right—that’s
what you’re supposed to do as DM. And the thing that you
notice is that your head office interest charges are higher
than last time. So you come to me for help. Let me tell you
something. A lot of times the thing that looks like the easi­
est and most immediate solution from the divisional point of
view, turns out to be impossible if you look at it from the
 VARIANT II 81

company head office point of view. So it’s understandable

that you would seize on inventory interest charges by the
head office as the solution. But it’s not, Tom. Company pol­
icy is company policy. Look inside your own operation
more thoroughly and I have confidence that you’ll find a
good solution. OK?

DM: All right, George, it’ll be rough but 1*11 get right on it.

COMMENTARY

Again, the exchange between the two men must ultimately be

judged on the basis of the outcome that exchange achieves. And,
again, while the quality of information finally elicited in this tran­
script is higher than in the first variant, it is not adequately precise
to allow the men to define the difference between the present operat­
ing conditions in the division and some as yet unidentified desired
state—thus, failing to provide an adequate basis for effective action.
The simple fact is, that since the “problem” is never adequately
defined, no solutions will later be developed and the meeting aborts
without the resources of either of the two skilled men having been
npplied to the "problem.” It is ironical that at one point in the
transcript the DM states:

DM: OK, I understand what you are saying but I still feel that
the key to solving this is the high interest charges . . .

Unfortunately, without the Precision Model questioning, the re­

mark is never pursued. Once again, it is useful to remind the reader
Ihat the authors are not arguing with most of the statements and
explanations offered by the GM. There can be little quarrel with
•tatements such as:

GM: . . . huge excesses, stock piling is not a profitable way for us

to conduct our business . . .

However, we simply point out that this explanatory behavior on

(he part of the GM does not in fact lead to a high quality definition
of the problem in the division. In Precision Model terms, the GM
82 PRECISION

has failed to establish an Outcome Frame which would focus and

direct the skills of the two toward the issue at hand—developing high
quality information adequate to an understanding of the present
problem. Since no contextual frame has been explicitly established,
there is no principled way for the participants to determine whether
any particular statement is appropriate in the context—no system­
atic way of directing the exchange toward a successful outcome by
the use of the Relevancy Challenge.
As in the previous variant, the absence of Precision Model Block­
busting questioning leaves blocked and unexplored areas which are
referred to but never penetrated. At four separate points in the
exchange, the GM overtly refuses to consider further the area of
interest allocated to inventory. Finally, he terminates further at­
tempts at discussion by the DM by stating:

GM: We’re wasting our time . . . just be spinning our wheels to

go over this ground again . . . really don’t see any point in
continuing this discussion . . .

After this series the DM reluctantly gives up his attempts to

discuss the inventory interest issue; unfortunately without ever hav­
ing penetrated the ground that the GM characterized them as just
spinning their wheels over. The communications maneuver used by
the GM to align himself with the DM after the topic of inventory
interest charges is finally dropped may have been effective in re­
storing some of the rapport between the two men:

GM: . . . Look, Tom, I can appreciate your position. You’ve got

to get your margins back up and so you look around for the
easiest and quickest way to accomplish that and that’s right
—that’s what you’re supposed to do as DM . . .

Our point is that such a maneuver would have been entirely un­
necessary had the GM used Precision Model questioning to elicit the
high quality information potential available from the DM. Further,
independent of the issue of rapport, the difference is never defined—
the specific business outcome is never achieved.
There is one semi-amusing exchange which illustrates a common
result of the failure to refine information systematically:
 COMMENTARY 83

GM: . . . Remember you and I agreed last year that even though
the interest was going to hurt for a while, those new machines
would cover the difference because of their higher production
capacity and lower maintenance. Are you using those new
machines at capacity, Tom? That might be where your real
problem lies.

DM: Huh, oh no, no, sorry, George, I wasn’t talking about the
interest charges on the new machines. The radically increased
charges are the interest charges on the inventory, not on the
new model machines—they’re paying for themselves and
then some.

What has occurred here is that when the DM first mentions inter­
est figures, the GM jumps to the conclusion that the DM is talking
about interest figures on some new machinery. Visually, this jump
can be represented as:

interest figures

investments . . . machinery . . . inventory . . . receivables?

In words, the GM understands the phrase interest figures as used

hy the DM to refer more specifically to interest figures on machinery.
This conclusion is wholly unwarranted and in this particular case,
Itiuccurate. Again, we have no quarrel with such leaps as long as the
Information processor recognizes that it introduces the possibility of
rrror. The Precision Model Blockbusting questions offers an alterna­
tive to such guessing.

CASE STUDY II

We present now a second transcript—in this one the responsible

чцгн< who first notices a Present State situation which is less than
"l»innal is the Sales Manager (SM), Richard. He calls and informs
iii? ( iM that his figures show that they are losing about 10 sales a
84 PRECISION

month. After asking the SM a few preliminary questions, the GM

decides to call a meeting—present at this meeting is the SM, the
Production Manager (PM), Joe, the Controller (C), and the GM
himself.
Having been exposed to some of the Precision Model techniques
the reader is better able to appreciate the effectiveness and economy
of movement with which the GM sets frames to establish a trajectory
for the meeting and the precision with which he rapidly elicits high
quality information which allows the group to efficiently Define the
Difference between the Present State and a Desired State.
In the transcript the reader will notice the use of the Outcome
Frame occurs much more frequently than it did in Case Study I. This
is a natural outcome of the fact that the meeting is a multi-person
meeting—that is, the GM has the task of eliciting information from
three different information sources. As anyone who has ever gone
through the experience of learning how to juggle can attest, there is
a profound difference in the skill required to juggle with two objects
and the skill required to juggle with three or more objects. Each of
the men that the GM has called to the meeting has represented
within his own understanding high quality information which will be
of great assistance in developing a shared map or representation of
the difference, between the present situation within the organization
and what they desired to achieve. The GM has the task as the
information processor to elicit high quality information relevant to
the issue under scrutiny in an order which will allow the develop­
ment of that shared map or understanding. In a situation where an
information processor has to construct such a map from multiple
sources of information, he will make extensive use of Frames to
direct the attention of the participants to precisely the class of high
quality information needed to complete the portion of the shared
map he is working on. Without such Frames and the sense of direc­
tion they explicitly provide, there is the danger that the multi-person
meeting will deteriorate into a series of disconnected monologues by
the participants in which they focus their attention on supplying
their private understandings of the problem, their favorite solution»
or pointing to some other portion of the operation as the source of
the problem. In addition to being lengthy, tedious and demoralizing,
such meetings rarely produce enough high quality information to
form a basis for the development of an intelligent and effective plan
 CASE STUDY II 85

of action. Thus the emphasis on Frames to create a context for

directed discussion.

GM: Richard has complained that he’s losing orders and even
customers because we aren’t getting our orders shipped on
time. His salesmen are getting a lot of complaints, too. We’re
here to determine the cause of the problem and determine
what we might do about it. Right now I’d like to stick to
finding out precisely what our present situation is and what
we want it to be. Richard, what is the problem, specifically?

R: Shipments are going out of here three weeks late.

GM: All shipments?

R: All the special orders. Actually some are taking even longer.
Some of our regular orders are going out late, too.

GM: Which orders are you losing?

R: We lose about 10 units a month of the special units that go out

more than 2 weeks late.

GM: Late? Late compared to what?

R: We quote one month for delivery, which we used to meet, and

it’s taking three weeks longer than that. Our competitors
deliver three weeks from the order date!

GM: What's the difference between the time when we used to

meet our schedule and our present situation that might ac­
count for the the difference in shipping?

R: Well, we produced and shipped 60 special units a month last

year and we’re selling 70 special units a month this year.

GM: Did we produce 60 special units a month every month?

R: I don’t know.
86 PRECISION

The GM initiates the meeting by offering the participants the

information that he already has—losing orders and even customers
. . . getting complaints. . . because we aren't getting our orders shipped
on time. He then specifies the first frame—. . . right now. . . stick
tofinding out precisely what our present situation is and what we want
it to be. This Frame—The Outcome Frame—specifies the target for
the first step of the meeting. This assists the individual participants
in knowing what pieces of information are appropriate to the context
they are operating in and provides a trajectory for the group as a unit.
The reader will recognize that the verbal statement by the GM
. . . finding out precisely what our present situation is and what we
want it to be . . .—is the Present State/Desired State for the first
segment of the model Defining the Difference. The GM then turns
to the source of information—the SM—who first brought the issue
to his attention and instructs him to begin. The next few exchanges
are examples of the Precision Model Blockbusting questioning al­
ready introduced. Using the visual representations we developed
previously:

Shipments that are late

new orders - . . old orders . . . regular orders . . . special orders??

all special orders and some regular ones

FOURTH POINTER— THE COMPARATOR

The GM, having challenged the general term shipments learns

that the shipments in question are all special orders and some regular
ones. Now, making use of the fact that the orders that he is primarily
interested in are the ones that the SM has reported they are losing,
he pointed to a further refinement of the last answer:

. . . all special orders and some regular ones . . .

by asking which of the late orders (the answer to the last question)
are the ones which they are losing.
 FOURTH POINTER—THE COMPARATOR 87

.all special orders and some regular ones . . .

Pointer—Noun Blockbuster (which orders . . .?)

. . . special units that go out more than 2 weeks late . . .

The GM now employs a Precision Model question called the Com­

parator. (We thank Chris Dunkley for this term.) Consider the ex­
change:

SM GM
. .that go out more than 2 weeks . . . late? late compared to what?
late. .

The answer he receives is finally our schedule (the one promised to

the customers) and the performance of our competitors.
Here are some additional examples to allow the reader to get a feel
for the pattern:

. . . that our margins are up . .up compared with what? . .

. . . labor force is more stabilized . . . more stabilized than what?

. . . productivity is down three . . . down three units compared

units . . . with what? . . .
. . . because the price of raw . . . 30% higher than what?
materials is 30% higher . . .

In each of the cases some information is being offered which

involves a change—this can be determined by a sensitivity to the
relational words used—up... more as in more stabilized... down as in
down three units. . . higher as in 30% higher. These words imply a
comparison with some other situation without stating explicitly what
Hk- other situation is. A full appreciation of the information being
oil crcd requires that the hearer/reader of such statements be provided
with the situation that the statement is implicitly being compared to.
Го upgrade the information, the situation being used as the basis for
88 PRECISION

the comparison must be made explicit. As in the earlier patterns, we

offer this Precision Model question in two parts—the perceptual
recognition program and a following response program.

The Comparator

1. Examine the statement, writing down any relational words

contained therein.
2. For each relational word written down, write to the left and
right of the relational word the two situations being compared
or related.
3. If there is no word written on one side of the relational word,
ask the Precision Model question.

The easiest way to begin to develop your sensitivity to the presence

of relational words is to familiarize yourself with the special language
markers used in English to identify these covert comparisons and to
acquaint yourself with the list of relational words we have collected
which are some of the most common encountered in business com­
munication. There are two special language markers used in English
to identify the comparative form:

the ending er as in: the word more/less as in:

higher more productive//^ demand
faster more competitive/few responsi-
cleaner ble
more thorough//?.» material

Any statement container either of these language markers is sub­

ject to the Precision Model question for the comparator. We offer in
addition a short list of some of the more common relational words
encountered in business communications:

any percentage or ratio figure as in 30% or

a four fold increase or
2 Vi times the previous rate
up as in profits up
down as in expenses down
over as in we're over on production
 FOURTH POINTER—THE COMPARATOR 89

under as in we’re under on soles

slow as in a slow day
fast as in a fast sale
late as in a late shipment
early as in an early estimate
ahead as in we're ahead on sales
behind as in we're behind on line # 3

The response program for the Comparator Pointer is quite simple:

1. Identify the relational word originally written down

2. Place the relational word in the frame “ compared with
what?” unless the relational word is more or less, in which case
place the term more or less plus the word which follows that
word in the original statement in the frame “ compared
with what?”
3. Direct this question to the information source.

For example, when presented with the phrase margins are up, the
procedure yields the Precision Model question up compared with
what1

THE DIFFERENCE PROCEDURE

Most commonly the manager will discover the comparative occur­

ring when there is an implicit reference being made by the speaker/-
writer to some standard of performance or Desired State, typically
one which the organization has achieved in the past. The danger of
Inefficient communication increases greatly when implicit reference
lo comparable situations is made without the implicit reference being
challenged and refined into explicit, high quality information con­
cerning that situation. Through the previous blockbusting, the GM
halt available the following information:

1. he knows the organization is losing orders

2. the orders being lost are the special orders which are delayed
more the two weeks over schedule
3. there was a period when the shipping was on schedule
90 PRECISION

This last information fits nicely into the Present State/Desired

State frame that he established at the outset of the meeting.

Present State Desired State

shipping 2 weeks behind sched- shipping on schedule
ule

The GM’s next move is a Precision Model procedure which we

have only mentioned but not yet presented fully—one which many
of the participants in our Executive Workshops intuitively recognize
as particularly appropriate for this situation.
We call this the Difference Procedure.

GM: What is the difference between the time when we used to

meet our schedule and our situation now that might account
for the difference in shipping?

The Difference Procedure is appropriate at any point in the pro­

cess of eliciting high quality information where the manager has
identified both (a portion of) the Present State and (a portion of)
some desired state or desirable situation which has a positive charac­
teristic which could be used as part of the Desired State. The ques­
tion itself simply requests information about other characteristics of
the desired state or desirable situation which may help to explain the
presence of the positive characteristic in the desired state and its
absence in the Present State.
An examination of the table showing the Present State and the
Desired state reveals the context is appropriate for the Difference
Question—that is, the GM has identified a portion of the Present
State and a desired state from the recent past of the organization. In
addition, he knows that the historically available desired state has я
positive characteristic which could be used as part of the overall
Desired State—namely, the shipments were on schedule. He, there­
fore, requests further information about the difference between the
two situations using the Difference Question.
We distinguish this Precision Model question from the others we
have thus far presented as there is no consistent immediate language
cue to inform the information processor that the question is to be
asked as there is in all of the other Precision Model questions. Tlio
 THE DIFFERENCE PROCEDURE 91

cue or test for appropriateness for the Difference Question is when­

ever both a present state and some possible desired state (one which
has some positive characteristic that would be desirable to incorpo­
rate into the Desired State) have been identified. There are, however,
n number of language cues which signal that this appropriateness test
for the Difference Question is satisfied. Specifically, these are:

1. Immediately following the Universal Blockbusting.

2. Immediately following the Precision Model questioning of a
comparator question.
3. Immediately following a statement using the word(s) except,
with the exception of, different, difference, not the same as, not
counting.

We offer an example of each of these three language signals fol­

lowed by the Difference Question:
I following the PM Universal Blockbusting:

OM: . . . on what specific part of the inventory?

DM: Well, primarily on all those motors.

C»M: On all those motors?

DM: No, not really on all the motors.

CJM: What is the difference between the motors in the inventory

where you have high interest payments and those where you
don’t? . . .

DM: Well, they’re the newer ones—the B’s—and the sales reps
aren’t as confident about them as the old line—the A’s

*' Following the comparator pointer:

Manager (SM): . . . and because of the higher number of

quality rejects from our customers we’re losing sales.

l.JM: Higher than what?

92 PRECISION

SM: Higher than we had last reporting period—hell, higher than

we had any period in the last three years.

GM: Slim, what is the difference between the last reporting period
or any of those other periods and now that might help explain
this higher number of quality rejects? . . .
3. Following a statement using the words except, with the exception
of, different, difference, not the same as, not counting

GM: . . . explain the delay on these reports7 Controller (С): I

think it may be the report itself—none of the divisions ever
get them in on time . . . except Brandon’s division.

GM: Simon, what is the difference between Brandon’s division

and all of the other division with respect to getting this report
to us on time? . . .

The reader is cautioned against using only these language markers

as the stimulus or occasion for the use of the Difference Question.
These language markers simply guarantee that the Difference Ques­
tion is appropriate. There are a large number of contexts where these
language markers will not be present where the Difference Question
is appropriate—that is, the language markers are a sufficient but not
a necessary condition for the use of the Difference Question. The
Difference Question is an extremely efficient and powerful device for
gathering high quality information which directly allows a compari­
son of the present state and desired state characteristics—its use is
highly recommended.
An examination of the table showing the Present State and the
Desired State reveals the context is appropriate for the Difference
Question—that is, the GM has identified a portion of the Present
State and a desired state from the recent past of the organization. In
addition, he knows that the historically available desired state has a
positive characteristic which could be used as part of the overall
Desired State—namely, the shipments were on schedule. He, there­
fore, requests further information about the difference between the
two situations using the Difference Question.
The GM receives an answer to his question which he, in turn,
subjects to Precision Model questioning to get a more refined repre­
sentation.
 THE DIFFERENCE PROCEDURE 93

SM GM
... produced and shipped 60 spe- . . . Did weproduce60 special
cial units a month last year and units a month every month?
we're selling 70 special units a ...
month this year . . .

The SM says that he doesn’t know and that terminates the GM’s
questioning of the SM. The GM now quite appropriately turns to the
production manager for the high quality production information he
needs to further define the difference between the two states.

GM: Did we produce 60 special units a month every month?

Richard: I don’t know.

GM: Joe?

Joe: No, that’s just an average.

GM: What is the most we produced in a month?

Joe: I think one month we produced 75 last year.

GM: OK. We know that it’s possible for our equipment to pro­
duce more than we need so let’s see if we can discover the
differences between that month and our current production
of special units. Joe, what are some of the differences that
might contribute to lower production?

Joe: Well. . . you know how it is. In peak months everything just
goes right.

GM: What things, specifically, went right in the peak month?

Joe: The biggest thing is low maintenance. And we had really low
maintenance then. Good workers (pause) willing to work
overtime. Adequate inventory so we don’t wait for material.
Those are the big things.
94 PRECISION

GM: Good, Joe—I want to explore all three of those factors.

. . . (GM moves to a flipchart and draws the following figure:

^ ^ ^ ^ .P e a k State—highjjrodu^on of special units

low maintenance good workers (overtime) adequate inventory

GM returns to seat and waves his hand at the chart.

GM: Just to help us keep track of where we are. OK, Joe, what
specifically about low maintenance helps production?

Joe: (surprised at the obvious question) We don’t have so much

machine down time.

GM: Was maintenance higher in the current months than in that

peak month?

Joe: I’m not sure.

Contr: Yeah, it was. Maintenance has been higher than last year
and budget so far this year. We haven’t had a month this year
that wasn’t higher than last.

GM: What maintenance, specifically, is up?

Contr: I don’t know.

GM: Joe?

Joe: Well, the biggest maintenance job has been the overhaul.

GM: The overhaul of what?

Joe: Of line # 1 assembly unit. That line doesn’t produce any of

our special units.

Joe: (continued)
 THE DIFFERENCE PROCEDURE 95

(pause) Other than that overhaul, I don’t think maintenance has

been any greater.

Contr: Well, the numbers I have say it is.

GM: What numbers, specifically?

Contr: The costs of maintenance. Even without that overhaul,

they’re up.

GM: The numbers we are interested in are machine hours of

down time on the line that produces special units. What do
they say?

Contr: I don’t know.

Joe: I think they’re about the same.

GM: OK. Maintenance doesn’t seem to contribute to the differ­

ence. Let’s take the next factor, “good workers.” Did you
have more good workers in the peak month than the current
months?

Joe: Yeah, we sure did.

GM: And these good workers—they’re good at what specifically?

Joe: At working fast without making mistakes, coming in on time

and not missing too many days of work. A guy like that is able
to meet our work speed standards and experience.

GM: (after pause) What experience, specifically, does he need?

Joe: At least a year on this type of assembly and we need people

with welding skills.

OM: What, in particular, is “this type of assembly?”

Joe: It means you need experience with drill presses and auto­
matic cutting machines.
96 PRECISION

GM: OK. Do you have fewer of these skilled workers than you
had in the peak month?

Joe: Yes.

GM: How many fewer?

Joe: Last year we had about 20 in that category, now we’ve got
14.

GM: You mentioned coming in on time and absenteeism earlier.

Is this different from the peak month?

Joe: Yeah, it’s way worse.

GM: How is it way worse?

Joe: I remember. We didn’t have nearly so many people not show­

ing up.

Contr: Our figures for paid non-productive hours are up 17%

over last year.

GM: What are "paid non-productive hours?”’

Contr: Mostly paid sick time.

Joe: We don’t get any warning for those absences and we can’i
find anybody to fill in. It seems to hit line # 3 the worst.

GM: What’s the difference between line # 3 and the others whu ii
might account for that?

Joe: I guess we have more pressure on that lin e because it’s behind
in production. We have more overtime there, too.

GM: OK. You mentioned overtime earlier. IDid you work more
overtime in the peak month than the current months?
 THE DIFFERENCE PROCEDURE 97

Joe: About the same or a bit less. But that was just for a big
month. We seem to be trying to get the men to work overtime
regularly now. Some of them just won't do it.

Contr: Why don’t you just fire them and . . .

GM: (interrupting) We aren’t looking for solutions right now.

We’re just defining the difference between where we are and
where we want to be. So, Joe, as I understand it, one of the
differences is just that you can’t get the overtime you need and
you could before.

Joe: Yeah, that’s right. . . but if we had good people we wouldn’t

need as much.

GM: The last thing you mentioned was adequate inventory. In­
ventory of what, specifically?

Joe: Parts to be assembled. If we have to wait for them it can

really eat up production time.

The GM continues his precision tracking in Defining the Difference

throughout this section of the transcript. Early in this portion of the
tmnscript, he identifies and selects a previous performance period in
Ilie recent history of the organization—the peak month— which has
•lie desired state characteristics of an adequate level of production
■>f the special units tentatively as his target state. He elicits informa­
tion from the production manager which indicates that there were
*( least three factors involved in this desired state. This section
demonstrates the efficiency of the Precision Model as he establishes
ilie Desired State Frame and tracks down the high quality informa-
Hem associated with each of the three factors which define that
Desired State. All of the Precision Model questioning which the GM
jioes in this section of the transcript are patterns which we have
ntrendy introduced the reader to. The GM also puts the powerful
I )ifference Question to good use in this section. We encourage the
Kinder to follow the transcript quite closely so as to fully appreciate
(tie technique in action.
The GM also uses a technique which we ofTer in our workshops.
Ite recognizes that the production manager has offered him three
98 PRECISION

different factors which are characteristic of the desired state that the
GM established as his Frame. Wishing to insure that high quality
information regarding each of these will be elicited for the purposes
of comparison with the Present State, he uses a flipchart representa­
tion:

Peak State—high production of special units

low maintenence good workers (overtime) adequate inventory

The effectiveness of such shared external visual representations in

making a discussion—particularly those based on information which
emerges during the discussion itself—both efficient and effective is
immeasurable. We point the technique out here only in passing—the
subject of effective shared representations itself belongs to the second
phase of high quality information processing treated in a forthcom­
ing book in this series.
It is instructive to note how, specifically, the desired state which
the GM uses so effectively as an Outcome Frame (especially for the
Difference Question) is arrived at. ;

SM: . . . produced and shipped 60 special units a month last year

DM: Did we produce 60 special units a month every month?

SM: I don’t know.

DM: Joe? (the production manager)

PM: No, that’s just an average.

DM: What is the most we produced in a month?

PM: I think one month we produced 75 last year.

The Precision Model Blockbusting questions have in common the

function of drawing out from low quality information a distinction
which is only implicit. They force the information source to refine
their representation and detect and offer differences where previously
 THE DIFFERENCE PROCEDURE 99

they had things lumped together, making no distinctions at all. The

visual representation we have associated with these patterns from
Case Study I make the point nicely:

DM: . . . costs are up . . .

GM: . . . which costs in particular? . . .

. . costs . . .Нц.
Tabor . * . material . . . capitaT

DM: . . . my labor costs are the ones . . .

In words, as the DM mentions costs, the GM has inadequately

precise information to appreciate the situation the DM is referring
to. The GM, therefore, applies the Precision Model questioning
thereby forcing the DM to identify which of the various possible
components of overall costs in particular are up. The DM is directed
by the question to refine the representation he is making to the GM
—to make a distinction within the general category of costs, picking
out precisely the piece of information needed. Statistical averages
euch as the one offered in the current transcript—produced and
shipped 60 special units a month last year—are strikingly similar to
the low quality word costs in that the statistical average is computed
in such a way as to insure the loss of distinctions—they are designed
(o move away from the original sensory grounded experiences they
nrc based on. Thus, we recommend to the manager using the Preci-
Kion Model that whenever a statistic is encountered, he or she recog­
nize it for what it is—a number which was arrived at by ignoring
differences and distinctions which exist in the original experiences
that the statistic was constructed from. In fact, we recommend that
managers sensitize themselves to identify such statistics presented in
the flow of language information and greet it with a certain enthusi-
u n r i . The argument for the enthusiasm we recommend is that if the

ntutistical average represents a satisfactory or adequate performance

In some operation within the business organization, then it follows
Ihut hidden within that statistic will be shorter term performances
which will identify a standard of excellence. Using the Precision
Model blockbusting question to penetrate a statistic will reveal pre­
100 PRECISION

cisely what the conditions were when that optimal performance

occurred. The elicitation of high quality information describing such
conditions gives the manager a well defined desired state which he
or she may adopt as a target state with the full confidence that such
a high standard of performance is within the present capabilities of
the organization.
As we emphasized in the introduction, there is a direct correlation
between the number of distinctions in the maps the business organi­
zation uses to plan and carry out its activities and the success with
which those activities meet. In this particular case, the desired state
that the GM uses so effectively as a Frame is reached only because
he recognizes the statistic for what it is—a low quality representa­
tion. By challenging it with the Precision Mode) universal blockbust­
ing question, he forces a more refined representation closer to the
original experiences and by so doing, succeeds in discovering pre­
cisely the target state—the peak month— he needs to proceed effec­
tively.
This portion of the transcript terminates with a Backtrack Frame
by the GM. Note that in the Backtrack, the GM begins at the initial
statement of the issue. . . losing sales . , . and then mentions only
the tracks which lead to an appreciation of the differences between
the desired state and the present one. In Backtracking, it is, of course,
far more efficient to present only the track that led to differences
between the two states. Tracks which were explored and discarded
as not involving differences which are useful, are not recapitulated
in a Backtrack. The single exception to this rule of thumb for Back­
tracking is in the case where the Backtrack is used to brief members
of the organization who were not present at some or all of the original
meeting. In such a case, the backtrack should also include the tracks
explored and discarded to inform the new members that those pos­
sibilities were adequately considered.

GM: OK, Let’s review what we’ve got so far. We’re losing sales
of special units at about 10 a month because shipments are
going out about three weeks late. We have produced more
units in a month in the past than we need to produce right
now and the major difference seems to be that we can’t get
enough adequately skilled workers, we have increased absen­
teeism, and we can’t get enough overtime from the people we
have to get the production we want. Now, let’s look at the
 THE DIFFERENCE PROCEDURE 101

things that might account for these factors. Joe, you said you
have 6 fewer skilled workers than in the peak month.

Joe: Yeah, well, there were about six of them. George, one of my
supervisors, told me three of them went to work for those new
plants that were built on the West side. And we’ve had at least
two retire since the peak.

GM: What are the differences between our plant and their plants
which might get the skilled workers to go there?

Joe: I don’t know, our pay is competitive.

GM: How, specifically, is it competitive?

Joe: Our hourly rate is about the same and so are our benefits.

GM: Which benefits, in particular?

Joe: Well, pension, sick leave, insurance, all that sort of stuff.

GM: What’s the differences between the men who are still with
us and the men that left that might explain why they went to
the other plant?

Joe: Well, (pause) I know a couple of them a little. Bill lifed on

that side of town and doesn’t have to fight the traffic anymore.
And both Terry and Bill are older. They don’t like to work
the overtime we require.
GM: What other factors are different from when we had the peak
month?

Contr: I’m having trouble getting good clerical and computer

people and I was talking to Jim in Personnel yesterday, and
he said that most departments were having trouble getting
skilled people. He said those new plants have really made a
tight labor market in this area. The traffic’s way worse than
it used to be around here and I think some of our people are
getting sick of it. We used to be the only game in town but
now those other plants are making it tough.
102 PRECISION

GM: OK. Can any one think of any other differences? (pauses)
Let me summarize then and make sure we all agree. Right now
we aren’t producing enough special units to meet our sales
and we’re losing about 10 sales a month. We can’t increase
the production because we can't attract enough skilled work­
ers. We want to make a change in our operations which wil]
enable us to get the workers we need to produce enough to
at least match our present sales. The most likely area for
accomplishing that seems to be making some changes in our
working conditions so that we can attract the people we need
the most. The change in our situation which seems to have
had the most impact is the start up of two new plants in our
area. Adding to the problem is that our location is harder k>
get to because of increased traffic and those plants are easier
to travel to than ours for many people. We also have so much
overtime that it is unattractive for many workers. Are there
any other factors which anyone thinks need to be considered?
(pause) OK. I’m going to call a meeting in four days to see
if we can find some ways to solve this problem. I think we
should have a few more people in on it because it seems to
be affecting most areas of the company and will involve Per­
sonnel as well. OK. That’s it.

This section of the transcript begins with the Backtrack Fram e-

using this as our guide to information, we observe that the GM hor,
elicited the following information:

Present State Difference Desired Stats

Sales Down compared to Sales
(10 per month)
Shipments 3 weeks late Shipment*
compared to
Skilled workers Not enough compared to Shipment»
Absenteeism Up compared to Acceptuhlr
Overtime Difficult to get Overtime
compared to
 THE DIFFERENCE PROCEDURE 103

The GM recognizes that the difficulty revolves around getting

adequate skilled workers. He, therefore, focuses the group attention
on this point from the opening—Joe, you said you have 6fewer skilled
workers than in the peak month. In the sequence of exchanges im­
mediately afterward, he elicits exactly the information about the
present state/desired state differences he requires—those differences
which have placed additional demands on skilled labor pool in the
Immediate area. With the present state and desired state characteris­
tics as well developed as they are in the beginning of this last seg­
ment, one might anticipate the extensive use of the Difference Ques­
tion. An examination of this segment of the transcript shows that S
nut of the 7 questions the GM uses are Difference Questions. The
( !M terminates the meeting with a full Backtrack of the meeting,
«•cures agreement from the members of the group that the Backtrack
и an adequate representation of the effort—no essential pieces of
information have been omitted in the Backtrack. He then chooses
ijuUe appropriately to close the meeting and to call another meeting
which will include additional personnel. His decision is fully sup-
jK>rlcd by the fact that in tracking down the difference (Present
Mute/Desired State) he has uncovered high quality information
which indicates that the situation is more widespread than originally
thought and, more specifically, the personnel manager will be a
iMvcssary integral part of any satisfactory solution.
Wc trust that the reader will recognize the efficiency and precision
with which the GM took charge, setting appropriate Frames and
within those Frames eliciting high quality information sources and
'n;,i ructing from that information a high quality map or representa­
tion which precisely defines the difference.
Wc call the reader’s attention to an interesting difference be-
the two case studies transcripts. While both are examples of
!Jii* powerful and effective use of the Precision Model, the order in
*vlnch high quality information is elicited about the Present State
amI the Desired State is entirely different. In the first of the two
4 studies, the GM tracks completely down to the adequately
fi-svi.’ic representation of the Present State prior to overtly consid-
any information regarding the Desired State. In the second
iеле study, the GM moves quickly back and forth between the
I к--;ircd State and the Present State information—comparing their
104 PRECISION

characteristics almost in a pairwise manner. Visually, the move­

ment can be represented as:
Transcript 1 Transcript 2

Present Desired Present Desired

State * State State State

The success, effectiveness and efficiency of the communication in

both transcripts shows the adequacy of either approach, thus, the
difference can be attributed to style.

BACKTRACK

The majority of required business communication within a company

deals with problems. That is, it deals with attempts to change a less
than optimum present state to a more desired state. This may be in
reaction to an emergency, a less severe chronic condition or a desire
for excellence. To deal effectively with a problem, or to know
whether one should deal with a situation at all, a clear definition of
the difference between the present state and the desired state is
required. This, of course, requires a precise definition of the two
states themselves.
An explicit outcome based on high quality information is th<‘
requirement for effective business communications. Many problems;
are unrecognized or inadequately dealt with because of an illusion
of shared understanding about the present or desired states. The
language of business can hide many of the differences which would
be useful to know. If higher quality information was available morч
appropriate action could be taken towards specific and agreed upon
outcomes.
The Precision Model is a technique for obtaining high quality
information from originally low quality representations.
It provides the tools maintaining a trajectory toward desired out
comes based on adequately precise information.
 BACKTRACK 105

This chapter introduces the Outcome Frame. The Outcome Frame

establishes and maintains the context of any particular segment of
» communication so that the participants know what the task is and
what is appropriate to it. It gives the manager control over meetings
and, in fact, any discussion which is outcome oriented.
A second Frame introduced in this chapter is the Backtrack, of
which this section is an example. The Backtrack Frame is used to
reorient participants towards the topic or context desired and to
uccess more of the individual representations or resources.
We introduce the Pointers or questions which are used to obtain
the desired precision. A set of steps are outlined for recognizing when
more information is needed and the specific question to formulate
based on the initial statement. Each of these will move closer to
dircct experience which can be shared effectively, that is towards
higher quality information. The Pointers allow the manager to direct
Ihe information source’s attention to exactly the information he
needs to know in that particular context.
Two procedures were also introduced to increase the efficiency of
ih is means of information gathering. The first is the Relevency Chal­
lenge, the direction to state how a comment or question is relevant
It) the agreed upon outcome. It is a necessary companion to the
(>utcome Frame. The other is the Difference Procedure. This enables
и manager to skip directly to a high quality representation of the
ki|{iiificant differences in any situation or between two states or
things. It can quickly extract the hidden elements of averages and
■-'Innparisons.
The directive form of questioning introduced in this chapter along
with the use of Frames guarantees that the information exchange will
iraped the need not to know.
Chapter 3

PATHFINDING

When my father was young, he lived on a farm in Alberta. Their

community had to work hard to get a decent crop out o f the tough soil
They were constantly having to spend resources on clearing new land\
Continued prosperity required increasing the area available to them to
plant seed for future harvest They were in a constant struggle with
nature and had to organize their resources to get the maximum suste­
nance from what they already had. At the same time>they had to use
those same resources to get additional food from their surroundings.
The survival o f the community depended upon maintaining the land
areas which had already been cleared and claimed In this province
and under these tough conditions, hunting was serious business and not
just the sport it is in most places today. Their comfortable existence
depended upon successfully locating game. Having lived in communi­
ties where the results o f hunting had been poor or inconsistent my
father knew that the key to success was knowing the paths and trails
in the area to be hunted in fine detail In these communities* conditions
had been harsh and he remembered the successful aunts by the cele­
brations which had taken place. The community vould gather and
devour the game in a festival o f high spirit as is the tendency o f all
people who have received a bit o f unexpected good luck. His father told
him that the communities were new and that others vho were familiar
with the area had moved on to different areas. The people who had
stayed didn Vexplore new territory but were content to plow the fields
they knew best
When my grandfather arrived in the community where my father
grew up, it soon became obvious to the others in that community that
he was both a competent and adventurous man who was used to
success. He was an excellent tracker and soon proved himself on a par
with the best in the area even though he was less p miliar with that
 PATHFINDING 107
particular part o f the province. He could read the signs o f what was
around him and he seemed better able than anyone to get the particu­
lar knowledge o f others which was most likely to end in a successful
hunt
This particular community was more successful at the hunt than
many but its results were still erratic. The consistency with which my
grandfather brought back game impressed everyone. The community
soon began to take notice o f his suggestions and, at his request, gath­
ered to consider organizing the hunt for the whole community. He
suggested that the community contained resources that were as yet not
even dreamed o f I f they shared all o f their knowledge and skills in an
organizedfashion, they could be continuously and predictably success­
fu l at the hunt. The community had witnessed his success at hunting
with others, which he always didf and decided to try this idea After
all the results would soon be apparent and they could abandon the idea
if it didn't work out>My grandfather was naturally selected as the
leader o f the hunt
He would hold evening meetings in front o f a roaring fire for a week
before the hunting season was to begin. Any member o f the community
who might have something to contribute was invited. Others who had
an interest in the hunt were welcome i f they could attend and there над
space available. All o f the intelligence surrounding the movement o f
game in the area was shared. Any conditions which might change their
habits or otherwise contaminate the original intelligence was reported.
Most important o f all\ each trail in the area was placed on a huge map
which covered a whole wall so everyone could see it Each year the
meeting would start with a fresh map o f the area which showed only
the major existing and well known locations. Each trail would then be
entered on the map as it ш remembered and treated as a new discov­
ery. This helped some o f the community to remember trails which they
knew o f but often forgot about when they could see the old familiar
paths already laid out for them.
My grandfather had great respect in the community. As leader o f
the hunt, which year after year was successful, he was held in high
regard\ He loved his position and carried it well but had to take care
lest it also cause him problems. Many members o f the community were
shy in his presence and would become silent Some would even fail to
tell him things that would be useful to him. Others wouldfail to provide
him information in the area o f their specialty because he seemed so
much more knowledgeable than they Fortunately, however, he had a
way o f dealing with people which allowed him to obtain the information
108 PRECISION
he desired and, at the same time, put everyone around him at ease.
His ability to get information and put people at ease was especially
important at the meetings around the fire. His value to the hunt, after
all was not due to his skills as a tracker but to his ability to get the
shared resources o f the community focused on the outcome they all
desired— a successful hunt He would suggest, at the meetings around
the fire, that the most useful way for each and every person to proceed
was to assume that any idea or piece o f information he had might be
valuable; that at least one other person in the room might need that
bit o f information to increase his own understanding o f the situation
they were about to face; to enrich it in such a way that quicker and
better paths might come to mind which would ensure the success o f the
hunt
Having been in his present position as huntmaster fo r many years,
his father had come to understand that often the most important
intelligence concerning the hunt would come from the most unexpected
sources. He appreciated the fact that the skills required to be an
excellent hunter were often very different than the skills required to
talk about hunting articulately and many were unaccustomed to
speaking out in front ofothers. They would be made tofeel comfortable
and would benefit from the verbal skills o f my grandfather as he drew
them out with sensitive care. Further, he understood clearly that often
the precise piece o f intelligence which would ensure the success o f the
hunt resided in the casual observations o f the people o f the community:
The worth o f this information was rarely recognized by the bearer o f
that information and, most frequently, they were unaware that they
had such intelligence until, by his gentle yet precise questioning, he
would draw it from them. They would be surprised and delighted to
discover that they had contributed in ways which they had not imag­
ined possible.
An apprentice to the hunt, who was not usually listened to by the
others would provide information based on his own unique, i f limited,
experience which would often, after a few penetrating questions, yield
valuable results. He might know o f paths which he had discovered as
a youth that were unknown to the older hunters. Others who were not
experts in the hunt might have discovered unknown paths in their
travels throughout the year. Each path, when added to the map, in­
creased the flexibility o f the hunters. It provided them with choices
which they might not have otherwise had—many o f which proved to be
the difference between a successful outcome andfailure. They all knew
that the consistent success o f their hunt was due to the detailed maps
 PATHFINDING 109
and intricate pathways that were created’ Each little discovery ofa new
path could suddenly make previously useless paths valuable by provid­
ing new connections. The worth o f this intelligence was proved time and
time again by the successful outcome o f the hunts.
Other communities heard o f the success o f the hunts in our area.
Some o f these simply put it down to a more abundant source o f game
and pursued it no further. Others copied our methods and began to
hold meetings. Many even thought it necessary to hold their meetings
in the evening around a large fire with a huge map on the North wall.
These changes often improved their results i f only in a sporadic way.
None managed to extract the new information required for continued
increases in success. They usually benefited from the first pooling o f
resources but seemed to level o ff after that—better, but never up to the
standard o f my grandfather's community. There seemed to be a differ-
ence in the intelligence available to our group which wasn't available
to theirs.

INTRODUCTION

Pathfinding is the second phase of the overall model for business

nctivity presented in the opening chapter,

Present I Defining the i Pathfinding j Surveying | Evaluating f Desired

State f Difference J ^ I I State
/ I
/ \
Present ^ ^ Jb th fin d in g ^ j Desired
State I I State

A winning race car driver, from the startingflag to the checkeredflag

which signals his win, will continually create a variety o f tracks which
he may drive his car along, depending upon the circumstances he
encounters at each part of the track in each lap„ These will be lightning
fast and often out o f conscious awareness. None will be rejectedmany
will never be used. The variety o f alternatives increases his choices and
insures that he will complete the race with maximum safety.

Pathfinding is our name for the phase of information processing

lit business which generates alternative courses of action—alterna­
t e paths to eliminating the defined difference. There have been
110 PRECISION

many attempts at establishing procedures which will elicit a rich

variety of alternatives in a way which is suitable to normal business
operations. Most attempted solutions have required many unusual
procedures and have been rejected by many organizations as not
suitable. The alternative has been to lose the creative resources of the
people in organizations. It isn’t, however, necessary to make that
choice. The creative resources of individuals can be obtained within
the normal procedures of business in an efficient and practical man­
ner.
We will define the present state and the desired state of this phase
to determine the requirements for processing. The course of action
appropriate to this phase, its procedures, will be determined by the
requirements of eliminating the difference between the present and
desired states.
The theory of a double helix which opened the secrets of the DNA
molecule was discovered by an image which was apparently created
“by chance.” The “chance” was a result of a clearly defined program
of what was known and what was wanted, which provided the organ­
izing principle for the discoverer’s unconscious. The effort which
went into the definition produced an “effortless” solution to a pre­
cisely posed question.

PRESENT STATE

To begin this stage, a problem has been defined, or more generally,

a difference between a present and a desired state has been identified
and defined to an adequate level of precision. The next step is to
discover the possible ways to eliminate the difference. The best
course of action to achieve the overall desired state is not known. All
the alternatives are not even known. All of the potentially available
information exists in internal maps and a method is required to share
that information. The information must be elicited and organized in
a useful way. At this stage, a set of explicit procedures are required
to ensure that the greatest amount of relevant resources are available
for finding alternate ways of eliminating the defined difference.
The content of the Pathfinding phase will be determined by the
defined difference from the previous phase. To the extent the differ­
ence is defined to an adequate state of precision, the action taken to
close or eliminate that difference will be most efficient. The precision
 PRESENT STATE 111

of the defined difference will provide the organizing principle or basis

for the Outcome Frame for this phase. If the difference has not been
defined precisely enough, the attempt to reduce the difference will
produce pathways which will lead inefficiently or not at all to elimi­
nation of the difference. An adequately precise definition will provide
the context which ensures that the highest quality information avail­
able will be able to be obtained. Acceptable content in this phase is
judged by its relevancy to the outcome desired. The specific content
of this phase must be integrated or congruent with the overall desired
outcome.
For example, a general manager may judge the performance of his
sales manager unsatisfactory. The sales manager, however, using a
different standard, believes his performance to be satisfactory. If the
two meet to discuss how to resolve the difference in their views of
performance and concentrate on whether “performance” is satisfac­
tory or not, they may very well compound the problem. In the
authors’ experience, this is a common mistake. The kind of solutions
which are generated are designed to improve “performance” by such
alternatives as longer hours, more calls with sales representatives,
reviewing call sheets, etc. The financial statements are generally
taken to be the basis of performance as they are the only source
available to the general manager. The difference is seldom defined to
un adequate level which would show that the problem is one of
different standards, not necessarily different performance. The gen­
eral manager is using shipments while the sales manager is using
orders. The present state is their different representation of the prob­
lem. If the solution doesn’t include the standard of judgement, then
the situation can be expected to recur. A more thorough representa­
tion of the difference would discover that the information needed was
nhout the operations of the sales department related to point of sale
activity and not to delivery schedules which in a manufacturing
business may represent a delay of months. The solutions to this
difference, now defined in adequately precise terms, would come
from a whole new area of source information. The requirement is for
the two persons involved in the difference to effectively use the same
•ource of information regarding performance.
The present state of the Pathfinding phase is the defined difference
from the previous phase. Other significant factors which may be part
11Гthe present state will include whether or not the composition of
the individuals involved has changed since the first phase, whether
112 PRECISION

or not there has been a time break between the phases, and if any
new clarification of the difference or upgrading of desired state has
taken place. These factors will tend to affect the process more than
the content. Increased use of the Backtrack Frame will be called for
if there has been a change in group composition or a significant time
lag. The experience of the information processor will determine the
most effective use of the Frames. The Precision model provides the
tools to arrive at the desired quality of outcome. Excess use of the
Backtrack Frame, for instance, may slow a meeting down but the
desired end result will still be achieved. If the Outcome Frame is not
used frequently enough confusion will result—but that same Frame
may be called on to clarify the situation and return to the desired
trajectory.

DESIRED STATE

Pathfinding is a descriptive term for this phase of the process. The

outcome or desired state specific to this phase is to generate alterna­
tive courses of action which lead to the overall outcome in the most
efficient or profitable way. The whole process is attempting to find
a transition path from a present and less than satisfactory state to a
desired state. At this stage the best possible path for eliminating the
difference is not known. The requirement created by that condition
is that as many alternative paths be discovered or generated as
possible.
The emphasis on paths is to keep in mind that it is courses of
action that are being concentrated on. The beginning and ending
points have been identified. All efforts are now being focused on the
actions required to move along a path which will lead from one state
to the other.
The desired state or outcome of this phase is an extensive list of
possible paths of action which will eliminate the defined difference.
To meet the requirements of the Outcome Frame, the alternative!
must be potentially capable of achieving the original desired out*
come. The proof that they will do so and the practicality of their
performance are tests which are left to later phases. How many
alternatives would make a satisfactory list? The maximum number
of possible alternatives cannot be known beforehand. The require­
ment for this phase, then, is to design a procedure which will elicit
 DESIRED STATE 113

the greatest number of useful responses with the resources available.

The procedure must be capable of eliciting the greatest number of
alternatives from the available resources, of limiting responses to
those which might achieve the outcome and it must establish an end
point to the procedure. The problem for this phase will be to create
a procedure which will generate an extensive list of alternative path­
ways from the present to the desired state.
What sort of procedures will they be? To find the answer we will
have to consider where alternatives are generated from, the condi­
tions necessary for getting access to them, and the procedures which
will create and maintain those conditions. First, we’ll consider the
source of alternatives. Where are these alternatives which might be
useful in the context and which are not immediately available?
All of the available information comes from the individual maps
or representations of the world. Each individual has only his own
experience to draw on. If no one present has any experience or
knowledge of a piece of information which is required for the solu­
tion to a problem, the problem will not be solved. Each part of each
potential pathway must already reside in the map of at least one
participant. It is possible that no single participant has a complete
path to the solution, but the individual parts must already reside in
the various maps of some of the individuals. It is common for the
pieces needed to construct the best path to be in different individual
maps. When this is the situation, each individual with a piece tends
not to contribute that piece because each has no way of knowing that
It would contribute to an effective course of action. Knowing where
Ihe alternatives are and how to elicit them will provide a variety of
pathways.
The outcome of this phase will be attained when all of the poten­
tially relevant material from each individual map has been repre-
Rcnted in a map which is shared. The limits to action which concern
iin are those that are self imposed, often unknowingly—but self
Imposed nonetheless. We live in a world of rich and varied experience
mikI opportunity. The current business environment provides many
options and alternative ways of achieving desired outcomes.
The authors recognize that there are laws which prohibit certain
net ivities. Some of these activities may seem reasonable and profita­
ble solutions to existing less than optimal states. We realize that there
Arc conditions external to an organization which limit its ability to
tespond in a desired way to changes in environment. In our experi-
114 PRECISION

ence, however, there is always something that can be influenced to

improve a problem situation, to reduce or eliminate a difference
between any present state and a desired state in the world of business.
Over and over, we have found that the limits which prevent an
organization from moving toward its desired outcomes are limits
which that organization and the individuals in it have inadvertently
placed upon themselves.
What are the characteristics of individual maps which we must
take into account? How can we promote the sharing of information,
of the rich representation of each individual map? We have all stored
vast numbers of details related to our own unique experiences. If
these details were released without any organizing principles, we
would get a meaningless jumble, intelligible to no one. All of the
details, however, are hooked to experiences. To access information
useful to the task at hand, we will have to access experiences which
contain related material.
Imagine we have a microscope in front of us. If we cut a large piece
of tissue and place it under our powerful microscope, we will see a
detailed and active scene in front of our eyes. In fact, it will be so
rich in detail and action that we won’t be able to focus on any one
part of it. We won’t be able to make sense of what is before our eyes.
To get useful information, we will have to limit the area or amount
of tissue on our slide—put a boundary around the relevant material.
If we are looking for a particular living cell in this tissue, we might
have to put a color into the material which will highlight the particu­
lar type of cell we are looking for, filter out some of the detail. We
end up with a coherent and fairly explicit representation of the cells
we intend to study. The information we needed was isolated by
establishing boundaries and highlighting detail from its irrelevant
background.
Our internal representations are similar to the material under n
powerful microscope. We can lose information which may be useful
by wandering over a too wide area or we can get lost in detail. On
the other hand, we can elect to examine the material relevant to our
concern and choose to highlight the needed detail from its surround­
ings by putting it outside the boundary. We can also eliminate detail
from the area under consideration. Both are necessary for normnl
functioning. Both can lead to a limited view of alternatives and »
rigid and restricted way of operating. A requirement then is to be
 DESIRED STATE 115

able to expand the boundaries and to sharpen the focus on the areas
of maps under consideration as desired.
Business is often faced with the situation where there is too much
area covered or too much irrelevant detail when problem solving
techniques are tried. The rest of the time, the major problem is in
too limited or restricted an area and not enough detail is available.
The situation at first glance is a paradox. How can the desired
amount of detail be obtained from an appropriate area? The solution
is a set of procedures and questions which can elicit the desired
material under controlled conditions. The manager must be able to
access the areas they want an adequately precise amount of detail in.
Once the boundaries of individual maps have been expanded and
their full richness made accessible, how can the detail which is
relevant be elicited from these maps and be included in the shared
map? To be included in a shared map, information from individual
maps must be accessed and the shared information represented in a
way that will make it useful to others. If the representation of an
individual map is coded in such a way as to make it inaccessible or
unintelligible to others, it will be unavailable for the shared represen­
tation.
The final condition is a constraint on the process. The original
purpose provides a context for focusing resources. The richness of
individual representations is the source of the alternatives desired
imd is also the source of a potential problem. Time and time again,
n(tempts to access this rich material leads into a maze. It is easy and
common to get lost in the richness and lose sight of the original
purpose. The very richness and flexibility demanded provide their
own trap.
One of the requirements is that the useful material not be buried
and lost in the irrelevant. A constraint on the process is required to
•■Hlnblish boundaries, determined by the desired outcome, which lim­
it» information to relevant material.
The conditions required to get access to individual representations
Niut create a rich shared map will determine the procedures appropri-
ntc to the context. The first will be to expand the boundaries beyond
Ilif normal restraints and to focus on the material within them more
ilrnrly than usual. Another will be to generate material from each
i»n ticipant which the others can use to access more of their own
hhijis. Another will be to ensure that the shared material is repre­
116 PRECISION

sented so that each participant has access to it. Finally, limits must
be placed which accomplish the above within the context established
by the desired outcome.

BRAINSTORMING

Brainstorming is the best known term for the particular models

created to generate the maximum number of new ideas. Recognizing
that expansion of boundaries was necessary to generate new material,
a system was developed which removed all boundaries. It created
conditions which removed any limits and invented numerous tech­
niques to elicit new and creative responses to familiar situations.
Many of the techniques are randomizers. They function to remove
restraints and to provide the stimulus for accessing different areas of
individual maps. The effectiveness of these techniques for generating
new material is well known. Some percentage of organizations en­
thusiastically endorse this approach and create special groups and,
often, special areas for this activity. A significant proportion of busi­
ness has rejected the approach as being a waste of resources. They
have concentrated on the negative aspect common to brainstorming,
namely, that many of the ideas created are not relevant or are incapa­
ble of being put into action. Business, as an outcome oriented activ­
ity, has rejected an approach which seems to produce useful results
on a random basis or not at all.
The fact remains that creative resources are not being tapped and
that brainstorming, at least some of the time, generates new and
useful alternatives. Additional resources are available which art
going unused. The basis of brainstorming is that creativity is an
unusual activity which can be carried out only with procedures
which remove it from the ordinary world of business. Any procedure
which, in the opinion of the manager, will stimulate the creative
resources of participants may be included in a Pathfinding session.
The outline which we present, however, is intended to create the
necessary and sufficient conditions to generate creative alternative1!
for reaching a desired state. It will access creative resources in »
manner consistent with ordinary business operations. The technique»
of the Precision Model will elicit the maximum available resound
from the individual maps of participants. The greater part, of
creativity is gaining access to existing material which has not previ
 BRAINSTORMING 117

ously been in conscious awareness as being relevant. The process

dealt with in this book is the generation of high quality information.
The method presented is designed to access the richest possible detail
from each individual map or representation and to create the richest
possible shared map. Any effective mental process which the partici­
pants go through to generate more material is valued behavior at any
step of the process. The ability to elicit these resources in the context
desired is the distinguishing characteristic of the Precision Model. It
is the missing function which has caused many to try and separate
mental processes into special categories or stages of the information
flow.
Observers of the process of generating alternatives noticed that
when no questioning took place, the number and quality of ideas
were increased over similar meetings which allowed questioning. The
justification for forbidding questioning was further bolstered by theo­
ries which suggested that certain individuals would not contribute
ideas under certain conditions. Some, who were less articulate and
couldn’t justify their ideas to the satisfaction of the group or its
leader, would choose to remain silent or give up their ideas too early.
Many would be afraid to appear stupid before their peers. Some
could only criticize the ideas of others.
All of these, and more, seemed good reason for abandoning the
potential benefits of questions given the choice which confronted
them. A more refined analysis of language reveals that there are
certain types of questions, appropriate to the context, which will
elicit more creative resources than if they are not asked. Questions
can reinforce a creative atmosphere, they do not have to be treated
ns shutters which close off resources. This approach recognizes that
there is often more information which might be useful behind an
initial representation.
One of the results of removing all questioning, of opening the
boundaries totally, is that the alternatives generated are often not
able to be translated into action. Many ideas can be outside of the
context of the desired outcome. Some are solutions to problems
which weren’t under consideration. Many move past the defined
difference or desired state and propose paths leading to outcomes
beyond the scope of the original goals. Each alternative is accepted
n» equally valid. Minor or partial solutions may be side by side with
inujor operating policies. In this situation, it is often difficult to
extract a useful alternative even when it is generated. There are two
118 PRECISION

problems. The first is that good suggestions may be buried in a long

list of impractical ideas. The second is that the process of turning the
list into a form appropriate for consideration of action requires very
different circumstances than the ones which generated the list. The
lack of appropriate questioning has allowed items to appear on the
list which may need much more explicit representation before their
utility can be known. Many of these will turn out to be useless.
Unless the alternatives elicited can be turned into action, they are of
no use to business. The effort of turning a list of suggestions into
alternatives that actually lead to the desired outcome can be a major
task which is often prohibitive.
Expansion of boundaries is only one of the requirements for gener­
ating the maximum number of alternative pathways. An effective
process must also extract the potentially available information for a
shared map.
The problem of accessing the rich resources from each partici­
pant’s map of reality is often a question of how it is represented to
the external world; in this case, the others present at the meeting.
There are some who have valuable experience and creative ideas but
who are usually called inarticulate. These individuals may have rich
variety of experience to call on but are unable to represent it to others
in a way, namely, sentences of English, that the others may share.
The foreman who can solve any problem at his machine but can't tell
others how to do it is familiar to us all. The systems analyst or
economist who can represent solutions only in a specialized language
that we can't understand, is at the other end of the spectrum, still,
however, effectively inarticulate. These individual resources become
unavailable for generating alternatives even though they may have
been the very ideas needed in the situation.
The expert or specialist is often prominent in a meeting to generate
alternatives. He has special areas of knowledge which would not be
ordinarily available to the group. Often, however, his knowledge will
be theoretical and will not have enough grounding in experience, in
his way of representing it, to enable the other participants to grasp
its significance. If this is the case, the minimum value will be obtained
from his input, if, in fact, any at all is realized, because it will not
be represented in a way that connects with the experience of the other
participants.
A precise technology is required to ask the specific kind of ques­
tions which will elicit the maximum resources of each person in the
 BRAINSTORMING 119

group and will avoid the pitfalls recognized by those consultants who
observed the difference in outcomes between meetings where ques­
tions were and were not allowed. The model that we are presenting
here allows the leader of the meeting for generating alternatives to
make precisely the distinctions required.
Some problem solving approaches which reject brainstorming
completely suggest that there is a class of problem which does not
call for the creative generation of new ideas. They claim problems
in this category will be solved just by gathering enough information.
These are problems which are defined as a change in circumstances
from a previously existing acceptable state to an unsatisfactory pre­
sent state. Here, where the goal is a return to a specific state which
previously existed, the gathering of high quality information at the
problem definition stage will lead to the required path of action. This
type of problem is encountered most frequently with machines or
systems.
One such system involved a grain milling machine which pro­
duced material that couldn’t be made into pellets in certain end
products and was being investigated for worn or faulty parts. The
machine was blamed because it was old and seemed a likely cause.
When a more detailed investigation was made—after significant
amounts of unacceptable products were produced and repairs were
made to the machine to no avail—the difference between materials
going in and machine operations was compared to when acceptable
results were obtained. The difference was found to be that a partic­
ularly hard grain was used in some mixtures and not others and
that the problem occurred only in those with the hard grain. The
solution was a change in pre-processing before milling. Another
instance with the same company involved a similar problem which
occurred apparently randomly in all products. The old machine
again took the blame. Upon further investigation, the difference
turned out to be that oats from a particular area had a moisture
content significantly lower than other oats which were bought as
exchangeable products. The difference was discovered with astute
questioning. Once the problems above were adequately defined,
that is, once enough high quality information was obtained, the
company could move immediately to action. There seemed to be no
particular need for generating alternatives. The immediate problem
could be readily solved.
The best long term solution, however, is seldom apparent from this
120 PRECISION

type of approach. The desired state is often less than optimal if it is

only to restore conditions to a previous state. While solving an
immediate problem, a great deal of high quality information will be
generated which could provide a base for a more aggressive and
creative approach. In the above examples, there were simple and
immediate solutions.
The second situation served to get the company to take a more
serious look at the longer range situation. Instead of setting a goal
of returning to previous performance, the company sought to make
a lasting improvement. The new defined difference would require a
new product or process. The potential solutions ranged from sim­
ple formula changes to complete new products, from process time
alterations to new equipment. The final solution introduced a prod­
uct which combined pelleted and non-pelleted material. This en­
tirely new product is now a staple of the industry. It solved the
manufacturing problems and was highly successful in the field. In­
stead of merely reacting to a problem and returning to an old situa­
tion, the company used the high quality information needed for
problem solving to generate a state better than the previously exist­
ing one.
Business is often thought of as being conservative. The justification
is assumed tQ be based on the production process. Business is re­
quired to produce and any existing business has a history of produc­
tion. “It worked before** is commonly heard from companies which
are marginally profitable as well as many more successful ones. Any
change which is potentially profitable is also potentially risky. The
authors believe that conservatism has been a justifiable approach for
another reason. Survival and "good enough” aren’t normal stan­
dards of business. They strive to grow and increase profits continu­
ally. It is our belief that if a change is going to be made, it should
be aimed at improvement not just reinstatement of a status quo.
What, then, prevents business from taking these risks? Why doe*
business appear conservative? As the chain of information flow get>
longer and the manager gets more removed from direct experience,
he must rely on information sources and his ability to elicit appropri­
ate detail. As the chain gets longer the quality of information gctn
lower and a manager will realize that a decision based on that low
quality will be increasingly risky. We believe the answer lies in the
lack of information processing skills. A model which provides appro*
 BRAINSTORMING 121

priate information processing technology provides management with

the knowledge to proceed along new paths with confidence. Ade­
quate information reduces the risk and increases confidence in the
reward.
A company getting unsatisfactory results from its computer instal­
lation hired a consultant to recommend a solution which was to
include a new computer. The aggressive general manager thought
that if major programming changes were being considered that was
the time to improve total capabilities with a new computer. The
consultant did a study and recommended a more powerful machine
produced by the same manufacturer, one of the largest. The resulting
installation finished with a more expensive piece of equipment doing
basically the same job as before. The gain which might have been
realized was lost because the general manager did not have the ability
to ask the right questions of the experts. A conservative choice was
made, which later cost additional capital, for lack of high quality
information. A more adventurous choice was rendered too risky by
the inability to obtain adequate information to ensure reasonable
confidence in another choice.
The risk to a manager or company of any new idea is largely a
function of the quality of information available. With the highest
quality information, the only risks relate to the changes in future
conditions which are never totally known to any of us. As the quality
decreases, less and less is known about present conditions which may
provide assurance about the future. The richer our internal represen­
tation about a situation, the surer we feel regarding decisions about
it. The closer our representation is to experience, the more likely it
is to reflect actual conditions. The ability to obtain high quality
information is the necessary tool to provide adequate confidence in
new ideas. Conservatism has been justified to the extent these skills
were not available. This kind of conservatism is no longer justified.
The technology presented here will give the manager the necessary
tools to get precisely the high quality information needed for success­
ful change and improvement.
The Pathways phase of information processing for business is a
pnrt of normal business operations. It is a special case of the whole
process of information processing. Each phase of the process has its
own set of appropriate procedures which are determined by the
context. The context is determined by the particular outcome desired
122 PRECISION

for the particular phase. Although some of the requirements are

different in this phase, all are parts of the Precision Model, and
therefore, within ordinarily acceptable business operations. A man­
ager, as an information processor, is required to elicit the resources
of those around him. His function is to draw on those resources, not
to be the expert himself. The techniques presented here are designed
to provide the technology for him to perform that function effec­
tively.
Let’s return to the outcome desired for this phase. We want to
generate the greatest number of alternative pathways from the pre­
sent state to the desired state as specified in the phase Defining the
Difference. The most desirable outcome would be to end with a list
of alternatives every one of which would lead to the desired outcome.
The future phases would then merely identify and select the one with
the best results, including side effects. The outcome requires that two
variables be considered. The first is the number of alternatives gener­
ated. The second is the context—the overall outcome desired.
Imagine you are planning a trip from the state you are in to a state
which you have never been to. You have a road atlas in front of you.
First, you would identify where you were in the atlas and next where
you were going. The starting point and the desired destination would
be your parameters for determining which roads might be appropri­
ate. As you look at the map, you see that there are only a few
alternatives which are available that will lead in the appropriate
direction. As you follow these, each in turn, you find more and more
branches are possible which will all lead to your final destination.
Then, as you near your destination, you find that the options availa­
ble narrow once again. When you see the whole map at once, you
discover that some of the roads which appeared to go in the most
direct path at the start didn’t necessarily end up being the shorteal
route. And a route that appeared to veer off turned out to be the moat
direct. You might also find that a number of roads would get you
to your destination in about the same amount of time but some go
through much more interesting country than others and some would
be much more comfortable drives. By considering a larger area than
presented by the more obvious straight line between two points, you
might discover possibilities that you would have missed completely
had you not expanded the boundaries of the area under considers
tion.
 BRAINSTORMING 123

However, suppose your planning was being done in the middle of

a family reunion. As you get out our atlas and begin to discuss your
plans, some of the relatives get interested and begin to gather around.
A nephew says, “Wouldn’t it be nice to go to a lake which is fairly
near that area.” Another says, “Yeah, there’s one that’s even better
further south. You could stay and have a holiday.” An elderly aunt
tells you of a fine trip she took along a road which doesn’t start or
end along your path and recommends you travel on it. An uncle who
has had a little too much to drink insists that you can better spend
your time in another area. Another aunt suggests a shortcut she took
on the same general route once. Soon, you are so buried in informa­
tion, some of which may have been helpful, that you pack up your
atlas. You decide to find your own route at another time and place
without the help of others.
The problem of expanding boundaries while maintaining a rele­
vant context requires a model which can define the boundaries and
enforce them in a way which supports new ideas. The brainstorm
approaches tend to lose the context in their efforts to remove the
boundaries. Many of their idea generating techniques are useful and
need not be rejected provided an appropriate Frame or context can
be maintained. Familiarity with the Precision Model, its use as a
ttandard technique of controlling the context of any meeting, pro­
vides a Frame which can elicit the maximum benefit from idea
generation techniques. Without the model, much time and resources
t nn be wasted generating unique ideas which do not result in achiev­
ing the desired outcome.
The focus of the Pathways phase is on actions. In the experience
of the authors at our management workshops, the most effective
|tointer in this phase is the Action Blockbuster. The defined differ­
ence passed from the previous phase will contain a series of un-
t»l>ecified verbs or action phrases. The outcome desired will be to find
»* many alternative actions as possible which will lead to the desired
K'Hult. Each will be a specification of the original action phrase. A
vlmial representation of the original information which will deter­
mine the desired outcome might look like the following:

• Increase return on invested capital

• Increase margins
• Reduce costs
124 PRECISION

Each node represents a course of action, a direction which could

be pursued for elimination of the defined difference. The above rep­
resentation indicates that the difference defined was narrowed
down to reducing costs as the most likely way to increase margins
which, in its turn, was the best way to increase return on invested
capital. The defined difference in this case is an instruction to gen­
erate alternative courses of action to reduce costs. If the level of
authority is high enough and the situation seems to warrant it, the
information processor may move up the structure and generate al­
ternatives for higher or less specified nodes, such as “increase mar­
gins” in our example. The statement passed, however, is a clear
directive to concentrate on reducing costs. The concept of account­
ability, discussed earlier, can be used here as a tracking device for
the information flow. The highest level of authority represented
while generating alternatives will decide the appropriate level of
action at which to generate alternatives. The defined difference
represents a specific statement directing attention to a specific area,
The definition will have contextual information which may indicate
that a wider area should be considered. The Backtrack Frame
would normally be employed before a consideration was made to
change the level of concentration. The level of detail chosen for
consideration and passed to this phase was chosen after a specific
procedure. New information or a higher level of authority may be
adequate grounds to change the area to be considered. The inter­
vention point will be determined by the highest level of authority
involved.
What procedure seems best for eliciting the alternative»
desired? We suggest that each action phrase be specified as fully
as possible before moving to another. The manager will decide
whether to stick to that procedure or whether he will accept al*
tematives which are further specifications of one of the other ac­
tions represented.
The manager has full power to decide which procedure to fol*
low. He may accept alternatives or put them on hold. He may
also determine whether to accept or reject an alternative pro­
posed which addresses a higher or less specified action. The diff­
erences in approach can be compared to the style differences re­
ferred to at the end of the preceding chapter. Visually this might
be represented as:
 BRAINSTORMING 125

Procedure I Procedure 2
original action Original action

/IV
Step 1 Action, Action] Action,

Following the preceding representation of the defined difference

matement and procedure 1, we might get three alternatives which
can be visually represented like this:

* Increase return on invested capital

* Increase margins

Material Direct Expenses

Costs Labor

The next group of alternatives might be elicited by asking for

specification of each of these in turn. No alternatives for reducing
direct labor might be accepted until reducing material costs failed
to produce any more alternatives. The information processor may
then choose to elicit alternatives for each specific item under Re­
duce Material Costs before proceeding to Reduce Direct Labor.
126 PRECISION

A visual representation after eliciting for the first such item

might be:

* Increase return on invested capital

* Increase margins

.Reduce costs
^ Reduce Reduce
Expenses

Change Reduce
Suppliers Quality

The style difference referred to above is merely personal. The

Precision Model will get the desired results. The major consideration
for this stage is whether or not it maintains the trajectory toward the
desired outcome.

POINTERS

Each pointer has specific contexts which make it appropriate. The

test for this section will be, "Will this question lead to an increase
in the number of possible alternatives for eliminating the defined
difference?” The preceding discussion of verb challenges (Action
Blockbusters) used this standard continually. Noun Blockbuster!
will be appropriate if they can pass the test—the Outcome Frame.
Most of these pointers will not often pass the test in this phase for
the simple reason that they will not be adding new alternative course»
of action. The test must be applied to each situation individually.
There will be some appropriate Noun Blockbusters, however. When­
ever a situation is so unspecified that others involved in the meeting
cannot relate it to their own maps or experience, some clarification
is called for. This clarification may indeed result in further idenb
being generated. A proposal which has no reference to experience;
 POINTERS 127

which can’t be understood» isn’t a useful contribution if left in that

state.
Two other cues which would normally invite Precision questions
can usually be ignored in this phase. Comparative deletions (better,
worse) and universal quantifiers (all, every), if unchallenged, will
seldom constitute blocks at this point. These pointers would nor­
mally not be appropriate in this phase because the answer to them
is not likely to increase the number of alternatives. Statements such
as the following constitute acceptable or adequately precise formula­
tions of alternatives for consideration, that is, they lead to the out­
come desired, even though they may not be totally accurate.

“All of the machines need fixing.”

“Every salesman needs some training.”
“No one should be fired or laid ofT.”
“It would be more profitable to speed up the line.”
“Company Y is a better source of raw material.”
“We should copy Smith; he’s the best. ”

To challenge these statements at this point would demand justifi­

cations which would not increase the number of pathways and might
decrease contributions from others who felt inadequate to provide
Hupport.
Another form of statement which may appear will be one that
Homething is impossible, that an action can’t or must not be taken.
In this phase, the appropriate re&ponse to such a statement is ignore
the claim in favor of including the statement under question as an
Acceptable alternative and to return to the action being specified.
Rejecting a statement for impossibility may remove a potentially
profitable alternative from consideration. To challenge such a state­
ment at this point may reduce the willingness of participants to
MiKgest alternatives. A statement that something can’t be done usu­
ally reflects a representation which has imposed boundaries which
яге not absolute necessities but merely a reflection of individual
experience. The purpose of this phase is to generate many possible
Alternatives, not to evaluate the degree of possibility. A common
oniimple of this type of statement arises when policy is believed to
prevent an alternative. Often, in these circumstances, the idea never
M ir faces in a meeting because “everybody knows” it’s against policy.
Il is often possible, of course, to change policy and ideas rejected at
128 PRECISION

this stage will hide the costs of that policy. Better to consider the idea
and let it be rejected after costs are considered.
The above comments regarding Pointers and the following ones
on appropriate procedures are given with the understanding that
the non-verbal components of communication are always more
powerful than the verbal. Non-verbal communication is outside of
the scope of this book and will be presented in a forthcoming work.
We believe the verbal component of communication is the most
effective place to start a full system of communication. Much of
business communication is, after all, verbal. We introduce the non­
verbal factor here as a caution to ensure that the user of the Preci­
sion model be aware of the outcome desired. If a manager really
wants to elicit the resources of employees and peers, his non-verbal
behavior will most frequently support that intention. Combined
with the appropriate questions, that behavior will likely generate
the desired response. The skilled use of non-verbal behavior will,
with or without questions, elicit the appropriate responses with
greater ease and elegance.

PROCEDURES

The next area of the Precision model we will consider is the one
referred to as Procedures. Each Procedure was designed for specific
uses at specific stages of information processing. The Procedures
appropriate to the Pathways phase are the Relevancy Challenge, the
Missing Link, and the Recycle Questions. The Relevancy Challenge
is simply a request for the information source to identify how his
statement is relevant—how it may help to achieve the outcome. This
challenge can obviously be misused to defeat the purpose of this
phase but it must be included for the information processor to ensure
his ability to maintain control. The challenge can yield benefits othei
than control. If an idea is apparently irrelevant, it cannot be used
effectively by others. Also, in the evidence produced for support of
relevancy, there may be a chain of unspecified actions which lead
back to the original source unspecified action and which contain»
links outside of the representation of the others present. The require­
ment of evidence of relevancy suggests this is the case. A Relevancy
Challenge such as, “I don’t understand the connection between your
suggestion and the desired outcome. How, specifically, would that
 PROCEDURES 129

achieve the outcome we're after?” may elicit a favorable response

which indeed provides useful new representations. Such a challenge
may produce more alternatives and will eliminate alternatives which
don’t lead to the desired outcome.

MISSING LINK PROCEDURE

The Missing Link is a refinement of the relevancy procedure es­

pecially for this phase. We stated earlier that the approach to
Pathfinding is to continually more fully specify verbs until ade­
quate precision is achieved. The function of the Missing Link ques­
tion is to retrace some of the node structure presented earlier to
determine if there is a relatively less specified action than one al­
ready on the chart which is between the next highest or less spe­
cified action on the chart. In the Relevancy Challenge we asked for
further specification because the relation to the desired outcome
was not apparent. Here we are asking for further specification, not
because we don’t understand the connection but because there
might be a relatively less specified action which would indicate a
new direction for alternatives.
Let’s return to a previous example of a sales manager and his
general manager. The defined difference statment may have been “to
create a new reporting method which would increase the control over
sales.” The first suggestion might have been to keep logs of sales call
activity. A visual representation of this stage might look like the
following:

•Increase control over sales

•Create new reporting system
•Keep logs of sales call activity

Now, if the Missing Link question, “What will keeping logs do to

attain the desired outcome?” were asked, the response might gener­
ate the less specified verb phrase, “Use information not contained in
Ihe accounting system.” That is, the purpose of keeping and using
nales logs for reporting is that the sales manager is using that infor­
mation to judge his salesmen and their efforts and he would like to
be judged on the same basis. A more general statement of this possi­
bility has now been added.
130 PRECISION

•Increase control over sales

♦Create new reporting system
•Use non-accounting data in the reporting system (new)
•Keep logs of sales call activity

This new representation provides the opportunity to direct the

search for alternatives into the area of common performance crite­
rion and will lead to the likelihood of discovering a better solution
using orders taken.

RECYCLE PROCEDURE *

The Recycle Procedure is appropriate whenever a word or phrase

is so rich with potential hidden material that it might be profitably
returned to. This procedure can be used when:

1. An action (verb) phrase is being pursued to develop a number

of alternative courses of action or pathways, or,
2. A sentence or phrase has a number of words or parts each of
which can be profitably developed.

The Recycle Procedure is like a memo to return to a particular

point. It ensures that the manager won’t get lost in following n
particular track and fail to return to a place which he selected a»
potentially profitable. In our experience, many managers fail to re*
turn after one track leads to a dead end and lose opportunities to
solve problems effectively. We have found that making a visual repre*
sentation or note can be the most effective way to learn this proce­
dure and that many experienced managers continue to use the tech*
nique of making these notes.
A whole tree structure can be developed and will help to keep
everyone involved aware of the alternatives and where they are in the
procedure. A simple procedure of writing down the action which ii
being specified as a reminder of the return point may be sufficient;
For more complex problems, a list of verb phrases can be made and
each item circled as it is being developed and checked when com­
plete. Any of these procedures can be effective when the purpose in
to generate a maximum number of alternative actions such as in thia
Pathways phase.
Each action should be returned to until all possible alternative!
 RECYCLE PROCEDURE 131

have been generated. A variation of the Action Blockbuster will be

appropriate here. After the first Action Blockbuster, the Recycle
Procedure will be accomplished by the question, “How else might we
. . . (verb)?” The word “else” will be repeated until no more alterna­
tives are offered. A visual representation of the Recycle Procedure
with a verb phrase might look like the following:

grease funds available for investment

Issue bonds Issue shares Sell division Reduce dividends

Each of the items generated can, in turn, be further developed in

the same way.
The Recycle Procedure is also appropriate when applied to an
initial verbal representation. The initial statement is a highly coded
representation of a complete map or representation. For instance, the
statement, “We need to get rid of slow moving inventory” has a
number of elements which all need to be expanded to be of high
enough quality for an action plan.
Each of the following questions for this particular example, needs
to be answered before any precise understanding of what has been
proposed can be assumed:

1. Who, specifically, needs to take the action(s)?

2. What inventory, specifically, is being considered as “slow
moving?”
3. How, specifically, is it to be “got rid of?”

All of these individual parts need to be considered to arrive at an

adequately precise understanding before action is taken. Missing any
one of them will leave a gap which could result in unwarranted
uction or the inability to obtain feedback or maintain accountability.
Л full specification will provide full control.

During a planning meeting, for which we had been asked to pro­

vide process consulting, the marketing vice-president stated she
thought they needed “a new product to sell.” All the information
needed was contained in this initial statement in a highly coded form.
We used a flip chart to demonstrate this visually to the meeting. The
original was presented as:
132 PRECISION

new product sell

After the first question, "Sell to whom?” we had:

Next, we chose to track “New Products” with the Noun Blockbuster

and developed the following:

| new product j
— H I
jewelry
±
neck to'w aistj^
г m ■ Г" J■ — I г ■ |
I necklaces| bracelets! brooches I

We then chose to track “sell” and developed the following:

E D
у
\ pictoral advertising
I highlight & comment (
[on accessoncs I
use existing brand name j

Finally, “existing customers” was tracked into the following;

lxai^ing_cjJstomersl

top of line|

The final representation from the original statement looked like tht
following:
 RECYCLE PROCEDURE 133

| new product |—

| jewelry | pictoral advJ [existing customers!

Inectc t^walst] highlight & |top of line)

comment
Necklaces,bracelets, on accessories
brooches
Jusee^sting_brandjiame]

The Recycle Procedure was used to develop a high quality repre­

sentation from the original statement “need a new product to sell.”
Each element of the original was developed to produce an action
plan. The final verbal representation was a request to develop “a new
product line of jewelry limited to necklaces, bracelets and brooches
which would be sold to existing ‘top of the line’ customers by using
the existing company brand name and existing advertising format.”
We recommended that the flip chart be passed on as part of the
problem definition to the next phase. This would provide the partici­
pants with a visual device for demonstrating the source and develop­
ment of the idea — a sort of snapshot Backtrack Frame for the next
meeting.

FRAMES

The third area of the Precision model, the Frames, are all applica­
ble to this stage. The Outcome Frame runs through all phases and
is the mechanism for maintaining control of the process. It ensures
that the manager knows where he is at all times and that contribu­
tions are relevant. It can be used to reorient participants to where
they are or should be in the process. The Backtrack Frame is a device
for refreshing the representations which may be valuable for the
purposes of any particular outcome or phase of the process. It can
l« used at any time in this phase and will often help to access parts
of maps which are relevant but were not elicited on previous run-
throughs. It may be used as a summary of the content or where you
nre in the process.
We introduce the third and final Frame of the Precision Model in
134 PRECISION

this phase. It is not restricted to this phase. Like all the Frames, it
can be effectively employed in any phase. The Frames are the power-
ful techniques which will enable the information processor to access
the maximum resources in context at all times.

AS-IF FRAME

The purpose of the As-if Frame is to make it possible to elicit the

information and/or behavior required for the Desired State to be
reached as effectively as possible given the present resources of the
group.

The As-if Frame is appropriate whenever the manager determines

that there is a condition in the actual present situation which is
blocking access to information or behavior which moves toward the
intended Desired State. The As-if Frame is the establishment of a
contrary to fact context or Frame in which the desired information
or behavior becomes available. This includes typically the assignment
of roles or characteristics to various members of groups or the creat­
ing and establishing of information contrary to fact which shifts the
context in which the group is operating to one where the information
or behavior required is made available.

The exchange in the following transcript offers an example of the

As-if Frame:

GM: . . . as a way of getting started, let me pretend to be naive

about this margins-inventory situation. Specifically, see how
many ways you can describe to me that this problem might
be solved.

DM: I’m not sure what you mean, George.

GM: All right, Tom, act as if you had the ability to change any
part of this operation. Now tell me how many ways you could
change something which might solve the problem that we’ve
defined here this morning—namely, to . . .

The GM has made the determination that an As-if Frame would

be useful at this point in the discussion. His motivation in this сяи
 AS-IF FRAME 135

was that the DM typically assumed that the GM had information

about the division as thorough and detailed as the information that
the DM had. Operating with this assumption, the DM would typi­
cally allude to complex portions of the divisional operation for which
the GM had little or no high quality information. Thus, to prevent
a recurrence of this low grade information exchange situation, and
to establish a temporary relationship with the DM which would
make the detailed ‘no-assumptions’ Precision Model questioning
more understandable to the DM, the GM assigns himself a charac­
teristic . . . let me pretend to be naive . . . and the DM, a role
. . . act as if you had the ability to change any part o f the operation
. . . Hence, the elicitation of the high quality information proceeds
and as the reader will note, the GM succeeds in creating an environ­
ment where the resources of the DM are fully engaged in creating
solutions to his own problem. The GM does not create any solutions,
rather by his timely use of Frames and Precision Model questioning,
he creates an environment in which the individual who has the fullest
umount of high quality information, the richest internal map, does
so—a splendid example of the art of managing.
There is a wide range of uses of this powerful Framing technique
—some of which will occur in other segments of the transcripts. We
offer two further examples at this point.
In a high level planning session, the CEO determines that one of
(he plans for achieving a Desired State is much more attractive than
the others—particularly, in terms of the payoffs. He also has the
intuition that this particular plan involves a high level of risk, specifi­
cally, the risk of an expensive sales and advertising campaign being
co-opted by a particular competitor. In order to upgrade his intui­
tions regarding the risk of a campaign take-over by the competitor,
he turns to one of the members of the executive planning committee:

CEO: Jim, didn’t you once tell me that you have made a hobby
out of predicting the responses that Driver (the CEO of the
competitor in question) would make to our plans?

Executive: That’s correct—I’ve gotten quite accurate over the

years.

CEO: Excellent. I’ve got something here I believe would be ex­

tremely useful for our meeting. Jim, I want you to act as if
you are Driver and, further, that you have received informa-
136 PRECISION

tion that we are about to initiate the campaign we've been

discussing. Your task is to develop as many ways as possible
that you could take over the campaign for your own purposes.
If we can build in safeguards to your attempts at a take-over,
I know we can defend it in practical terms. Are you game?

Another common and extremely powerful use of the As-If Frame

is one in which a group of business people in a meeting are exploring
specific ways to achieve some desired state. As they pursue one
particular possibility, one of the group members makes the following
objection:

Controller (C): . . . look, it may look like a time saver to your

people, but let me tell you that if we do away with the Special
Stores way of accounting for tools, the employees will steal
us blind. Can anyone tell me how we’re going to keep them
from stealing the equipment? Huh? I’m just not going to buy
it.

CEO: Orville, you’ve raised a very important issue—accountabil

ity, and frankly, I don’t have an answer to your question til
this point. However, I do know two things—first, there arc
companies similar to ours which have successfully done away
with the Special Stores method of accounting for tools; and
secondly, this possibility looks like just the solution to a num­
ber of our difficulties if we could solve the accountability
problem. So I’d like to pursue it right down to the specific»
to determine whether it is as good as it looks. Orville, just
suppose for a minute, that we could come up with a system
which satisfies the accountability issue you’ve raised, would
you then buy it? Would you have any objection at that point
to the proposal?

In this instance the As-if Frame isolates an information deficit.

None of the individuals presently available can offer the high quality
information required to fill this information gap. The CEO has infor­
mation that leads him to believe that with some research and plan­
ning the objection that the controller has raised can be dealt with
effectively. Thus, he uses the As-if Frame to isolate the information
deficit and instructs the other members of the group to act as if a high
 AS-IF FRAME 137

quality solution is available. This frees the group to continue their

detailed examination of this possibility. The alternative would, of
course, be to drop the otherwise promising proposal until the infor­
mation deficit has been filled and reassemble the group at that time
to continue the discussion of that alternative. The savings in time,
energy and money is obvious. The CEO will, of course, prior to the
termination of the meeting if the remainder of the discussion of that
alternative proves it to be otherwise viable, assign responsibility for
eliciting information of a high quality to fill that information deficit.
The model just presented has demonstrated how a context can be
maintained within ordinary business procedures and information can
be effectively elicited at the same time. There need be no inherent
contradiction between these goals. Many individuals have rich repre­
sentations stored internally which they are unable, without skilled
assistance in the form of questions or other techniques, to convert into
verbal representations. The ability to access this material is provided
by the questioning format in the Precision Model. The individual
representations must be converted into a form useable for shared
representations for this phase of the process to be most effective.
We have presented the Pathfinding phase in considerable detail.
Now we present some dialogues which will demonstrate its use. We
iccommend that you identify the Precision Model cues and the
nppropriate question or statement within the context of this phase for
yourself as you go. A commentary at the end of the dialogue will
highlight some of the more significant points.

CASE STUDY I (SEGMENT 2)

GM: OK, Tom, I agree we’ve tracked it down—now let’s figure

out how many ways we might solve this margins-inventory
problem . . . and as a way of getting started, let me pretend
to be naive about this margins-inventory situation. Specifi­
cally, see how many ways you can describe to me that this
problem might be solved.

DM: I’m not sure what you mean, George.

GM: All right, Tom, let us act as if you had the ability to change
any part of this operation,—now tell me how many ways you
138 PRECISION

could change something which might solve the problem that

we’ve defined here this morning—namely, to get your mar­
gins back up and interest charges on inventory reduced.

DM: You mean, like dropping interest charges on my inventory

of type В motors?

GM: OK, that’s one—go ahead, I’ll keep track.

DM: Well, let me see.. . . I could boot old Larry in the pants and
tell him to push the type В motors.. . . but he’s already doing
one hell of a job and I’d hate to. . . .

GM: (interrupting) That’s all right. Don’t worry at this point

about evaluating each possibility. Just come up with as many
ways to solve this problem as you can—we’ll evaluate each
one in turn for feasibility later—go ahead.

DM: Well, obviously one solution is to cut back on producing the

type В motors until inventory levels are appropriate, but
realistically I. . . . well, we can discuss that later, I guess.

GM: I agree—let’s discuss it more specifically later. Any other

ways that you can think of?

DM: Hmmmm, . . . nothing occurs to me at the moment.

GM: OK, let me remind you of where we are. We are generating

alternative ways that might logically solve the problem that
we’ve defined here this morning,—specifically, how to raise
profit margins which have slid in the last reporting period due
to high interest charges on your inventory of type В motors
So far, you’ve come up with three possible solutions—I’ll li.*ti
them on the flip chart here where we can easily see them.

1. drop interest charges on inventory

2. increase divisional sales (on type В motors)
3. cut back production of type В motors
 CASE STUDY I (SEGMENT 2) 139

DM: Right! I’m with you.

GM: All right, Any other ways to handle this problem occur to
you?

DM: Hmmm. . . . not really.

GM: OK, let me try something here, Tom. Pick one of the alter­
natives listed up there—maybe the one that you presently
favor without being really specific about why you favor that
one.

DM: All right, I guess that I favor the second one at the moment.

GM: OK, now, Tom, what outcome does increasing divisional

sales of type В motors achieve for you? What is the result of
increasing sales of the type В motors?

DM: Well, obviously, increasing divisional sales on that item will

move inventory so that the interest charges will drop,. . . and
my margins will rise.

GM: Right! Now, let me just repeat what you said—increasing

divisional sales on that item will move your inventory. . . .

DM: OK___

GM: in other words, the outcome you achieve, the result you get
by increasing divisional sales is to move the inventory. An­
other way of saying it is that increasing divisional sales on
that item is an example of one way you might move your
inventory.

DM: All right, I think I understand. One way to attack the prob­
lem is that I’ve got too many type В motors in stock—so
anyway I can move them will solve my problem.

GM: Right—getting Larry to increase sales is one way to move

your inventory. Can you see any other way to move those B’s?
140 PRECISION

DM: Yeah, I was just thinking while I was listening to you that
an inventory transfer would be another solution—yeah,
maybe some other division is short on the type B’s and would
welcome that.

GM: All right.

DM: Or even a special head office sales advertising push—in fact,

didn’t I hear that the Phoenix division was negotiating a
major sales of B’s to Stonewall’s (a major client)?

GM: Could be—we’ll check that out shortly. Any other ways to
move that inventory occur to you?

DM: . . . Well, how about a package?

GM: What specifically are you packaging?

DM: I was thinking—the SX power units are moving faster than

we predicted. They’re our hottest major item—What if we
offered a special package: SX power units with a type В motor
at a special price?

GM: You mean—package the sales of the SX power units with

the type В motors and sell them together?

DM: (excitedly) Yes, that might work real well.

GM: OK, got it. Any other ways you see to solve the margins-
inventory problem?

DM: . . . (pause) . . . I guess that’s it—How did I do?

GM: Really well. I’ll put the rest of the possible solutions you
came up with on the chart.

4. inventory transfer
5. special sale by head office
6. re-package—specifically an SX power unit and type В motor
 CASE STUDY I (SEGMENT 2) 141

DM: You know, when I look at those six alternative solutions,

1 fee) a lot more confident about solving my margins prob­
lem.

GM: So do I, Tom—good start on the solution.

COMMENTS

The GM establishes the context of the meeting by stating the

required outcome. He asks: “How many ways can we solve this
problem?” The answer to this question will be the necessary input
to the next step of the process. He restates the problem for which
alternative pathways are to be found for solution. This might be
represented as follows:
1 increase margins
2 reduce interest charges
3 reduce inventory of type В motors
Either of these verb phrases may be used as a starting point. In
this instance, the manager allows Tom to pick what he thinks to
be the most likely starting place and proceeds from there. The
context for the meeting has been explicitly established at this
point. It may be referred to later to ensure that the meeting fol­
lows an appropriate course. The GM further refines the context
by suggesting a procedure which may help Tom to access more
of his experiential maps. The authors refer to this as an As-lf
Frame. That is, “act as if you had the ability to change any part
of this operation.”
This Procedure generates some alternative paths of action which
can be represented in the following manner.

^ ^ ^ 2 reduce interest charges

2.1 Head reduce inventory

reduction j
3.1 increase sa le s^ 3 .2 cut production
142 PRECISION

When Tom runs out of suggestions, GM uses the Backtrack

Frame to refresh Tom’s memory. When that fails to generate any
alternatives, he decides to select the Missing Link Procedure to
create a verb which is less specified than the alternatives already
generated but more specified than the original set passed from defin­
ing the difference. He allows Tom to pick the most likely alternative
and goes to that one. He could use this procedure on any one of the
suggestions where he thought it might produce results. The question
he then asks is, “What outcome does increasing the divisional sales
of type В motors achieve for you?” He is requesting a higher level
of action not included in the present structure. The response he gets
is, “It will move my inventory. . . ” After this response, the structure
could look like the following:
2 reduce interest charges

ЗА. 1 move inventory 3,2 cut production

3.1 increase sales

A new levfel of possible action has been introduced which may

result in the creation of more alternative paths as it is further spe­
cified. The new node generates more alternatives and the structure
created may be represented in the following manner:

2 reduce interest charges

3.1,4 H O. Sftli

This final representation contains the potential paths of action to

be developed in the next stage. Each endpoint represents a potential
solution. These are:
 COMMENTS 143
2.1 Head Office reduction
3.1.1 increase sales
3.1.2 inventory transfer
3.1.3 repackage motors
3.1.4 Head Office sale
3.2 cut production

and are the starting points for developing alternatives which is the
next stage. The outcome has been achieved in an efficient way. Both
requirements of precision have been met. The paths of action gener­
ated all are different ways of achieving the Desired State. Each
alternative has been adequately specified according to the intuitions
or needs of both participants.
Many managers we have observed have difficulty in being precise
about what stage of a process they are at. Present states and desired
states are both often not clearly known to the participants in a
meeting. When managers are carrying out their normal functions,
they are often engaged in the processes we are presenting here. It is
equally important in such informal processes to know where you are
as it is in meetings set up explicitly for the process of problem solving,
‘brainstorming,’ or decision making. The Precision Model demands
(hat you know where you are in the process and provides the tools
enabling you to know. Failure to clearly differentiate where you are,
(hat is, to be constantly aware of the context, often results in inappro­
priate responses to comments or information.

COMMON ERRORS

In contrast to the opening of our Case Study I, many managers

will start with a representation which ignores the need to establish
an outcome or inadvertantly set an inappropriate one. For many
managers, jumping to the solution stage too quickly is common.
They might start in the following manner:

GM: Let me make sure I’ve got this. Your margins are down
because head office charges are up—specifically, charges on
your inventory of type В motors. Right?
144 PREGSION

DM: Yet that seems to be an accurate statement.

GM: OK Tom, now let’s fix it. What are you going to do about
it?

Comparethis opening to the case study, noticing particularly the

phrase “hov many ways we might solve” the problem. Instead of
asking for he solution, the manager creates a context which will
obtain full reative resources by removing the pressure for a single
solution.
After sone general discussion about the situation the following
takes place:

DM: I’d like to get a more reasonable rate on those interest

chafes. If we could make an adjustment, only for . . .

GM: (insrrupting) Hold on a minute, Tom. You can save your

breah. The company policy on inventory interest charges
isn’tabout to be changed. So let’s be realistic about this and
not vaste our time. You’ll have to come up with something
bettr.

A secom common and major error is to jump in with evaluation

at an inappropriate time. If the objective is to get a number ol'
alternative: one which has already been proposed, however unlikely,
can be accpted and the trajectory toward more proposals main­
tained. Noice that the original statement which suggests the solu*
tion be fouid will tend to require that judgement be applied to each
one as it is >roposed. The response to this particular proposal in the
original traiscript, “OK, that’s one—go ahead”, is much more con­
ducive to ptting more creative alternatives.
A third :rror which is common is pursuing an alternative to a
degree of dtail not required at this stage. Once a proposal is under-
stood, it should be accepted and the momentum maintained by turn­
ing to new >nes. Getting into excess detail will almost certainly lead
to evaluatin. Worse, the participants tend to get lost in the detail
or validatin of the proposal and often neglect to return to the
original obictive, namely, to generate as many alternatives as роняЬ
Ые. For intance:
 COMMON ERRORS 145

DM: We could cut back production and that would decrease

inventory levels.

GM: How would you cut it back?

DM: I could set a date—say 6 weeks lead time and notify every­
one involved. Tell them how much.

GM: Good point, Tom. How much would you have to cut back?

DM: I’m not sure. I’ll have to work it out. It’d affect a few people,
(pause) No. This is impossible. It would cause too many
problems with personnel.

GM: Why? What’s going on there?

DM: The situation has got kind of touchy lately. Some problems
with foremen and discipline.

The meeting terminates without a solution. The excess detail has

served to stifle creative resources and has also gone so far that the
manager has lost sight of the original objective.
These types of mistakes can be overcome with consistent use of the
<)utcome Frame. Not knowing where they were in the process made
it difficult to maintain an appropriate context. An explicit outcome
would have prevented the tendency to judge and pursue alternatives
pust a needed point. The authors insist that information is precise
only if it is in context.
The second part of the model which would have saved the meet­
ing, although not prevented the waste of time of not having an
explicit Outcome Frame, is the use of the Recycle Procedure.
Recycling to the phrase, “decrease inventory levels”, would have
provided the opportunity to discover more ways that might be ac­
complished.
The model offered here presents the technology to move from a
representation of a problem and a desired state to the world of
experience where action needs to be taken. Each step of the process
requires a step toward experience, until the final desired state can be
realized by following a specific, high quality action plan.
146 PRECISION

Each unspecified action may be carried out in many ways. Each

is a source of a variety of potential courses of action. The Precision
Model is designed to elicit the maximum number of alternatives at
this stage. A verb such as “reduce,” when applied to costs, may
generate alternatives ranging from across the board cost cutting or
scrap reduction to firing all employees or ceasing advertising to
reducing head office charges or changing allocations. All further
specify the verb “reduce” when applied to costs.
When a particular course of action has been developed following
the specification of a verb as fully as possible or desired, the next step
is always the same. The desired state is maintained by returning to
the original unspecified action and asking the Precision Model ques­
tion, “How specifically might you reduce inventory?” Even tracks
which end in rejection by evaluation will lead back to the original
outcome of generating action alternatives.
We invite the reader to proceed to the next transcript and partici­
pate with us in applying the Precision Model to a meeting for genera­
ting alternatives.
In particular, the following elements should be noticed:

1. Any unspecified verb may be challenged with an Action

Blockbuster question such as:
“How, specifically, might we move the inventory?”
“How, in particular, could we increase sales?”
2. Any statement of impossibility should be set aside and the
alternative it refers to included in the list.
3. Each unspecified action should be challenged until no further
alternatives can be generated for it. (The Recycle Procedure)
4. Any verb may be challenged to find another which, relative l<
the desired outcome, is less specific. (The Missing Link Proce­
dure)

We suggest that you select the points at which you would apply
the Precision Model and the specific questions you would ask at thai
point.
 COMMON ERRORS 147

CASE STUDY II—VARIANT

Meeting called to generate alternative solutions to the personnel

problem defined in the previous chapter.
Attendance: GM, PM, SM, Contr, PSup, CSup, Purch.Mgr, Per­
sonnel.

GM: This meeting is for generating alternatives to the way we are

presently operating. We’re losing orders and good customer
relations because we’re not producing special orders with
options fast enough. We’ve narrowed the basic cause down to
personnel problems. Let’s see what kind of alternatives we
can come up with. You all got memos summarizing the last
meeting on this subject. (Memo says above plus there are
problems in absenteeism, tardiness, morale, and discipline.)
OK.

CS: Well, I know someone who said there were a lot of women
who would work if we changed our hours.

Contr: We don’t have any part-time work available, besides,

they’re more expensive to hire. Benefits don’t change much
you know.

GM: OK, Mary, you suggest part-time work.

PM: That might get us over our present problem if we can get the
union to agree.

Pers: I’ve heard of a situation where one full time job was shared
by two people. I don’t know how it would work, though.

Mary: I can’t see how it would work either.

GM: (writing) OK. Two people share a job.

Contr: How would they know what each other was doing?

GM: Save that for evaluation.

148 PRECISION

PM: Well, I don’t think we need all these fancy changes. We just
need to hire more workers.

GM: Joe, we don’t want criticism here.

Pers: Besides, if we could hire more workers we wouldn’t be

having this meeting.

Joe: Well, we could pay more.

PS: We could change shift times, at least for some people. If it was
easier to get to work it might cut down the tardiness and put
people in a better mood when they get to work.

Contr: We could give some of our supervisors training in being

more assertive.

Pers: Or courses in active listening. That might help improve

morale.

GM: We could try flextime.

PM: What’s that?

GM: It's a system where employees get to choose their own hours.

The meeting ends at this point. Valuable information which would

have generated higher quality ideas was not obtained. The amount
of criticism kept some individuals quiet, others were not drawn oul
enough.
Let’s look at the points where a choice might have been made to
apply the Precision Model.
The first choice point we would select is the unspecified verb
"change.” A question such as, “If we changed our hours, how,
specifically?” would elicit higher quality information which wouM
get the specific alternatives intended by the verb “change”. The GM
may have missed the point entirely when he used his own interpreta­
tion “part-time work” to classify the representation. Notice that hit*
term is relatively unspecified and Mary may think it covers what she
said when, in fact, it doesn’t.
 CASE STUDY II—VARIANT 149

The exchange of criticism, both favorable and unfavorable, on

Mary's alternative is the second point, the Relevancy challenge could
have been used to enforce the context and reduce such future inter­
ventions.
The third choice point we would select in this transcript is the
unspecified verb “hire." The question is implicit in the personnel
statement, “Besides, if we could hire more workers we wouldn’t be
having this meeting.” This statement served no useful purpose. The
question, “How, specifically, could we hire more workers?” would
get precisely the quality of information which might have provided
more useful alternatives.
The fourth choice point we would select is the unspecified verb
“change.” The question, “How, in particular, might we change shift
times?” also has the possibility of obtaining useful information. The
argument attached to this verb “shift times” is more likely to seem
obvious to those experienced in business. This makes the point that
the Precision Model can be applied usefully as a strict model and not
only when one believes himself to be unsure of meaning. It is often
productive to ask questions as if one didn’t know the meaning of the
phrase used; mainly because that will frequently turn out to be true.
We seldom are aware of the particular set of experiences or maps
which the speaker is referring to.
The fifth preferred choice point is on the unspecified verb
“choose.” This particular verb is connected with concepts which
are much more obviously outside the understanding of the group
and other information gathering questions could be used with good
results. In the context of eliciting action alternatives, however, we
would choose the unspecified verb to get precisely the kind of infor­
mation we want. “How, specifically, could they choose their own
hours?” or “Choose from what?” are two examples of questions
which would generate information which would allow the partici­
pants to connect the original alternative to their own experience.
Let’s look at an example of a meeting to elicit action alternatives
using the Precision Model. This is an example and we realize that
different responses could have been made. We invite the reader to
consider the distinctions and Frames presented so far and consider
how different choices might have produced different outcomes.
150 PRECISION

CASE STUDY II

Meeting called to generate alternative solutions to the personnel

problems defined in the previous section.
Attendance: GM, PM, SM, Contr, PSup, CSup, Purch Mgr, Per­
sonnel.

GM: The purpose of this meeting is to generate alternatives to the

way we are presently operating which will result in a more
satisfactory state of affairs. Specifically, we are presently los­
ing orders and our good customer relations because we are
not producing enough special orders with options to meet
demand.
A satisfactory state will be when we are producing enough
to meet scheduled demand within 3 days on a regular basis.
The basic cause of this problem we found to be lack of ade­
quate personnel. Further, this is being felt throughout our
organization due to changing labor market conditions. All of
you here today have been affected by this same set of circum­
stances and have valuable experience and ideas to contribute
to solutions. You have all been circulated with minutes of the
last meeting which defined the problem. Let me summarize
those points and then obtain any further clarification before
we move to generating alternatives. First, we have more com­
petition for labor, particularly skilled due to the recent start­
up of two plants in the area. Absenteeism and tardiness arc
increasing alarmingly. Labor costs and overtime charges are
increasing while it is getting harder to get employees to work
overtime. Are there any further facts which will help define
the problem?

PS: Well___

GM: Yes, George?

George: I think we have a morale problem which is part of tht

problem.

GM: How is it part of the problem?

 CASE STUDY II 151

George: I think the men could meet production just by working

the way we used to.

GM: What way is that?

George: Well, they seemed to be more motivated.

GM: More motivated to do what?

George: To get the job done. They needed the job and were glad
to put in a full day . . . even extra time. Now they seem to
be interested only in filling in time. There seems to be a lot
of frustration, too.

GM: Frustrated about what?

George: They complain about the rush hour traffic, about over­
time, about not getting jobs finished and having to do tooling-
up over again. Stuff like that.

GM: (pause) Thanks, George. Anyone else?

CS: Well, 1 know someone who said there were a lot of women
who could work if we changed our hours.

GM: Mary, that sounds like a useful alternative. Would you hold
it until we find out if there is anything which will more clearly
define the difference between where we are and where we
want to go?

CS: Two of our clerks quit in the last two months because they
needed more time. They needed to look after their families.

Pers: The union is beginning to sound tough on the issue of over­

time. I think they realize that they’re in a better position and
have us over a barrel.

GM: Better than what?

152 PRECISION

Pers: In past years their members didn’t have anywhere else to go,
Now they do.

GM: Anything else? OK. Let’s start generating some alterna­

tives, paths we might reach our desired state by. Specifically,
our objective is to generate as many alternatives as possible.
I’ll record them here on the blackboard. Mary, you had a
suggestion earlier.

Mary: Well, I know there are a lot of women out there who would
work if they could work part-time.

Contr: We don’t have any part-time work available, besides

GM: This part of the meeting is for generating alternatives. Eval­

uation will be done at a separate stage of the meeting. 1 want
any ideas, no matter how unlikely they may seem at first.
That way we can combine our resources and find new and
better ways which none of us might come up with individu­
ally. Mary, we would organize some jobs so that they would
be done, say, between the hours of 10 and 2 as a permanent
part of our schedule, (writes down suggestion as Permanent
Part-time)

Pers: I’ve heard of a situation where one full time job was shared
by two people. I don’t know how it would work, though.

Mary: I can’t see how . . .

GM: At this stage we only want to generate ideas, not evaluate

them. How, specifically, did they share the job, Ellen?

Ellen: Well, some women who didn’t want to work full time, «
woman writing a book and two guys working on getting
degrees, all shared jobs so that they had some money and loU
of time off.

PM: What were the mechanics? I can’t get a picture of how it

might work.
 CASE STUDY II 153

Ellen: One of the pair worked in the mornings and the other in
the afternoon.

Contr: It wouldn’t work if they needed to share information.

GM: Evaluation later, Alan.

PM: Well, I don’t think we need all these fancy changes. We just
need to hire more workers.

GM: How, specifically, might we hire more workers, Joe?

Joe: Well, we could advertise in other counties. This is a pretty

good area and some people might want to move here from
worse jobs somewhere else.

PS: We could change shift times, at least for some people. If it was
easier to get to work, it might cut down the tardiness and put
people in a better mood when they get to work. It takes me
a half hour to relax after fighting traffic.

Joe: We could raise wages. It might make it easier to get the men
to produce and I’m sure we could attract more men that way.

Pers: I’ve read about some stuff b u t . . .

GM: We don’t want evaluation now, Ellen, even on yourself.

What have you read?

Ellen: I’ve read that flextime has reduced absenteeism and tardi­
ness and increased morale and production at the same time.
It might solve all our problems.

PM: Oh, yeah? What’s this magic?

Ellen: Well, I only said what I read . . .

GM: (with a look at PM) Ellen, tell us more, particularly what

flextime is.
154 PRECISION

Ellen: It’s a system where you install special time clocks which
accumulate the number of hours worked over a day, week, or
month. It has an earliest starting time and a latest quitting
time and employees can choose their own hours within that
time period.

GM: How, specifically, do they choose their own hours?

Ellen: There’s what they call ‘core time’ when everyone has to be
there. That’s so you can count on attendance at meetings and
share information and things like that. Other than that, they
have total freedom.

Purch Mgr: I like the sound of that. Why does it have to be fixed
hours and core time though? And time clocks. . . .

GM: Larry, we don’t want to evaluate here. Can you add an

alternative to the one just presented?

Larry: Uh, . . . I’m not sure what you mean.

GM: It sourrded like you had an alternative in mind.

Larry: Well, I just figured maybe we didn’t need all that structure.
We could just have a kind of informal system where everyone
just made sure he got the job done in his own time. Sort of
an informal flextime, I guess.

GM: OK, let’s add that to the list.

Ellen: How about 4/40?

GM: If you think there’s any possibility of the idea being useful
for consideration, I’d like to hear it. I don’t know what 4/40
stands for though. What, specifically, is 4/40?

Ellen: Well, it means a 4 day forty hour week.

GM: (starting to write) OK. 4 day 40 . . .

 CASE STUDY II 155

Ellen: Well, I’m only proposing that we could change the total
hours per day.

GM: How, specifically, could we change total hours per day,

Ellen?

Ellen: I don’t know enough about our manufacturing operations

to propose 4/40 exactly.

GM: What would you need to know?

Ellen: Well, the idea is to fit the schedule into the requirements
of the production process and at the same time match the
particular needs of your employees. My idea is th a t.. . well,
actually the idea I read is that we have a shorter work week
with longer working days.

GM: Thank you. (after a lengthy pause) Are there any more
possibilities?

Purch Mgr: I’ve got one.

GM: What is it, Larry?

Purch Mgr: Is it OK to combine some ideas? *

GM: Sure. Yes.

Larry: I can think of combining flextime and job sharing and also
shift changes with job sharing. I’m kinda excited about the
possibilities for my employees.

GM: (writes those two) Anything else come up?

PM: I might consider staggering shift starting and stopping times

over a longer period, something like flextime. That might help
for our longer processes.

GM: (after long pause) Anything else? (another long pause) OK.
Let’s move on to the evaluation.
156 PRECISION
I f the leader o f a caravan across the early plains o f America was faced
with the task o f choosing his path before he started out, what might he
do? He realizes that there may be others in his company who have
greater knowledge than he does. Some o f them, particularly the scouts
whom he has hired for their expert skillst have crossed the area he
intends to cover more frequently than he has,. Others, drivers hired by
the settlers who hired him, may have been to the territory they intend
to reach by different ways. What kind o f things would he have to say,
what kind of questions would he have to ask, to be sure he would arrive
at his destination safely and in the shortest possible time? The ability
to find the most profitable route would depend on his ability to know
o f all the possible trails he might take.
The first step would be to give precise descriptions o f the starting *
point and the desired end state. He would need to be sure that those
who might have useful information knew specifically where they were
starting and where they wanted to end up or a shortcut or newly found
trail might not be mentioned.

The manager begins by presenting a clear statement of the present

state and the desired state. He summarizes the issues which were
relevant to arriving at the descriptions of these states. Then he states
that the area to be improved, the actions to be taken, will relate to
the lack of adequate personnel.
Each participant now has a precise and explicit framework to use
in accessing experiences and resources useful in reaching the desired
outcome of the meeting.
The manager may refer to this context, which will have been
already established for the participants, at any future point in the
meeting. This is the first step to ensure that one of the requirements
for precision will be met- Any actions or words which do not lead
from the present state to the desired state will be recognized and
terminated. The meeting will not be led down paths which are not
useful to it.

The leader o f the caravan will have determined the starting point o f
the trek and the final destination with his employers. The scouts and
drivers, however, would not have been involved at that time. Some
background, in the form o f a summary o f the original discussion,
would begin to access appropriate parts o f their experience. They might
 CASE STUDY II 157
also have pieces o f information about the starting or ending points
which would influence the decision about the best path to take which
could be useful to others as they accessed their own mops o f the
territory

The manager summarizes the pertinent experiences discussed at

the meeting in which the difference was defined and asks for any
further experiences which might assist in finding alternatives. There
are individuals present at this meeting who weren’t at the previous
one and the background information will help them to begin to
access relevant experience and to provide intelligence that may not
have been available at that meeting. The Backtrack Frame will begin
to access the appropriate areas of experience for those who were at
the first meeting. It will refresh their memories or begin to activate
again the appropriate resources.
Notice that the manager uses only Action and Noun Blockbusters
for the statements which are presented to him. He is using this step
of the meeting to access chunks of maps and his overall purpose for
the meeting is to generate many ideas which need not be specific.

The leader must get the scouts and drivers to inform him o f any paths
or trails which might be useful for their trek. They each may know o f
paths which none o f the others are aware o f Some o f these paths, when
considered by those who know o f them, might appear to be unrelated
to the known destination. Some may even seem to lead away from the
destination. Any one o f these paths, however, might be the very one
needed to find the best route from the starting point to the desired
ending poinL It may be the necessary connecting path between two
others which are rejected because no one knows how to connect them.
None o f the scouts or drivers, or even the leader himself, can know
which path might prove the best until all o f the potential paths are
displayed on a common map. The information required at this point
is o f all the paths which can possibly be traveled. Questions o f terrain
or o f relative difficulty are not important until the most likely combina­
tions o f paths are assembled.
So he drew in the dirt the beginning and end and each man added
trails which might help. And as a trail was added, others made connec­
tions o f their own, and soon they had many alternatives to choose from.
158 PRECISION

The manager now specifies the specific outcome or desired state

for this particular stage of the meeting, which is “to generate as many
alternate paths to our desired state as possible.” He again makes
clear for each participant the framework for obtaining the objective.
No deviations from this path are accepted. Each time one occurs, the
participants are directed back to the original framework with a
restatement and a specific question.
Each path suggested is related to the specified outcome and ac­
cepted if it is a potential way to achieve that outcome. If a suggestion
is at a logically higher level, the manager will be at a choice point.
He must consider whether he wants to remain in the previously
established Frame or open to a relatively less specified verb. This
decision will depend on his assessment of the likelihood of its success
and the time and effort available for attainment of the desired state.
It can be appropriate to reject such an alternative and/or to defer it
to a later date or time.
This meeting ends with many new alternatives being generated:
More than might have been imagined possible and many not consid­
ered by this company before. The arguments passed to the next stage,
evaluating alternatives, are a list of paths of action with verbs spe­
cified to the level of detail considered necessary by each participant
in the meeting. „

DIAGRAMMING

The information passed from the meeting for Defining the Differ­
ence is precise. The present and desired states have both been defined
with precision and the action areas required to eliminate the differ*
ence have been specified. The statement passed to the last dialogue
is specified as “improve working conditions so we can attract more
skilled workers to increase production and eliminate lost orders of
special motors.” For the purpose of finding the maximum number
of paths from the present to the desired state, we select all the
unspecified verbs and construct a model according to their level of
specification.

I. eliminate lost orders of special motors

2. increase production
 DIAGRAMMING 159

3. hire more skilled workers

4. improve working conditions

The manager will make a diagram similar to the above and use his
experience and level of authority in deciding which specific verb
phrase he intends to develop. In defining the difference, an initial
problem has been increasingly narrowed until an adequately precise
formulation has been reached. Each major chunk of the path which
was traveled to arrive at the adequately precise formulation will be
reviewed. Each of these chunks is a point at which further specifica­
tion may be profitable.
The particular point selected will depend on the manager’s eval­
uation of factors outside of the original selection process. The most
promising area for action, the planning time frame for impact of
results, the duration of the particular solution desired and the time
and effort available for generating and investigating alternatives are
all factors which will be evaluated. The manager may select any
point. The Precision Model will provide him with the tools to pur­
sue a solution most efficiently from any point he selects and will
also provide the means to go to another logical level if it is later
required.
One of the major determinants will be an assessment concerning
the cost of information. All information has a cost. The time and
effort required to develop alternatives for the first unspecified verb
in the above chain will be substantially greater than to develop
alternatives for the last. The definition of the difference has been done
to arrive at the specific differences which account for the original
difference which was considered a problem. Many other paths could
be developed which might turn into more profitable and longer range
solutions. They are ones which appear to require longer chains of
capital investment or time and were therefore ones which are more
risky and had longer periods before the benefits would be realized.
The chain which was received in the form of an adequately precise
definition of the difference already reflects an assessment of the prob­
lem.
An example of a map of the problem which might be developed
from the original specification might look something like the follow­
ing:
160 PRECISION

conditions pay

As can be seen in the above diagram, which is far from exhaustive,

the time and effort required to investigate each alternative is geomet­
rically increased. The manager will make what in his judgment is the.
best decision. If he finds no satisfactory solution to eliminating the
difference by pursuing it from the level he started at, he may move
back up the structure and try from another level. Notice that move­
ment will always be to a higher level because each lower point will
be included in his investigation. A suggestion may be made which
logically deals with a level higher than the one selected. The manager
has the option of moving to that higher level or of placing the
suggestion aside and remaining at the level he originally selected.
The development of our last dialogue might look like the following
after the manager selects the last node “improve working condi­
tions” as the most likely area.
4 • •• ••••

к1 permanent
4.1 -r.- .........e 4.3 raise wages
part time
At this point in the transcript, the production manager gives a
suggestion which is at a higher level on the original structure,
namely, (3) hire more skilled workers. The manager, having informa­
tion about previous efforts in this area, decides to put that alternative
on hold and returns consideration to (4) improving working condi­
tions. At this point, the manager decides to make a test to determine
if there is a node which may fit between (4) and (4.1). His question
must be phrased to indicate the unspecified verb he wants to follow
and the particular specification which indicates the path. The Miss­
ing Link question asks for an unspecified verb phrase, or node, in
between the two existing ones. Using the structure above, we can ask,
“How, in particular, will starting permanent part-time (4.1) improve
 DIAGRAMMING 161

the working conditions (4)?” This question is searching for a cate­

gory or type of action which includes the more specified verb in the
existing chain and which might include other ways of arriving at the
same desired state. The answer yields the following structure:

,r4 improve working conditions

4.1 change hours 4.2'job sharing 4.3 raise wages

4.1.1 PPT

As the meeting progresses, the structure grows to look like the

following:
The manager has paused and received no further alternative path­
ways to reach the desired state. He Backtracks to elicit any addi­
tional ideas. This step will ensure that each unspecified verb has at
least two nodes if it has any. No specification will be useful as a
separate node (alternative) unless there is another possible way of
accomplishing its objective. As the structure is reviewed, he finds
that (4.1.3) has only one specification. He will request another or

4 miprove working conditions

A 4 .1 change 4.2 job 4.3 raise 4.4 comb, ■4.5 comb.

hours sharing wascs 4.2 + 4.1.4 4.1.1 +
4.1.4

I
4.1.1 permanent 4.1.2 4/40 4.1 3 change shift 4.1.4 flexible

4.1.3.1 staggered 4.1 A 1 flextime 4.1.4.2

start times informal
162 PRECISION

consolidate the one given (4.1.3.1) into the original (4.1.3). The result
from this summarization, which generated some new alternatives as
well, looks like the following:
The meeting ends having arrived at its desired outcome. An ade­
quate number of alternative paths of action has been generated. All
participants have contributed everything available from their own
maps of experience and they now share a composite of the richest
representation of alternatives possible to them. They have achieved
what they planned to in an efficient manner.
Applying the tests provided by the Precision Model, we find that
the context has been maintained. The meeting requested that the
maximum number of alternatives be generated and that each be a
potential move towards eliminating the difference so that the desired
state can be attained. The test of adequate precision has been met by
restricting the information processed to continually refining the un­
specified action phrases into the variety of more specific actions
which might be required to achieve the desired state.
The structure which represents the desired state of the meeting to
find pathways provides the present state definition for the next stage.
Each endpoint node represents the specific action which might
achieve the desired outcome. Each must be developed into an action

A4.1 ch a n g e jut> ш игсаъс ц.ч tu m u . ,w4.5 comb.

hours sharing pay 4.2/4.1.4 4 .1.1/4.1.4

permanent 4.1.2 4/40 4.1.3 change 4.1.4 flexible

part-time shift time work hours

4.1.3.1 4 1.
staggered earl
star
4.1.3.3
add a shift
 DIAGRAMMING 163

plan which can be evaluated and carried out with specific feedback
built into it.
Each step of the process needed only the Precision Model to
achieve the desired results. The intuition of the manager may en­
hance the speed and power of the process, as it will in all activities.
We recognize and respect the skills which managers have developed
to generate alternative paths to desired outcomes in the absence of
any explicit technology to assist them in this task. We offer this
technology to enhance these abilities, and specifically, as an explicit
set of tools, a set of tools which will provide the manager the means
to follow through on his intuitions in an efficient manner.
The frustration of knowing what needs to be done but not being
able to get the appropriate resources or responses from subordinates
is familiar to every manager. The feeling of having to do everything
yourself eats up the time and stomach of every manager at times: The
pressure of having your resources spread too thin to leave time for
the more important planning which you know should be done. The
Precision Model will reduce these concerns and enhance the existing
powers of each individual manager.
Managers who lack the experience or intuitive skills of the most
powerful and creative individuals have been required to depend on
a finite set of procedures which have been, at best, inefficient and at
worst actually harmful in attaining the outcomes they desire or were
instructed to get. Not having tools available to provide them with a
process to obtain adequate precision in the information they re­
quired, they must develop their skills in a way which involves great
risk to their companies or attempt to duplicate previously existing
states. They must also be heavily involved in the content of any
problem or be at the mercy of opinions which they have no way to
assess confidently. The Precision Model provides these managers
with a process which ensures that they are able to reach an ade­
quately high quality of information. They may use the model to
obtain more precision than a highly experienced and intuitive man­
ager would require but they need only err on the side of safety. There
is no longer any need to act without precise information.
The Precision Model not only enables a manager to know where
he is at any time in the process of problem solving, it insists that he
know where he is. Maintaining context and specificity will be accom­
plished only if a manager knows where he is in the process. And the
tools provided ensure that he need only follow the model. Variations
164 PRECISION

which are moving successfully may be pursued to their desired end.

At any point when doubt arises as to the success of the current path,
the Precision Model may be returned to or invoked and used to find
where you are and where to go from there.
A new manager has a great need to be able to benefit from the
accumulated knowledge of his predecessor and other successful
managers in a company. At present, there is little ability to accom­
plish this transfer of the refined resources potentially available. A
benefit of the Precision Model is that a manager who is unsure of his
intuitive abilities knows exactly where he is in the process and may
request the precise intelligence that he needs. He will have the power
to represent the present state and desired state in precise terms and
ask for the specific experience required in the current situation. He
will have access to the individual resources of his employees as well
as his peers. In addition, he will have the ability to learn from the
process of the more experienced manager by appropriately precise
questioning to reduce confusing chunks into manageable pieces.

BACKTRACK

The pathfinding phase presented here starts with a definition of the

difference between a present state and a more valued desired state
and develops as many alternative courses of action as possible whicli
might eliminate that difference. This phase will be productive to the
extent that existing arbitrary boundaries are removed from individ­
ual representations.
A second and often seemingly contradictory requirement is that
the alternatives be within the context of the desired outcome. The
problem has been to widen the boundaries to access new creative
resources while maintaining enough control to elicit potentially use­
ful alternatives.
The distinguishing characteristic of the present state is the defini­
tion of the difference. Many attempts at generating alternatives foun­
der on the lack of precision of the problem statement. The Precision
Model provides the tools for ensuring that the information which in
the present state of this phase will be precise enough to provide n
context for generating potentially useful alternatives.
The objective of this phase is to create a shared map from the rich
individual maps available as resources. Each individual may have *
 BACKTRACK 165

part of an alternative or one which was previously unknown to other

participants. As these become part of a shared representation, more
resources may be accessed—resources which the individual source
may not have known he possessed. Part of the task of this phase is
to elicit resources of participants which are not known beforehand.
Many techniques have provided unique ways of accessing creative
resources but, until now, none has provided the means to ensure that
these resources are accessed within an appropriate context. The
Frames provided and cues identified by the Precision Model provide
the ability to elicit information without requiring previous knowl­
edge of the specific piece of information being sought.
One of the techniques which the authors have found particularly
useful at this stage is to create visual representations. A more detailed
shared map is the source of new and creative alternatives. Making
some kind of visual representation can be an effective means of
assisting each participant in that process.
The sensitive use of personal skills, as well as the specific parts of
the model presented here, will produce great benefits. Many theories
dealing with generating ideas are particularly concerned with this
issue and develop elaborate techniques to ensure full cooperation of
participants. These concerns are valid and the authors acknowledge
their importance in accessing the various resources of participants.
We take the position, however, that the sensitive use of personal
skills will enhance cooperation in any human activity. We recognize
that an environment which is antagonistic will likely inhibit access
to individual maps. The resources of others are required in all busi­
ness activity. We believe that the requirements at this phase for
rapport are equal to those at other phases and believe the losses at
any stage will be too significant to ignore.
The powerful new As-if Frame was introduced in this chapter. It
is appropriate that we introduce it here, even though it may be
effectively used in any phase, because the set of procedures for this
phase commonly known as brainstorming is itself nothing but one
possible As-If Frame. The limited reception of brainstorming reflects
the weakness of a procedure, even one as powerful as the As-If
Frame, without a technique for maintaining context such as the
Outcome Frame.
All of the Frames can be used at any stage of information process­
ing and are powerful tools for maintaining the trajectory toward a
desired outcome.
166 PRECISION

The As-If Frame has much more variety than the usual brain­
storming one of “pretend there are no limits.” These include:

- act as if a particular stumbling block is already solved

- step into someone else’s shoes and act as if you were that person
- think as if the desired state were already attained and find what had
to be done to get there
- act as if the organization were twice as large.

A new Procedure was introduced in this chapter—the Recycle

Procedure—which has uses throughout information processing. Its
unique application in Pathfinding shows the full power of this Proce­
dure. The Procedure is a memo to return to any particular part of
a statement which may yield richer or additional resources. The
particular application in this phase is to fully develop each action
alternative proposed. The desired state is an extensive list of alterna­
tive actions. Returning again and again to a relatively unspecified
verb will produce a variety of courses of action which may accom­
plish the original goal. Many potential paths are never discovered
because a particular train of thought ends unproductively and the
information processor doesn’t return to its starting point.
The Recycle Procedure, whether as a mental or written note,
provides the reminder to return. The authors strongly recommend
a visual representation be made to ensure that all such points are
fully explored.
The Pointers are precisely contextualized at this stage. That is, we
have previously defined the cues and uses of Pointers. The stress in
this chapter was placed on the contextual test to determine whether
a particular Pointer is appropriate or not. The test, of course, is the
Outcome Frame—will this particular question move me closer to the
desired state? The ability to distinguish between types of statements
and appropriate responses provides the opportunity to question, at
any time, any representation in a manner consistent with the out­
come desired. All theories which the authors are aware of have been
unable to make these distinctions and have had to forbid all question*
when the desired state is to generate as many alternatives as possible.
They have sacrificed the power available to the information proces­
sor for lack of the ability to make explicit distinctions. The Precision
Model restores power to the executive—and increases the creative
resources available to him.
 BACKTRACK 167

The desired state of this phase is an extensive list of alternative

courses of action which will eliminate the previously defined differ­
ence. How is an information processor to know if an adequately
extensive list has been elicited? The first assurance is provided by
using an explicit model which provides the techniques which will
access rich individual maps. The assurance is an appropriate elicita­
tion procedure. The second is a test for completion which satisfies
the information processor in terms of efficiency and his own intui­
tions. The end point for any particular creative task will be deter­
mined by time available and importance of outcome.
The Recycle Procedure is one method for assuring that the process
is continued while there is still potentially rich unexplored material.
The outcome will be a list of alternatives, all of which can attain
the desired final outcome. Each alternative will require development
to determine whether it will, in practice, attain that outcome within
the overall operating constraints of the total organization. The test
for practicality is a separate phase which would unnecessarily limit
the boundaries for creative generation of alternatives. The list pro­
duced, then, will be the richest possible within the economic or
efficiency constraints imposed by the information processor.
Chapter 4

SURVEYING

As I reminisced with my son the other day about his basketball

team's state championship victory, we recalled how uncertain he had
felt three years previously starting with a new team. We'd just moved
to q new city and he had the usual concerns about making friends and
starting school in a new place>He had a greater concern this time,
though, because he had started playing basketball the year before and
was anxious about making the team« He knew he could do it at hisfirst
school but this one had a bigger reputation in basketball
When he went out fo r the team the first year; he discovered his coach
had been a top college player a few years back. His awe o f the coach
began to wear o ff as the season progressed. Although a skilled expert
player, the coach couldn Valways pass these skills along to the players:
Some developed very well with the excellent skills coaching they re­
ceived but others, who had different personal stylest couldn't always
learn as well It seemed that this coach knew only one style and could
only teach by example. This method was highly successful with some
o f the players and less so, and frustratingt for others. The coach dis­
couraged these players from attending clinics or getting assistancefrom
other experts. The team learned a style o f playing which was quite
effective but which never seemed to have that extra bit o f flexibility
required to beat the really top teams. Their season record got them to
the play-offs but they lost in the first round\ My son remembered being
disillusioned by the end o f the season. Only one style o f individual play
and one team style. a zone, had been tried all year. This coach could
only repeat an experience which had worked well for him in the past
The boys had become stale andt with no new stimulation, without the
ability to test new approaches, they were beaten by teams which didn't
always have players with as highly developed individual skills.
 SURVEYING 169
The next year we remembered as a disaster. He started the season
with a new coach. This man had come in a little unsure o f himself and
had told the team that he wanted to let everyone ploy, to have each boy
enjoy himself and to really develop a team spirit It had sounded good
at the start and they had liked the coach. They had seemed to spend
more time than usual working out differences o f opinion in practices
but they all got a lot o f practice and experience in the exhibition games.
As the regular season started, however, they began to notice some
tension. My son actually began to dislike the coach. For my son, the
reason to get on the basketball court was to win basketball games. For
the new coachr it was to create team spirit and promote each boy's
enjoyment As the season wore on and the team lost to schools which
they all felt they could have beaten> there was more and more bad
feeling. Even the players who were playing more than they otherwise
would have were unhappy with the situation. As my son recalled this
coach getting fired in mid-season, a big smile came on his face.
His smile didn’t last long as we talked’ The replacement was not an
experienced player or coach and was uncertain about his status. The
boys never did find out how much he knew and he never got their
cooperation to find out how much they knew. They had been playing
together for some time and had information about themselves and the
competition. My son couldn't remember any particular hard feelings
generating revenge; it just never seemed appropriate to suggest things.
The reason, as he looked back, seemed to be that the coach had always
asked the star player o f the team fo r advice and only seemed interested
in his opinion. He didn't seem to have the ability to judge, with accu­
racy\ the information offered. It seemed he thought the safest policy
was to listen to the best player. My son remembered that the best player
had wanted to make the all star team and had a tendency to suggest
plays or strategies which favored his own particular talents. This player
seemed to be thinking o f the team all right— but from his own perspec­
tive. This would have been no problem i f the coach had the appropriate
skills for obtaining and assessing information. That particular year, his
team finished out o f the playoffs altogether.
As we started to reminisce about his senior year, his body began to
take on the tension we associate with excitement and challenge. Each
time we talked about this exciting year, a marked change came over
him. The thrill o f achievement was still strong in him. He started the
season with the fourth coach in three years: a situation which would
seem to be less than optimal The players sensed right away that there
170 PRECISION

was something different about this coach, He obviously didn't have

many skills as a player yet he appeared supremely confident in his
ability to do the job which was expected o f him. His manner and
particularly his way o f asking questions made it apparent that he was
interested in the contributions o f each player Yet all the boys knew he
would consider each opinion without being ruled by it Each player
knew that he could offer his opinion and have it considered i f it was
appropriate. He also would leave with a better understanding o f his own
idea even though the coach often had done nothing but ask penetrating
questions. Usually a player would know whether his idea was a useful
contribution without having to be told‘
The new coach started the season by stating his position— the task
at hand was to win the state championship. What was required to
accomplish that was to win enough games to get into the playoffs and
then win the playoffs. He wasn’1going to worry about particular losses
along the way Each set-back was to be a learning experience. He
wasn't an expert player but he knew the process required to produce
winning teams and he would use the required time to get the results
he wanted. He asked for the team *s agreement to his goals and, getting
it, proceeded towards the selected target
My son remembered with respect how he had obtained scouting
reports; had got just the information he needed from the scouts (whose
written reports he seldom used), and filled in the missing pieces from
information which the team members had. These sessions were a new
experiencefo r most o f the players and many would use them when they
later became coaches.
As my son recalled the season just completed and the actual cham­
pionship game, his manner changed to one o f the relaxed confidence
one sees in members o f a winning team who have been together for a
long time♦He remembered how each member o f the team had put more
energy than they knew they had into the effort and how they had barely
noticed how hard they had worked. The same team which had not
made the play-offs the year before had been changed, almost miracu­
lously it seemed, into a championship team. Each player had developed
some strategies for good ballplaying which were uniquely his own and
were useful to the team in individual ways. Each member had in­
creased his skills without knowing how it had been done. The feature
my son remembered most vividly was the amount o f information this
particular coach had been able to obtain, the way he could organize
it and the accuracy with which he could predict what kind of defense
 SURVEYING 171
or offense would be most effective against a particular team in a
particular situation. His team always seemed to have the extra some­
thing; that slight edge. The result had been not only a winning season
but one in which each player had grown and could look back to with
satisfaction.

INTRODUCTION

Surveying is the third phase of the overall model for business

activity presented in the opening chapter.

Defining
Present | the | Pathfinding | Surveying | Evaluating | Desired
State * difference ' ^ ^ ' State
/ \
/ \
/ \
Present
State siate

The particular process of developing alternative pathways into

actions which will reduce the difference between the present state
and a desired state we refer to as Surveying. Surveying is an activity
which fills in the details of an area of known interest. A path for a
road between two points will be selected from a few known possibili­
ties only after the terrain over which it is to be constructed is pre­
cisely known. The original selection of possibilities will have been
made with some existing knowledge of the terrain. The specific route
selected for construction requires that the particular qualities of the
terrain be precisely known. Grades, settling qualities, water courses
and land composition all need to be known for each particular sec­
tion of road. Notice that the adequacy of information is directly
related to the purpose of the final desired state—a road. Potential
information for a survey, say, about types of trees, or elevation, will
not be useful and other areas of information such as weather patterns
will be considered irrelevant as well. The survey will be adequately
precise for its purpose only when the specific line of the exact path
is obtained. No final decision will be able to be made until the precise
formations are known.
172 PRECISION
“The value of any information system must be ultimately measured
by the quality of management decisions. Anything less is inconclu­
sive, and anything more unnecessary”.

Russell, Kennecot Copper/Curt Symonds

A Design for Business Intelligence

The surveying stage of the process produces the high quality infor­
mation about each potential pathway to enable decision makers to
arrive at effective decisions confidently. The quality of management
decision will be judged by the outcome achieved. Having specified
the desired state to an adequate level of precision and generated
alternative pathways within an appropriate context, the full develop- -
ment of each alternative will provide the necessary and adequate
basis for sound decisions.

“. .. the raw material of management is information. This is all that

any manager has to work with—He has to to know what information
he has about any problem, what information he doesn’t have and how
he can get it, and how he can use all the information he has to the
best advantage in getting the problem solved.

Kepner and Tregoe

The Rational Manager

The specific information required is the answer to the question

“What do I need to know to make a decision about this particular
alternative?” The “need to know” will be in two specific areas. First,
a specific action plan exists which is explicit enough to provide
assurance to the decision maker that it will, in practice, accomplish
the desired outcome. Second, the process used to arrive at that plan
has been thorough and grounded in information that is adequately
precise. If both are not met, the next requirement is to know what
specific information is not available at an adequate level of precision
and how to obtain that information.
The “need to know” information must be explicitly and precisely
defined. One of the significant failures of ‘brainstorming’ sessions is
that they generate ideas, some of which, if translated into action,
would provide profitable solutions but which never get translated
into actionable plans. The problems of translating potential ideas
 INTRODUCTION 173

into actual pathways is often insurmountable if appropriate tools

aren’t available for both the stage of generating alternatives and for
converting these ideas into action plans. The Precision Model pro­
vides the tools.
Without an explicit and appropriate model, the difficulties are
enormous. The lack of context referred to in the previous chapter
and the inability to extract ideas consistently of a high enough qual­
ity as defined by the Precision Model provide an uneven quality for
the present state of this step of the process. The brilliant solution for
another problem, the practical solution buried in a long list of major
reorganizations and the incompletely specified solution which can
never be brought to a specific enough level in action, all these are
familiar to those who have had some exposure to ‘brainstorming’.
The internal requirements for generating alternatives are similar
to those for developing alternatives into action plans. Both call for
creative resources. Both call for the ability to extract information
from individual maps and create a richer, fuller shared map. By
placing the generation of ideas into a special category of action
removed from the practical operating world of business, the ability
to access creative resources throughout the information processing
has been lost. The idea that certain mental processes are valuable for
one phase of information processing but should be removed from
another phase suggests a less than optimal fragmentation of the
whole, creative individual. Each stage of the process is characterised
by the attempt to create a shared map which is the richest possible
representation of contextual information possible. A requirement for
obtaining the fullest possible representation is that each individual
bring his own fullest resources to the process.
The Precision Model provides the techniques which can access
these resources to their fullest at every stage of the process. The
ability to elicit the richest variety of alternative pathways depends on
the same set of skills as the ability to elicit the richest representation
of the terrain of those pathways. Each requires the verbal patterns
to extract high quality information. The ability to elicit this variety
in a context appropriate to eliminating the difference between present
state and desired state also depends on the same set of skills as the
ability to elicit the details for surveying those pathways. Maintaining
context and eliciting high quality information are required through­
out the stages of information processing.
The context which the Precision Model provides for creating path­
174 PRECISION

ways provides a specific subset of the total model appropriate to

opening the boundaries and restrictions commonly found circum­
scribing individual maps. The boundaries are opened in a way which
allows any internal representation full sway and demands only that
the external representation be within the established context. The
Surveying stage, to make maximum use of the pathways generated,
must maintain the ability to draw on the same resources. The pri­
mary difference between the two stages is that the context is more
focused in Surveying, That is, it is closer to experience and therefore
information of higher quality.
This stage of information processing unpacks the relevant, de­
tailed operations necessary to yield the most efficient route to the
specified outcome. The prior stage of development is to find plausible
paths to a goal. During that stage, pathways aren’t specified in detail
although each is required to have the possibility of achieving the
desired outcome. Some necessary and intricate parts are known and
are referred to by name and others, necessary but not known arc
assigned to ‘block boxes’, or information deficits. The parts may
require detailed analysis to determine if they will actually perform
the task necessary with an adequate amount of precision. Each part
must be exploded into its component parts before this judgment can
be made. The ‘black boxes’ require a different procedure. The neces­
sary functions to be performed at that point must be detailed and
then answers found for the specific problems presented. Sometime»
the answer becomes apparent from the analysis of the particular,
precise requirements. Other times, the ‘black box’ remains an infor­
mation gap which needs to be filled before a decision can be reached
about whether to go ahead with the plan or not.
Creativity and full access to each individual map is as important
here as at any other stage. The ability to identify information gap»
in an efficient manner will depend partly on knowledge of content,
as mentioned earlier. The Precision Model will get all the inform a-
tion required and, in the hands of skilled managers, it will get it faster
and access the maximum creative resources.

PRESENT STATE/DESIRED STATE

The present state for the Survey stage will be a set of alternative
pathways which may lead to the elimination of the difference defined
 PRESENT STATE 175

in the first stage. These will be of high quality information in that

they are adequately precise for the stage of development and they are
all in the context specified at the beginning of the process. The
desired state, or outcome, for the Surveying stage will be a set of
alternate pathways which will result in the desired outcome and
which are specified to an adequate level of precision. An adequate
level of precision will be one which has a detailed action plan which
could be carried into operation with no further information required
or an action plan which contains known information gaps, which,
when filled, will provide such a plan.
An example of such a plan many readers will be familiar with is
a completed PERT chart. This chart is a visual representation of all
actions which need to be taken to complete a construction or com­
puter project on time. It shows the area of responsibility, the allowa­
ble time frames, and the specific actions to be taken. Anyone can look
at the chart and know whether it will reach its objective and whether
it is on time. An appropriate outcome for each specific path consid­
ered might contain such a chart with gaps for missing information
to be filled in and a similar chart for obtaining that information.
The most efficient use of available resources will be to eliminate
as soon as possible any alternatives which don’t lead to reduction of
the defined difference or do so at too great a cost to the organization.
There is a danger in this criterion. Ideas which may in fact be
profitable when fully developed or which may be profitable if com­
bined with others being considered may be rejected too early. On the
surface, an idea may seem to be obviously too costly or bound to have
unacceptable side effects. A proposal requiring a major new invest­
ment in equipment seemed out of the question until the information
was elicited that the machine it would replace was old and due for
replacement in any case. A proposal to cut accessory products from
production appeared on the surface to be bound to reduce sales of
the primary units. It was later found to be a profitable alternative
when the option of buying from an outside source was suggested and
tried. This is a similar problem to the ‘brainstorming’ paradox. If
evaluation is applied too rapidly, valuable potential will be lost. If not
applied soon enough, valuable resources will be wasted.
Efficiency is a standard applied throughout business operations.
Any procedure designed to get an outcome will be judged by its
efficiency. That is, it will be efficient if it gets the desired outcome
with the minimum use of time and resources. A fast procedure which
176 PRECISION

doesn’t reach the outcome isn’t efficient, An expensive and time

consuming procedure, relative to what is possible, isn’t efficient. The
overall desired outcomes of business always include the minimum
necessary expenditure of resources. Efficiency often means in prac­
tice the quickest or easiest way to a minimal outcome. The emphasis
is generally placed on the time and resources side because it can
be relatively easily quantified and measured. This emphasis ensures
that only minimal results will be obtained. Obtaining results closer
to the optimal requires a method of determining the optimal. To
be efficient, the method must be known to produce continually
higher quality results as it proceeds and before the particular results
are known. The Precision Model is designed to provide the assurance
of efficiency while creating the conditions to reach optimal outcomes:
The original paradox is the view that there is a standard of judg­
ment, other than intuition, which would determine in a particular
instance what was too soon or late. Quantity of information or time
spent are not the criteria. The answer to the paradox lies in stepping
outside the context of too soon/too late and looking to procedure
itself. A procedure which controls the quality of information and ita
context is required. The safeguard against potential waste of re­
sources lies in focusing the flow of information on the contextually
most significant area not yet examined.

FIFTH POINTER-BOUNDARY CROSSING

In this phase of the overall model, we will encounter the last of

the Precision Model questions—the Boundary Crossing question.
One of the general characteristics of the set of Precision Model
Pointers thus far offered is their consistent ability to search out
distinctions and refinements which did not exist in the initial infor*
mation presented. These distinctions expand and enrich the shared
maps or representations of the information processors using the
model—the greater the number of contextually relevant distinction*
available in the map, the greater the number of choices which the
information processors involved have available to accomplish their
goals. The effective use of any of the Pointers creates such distinc­
tions, and the overall effect is the transformation of low quulilv
information into high quality information—an excellent base for
success in business.
The last of the Precision Model Pointers is particularly powerful
 FIFTH POINTER-BOUNDARY CROSSING 177

as it challenges the boundary of the information source’s internal

map.
Some specific examples of Boundaries and related Boundary
Crossing Pointers are:
Boundaries Pointers

. - . not even bother to consider - what stops you from increas­

the possibility of increasing ing production?
production. It’s impossible or
-I just can’t do it! -W hat would happen if you
did increase production?
. . . raising (lowering) prices— -w hat would happen if we
that much would be disaster- did?
ous! We can’t do it. or
-W hat stops us from raising
(lowering) prices that much?
just that we have to meet the - or what would happen?
requirements that were set or
down. -w hat would happen if we
failed to meet those require­
ments?
. . that the plant is simply una­ - what prevents the plant from
ble to meet the quotas agreed meeting the quotas?
upon. or
-w hat would happen if the
plant met quotas?
. . that the employees must - or what would happen?
have a physical once a year. or
-w hat would happen if the
employees failed to have a
physical once a year?

Whenever there is a claim either that:

1. something is impossible, can’t be done, or
2. something must occur, is necessary
use the Boundary Crossing Pointer.
178 PRECISION

Such phrases are a clear indication that the speaker/writer has

reached the limits or boundries of his or her map.
The point is that all too often practices and procedures which
were appropriately developed during one phrase of the growth of
an organization will become such a habitual part of the everyday
routines that they are carried forward into new phases in the
growth of that organization where they are superflous. Left unchal­
lenged and therefore not updated, they may seriously reduce the set
of choices available to the information processor. In other cases,
the use of the phrases and words like those in the examples—it's
impossible, can't, have to, unable and must—signal that the speaker
has some limitation or boundary in his or her representation which
is unconnected with the business practices of the organization but
indicates a refusal or, at least, a reluctance on the individual’s part
to consider representation in this area. This refusal may in fact be
substantiated when investigated. That is, when an individual indi­
cates by one of these phrases that they do not wish to explore the
facts in some area of business possibility, it may be that they have
reason to believe that if the thing they are claiming to be impossible
is attempted, the results will be highly unprofitable—or conversely,
if the thing they are claiming must be done is not done, likewise
they believe the results will be negative. What they sometimes seem
to fail to note is that talking about some business activity is not the
business activity itself. During a directors’ meeting one of the au­
thors attended, a statement that all of the customer’s related needs
must be met was challenged by the general manager. Several direc­
tors immediately attacked the manager with an obvious display of
emotion. It was apparent that their response was appropriate only
in the context of taking action—not simply to discussing a possibil­
ity.
The Precision Model allows the rapid development of high quality
information in any area of business. Thus, if the off-limits, out of
bounds areas of possible business activity can be penetrated, the
information lying behind the individual’s reluctance can easily be
determined.
Very often in the authors’ experience, the gains by penetrating
such areas are enormous. For example, during a discussion centering,
around the possibility of producing a more refined product, the
controller adamantly stated it was out of the question,—wholly ini
possible. Finally, after several refusals to even consider the possibll*
 FIFTH POINTER-BOUNDARY CROSSING 179

ity, the CEO asked the Boundary Crossing—what would happen i f

we did decide to produce the new, more refined product? The control­
ler answered that the more refined product would require a new
machine—none of the machines presently on line were capable of the
refinements under discussion. The controller went on under Preci­
sion Model questioning to explain that the return on the investment
for the new machine would not be adequate. As soon as the produc­
tion manager heard the underlying reason for the controller’s initial
refusal to consider the possibility of the new product, he pointed out
that at least two of the present machines were due to be replaced in
the next three month period for reasons of age. Thus, the new prod­
uct was demonstrated to be a viable alternative—specifically, the fact
that while the new machines required only for the new product
would not be cost effective, new machines required for the new
product as a replacementfor a machine being retired were quite cost
effective.
Note that the point is not that the new product became a profitable
choice for the organization, but that the choice would not have been
available without going outside the boundary of the area of activity
that the controller initially refused to consider developing informa­
tion about. The issue here is not the competence of the controller but
the information engineering skills of the manager. The Precision
Model Boundary Crossing pointer avoids entirely the issue of the
competence of the individual who claims something is necessary or
something is impossible—rather the issue is eliciting high quality
information to be used in the construction of the shared map which
the information processors involved may use to take effective action.
By avoiding personality issues, the Boundary Crossing pointer auto­
matically converts the initially reluctant member of the group into
a valued information source from which ultimately high quality
information is elicited.
As in the case of the other Precision Model questions, the skill of
using the Boundary Crossing pointer can be usefully represented as
a two part process:

Boundary Crossing Question

1. a perceptual recognition program—in this case the Precision

Modeler hears the Boundary Crossing cue word, recognizing it
from the short list of such words in English:
180 PRECISION

can’t have to
impossible necessary
unable must
2. a response program—the challenge to the representation. If the
Boundary Crossing cue word comes from the left hand list, ask
either one of the following two questions:

what stops you?

or

what would happen if you did?

If the cue word identified comes from the right hand list, ask
either one of the following two questions:

or what will happen

or

wljat would happen if we failed to

We wish to caution the reader that there are a number of idioms in

use which have the same effect as the cue words for Boundary
Crossing listed above—idioms such as it's out o f the question, no way.
it's got to be, absolutely essential . .. We rely on the native intelli­
gence of the reader to recognize such expressions as equivalents of
the standard cue words, especially as these rather colorful expres­
sions tend to change rapidly and have a wide variation in different
parts of North America.
In the surveying procedure, pointers are a particular set of cues
and related questions which can be used effectively at this point. The
pathways presented as input to this stage were developed by using
mainly one portion of the model, namely, the unspecified Action
Blockbusters. No challenges of evaluation were employed at that
time except the Relevancy Challenge. Any Boundary Crossing cue
words such as “can’t, impossible, won’t work” were treated simply
as termination points for particular tracks and the ‘impossible’ alter­
native was retained. The most efficient use of the Precision Model at
 FIFTH POINTER-BOUNDARY CROSSING 181

this point will be to ask for factors which appear to demand that an
alternative be rejected. The Precision Model provides the technique
to elicit the material behind the challenge to an alternative in a way
which will enrich the shared map of everyone involved. The chal­
lenges at this point will result in potentially useful paths or rejection
based on the high quality information which will be elicited by the
Precision Model. If they are retained, the shared representation of
that path will already have been more fully developed and useful
progress will already have been made.
Many managers consider a request for more specific information
a risky venture. Such a request, which may cause rejection of an
alternative, is considered particularly dangerous by many. Curt Sy-
monds has accurately reflected this concern in the following state­
ment: “(the manager is) frequently at the mercy of the system itself.
He often has neither the time nor the talent required to challenge the
validity of the information he receives, and in many cases might even
consider it imprudent to do so.”
The management of conflict is approached in three distinctly diff­
erent ways at present. One is to avoid it at all costs. Another is to
force it into the open and deal with it as a primary issue. Both of these
approaches have at their base that conflict necessarily means strong
emotions, bad feelings, and unproductive energy. The first approach
attempts to avoid these by ignoring the issue entirely; by attempting
to create conditions which will remove it or by simply overriding it.
The second approach recognizes the emotions as facts in the situa­
tion and elevates them to the same level as the original desired
outcome of the meeting; sometimes to the point of replacing the
original desired state. The third approach accepts conflict as a nor­
mal part of business. It is often referred to as “conflict management”
and uses a matrix style which actually fosters these conditions. This
group is generally less concerned with the emotions which may lie
behind conflict and deals with the issues rather than emotions. This
group, however, states that a manager must have expert knowledge
of the content to deal with conflict effectively.

"(Managers) need influence based upon perceived knowledge and

competence"

Lawrence and Lorch,

Developing Organizations.
182 PRECISION

The authors agree that managers require special knowledge to

effectively deal with conflict. The special knowledge required is not
expert knowledge of content, however, it is knowledge of the struc­
ture of communication—specifically, language—and its effective use.
The Precision Model provides the technology required to deal with
the complexity of increasing specialization. The demand for expert
knowledge is an impossible one in the context of management growth
and effectiveness.
A manager should insist that his people have more expert knowl­
edge about their operations than he does. His primary task as a
manager is to elicit that information in a way most useful to the
outcomes of the organization. Precision Models, Inc. has a specific
model for what is commonly called conflict or matrix management
which includes the sensitive use of the Precision Model to obtain the
most effective allocation of a company’s resources.
Each individual has experience which is not immediately apparent
to others and the authors maintain that this is a primary source of
business conflict. Conflict arises when the individual maps are noi
shared. Intercompany conflict is often simply a result of the inability
to elicit high quality information. The ability to elicit the differences
in representations in an efficient and respectful manner will add
greatly to the effectiveness of any manager.
A common term which appears in any discussion of meetings or
potential conflict situations is “hidden agenda”. Obstacles to pro­
posed solutions, or even to the process itself, are attributed to these
hidden agendas and elaborate methods for recognizing their exis­
tence and smoking them out are constantly being devised. Recogniz­
ing their existence is comparatively easy; smoking them out is ex­
tremely difficult. After all, the agenda is hidden internally and
hallucinations about its content are less than reliable guides to ac­
tion. The issue here is clearly also one of inability to elicit high
quality information. A hidden agenda is nothing more than a portion
of an individual’s map or representation of a situation which is not
shared by the others involved. The Precision Model provides the
procedures to elicit the information which is not presently part of the
shared map and determine whether it is relevant or not. Notice that
no special concern for the motives of individuals is required. Any
statement will be accepted as a potential portion of a shared map and
subject to the tests of the Precision Model without regard for the
 FIFTH POINTER-BOUNDARY CROSSING 183

existence of hidden agendas. Every statement is subject to the same

conditions of being adequately precise. A potential obstacle to an
alternative may be a personal bias, an emotional outburst, a conflict
with larger goals or a practical consideration. No special procedures
are required depending on which it is. Fortunately, all that is re­
quired is the ability to track each statement back to its source in the
individual map; the ability to elicit high quality information.

EFFICIENCY PROCEDURE

The Efficiency Challenge is appropriate whenever the outcome of

a process requires that a specific list of items be developed to greater
precision for a known purpose. The most common occurrence
will be when the result is to be action plans toward a desired out­
come.
The Efficiency Challenge is part of the Outcome Frame. It is
appropriate at the start of a Precision Model process before the
statement under consideration is further specified. Once the Out­
come Frame has been established, it is a request for conditions which
indicate that the high quality information about to be elicited would
be out of context in some way. This will occur if the proposal is
known to be impossible to execute. In a meeting to consider alterna­
tive building sites, one of the participants knew the site had recently
been sold. Obtaining information regarding costs, dimensions and
zoning laws for that particular site would have been a waste of
resources. Or, during a meeting where various plans for increasing
sales of a particular product were being developed, and a participant
new there were plans to replace it with a new design, the Efficiency
Challenge saved a great deal of time which would have been wasted.
The purpose of the Efficiency Challenge is to direct resources toward
the outcomes sought by developing only possible alternatives.
The first two conditions specified for Surveying are precisely those
conditions related to the Efficiency Challenge. The first Procedure
will test each alternative against the Outcome Frame. The question
"Does anyone know of specific factors which prevent this alternative
from reaching the desired outcome?” Will immediately elicit any
information which might demand rejection of the alternative as not
eliminating the defined difference. This statement will be subject to
184 PRECISION

all appropriate Precision Model pointers until the adequate level of

precision has been reached. An adequate level will be one which has
enough high quality information to reject the alternative or enough
to know what additional information is needed. The second chal-
lenge will test each alternative against meta-outcomes. An alterna­
tive which would reach the desired outcome but would prevent other
essential higher level outcomes from being reached will also be re­
jected at the earliest possible time. The question, “Does anyone know
of specific factors which make this alternative impractical in relation
to organizational goals?” will elicit objections with statements of
necessity or impossibility. These objections will be subject to Preci­
sion Model pointers until an adequate level of precision has been
reached to reject the pathway or to overcome the obstacle and pursue
the alternative further. The test against organizational or overall
outcomes, the second condition for extending the gathering of high
quality information in the Surveying stage, has precise limitations in
its use at this stage. A pathway will be rejected only if it is contrary
to overall organizational goals which are the direct responsibility of
those doing the rejecting. The defined difference will never include
an explicit statement of the total context. One of the most frequent
terms accompanying a statement of necessity or impossibility involv­
ing pathways to a desired state, which is not simply a return to a
previous state, is a reference to company policy. Company policy is
a low quality term which requires specification. The only policy or
overall outcome which may cause rejection of an alternative is one
where the ability to determine the specifics of a policy, what it is
intended to accomplish and the costs of changing it can all be exam­
ined in adequately precise terms. Adequate precision would be where
the person with the authority to change the policy, who is involved
in the meeting, has adequately high quality information to make that
decision at that time. Until it is known whether or not a policy can
be changed and what the cost would be, it should not be a condition
for rejection. If alternatives are rejected on the basis of policies ol'
higher levels of management, those higher levels will never know the
cost of the policies. It should also be apparent that an adequate level
of precision cannot be attained if there is no access to anyone respon­
sible for the policy or overall outcome.
A company manufacturing heavy equipment for metal fabrication
had a policy of quoting on all jobs requested. Although they had their
own production design, they did a great deal of custom work. At
 EFFICIENCY PROCEDURE 185

various times in the history of the company, a manager would pro­

pose that custom work be refused because it was too disruptive of the
manufacturing process for their own production design. Any time
this proposal was made it was immediately turned down by reference
to company policy without consideration of cost to the company. In
its early years, this policy had served the company well and it had
grown at an impressive rate. At that time the use of manufacturing
equipment was most effective with that policy. As sales of standard
production units increased, the practice became more and more
costly but management was forbidden to question policy. The com­
pany was saved from ruining itself only when an outside consultant,
not bound by the policy rule, pointed out how costly it had become.
The costs were determined only because of the appropriate questions
being asked during the study being done for added production facili­
ties. It turned out that the company saved a large capital investment
by reorganizing its plant in a way which could fit its own production
needs without consideration for custom work.
Whenever policy is used as an objection to an alternative, the
As-if Frame can be used to continue development. Even when the
organizational outcome is within the authority of those present,
the As-if Frame will provide a fuller map for consideration of the
cost of the policy before a possible useful pathway is rejected.
Whenever it is outside the authority of the meeting, the As-if Frame
will allow the fullest possible representation to be made to the higher
levels of management upon which they can base their
decisions.
The Efficiency challenges asked at the start of this phase will take
care of an information gap created intentionally in the Pathfinding
phase. Statements of necessity or impossibility were excluded from
being challenged in the Pathfinding phase to encourage an expansion
of the normal limits in individual models or representations. The first
step of this phase is to pick up at the intentionally created deficit and
proceed to obtain information of an adequate precision to accept or
reject the objection. In the experience of the authors, a statement of
necessity or impossibility is often simply a statement that an alterna­
tive is too costly. The cost may be in terms which haven’t been
quantified, yet they are still costs. The business world has an im­
mensely rich and varied array of alternatives from which to choose
both its desired outcomes and its methods of attaining them. The
limits are seldom imposed by unchangeable facts.
186 PRECISION

Truly impossible outcomes or methods are seldom represented

from individual maps. The objections are due to thie limits of the
individual maps which are available to a meeting. Many of these
limits may be shared by each participant and only the Precision
Model challenges will elicit the experience behind those limits which
may provide the path to removing them. Potentially profitable alter­
natives which are not developed because of acceptance of these limits
are never known.
A major project for job enrichment in a large, multii-division orga­
nization was almost rejected because it was believed Ithat the unions
would never accept it. As the project progressed and the unions
began to support it, the higher management was surprised to find
that the resistance came from lower levels of management and some
of the projects were failures on that account. The limits of the models
of the original decision makers were similar and they didn’t have the
resources available to access deeper material which would have ex­
panded their representation. Neither the anticipated problem nor the
one which surprised them were necessary conditions <of reality. Each
could have been handled in a variety of ways had the original plan­
ners had the ability to access higher quality information before they
generated their program. There is a wide variety of ways to reach any
goal and a detailed examination of the terrain between present state
and desired state will yield the most efficient one.

DESIRED STATE

Once the Efficiency Challenges have been presented and any infor­
mation elicited has been incorporated in a way that hasn’t caused
rejection of the alternative, the quality of information regarding each
alternative will be at a comparable level. That is, the deficit from the
Path finding phase caused by not using the Boundary Crossing Block*
buster will have been made up and each alternative will be ready for
specification to the adequate level of precision for an action plan to
be developed. The first two conditions have not been fully met at this
point. It will still be possible for information to be accessed which
will prove the alternative to be inappropriate to the desired outcome
or to overall outcomes of the organization. Each further specification
 DESIRED STATE 187

will produce richer material for the map which may demonstrate
that it is too costly or which will indicate solutions that are poten­
tially profitable. The reason for the specification, for the increased
precision, is that both of these types of intelligence are equally valu­
able.
At this stage of Surveying, all of the Precision Model challenges
may be appropriate. There are no restrictions imposed by the
Outcome Frame of this section. The requirement is to develop an
explicit set of action plans for each alternative which will be the basis
for later evaluation, decision making and actual performance. The
full facilities of the Precision Model are required to complete the
task. The precision requirements are determined by the acceptable
outcomes.
There are four acceptable outcomes for each pathway at the com­
pletion of this phase:

1. An adequate level of specificity is obtained which demon­

strates that the alternative will not achieve the desired out­
come at all.
2. The alternative will achieve the outcome but only at the cost
of other organization goals. These overall-outcomes will in­
clude company policy, marketing strategies and cost-benefit
analysis. If a level of management is involved who can make
policy changes at the required level he may accept or reject
the alternative. Otherwise, it will be passed to the next stage.
3. An adequate level of specificity is obtained to produce a com­
plete action plan which can be carried out according to a
timetable with assigned responsibilities.
4. An adequate level of specific action is obtained which precisely
specifies the information gaps which prevent the completion
of the action plan and can also specify a timetable with respon­
sibilities for obtaining the high quality information necessary
to fill those gaps.

It will be usual at this stage not to have adequate high quality

information available to complete an action plan. If the alternative
pathways include any creative new suggestions and the Survey phase
follows immediately then it would be reasonable to assume that there
will be substantial gaps in information.
188 PRECISION

If each information gap was treated as a termination point for a

particular line of investigation the information returned to a subse­
quent meeting would often be inadequately precise and require fur­
ther assignments and interruptions to the investigation. The spe­
cific kinds of information which will need to be known cannot be
predicted with this abrupt termination. A number of well known
management books attempt to get around this type of problem by
proposing a standard list of questions to be answered. A standard
list of questions might bring back higher quality information than
otherwise but might also bring back irrelevant information or far
too little specification for an important item. The answer to the
question “When?” may bring anything from a month, week or day
to a shift, an hour or a minute. The level of specificity required wilb
not necessarily be apparent from the initial context until the gap in
being closed, particularly if it is a large gap. As we have demon­
strated in previous transcripts, it may take a series of challenge»
from the first unspecified phrase before an adequate level of preci­
sion is reached.

A high powered rifle with a scope and a shotgun are both effective
weapons. They are designed for different uses and each has appropriate
functions related to its use. The most efficient use o f each gun will be
when the purposes o f the gun matches the purpose o f its user. Each can
be used in situations which call for the other i f the preferred choice isn V
available. In these circumstances, the result may be the desired one but
it may also be detrimental to the user:
Using a shotgun for hunting deer will reduce the amount o f edible
meat considerably, / / any game is taken at all Using a high powered
rifle with a scope when the target is small or cannot be seen clearly
won 4 provide the choices which may be required\ I f however, only one
tool is available it will have to be used. Some hunters are unable to
afford the appropriate variety o f weapons. They become adept at using
the single weapon that they possess for a wide variety o f purposes—for
some o f which the weapon was never intended\ They develop their skill
with this weapon so highly that they can outperform many who have
weapons more appropriate for the job They often take great pride in
their skills. A pride which ist o f course, justified, for they have worked
hard, developed great skill and proved the worth o f their activity with
the only worthwhile proof—food on their tables. They never are able,
 DESIRED STATE 189
however, to obtain the success o f those who have also developed their
skill and who have the appropriate tools available. For those same
abilities combined with the appropriate tools will provide their owners
with more food for less expenditure o f time and effort The first step
o f precision in any circumstance is to know the weapon which is appro-
priate to the task The basis o f selection will be determined by the
specificity o f the task When the target area is broad, the weapon to use
will have to cover a wide range and will hit many things which are
irrelevant to the outcome. When the target can be clearly identified the
weapon which can concentrate its power precisely where it is needed will
yield the most predictable results. A high powered rifle with a scope has
two advanced tools combined. The scope provides the information
about the desired target and the rifle concentrates the power on that
same target.

Effective communication requires the ability to detect feedback

and respond to it appropriately. The manager who wishes to be
effective and move ahead in his organization needs a model which
is responsive to the context. A catalogue of general questions—
“who”, “where”, “what”, “why”—will not get responses with preci­
sion related to context. A detailed catalogue, like shopping cata­
logues, will provide many times more questions than needed in any
particular situation. These catalogues are sometimes useful for peo­
ple with expert knowledge of the content of the area of interest. The
Precision Model provides a tailored set of contextual language cues
which enable the manager to obtain the desired specificity for his
particular context.
“Why”, a question which is still included in most lists, yields
information which is uniformly of the lowest quality. The question
gives no indication of the type of information desired in the answer.
A manager needs to know what type of information or response is
desired to formulate an appropriate question. If the purpose is un­
known, if a specific type of information is not being sought, the
question and its response are likely to be of the lowest quality.
Knowing what is sought will allow a precise question to be formu­
lated. The question, to elicit the highest quality response, needs to
be formed so that the information source recognizes specifically the
kind of information wanted.
Compare the precision in the following responses:
190 PRECISION
Statement “I think we need to increase
sales.”
response “Why?” to “How specifically might we
or increase sales?”
■‘Why do you think that?' or
"What would happen if we
didn't?”
or
“Sales of what, in particular?”
statement “We can’t change that
policy."
response “Why?" to “What might happen if we
or did?”
“Why not?” or
“What stops us?”
or
“Change it how, specifically?'

The responses in the left hand column don’t indicate what type of
answer is expected, what sort of information is being requested. The
answer may be anything from a discussion of causality to a statement
of internal processes to a defensive reaction. “Why?” is often taken
as a demand for justification rather than simply for higher quality
information. Being specific about the information being requested
will make it much easier for the information source to respoiul
appropriately.
The As-If Frame mentioned in the preceeding chapter will l>«*
particularly useful in the Surveying stage. In a situation requiring,
information from someone not at the meeting, an assignment to the
most likely individual to act “As-if ’ they were the missing informa­
tion source can elicit valuable intelligence. Sometimes it will elicit
information that persons were not aware they possessed. The An-IГ
Frame can be used where a proposal has a part that cannot bt
accepted by a participant. He can be requested to act “As-if' hi*
particular objection can be solved. This will continue the develop
ment of an alternative and maintain access to the objector's rich,
personal maps at the same time.
The quality of information will be higher than otherwise with the
creative use of Frames. As pointed out in the discussion of the An-lf
 DESIRED STATE 191

Frame, an information deficit will often be created that must be

filled. Each time an As-if Frame is used, an assignment for obtaining
information to verify the tested material should be made. The As-if
Frame will have allowed the pathway to be further developed and
information gaps at more detailed levels may be discovered. Using
this Frame, a complete path can be developed. The ability to subse­
quently obtain the necessary high quality information will be greatly
enhanced. The consequences and implications of the path being
surveyed will be known in much more detail and relevant informa­
tion more easily determined. The individual assigned to gather the
information will also have been trained in what is required by having
been through a complete process already.
Using the full power of the Precision Model, let’s look at its
effectiveness in the following dialogue.

CASE STUDY I
GM: OK, Tom, lets take a careful look at each of the alternatives
that you came up with to get your margins back up. Let’s see,
the first one you mentioned was to drop interest charges on
inventory.

DM: Yeah! I like that solution—getting interest charges dropped

on inventory would really help me get my margins back up.

GM: I agree. There are a number of repercussions of dropping

interest charges on inventory. Your inventory represents cap­
ital and capital costs have to be absorbed by divisions. We
also keep control of division inventories this way. (pause) Let
me be quite blunt with you about this alternative. The issue
of interest charges on inventory is a company policy. If you
had been able to convince me that dropping rates was a
reasonable course of action, I would be willing to pursue it.
But since I’m not convinced, let’s use our time and energy
efficiently and move on to consider other areas.

The GM has established the present state and desired state for this
part of his meeting with DM which is a continuation of the same
session as the Pathways phase. He immediately introduces the effi­
ciency challenge to point out his own objections to the plan. Because
192 PRECISION

he has the authority to change this particular policy and he hasn’t

been persuaded to do that, he moves to the next item. This tactic can
be used effectively at any point in the meeting, including the begin­
ning where it appears here, without danger of losing the cooperation
of the DM. The setting of the Frame to begin and the continued use
of the Precision Model will ensure that the only relevant issue is to
obtain high quality information.
DM: OK, I’m with you on that one, what’s
next?
GM: The second alternative you men­
tioned was kicking old Larry in the pants—
that is, getting old Larry to increase the sales
of type В motors.
DM: Yes, I remember.
GM: All right, how specifically can you get Action
Larry to increase sales on type В motors? Blockbuster
DM: Well, that brings up the thing I
started to mention before—I really think that
Larry is doing one hell of a job for us.
With the number of sales people he has, I
think he does a fine job—I’ve examined the
number of calls his people make—the spread
between old accounts and developing new
accounts, right on down the line. They’re all
doing a great job for us . . . of course, they’re
doing a better job on selling the older models,
but . . . .
GM: (interrupting) Older models . . . older Comparator
than what, Tom?
DM: You know, the old standards, the type
A series, as opposed to the newer type B’s.
GM: I understand . . . you said that they
were doing abetter job selling the older mod­
els, right?
DM: Right! They sell a lot more of the
older models than the new type B’s. They
 CASE STUDY I 193

can’t seem to move the newer ones as well as

they move the older models.
GM: Tom, what specifically stops them Boundary
from moving the newer ones as well as they Crossing
move the older models?
DM: Damn, George, if I knew that I’d be
able to solve the inventory problem.

At this point GM is told that there is no more information avail­

able in the trajectory which is being followed. Pause for a minute
and imagine your own response to this situation. How are you
going to elicit some useful information? Or are you going to send
the DM out to find solutions and report back? Or suggest your
own alternatives?

GM: OK, let’s do it this way—you step into Larry’s shoes and
I’ll question you about this so that. . . .

DM: What? Step into Larry’s shoes.

GM: Look, Tom, we’re after information which will allow us to

discover how specifically to get your margins back up,
right?

DM: Right!

GM: More specifically, we’re tracking down information about

the difference between Larry’s ability to move the older type
motors and the newer type В motors. Are you with me?

DM: Yes.

GM: You have spent a lot of time with Larry and have un­
doubtedly picked up a lot about the way that he thinks and
reacts to situations. So I am asking you to pretend to be him
and react like you think he would. Got it?

DM: All right, I’ll give it a whirl.

194 PRECISION

GM: OK, Old Larry there. I understand that you and your reps
have been moving a lot of the series A type motors—my
compliments.

DM: (in role as Larry) Yeah, we’ve got an excellent product and
we know how to sell it.

GM: I also understand that you haven’t been able to move as

many of the newer type В motors as you hoped to.

The As-If Frames are effective for drawing out information which
is not available under usual business procedures. The more that an
atmosphere is established which provides a context for the As-If
Frame, the more effective it will be. Notice in the preceding section
that the GM explains the purpose and also creates an appropriate
context by calling the DM Larry and opening with a comment rather
than immediately resuming the questioning—As-If this was a differ­
ent conversation.

DM: (in role as Larry) Yeah! Well, that's

basically true. The customers just don’t seem
to trust their performance like the older mod­
els.
GM: Which customer specifically doesn’t Noun
trust their performance? Blockbuster
DM: (in role as Larry) Well, there are a
number of them, you know.
GM: Sure, but just go ahead and pick one Noun
that will be a good example that we can talk Blockbuster
specifically about. repeated in a
different form
DM: (in role as Larry) All right, one of my
bigger accounts would be a good example—
take Waldrup’s, for instance.

GM: OK, Waldrup’s. What specifically do- Noun

esn’t Waldrup’s trust about the performance Blockbuster
of the newer type В motors?
 CASE STUDY I 195

DM: (in role as Larry) Well, you remember

that they got burned on their very first ship­
ment of type В motors.
GM: Yes, remind me, Larry, of what in As-if Frame—
particular happened with that first shipment simple frame
that they got burned on. saying, “pretend
I don’t know
anything”
DM: (in role as Larry) They hooked the
newer type В motor wrong and it blew out
some major circuits—even started a fire, they
had to close down the line for a couple of
hours. They were really unhappy.
GM: Who specifically hooked up the type Noun
В motors at Waldrups? Blockbuster
DM: (in role as Larry) The guys who did it
were Waldrup’s own people.
GM: Where was our sales rep when all of
this was going on?
DM: (in role as Larry) That was old Bob.
Bob was out at the plant earlier in the week
and told those guys how to do the hook up.
You know, a couple of incidents like that and
even my sales reps begin to mistrust and lose
confidence in these newer models. Especially,
some of my older reps.
GM: Some of your older reps what? Noun
Blockbuster
DM: (in role as Larry) Some of my older
reps what? I don't understand.

GM: A second ago you said “especially

some of my older reps”.
DM: (in role as Larry) Oh, yeah! Especially
some of my older reps have very little confi­
dence in the newer type В models, compared
196 PRECISION

with the older models. I make calls with the

older ones. I make calls with them alt and
they just aren’t as assertive in their presenta­
tions with the type В motors, compared with
the older series motors.
GM: OK, Larry, I’m beginning to get the Difference
picture. Let me back you up a minute here. Procedure
A few minutes ago you said, “especially some
of the older reps”, I take it that the situation
is different with the younger sales reps. Is
that true?
DM: (in role of Larry) Yeah, well, not ex­
actly, it’s not the young/old difference. It’s
more how long they’ve been on the job.
GM: All right, I take it that the longer that Mini-Backtrack
one of your sales reps has been on the job, the
less assertive and effective in moving the
newer motors.
DM: (in role as Larry) Yes, it seems to fall
out that way..
GM: Now, consider this question carefully. Universal
I want to know whether there are any excep­ Blockbuster
tions to that statement. Are there any of your Q.—Are there
reps who have been on the job, say, as long any exceptions
as Bob and who are assertive and effective in
moving the newer series?
DM: (in role as Larry) N o . . . I don’t think
so . . . Wait a minute there’s Ken—he’s been
around as long as Bob but he’s really effective
with the newer stuff. I wonder..........

GM: (interrupting) OK, hold on, there old Difference

Larry. I want you to ask yourself the follow­ Procedure
ing question “Besides his effectiveness with
the newer motors, what distinguishes Ken
from my other sales reps who have been
around for as long, like Bob?”
 CASE STUDY I 197

DM: (in role as Larry) Uhmmm, well, he

lives over on the . . . no, that wouldn’t make
any difference. I really don’t . .. wait... there
is one thing, less than a year ago he attended
that voluntary.............. (interrupting himself
and coming out of his role as Larry) . . . son
of a bitch, I told Larry that that school was
important and to get his people over there
and . . .
GM: (interrupting) Hold on, Tom. Slow Noun
down a second! Ken attended what voluntar­ Blockbuster
ily?
DM: George, you remember about ten
months or a year ago the division managers
arranged that special school for familiariza­
tion with the type B’s when they first came
out. You remember, all of our sales reps got
on the job training on the B’s but we thought
that it would be useful to have a more thor­
ough training school offered. Well, I was in
favor in requiring all of our sales reps to at­
tend but I let old Larry talk me into requiring
only the newer sales reps to attend and mak­
ing it optional for any reps who had been %
with us for three years or more. Ken was the
only one of the older reps who attended
. . . and look at the difference it made.
GM: I agree, Tom .. by the way, my com­
pliments on the way you were able to step
into Larry’s shoes. We got really useful infor­
mation doing that.
DM: (smiling) You know, I guess that I
know old Larry better than I realized . . .
yeah, that did work pretty well. OK, what
happens now?
GM: Excellent question. Tom. What hap­
pens now?
198 PRECISION

DM; I have no doubt about one thing. I

want that school run again, and this time
everyone of those sales reps who haven’t been
through it will be there with bells on their
toes.

The transcript presented here details only the evaluation of the

first two of the alternatives generated by the DM through the process
of using the Precision Model tools. Subsequent to the point in the
transcript where we left off, the GM and the DM, using the precision
of the model, made a thorough evaluation of the remaining alterna­
tives.
3. cut back on production of type В motors
4. inventory transfers
5. special sale by head office
6. repackage i.e. a new package SX power units with type В
motors.

In summary then in a relatively short period of time the following

results were obtained.
The third proposal—cutting back production on the type В mo­
tors was initially rejected out of hand by the DM as the extracted
portion of the transcript reveals.

GM: All right now, Tom, let’s take a crack at the next alternative
—cutting back production on the type В motors.

DM: Well, let me be really up front about this one, George, like
I started to say earlier, it’s impossible. I really can’t cut back
on production. Let’s go on to the next alternative—we’d just
be wasting our time to consider this one. I can’t do it.

The reader might, as an exercise in communication, adopt the

perceptual position of the GM in this mini-transcript and determine
for yourselves what response you could make to this rather forceful
and completely unequivocal communication from the DM. The
reader will likely have all too familiar sensation of being trapped in
 CASE STUDY I 199

a dead end communication. What choices occur to the reader when

faced with the task of responding effectively to the DM’s last com­
munication? The most frequently occurring responses to the kind of
communication that the DM has made, which participants in our
management training workshops offer are:

A. if you trust the manager (you believe him fully competent in

the area of business under discussion), you accept his judg­
ment at its face value and go on to the next alternative.
B. if you have some hesitation about his judgment in this area
of business, you demand that he justify his judgment with the
appropriate arguments and figures. This demand for justifica­
tion of his judgment most typically takes the form of asking
the question, “why not?”

The typical outcome of making the first choice—accepting the

judgment—is, on the upside, that the manager has the experience
of being supported; that is, his judgement regarding his own opera­
tion is accepted without question. On the down side, the discussion
is over—the alternative is never explored, and a potentially profita­
ble and effective maneuver is lost. The result being the loss of one
of the alternatives for the company—a net reduction in flexibility.
The typical outcome of the second choice involves again, both ad­
vantages and disadvantages. The advantage is that the option is
explored and thus, feasible solutions emerge and potential benefits
from manipulating the production quotas are made available. The
primary disadvantage is typically the demoralization of the man­
ager whose judgment about his own operation has been challenged.
There is also typically an even more debilitating consequence. In
this second choice, the employee whose judgment about his own
operation is being challenged will provide only very low quality
information as he is pressed to justify his judgement. Thus, the
superficial advantage of this choice evaporates under closer scru­
tiny.
This analysis leaves the GM in an untenable position. Neither
alternative yields the desired outcome—specifically, that of evaluat­
ing the alternative using high quality information as the basis of the
evaluation. The Precision Model tools provide a resolution of this
dilemma.
200 PRECISION

DM: . . . wasting our time to consider this one. I can't do it.

GM: Tom, what would happen if you did cut back production of
the type В motors?

DM: Well, the cut back would force me to lay off some of the
people involved in production. Our relations with the union
is already under severe strain and. . . .

The outcome which results naturally from the Boundary Crossing

Pointer is optimal. The DM is invited by the question to provide high
quality information regarding the consequences of the action he is
reluctant to take. There is nothing in the question which challenges
his competence in making the judgment which he previously an­
nounced: hence no defensiveness arises on his part. The GM has
requested that he provide high quality information regarding his
understanding of the consequences of a cutback in production. The
Precision Model accesses precisely the high quality information
needed for a thorough examination and evaluation of this specific
alternative from the individual who has that information regarding
the situation without any challenge to his competency. Indeed, in
this particular instance insuring discussion of this re-opened alterna­
tive revealed that the disastrous consequences feared by the DM
could be avoided simply by maintaining overall production quotas
for the division but shifting a portion of the labor force from the
production of type В motors to the production of additional SX
power units and type A series motors.
The preceding dialogue demonstrates the efficient use of Frames
and Pointers. The dialogue flows easily and smoothly along a trajec­
tory toward a desired state. The two parts of the Precision Model are
reflected in the use of the Frames to maintain context and the Preci­
sion Model questions and procedures to elicit high quality informa­
tion. A professional communicator, which a manager must be, has
to know two things. The first is the answer to the question "What
information do I need?” The second is specific techniques to be able
to elicit that information. The Frames establish and maintain the
context in response to the first question. The questions maintain the
Frame or context and elicit the high quality information required.
The definition of precision presented and applied here, covers these
two needs of the communicator.
 CASE STUDY I 201

A test for the precision o f any communication sequence is its con­

nectedness. Connectedness is the condition o f having a word or phrase
in a response which is the same as or refers to a phrase in the preceding
sentence. Notice that all the Precision Model questions have this
feature. Each question is, of course, a direct response to the content
of the preceding statement. If you have ever sat through a meeting
which appeared to have no direction, you could have given yourself
something to do by keeping track of the noun phrases to see how
little connectedness there was.
The problem of connectedness is particularly noticeable in meet­
ings of more than two people. The task of maintaining context or
relevancy is much easier in larger meetings if explicit and precise
tools are available. Many prescriptions for making meetings work
have sections on what is often called gatekeeping. The term refers to
giving everyone present the opportunity to speak and closing off
those that speak too much. The basis of judgement is left unspecified.
What is too much? Is it really necessary for everyone to speak? If so,
how much? These questions are left to the intuition of the manager
in charge. These directions, however, fail to give the manager the
tools to actually be in charge. To reach his goals efficiently and
maintain control of a meeting requires a specific set of skills. Rather
than using the feelings of each participant as a guide, as a contextual
frame, the Precision Model uses the context set by the purpose of the
meeting and explicit skills to elicit information. It is beyond question
that there are circumstances where it may be useful and even neces­
sary to solicit information from a potential but silent source. The
Precision Model provides possible openings and, more important,
the techniques to elicit the information desired from that source.
The purpose of “gatekeeping” is to insure that the resources of all
participants are available to the meeting. By demonstrating that all
input is valued and by using the questioning methods presented here
in a sensitive way, the authors contend that the richest possible
shared map can be created. A manager’s intuition about who might
have the information most wanted at a particular time will, of course,
speed the process if used in conjunction with the Precision Model.
The following dialogue represents the use of the model in a meeting
with five people. We comment on the Frames used as the dialogue
progresses to focus on the control provided by them. Rather than a
concern with “gatekeeping”, we present a dialogue which, in requir­
ing adequate precision, uses context or desired outcome as the stan­
202 PRECISION

dard for action. As you read the dialogue, challenge yourself with
two tasks. The first will be to identify possible Precision Model
questions and note the one which was selected. Use a card or paper
to cover the right-hand column. The second will be to notice if the
sense of direction which is obvious seems likely to generate coopera»
tion or not and whether the requirements of seeking information
from individual participants are met or not. We call to your attention
one particular feature of each Pointer. Every Pointer contains at least
one word from the statement towards which it is directed. The
authors have found in workshops and consulting that a common
failing is to jump in with a question which is not clearly and directly
related to a previous statement. The frequent result is that whai
appeared to be a shortcut led away from the original direction—
sometimes, never to return.

CASE STUDY II

GM: OK, we’ve generated a list of alterna­ Backtrack Frame

tive pathways all of which may get us to
where we want to go. Specifically we want to
change working conditions so that we can
hire more skilled workers and increase pro­
duction so we can fill orders and keep cus­
tomers.
I’ll post the list of alternatives and we Outcome Frame
can consider them one at a time. We’ll cover —establishes
the production area and you can all keep in procedure
mind how the discussion might relate to your
own departments. At the end of the meeting Outcome Frame
we’ll have a list of alternatives which still —specifies
appear feasible, the specific information we desired outcomc
need before making final decisions on them,
and specific ways of carrying them out. OK,
Joe, which alternative do you want to start
with?
Joe: (PM) Raising wages seems like the
best alternative to me. Everyone wants more
 CASE STUDY II 203

money but no one is going to want to work

longer hours. Those flexible working hours
might look OK to some people but I can’t see
how to make it work.
GM: Joe, let’s take each alternative one at Outcome Frame
a time. The first one you chose was “raise —recalls
wages” so let’s look at that. Raising whose established
wages, in particular? procedure

Noun
Blockbuster
Joe: Well, I'd figured on everybody’s.
GM: (with rising intonation) Everybody? Universal
Blockbuster

Joe: That’s what I'd assumed. I don’t think

the union would allow us to change the rate
for only the people we need.
GM: OK. We want to establish what fur­ Outcome Frame
ther information we need to make a deci­ —specifies
sion on each of these alternatives. Let’s put outcome for the
that aside to be investigated later. If the next step.
union would allow us, whose wages would
we raise? As-If Frame—act
as if the union
would allow it.
Noun
Blockbuster
Joe: Experienced assembly workers and
welders.
GM: All experienced assembly workers Universal
and welders? Blockbuster
Joe: Yeah. We’re having trouble getting
skilled workers and if we only pay for line
# 3 work we won’t be able to get replace­
ments for the other lines.
204 PRECISION

Pers: If we can get the pay differential, I

think it might work. Our company would be
providing better prospects for those that
came in at lower rates. Joe’s right, though,
the union won’t allow it.
GM: What would happen if we proposed Boundary
it? Crossing
Pers: They wouldn’t buy it. . . . I know
those guys, I bargain with them all the time.

GM: We don’t have one of them here to

question. Who is one of the influential ones
that you know well?
Pers: I know Harry pretty well and he’s on
the executive.
GM: OK. I’d like you to put yourself in As-If Frame
Harry’s shoes and respond to my questions as
if you were Harry.
Pers: OK .
GM: Well, Harry, we’re considering pay­ As-If Frame—de
ing higher wages to experienced assembly­ velopment of ■!-
men and welders who work on line # 3 . We’d mosphere to gel
like your cooperation in figuring out a way greatest effect
we can do it. We need to be able to attract
more skilled people here and this way some
of the men already here can benefit. Can you
think of any specific objection to the pro­
posal?
Pers: Well, Harry would object immedi­
ately and th e n ..........
GM: (Interrupting) this will be most effec­ As-If Frame
tive if you actually step into Harry’s shoes reinforccN
and answer my questions as though you are original fra ini'
he. OK?
Pers: OK.
 CASE STUDY II 205

GM: (repeats proposal) Can you think of

any specific objection to the proposal?
Pers: (as Harry) You know we can't allow
you to pay just certain guys more because
you need some extra work. That’s just brib­
ery. We put a stop to that a long time ago.
Each pay difference has to be a defined cate­
gory that anyone could obtain.
GM: OK. If we found a way to create cate­ As-if Frame—act
gories that would be acceptable to both of us, as if problem
is there any other objection? solved within the
previous As-if
Frame.
Pers: (back in pers. role) No. He won’t ob­
ject to paying somebody more as long as it fits
into their system.
GM: We know whose wages we want to Action
raise. The next question is “How much?” Blockbuster
Pers: I would guess about 15%. When
we’ve tried it in clerical areas to attract more
people, anything less doesn't seem to have
enough impact.
Contr: Fifteen percent! We're already over
labor standards. Our profits will disappear.
GM: Over how, specifically? GM chooses to
pursue Control­
ler's statement.
He could use Out­
come Frame to re­
turn to personnel
Action
Contr: Well it’s taking more labor hours Blockbuster
per unit of output and the costs are higher
than standard tool
GM: How, specifically, are they higher? Action
Blockbuster
206 PRECISION

Contr: Well, our rates are the same as stan­

dard so it’s all in overtime.
Joe: If we got the people we needed we
wouldn't have nearly as much overtime. It
might pay to raise wages.
GM: There are some specific pieces of in­ Outcome Frame
formation which we’ll need before we meet to —establishes
decide on which alternatives to follow. outcome using
backtrack as well
Let’s set out what information we need, spe­
cifically, and how we’re going to get it. First
we have to establish what rate would attract
the workers we need. Personnel can look
after that. Second, we have to know how
much, in total dollars, that raise would cost
both if we gave it to all production workers
and if we only gave it to experienced assem­
bly workers and welders. That will come
from accounting and we also need from them
the current cost of overtime. When account­
ing has those figures, Joe, you’ll estimate how
much overtime might be saved with each
plan and the cost of additional skilled work­
ers. Then the three of you can get together
and calculate whether either plan is finan­
cially feasible. Third, if the selective raise
might be feasible, Production and personnel
will construct a category that might be ac­
ceptable to the union. Fourth, meet with a
union representative and attempt to sell him
on the plan which appears most attractive.
(At the end of this section of the meeting, the
GM had drawn a representation of the situa­
tion that looked like this.)
 CASE STUDY II 207

RAISE WAGES establish % raise required (pers.)

calculate costs (Acct)
calculate potential net cost/benefit (Prod
/Acct)
create special category (Prod/Pers)
discuss with union (Pers)

The time frame for these activities will

be determined at the end of the meeting when
all information gaps are represented.

Let’s consider flexitime next. Flexitime is a Outcome Frame

formal system of flexible hours which uses a —next step
time clock to keep track of total hours. Joe,
in what way, specifically, might your hours
be flexible?
Joe: Well, I don’t know. I’ve never heard of
this system and I haven’t given it much
thought.
GM: Ellen, you’re familiar with this idea.
Why don’t you give us an outline of how it
might work.
Ellen: Well, one of the main things is that
people have to work a fixed number of hours
per day, or sometimes per week, but they can
choose their own start and end times and
take lunch breaks whenever then want.
There is a time clock which accumulates
hours so they know and we know they work
the required number of hours. They all have
to be available during core time.
GM: What, specifically, is core time? Noun
Blockbuster
Ellen: There are fixed times of the day
when everyone has to be there.
GM: Which times, specifically? Noun
Blockbuster
208 PRECISION

Ellen: That depends on the business. It’s

usually around the middle of the day and it’s
to make sure everyone is available for meet­
ings and there during peak load periods.
GM: OK, Joe, how, specifically, might Action
your hours be flexible? Blockbuster (GM
directs attention
to the participant
likely to have the
most useful
information)
Joe: I don’t really know where to start. We
have to have people there when we need
them.
GM: Need them for what, in particular Noun
Joe? Blockbuster
Joe: For set-ups, for production decisions,
for disputes, for emergencies, for mainte­
nance (pause).
GM: Is that everything?
Joe: Yeah, I guess so. (shrugging)
GM: (listing items) OK, Joe, let’s take Outcome Frame
them one at a time. Who, specifically do you —establishes
need for set-ups? procedure (after
making visual
backtrack)
Noun
Blockbuster
Joe: We need the experienced assembly
workers.
GM: When, specifically, do you need
them?
Joe: We need them all the time.
GM: All the time? Universal
Blockbuster
 CASE STUDY II 209

Joe: Well, not all the time. But it could be

at any time. I can’t predict when the set-ups
will be except for the start of the day.
GM: What is different about the start of the Difference
day. Procedure
Joe: Each assembly unit needs a set-up at
the beginning of the day because the auto­
matic cutting programs can't be left operat­
ing and have to be reset.
GM: What, specifically, stops you from Boundary
predicting when these assembly workers will Crossing
be needed?

Joe: It takes 3 hours for regular units to go

through the assembly area and 5 hours for
special units. We only work an eight hour
day and that means jobs are in various stages
of production.
GM: OK. Let’s step back for a minute and As-if Frame—act
look at the situation as if we were already as if we are in
using flexitime. Let’s assume that the board future situation.
of directors had decided this is the way to go
and the union has already agreed. Our task
is to find out the best way to make it work.
How might you solve the problem of schedul­
ing people for set-up?
Joe: Well, we wouldn’t be restricted to an
eight hour day, would we? So we could com­
plete two special units a day and three regu­
lar units. We wouldn’t need to leave any jobs
in mid-point of assembly overnight and that
would reduce the total number of set-ups
required. Hey, this could really work! If a
new job was started each morning, the set-up
men would know when they were need­
ed and could schedule their time around
that.
210 PRECISION

GM: OK. Let’s consider the other points As-If Frame—

assuming that flexitime is already our system. reinforces above
Who, specifically, do you need for produc­ frame.
tion decisions? Noun
Blockbuster
Joe: Supervisors.
GM: AH supervisors? Universal
Blockbuster
Joe: Well, I suppose not as long as there is
at least one around.
GM: When, specifically, do they need to be
around for these decisions?
Joe: All the time, (pause) It has to be all the
time because we can’t predict when there’s
going to be a problem and the line needs to
be stopped.
GM: What would happen if they weren’t Boundary
around to stop it? Crossing
Joe: Well, foremen aren’t allowed to stop
the machines but they might have to be
stopped .. I guess they’d be stopped anyway.
GM: OK. That’s a point to be reviewed. Noun
Let’s look at the next item. Who needs to be Blockbuster
around for disputes?
Joe: A supervisor.
GM: Who needs to be around for emergen­ Noun
cies? Blockbuster
Joe: A supervisor.
GM: Who needs to be around for mainte­ Noun
nance? Blockbuster
Joe: The maintenance crew.
GM: The whole crew? Universal
Blockbuster
 CASE STUDY II 211

Joe: No, I don’t think so. We need some

around and maybe some on call. I guess we’d
have to see how it worked out.
GM: OK. I think we’ve covered the major Outcome Frame
points. Now let’s drop the idea that we al­ steps out of As-If
ready have flexitime and find out what we Frame and
need to do to make it a workable plan that a establishes
decision can be made on. Joe, you’ve procedure.
sketched out a plan here, what specifically
would stop you from carrying it out? Efficiency
Procedure
Joe: Well, I can’t think of anything we ha­
ven’t covered. I’d have to get together with
some people and work out a specific plan to
see if it’ll work. We haven’t done anything
like this before.
GM: OK. We'll deal with the planning Outcome Frame
later. Does anyone else have anything to say —establishes
on this alternative? procedure,
requests
information.
PS: I never thought this wild idea could
work but as you talked about it, I began to
think it had some good points. A lot of
my doubts have been cleared up. I think
we’ll still have trouble with the foremen,
though.
GM: Trouble with the foreman over what? Action
Blockbuster
PSup: They’d have to work really long
hours. The plant’s going to be open 10 or 12
hours a day.
GM: What would happen if they didn’t Boundary
work long hours? Crossing
PSup: The men would be working without
any supervision some of the time.
212 PRECISION

GM: Is foremen working long hours the Recycle

only way the men could have some supervi­ procedure—How
sion at all times? else . . .?
PSup: Well, I guess we could schedule so
someone was there all the time. Yeah, I guess
we can do it.
Richard (SM): 1 don’t have any real prob­
lem in this area because my staff is OK the
way it is . . .
GM: (seeing signs of uncertainty) But?
Richard: You’ve got to keep customer rela­
tions in mind when you consider this sort of
thing.
GM: You’re absolutely right, Richard, and
I’ve invited you to this meeting for that rea­
son. Your ideas and experience will help in­
sure we have a most profitable outcome.
What part of customer relations specifically, Noun
are you concerned about? Blockbuster
Richard: Our customers need to know they
can depend on someone here.
GM: Which customers are you concerned Noun
about? Blockbuster
Richard: All of them.
GM: Every single one of them? Universal
Blockbuster
Richar: Well, the big ones and all our regu­
lar West Coast ones.
GM: Which big ones? Noun
Blockbuster
Richard: State and Seegers are really stuffy
and they raise hell.
Purch: Maybe you could make special ar­
rangements for them.
 CASE STUDY II 213

Richard: Yeah, maybe.

GM: (Noticing uncertainty) What, specifi­ Noun
cally worries you about our West Coast cus­ Blockbuster
tomers?
Richard: With the time difference they al­
ready have shorter service hours. Some of
these proposals might make it worse.
GM: Which proposals, specifically? Noun
Blockbuster
Richard: Those flexible working hours are
what worry me.
GM: What, in particular, worries you Noun
about them? Blockbuster
Richard: Everyone might go home early
and that reduces the available service hours
even more.
Contr: With staying open longer we might
be able to increase the service hours. It would
be possible to do that with flexitime.
Richard: Maybe, but those kind of changes
affect everybody, you know. And customer
relations are important.
GM: That’s why we have all departments
here. What about customer relations, specifi­ Noun
cally do you want us to consider? Blockbuster
Richard: Well, we’ve established certain re­
lationships with our customers to keep them
happy.
GM: What specifically, have we established Noun
with them. Blockbuster
Richard: We have the same person for
them to contact, mostly. We try to do it that
way although we don’t have quite enough
staff to do it completely.
214 PRECISION

GM: What would happen if we changed Boundary

them? Crossing

Richard: That would depend.

GM: On what? Noun

Blockbuster
Richard: What specific changes were made
and how we approached them with the
changes.

GM: I’d like your recommendation on Outcome Frame

changes, Richard, and I’m sure your skill at —reminder of
marketing will enable us to present any context.
changes we make in a positive light. What
changes might we make to improve customer
relations and realize the kind of gains we’re
investigating at this meeting.
Richard: If we improve shipping schedules
and have our phones open longer it would
help. I’m still worried though.
GM: What specifically, are you worried Noun
about? Blockbuster
Richard: Our competitor has excellent cus­
tomer relations because they always have the
same person handling the same customer.
We couldn’t do that with the proposals we
are considering here.
GM: Does having that kind of contact nec­ Boundary
essarily get good customer relations? Crossing
Richard: No, I guess not. Not if shipping is
on time and some kind of good contact is
available.
GM: What, specifically, prevents having Outcome Frame
good personal contact in the proposals we’ve —reminder of
been discussing? context.
Boundary
 CASE STUDY II 215

Richard: With flexible working hours we

couldn’t predict contact hours in the propos­
als we’ve been discussing. With flexible work­
ing hours we couldn’t predict when individu­
als would be in and who would be handling
different customers.

GM: Necessarily? Boundary

Crossing

Richard: No. I guess it would be possible to

set up schedules so they would be predicta­
ble. We could set our procedures and then let
our customers know.

GM: Do you see any other obstacles to Recycle

good customer relations? Procedure

Richard: No. It looks as though it might

work pretty well as long as we have good
coordination. I’m here to look after our cus­
tomers.

GM: Good. I’m glad we got your ideas so

that we can take them into account as we
develop these ideas.

Anything else? (pause) OK. Let’s list exactly

what has to be done.

(The details needed to arrive at a decision on this proposal were

worked out and the following representation resulted.)

l;LEXTIME: 1. Research with actual operations (pers)

2. Schedule—tentative (prod)
A. Production needs— assembly
maintenance
216 PRECISION

B. Other demands— customer service

intra-department communi
cation
C. Foremen & Supervisors
D. Mechanics— core time(s)
earliest start/latest quit
accumulation basis
minimum manning basis
3. Meet with union (pers/prod)

The value of having the ability to access full representations from

all participants is apparent here. The possibility of reducing require­
ments for the missing skilled labor in accord with production line
needs, once discovered, was available for use in other plans. Creating
a fuller, shared map of all participants ensured that the richer repre­
sentation was available to all participants for all the alternatives
under consideration.
The consideration of attracting more skilled workers was expected
to be less of a problem because production, particularly of special
units was expected to increase due to fewer extra set-ups. This area
did however present a problem. We pick up the dialogue when this
point arises during discussion of the 4/40 option.

PM: Well, I can see how it would really

help our production but I’m concerned.
GM: Concerned about what, specifically? Noun
Blockbuster ^
PM: People quitting and we’ll be worse off
than before.
GM: Who in particular might quit? Noun
Blockbuster
PM: Most of our experienced assembly­
men.
GM: What’s the difference between them Difference
and the rest of the men? Procedure
PM: They’re older.
 CASE STUDY II 217

GM: And? Recycle

Procedure

PM: They’re the ones that complain about

overtime the most and some of them refuse
to work it at all. They don’t need the money
any more and they’d rather stay at home.
PSup: I think they’d like it. Most of those
guys like to hunt and fish and I think most
of them would like long weekends.
GM: OK. We might have a special consid­
eration here. One of the missing gaps in our
information is whether the people we want to
keep and attract will like 4/40 or whether it
will drive the ones we want away.

The primary objective of this meeting was to develop alternatives

that would change work conditions to attract more skilled workers.
If the change would attract more young workers only and most of
the ones they required were older, they would be defeating their
original purpose while meeting the first stated needs of attracting
more workers. The other issues were defined and a list of required
information was developed.
A major factor in the choice of As-If Frames will be a manager’s
judgment of the critical abilities of the individual and his congruence
when making a statement. The Precision Model provides the method
for eliciting high quality information. The responsibility for knowing
when that high quality information is necessary rests with each
particular manager. A subordinate who has been reliable in the past
and has established that he normally bases his opinion in the area of
concern on high quality information can be depended upon when he
presents his opinion in the same manner on a current issue. The
ability to distinguish when one can depend on the opinion of others
and when one can’t is a skill which can be learned.
It is also the skill which often, in the past, has been the distinguish­
ing one between adequate managers and really successful ones.
The meeting ended with a list for each alternative showing what
information was required, how it was to be obtained and who was
to obtain it. It represents the desired state which this particular
218 PRECISION

meeting was supposed to reach. The highest quality information

obtainable at this point has been reached and is being passed on to
the next meeting. Included in this chart are the specific information
gaps and what kind of information is required to fill them. The next
meeting will start simply by making sure those gaps have been filled
in the precise manner required by the plan.
The previous dialogues demonstrate the full use of the Precision
Model. An entire range of its Frames, Procedures and Pointers were
used. This stage of the information process requires the highest
quality information for all areas of the shared map be elicited. The
issue of management is information. All of the leading management
books refer to the activity of processing information as a primary
requirement for, and shortcoming of, existing management theories.
All of these models require an information processing base which
they do not provide. Further, they apparently are not aware of the
existence of such a base. There are existing models for specific parts
of the management process which are highly refined. Kepner and
Tregoe in The Rational Manager provide a model for solving prob­
lems, particularly those relating to physical processes, which is useful
and efficient. Curt Symonds in A Design For Business Intelligence
provides a model for developing management information systems
which is creative and powerful. Davis and Lawrence in Matrix pre­
sent a model for matrix management which clearly identifies the
requirements for a new concept of organization.
These books, which are three of the most powerful models availa­
ble in their respective areas, have one thing in common. Each re­
quires a set of communication skills which they do not provide and
which they recognize as lacking in existing management.
This lack of adequate precision seriously weakens their models,
except in the hands of those individuals who have develpped effective
communication skills on an intuitive level, or who have learned the
Precision Model. The individuals who have developed these models
are personally skilled in their application. They cannot, however,
transfer their skills along with their models. The dialogues show that
these skills are available and can be learned by anyone who desires
to become precise in their own processing of information.

"U nless he has both the inclination and the authority to challenge,
to question, or to take leadership in dem anding change, he will gradu­
ally subvert his managerial talents to the less exacting role o f adminis-
 CASE STUDY II 219
trator. H e w ill, in effect, end up serving the system rather than
m eeting the needs o f the business."

Curt Symonds,
A Design for Business Intelligence

This passage deplores the lack of adequate information processing

skills. As Symonds points out, these skills are generally lacking and
their lack creates the kind of attitudes mentioned above. Lacking
skills and feeling too intimidated to try for information, the manager
feels insecure. The models which have been proposed to fill this gap
have all been shotgun approaches. Lacking an understanding of the
requirements, or even possibilities of precision, they have provided
whole catalogues of questions. As with any catalogue, the items of
interest may be contained in it. In any catalogue, however, there are
a vast number of items which axe of no interest whatsoever to its
reader, particularly if that reader has a predetermined purpose.
The dialogues in this chapter demonstrate that information may
be elicited in a systematic way with a set of precise tools. No issue
of emotional conflict or intrusion need arise and respect for partici­
pants is maintained. The model requires only that it be applied
systematically. The existing personal skills of the manager using it
will further enhance its effectiveness.
The major case studies we have given so far of applying the Preci­
sion Model have dealt with situations having a common characteris­
tic. The manager using the Precision Model has been eliciting infor­
mation which the participants in the meetings recognize as being
needed to eliminate a defined difference. The participants have been
in agreement that more precise information has been required for
each of the desired objectives. The model presented is not restricted
to such a situation. The full power and effective use of the Precision
Model will be realized when it is applied to all outcome oriented
communication situations. When a subordinate proposes a plan of
action intended to reach an outcome which has never been accom­
plished before or to reach an expected outcome by a new path, the
manager needs the same skills for the situation presented to him. A
skilled manager will use his intuition and knowledge of the subordi­
nate to determine the level of precision required for the plan being
proposed. He will use the Precision Model skills to obtain the appro­
priately high quality information he requires.
220 PRECISION

In the authors* experience, the enthusiasm of a manager for his

own plan has often led to an inadequately developed plan which can
have consequences which would lead to disastrous results even
though the basic idea is good. It is not the basic idea but a specific
set of actions which will be carried out. A manager who allows too
much slippage between his idea and the action plan will likely fall
flat on his face.
The development of computer systems often falls into this kind of
trap. The systems analyst, knowing virtually anything can be done
on a computer, often ignores the costs of development or the practi­
cal effects on the other side of the computer room doors. Require­
ments for input or the ability to actually use the output produced are
often based on assumptions about operating conditions for which the
system analyst has no experiential base. In conjunction with a poten­
tial user of information, the analyst designs a system which appears
to be the answer to the prayers of a manager. Before approval is given
for such a product, some Precision Model application is likely to be
in order. We present an example of part of such a session based on
our experience.

CASE STUDY

The sales manager and systems analyst are meeting with the GM
to get his approval for a new program to produce sales reports.
They’ve outlined a plan which will report orders received instead of
the accounting sales which represent orders shipped. The sales man­
ager points out that sales as now reported reflect only history and
such information is not a useful guide to action. He is excited about
the prospect of knowing current business represented by orders. The
information will allow him to plan sales strategies based on business
they are generating independent of production and shipping. After
explaining the benefits of the system and showing the systems flow
chart which tracks the information flow from its source, the sales
manager asks for authorization to proceed.

GM: Before we go any further, I’d like to get some more informa­
tion. The plan does seem promising and I’d like to find out
what other areas it might affect. I also want to make sure that
we realize the full benefits which this system might offer us.
 CASE STUDY 221

I like the idea of managing based on order information but

we haven’t done it before and I’m not sure it would work. The
source of the orders is available and you’ve handled that
pretty thoroughly. I still count success by the profit on what
we actually ship out of here; and the numbers on the financial
statements. How will your reports tie into that?

SM: Well, orders get shipped sooner or later and so we just have
to reconcile the difference each month.

GM: How, specifically, can we reconcile the difference?

SM: We can keep track of orders cancelled and we know the

shipment figure so the reconciliation is easy.

GM: How, specifically, can we keep track of orders cancelled?

SM: It can be done by the computer. We can have a report which

shows new orders, cancelled orders and shipments.

GM: OK. I’d like a layout of that report and its systems flow done
before final approval. The next thing that concerns me is that
you’ll be using the sales orders report for operations but I’ll
be holding you responsible for the sates reported by account­
ing. How can we work that way?

SM: I’d like to persuade you that you should use the same figures
I’m using. I can’t be held responsible for whether or not
orders are shipped.

GM: What will happen if you are?

SM: Well, I am now and it isn’t working too well. I spend a lot
of non-productive time justifying and explaining what has
already happened. I also have to spend time with production
problems which don’t really allow me to concentrate my
efforts on selling. I can’t hold my salesmen responsible for
their performance because I don’t really know what it is.
These reports will be valuable to me whether you use this
order method or not.
222 PRECISION

GM: How specifically, will they be valuable?

SM: I’ll be able to keep track of current sales activity of each

salesman and I’ll be able to investigate lost orders as they
happen.

GM: OK. You’ve convinced me of the value of the reports to you.

I’m interested in the idea of working those reports in with our
regular ones so that I can use them, too. I’d like you to have
a meeting with the controller and come up with a solution for
that. I don’t want you to write the program and then have to
start again because of any changes that might cause. I’ll give
final approval after you’ve worked out the order reconcilia- ‘
tion problem and met with the controller.

In this case, the original programs had to be modified when a

method which included production cost figures was included. The
company ended up with a model which allowed them to keep on top
of their current business. The original plan would have created a
problem with reconciliation to accounting figures which was not
anticipated in the original plan. Worse, the sales manager would
have been working with information which was not available to, or
understood by, the GM and they would have spent many bitter hours
attempting to find a common base for accountability. Many systems
in the authors’ experience have been scrapped or poorly used for
these kinds of reasons. The application of the Precision Model at the
beginning of development of any action plan can mean the difference
between a profitable venture and a failure.

BACKTRACK

The surveying phase presented here covers overall business infor­

mation processing from a point of having a list of potential courses
of action to full development of these paths or rejection. This is the
final phase before evaluation and decision making and, as such,
requires that each potential alternative be converted to a fully spe­
cified action plan. The next phase cannot proceed with any reason­
able degree of certainty without high quality information regarding
how, specifically, a course of action is to be carried out. The authors
 BACKTRACK 223

have seen many business operations head for serious trouble when
they neglected this phase. Computer data centers which have as­
sumed they could program an application which cost much more
than anticipated, or in some cases couldn’t be done at all, because
of inadequately specified methods of solution. Many computer sys­
tems are sold which can’t perform the work they were sold to do—
for lack of adequately precise surveying. A large hotel was con­
structed with few problems but had to be sold and turned around
from bankruptcy caused by failure to use the same kind of surveying
in determining market factors as was used in construction planning
—in this case financing requirements and the construction of others
(a highway) beyond their direct control. All of these situations, and
thousands like them, could be prevented by applying the Precision
Model for adequate surveying.
Surveying starts with a list of potential action pathways. Each of
these has been contributed as a possible way to reach the goal, it is
possible that some will not and others will reach it only at a prohibi­
tive cost. The list of pathways was created with no constraints as to
practicality. The only constraining factor was that if it could be done,
it might reach the desired outcome. The start of this phase is optimal
so far as the list is rich with alternative possibilities for reaching the
desired state.
As the list was created without concern for practicality, the first
step will be to test these conditions at this point. Maximum effi­
ciency, in this phase, is to reject alternatives which don’t meet the
practical condition as soon as possible without rejecting any which,
if adequately high quality information were available, would prove
to be acceptable alternatives. Any objections at this point will be
Precision Modeled to insure that no alternatives are rejected based
on unacceptably low quality information.
Each path which survives will be developed to a specific action
plan. As it is developed, it may be rejected for impracticality, as
higher quality information is elicited. If not, it will result in a com­
plete action plan or an incomplete plan with a specific plan for
obtaining required and missing information. The increasing specifi­
city will reveal information gaps which need to be filled before ade­
quate precision will be attained for a particular path. Some of these
gaps will be filled by guesses or intuitions which will need to be
verified before evaluation.
The issues of conflict and emotion, insofar as they are problems,
224 PRECISION

have been shown to be functions of the inability to elicit high quality

information. These become problems when the differences in repre­
sentation are not known and participants are unable to operate from
shared maps. The Precision Model, by establishing a framework
which is outcome oriented and providing the tools to elicit high
quality information, creates a positive environment for obtaining the
rich resources which are available from the individual experience of
each participant.
The complete Frames of the Precision Model have been presented
in previous chapters and all are appropriate at this stage. Particular
emphasis on the power of the Efficiency Challenge introduced in this
phase, was made to demonstrate how information may be brought
to a comparable level of high quality quickly and efficiently. The
As-if Frame was also highlighted as a means of by-passing informa­
tion gaps usefully, gaining valuable information without sacrificing
quality. The Boundary Crossing Pointer was introduced in this phase
and contrasted how the Precision Model can usefully focus informa­
tion according to the context with how it can expand the area of
awareness. Although the Boundary Crossing Pointer was high­
lighted, all Pointers are appropriate in this phase of information
processing.
We note that much of the material in this book, and a common
focus of most communication models, covers situations in which the
information sources are not aware of their potential contribution to
the task at hand. Eliciting information is frequently a painful process
of extraction. We have shown our model equally applicable to a
situation where an eager subordinate has developed a plan to im­
prove some part of a company’s operations. The same model is used
to obtain high quality information whatever the attitude or position
of the information source. Goodwill is enhanced with a precise
model for eliciting information.
The outcome of this phase will be a number of alternatives all of
which would achieve the desired state which started the process. The
result will be similar to a PERT chart with actions to be taken,
responsibilities assigned and time frames established. The analogy to
a construction project is appropriate. The precision with which engi­
neering and construction plans are formulated has, until now, been
missing in ordinary business operations—missing but needed u«
much.
The surveying stage needs access to rich individual maps as much
 BACKTRACK 225

as any phase. Many potentially profitable alternatives are rejected

because access to individual representations is limited by unneces­
sary boundaries—often the very boundaries which caused the origi­
nal problem or limited the primary objectives. The Precision Model
accesses individual maps in ways appropriate to the particular phase
of information processing. The surveying phase requires that details
in a particular area be highlighted to clarify the specifics of attaining
an objective along a previously identified path. Boundaries are
defined for this phase, yet precise tools are required to insure that any
boundaries which are accepted are necessary, practical and have
known costs.
An alternative will be rejected at this phase if it is in conflict with
overall outcomes of the organization. That is, it is too costly in terms
other than directly financial. Policies which the organization has
established may prohibit certain alternatives. We maintain that alter­
natives which violate policy should be rejected only if there is a level
of authority present which is capable of considering changing that
policy. Too many high level executives never know the true cost of
their policy statements. These policies become laws of an organiza­
tion which often outlive their usefulness.
Desired states or outcomes exist at all levels of information proc­
essing. In the context of problem solving, each phase has desired
states and each of these is determined by the overall desired state—
the solution of a problem. The desired state of each phase is subordi­
nate to the final desired outcome.
Each alternative which is passed from this phase—which consti­
tutes the desired state—is a detailed course of action which will
attain the final desired outcome. In most situations there will be a
number of alternatives which could achieve the desired ends. The
Surveying phase develops each of these to a level of precision which
will allow this effect to be measured, the relative costs and benefits
assessed, and give confidence that the specific actions required are
known and can be carried out. The result will be maximum orienta­
tion to the outcome desired.
Chapter 5

EVALUATING

When I was a young boy about 9 or 10 years old, my family traveled

to a small town in the Midwest where my mother’s parents and many
o f her other relatives lived. It was one o f my favorite summers— there
were swimming holes, horses, a bunch o f kids my age, and watermelon,
and it stayed light really late. My grandma used to finish up dishes
after supper and come out on the front porch and sit and rock. I
remember one evening in particular, my uncle had come by to drop off
some fresh fruit from his orchard. Although he was usually a calm
man, this particular evening he was fretting and mumbling to himself
and running into doors and chairs. I couldnyt believe it was my very
own uncle. Finallyf my mom took him firmly by the arm and marched
him home so as to leave the rest o f us in peace.
After he had gone, I found grandma on the porch just rocking away
and I asked her what was bothering Uncle Jed. She told me that the
only thing that could really bother Uncle Jed was Uncle Jed himself
I was disappointed and told her that I thought that that was a silly
answer and that I was asking her real serious like>She stopped rocking
and said that she had been serious, and the way her eyes looked and
her voice sounded, left no doubt in my mind that she was. I didn 7
appreciate what she meant until years later, but even then I could feel
it was big and important. Then her face softened and her voice became
gentle but I always remembered.
She told me that my Uncle Jed was in a dither because he had been
put in charge o f the town *sannual pie baking contest When I laughed,
she chided me, explaining that while it might sound funny to my city
ears, it was a very important event for the people o f the town and all
the country around, and it иш a grave responsibility that Jed had to
 EVALUATING 227
make sure everything went welt. Being only 9 or 10,1 had no idea what
even could go wrong at the pie baking contest, so I asked1She said that
since there were people involved\ there was no end to the things that
could go wrong, and then she began to tell me about some o f the things
that had gone wrong in the past;
There was the time when neighbor Elite, who had won the contest
three years in a row hands down, got herself in a hurry carrying her
pie up to the display table, and slipped and fumbled her pie right into
the judge's tap. She lost, and everybody said that it was because the
judge was upset about the way the pie was presented and never really
gave it a chance— everybody but Ellie. She said that it was the man
in charge o f the contest's fault fo r not making sure the rug she tripped
over was laid down properly>And then a lot o f people blamed him, too..
Probably, grandma said, because the judge that year was the head o f
the bank and you have to be careful about folks like that
Then there was the time when a woman who lived right around the
corner from the church brought her pie to the contest And when you
looked at the pie you could see right away that something wasn't
quite right It turned out that the woman hadn't made enough dough
to make a top to the crust Everybody who got to taste it later said
that what she had there tasted real good, but it just wasn't a pie—you
know, with a piece like the top missing and all At first the judges
didn't know what to do, and the woman was demanding that what
she had baked be considered right alongside the pies others had
brought Finally, they thanked the woman for her efforts and said
that they would have to set it asideP even though it showed great
promise because it wasn't complete enough to be considered a pie
alongside the others.
One year, the morning o f the contest the electricity failed in the
northern end o f town* Grandma reckoned that none o f the people who
were baking pies on that end o f town noticed because when it came time
fo r the judging, every single one o f the pies entered by people from that
end o f town was only half baked—and, as grandma said, any old
completely baked pie is going to be tastier than any half baked one:
And a lot o f folks were unhappy because there were a lot o f good bakers
from that end o f town whose pies were ruined. Some folks even said
that we ought to postpone the contest because o f it and then, o f course,
they got mad at the man in charge o f the contest who had to explain
that no, they couldn ’t put off the judging.
228 PRECISION
And then there was the year that just as the judges were finishing
congratulating the man whose pie had been judged best in the contest,
some old lady came trotting up with the most scrumptous looking
lemon meringue pie ever: She was so angry that the judge wouldn't
taste her pie and consider it for the. contest that she popped him right
in the face with it, yelling that she was offering him a big bite. ’Course
everybody started hollering for the man in charge o f the contest again.
Grandma told me that the day after that happened and things were
just settling down again, the judge made the awful mistake o f mention­
ing that he really thought the lemon meringue pie tasted better than
the blueberry pie that had received the award, and just stirred every­
thing all up again— and nobody was satisfied then,
The worst year o f all was when half way through the contest they
found out that one o f the judges was allergic to coconut The way that
everybody found out was when the judge refused to taste a coconut
cream pie Aunt Sarah made. Nobody knew what to do—/ / the judge
won V even consider one o f the pies entered, how could a decision be
reached? The whole thing fell apart; the man in charge o f the contest
got yelled at some and everyone went home with a bad taste in their
mouth.
I asked grandma why did the people still have the contest i f it raised
such a fuss. And she laughed and said that most years things went very
well indeed, and that everyone enjoyed themselves. She had just been
picking out the years when things had gone wrong>She said that she
agreed with me and I asked what do you mean, and she said that i f
you looked at the pie baking contest like it was an occasion for catastro­
phe, then it probably would be better not to do it But i f you looked
at it for what it was intended to be— an occasion for gathering together
the best pies that could be put together by the best bakers in the areaf
then naturally your mouth would begin to water and a little smile
would cross your face, and you knew that it was still the best way to
get to the best pie that could be had in that county. She said not to worry
about Uncle Jed because fussing was just his way ofgetting himself to
take care and make sure that everything went right this year, and that
when the day came, everything would be fine and he would present
himself with dignity, knowing he had done his job as the man in charge
by making the judging work I said, “Good, ” but I was really just
thinking about the pies and how many there would be and how good
they would taste.
 EVALUATING 229

PRESENT STATE

We come now to the final segment of the model—Evaluating.

Presenl , Defining , Pathfinding , Surveying , Evaluating t Desired

State the difference ) State

Present .^Evaluating / Desired

State 1 1 State

It is here that the payoff for the precision work will occur. This
phase of the model begins when three conditions are met:

1. The set of pathways which were identified in the third segment

—Surveying—as leading to the Desired State are made availa­
ble. These pathways must also identify the high quality infor­
mation gaps which arose during the third phase specification
of the alternatives along with the name of the person who has
been assigned responsibility for developing the high quality
information required to fill the specific identified gaps.
2. The individuals who were assigned responsibility for develop­
ing the high quality information which is needed to fill the
gaps in the various pathways are available and have indicated
that they have secured the information.
3. The individuals who have the authority to render a decision
regarding the issue in question are available. There must be
present at least one individual from the highest echelon of
the organization which will be affected by the decision. This
person must have a thorough understanding of the overall
goals of the organization. He or she will be called upon to
pass on the ecological fit of each of the various pathways
being considered. By ecological fit, we are referring to the
fact that some pathways which represent solutions that are
developed at levels of a business organization below the top
level, may be in utter conflict with extended plans and goals
which have been developed at the higher level. Thus, the
need for a well informed and articulate representative of that
higher level.
230 PRECISION

In terms of the model we have presented, when these three condi­

tions are met, the present state conditions for the final phase are met.
It is often the case that in the final phase of the model, individuals
who have not been present for all or, indeed, for any of the previous
discussions, will be included as an integral part of the team that will
select the alternative(s) to be implemented.
The presence of such individuals is a signal to the manager who
is in charge of the meeting that a skillful piece of Framing is required.
Nothing is more disheartening and demoralizing to a group of busi­
ness people who have worked long and hard on a plan or set of
solutions to some less than optimal present state, than to enter a
meeting ready and eager to select and implement a choice, and have
to spend time listening to someone who has not been present at the
earlier discussion slowly and painfully (to the informed members of
the group) track down the information needed to satisfy themselves
that all of the viable alternatives were considered—essentially
recapitulating the earlier discussions. Yet the individual^) new to
the issue and charged with the responsibility of rendering an excel­
lent decision must satisfy themselves that all of the viable alternatives
have been explored. This is simply their legitimate demand for the
high quality information they require to execute their responsibility.
Fortunately, the Precision Model offers an elegant solution to this
dilemma—the Backtrack Frame. The Backtrack Frame is a verbal
recapitulation of the sequence of topics which the group has explored
in successfully arriving at the fourth and last phase of the process.
As mentioned earlier in the book, the information processor using
the Backtrack Frame must himself consider the context in which the
Backtrack is being used. The test condition for context is simply if
all the individuals involved have been present during the entire dis­
cussion. If so, the Backtrack will cover only those pathways which
were explored and which yielded positive results. The dead ends are
ignored. However, a full Backtrack is called for if there is at least one
individual present who missed some or all of the previous discussion,
and who will require that information to carry out their responsibili­
ties—a decision maker nearly always falls into this category. A full
Backtrack typically begins with a report of how the issue was first
brought to the manager’s attention, then a representation of the set
of pathways used in the first three segments of the process—defining
the difference, pathfinding, and surveying—and terminating with u
report of the desired state reached at the termination of the third
 PRESENT STATE 231

phase, that is, the set of pathways which lead from the present state
of the organization to the desired state with the high quality informa­
tion gaps identified. By using the full Backtrack, the manager accom­
plishes two important things: First, he provides the high quality
information developed in the earlier phases to the individuals who
missed those phases; secondly, he orients the members of the group
who have been present during the earlier phases, accessing with them
both the high quality information they previously generated, as well
as a sense of accomplishment which places them in an optimal
posture to complete the process they have so effectively begun. Such
a Backtrack will provide the high quality information in a tightly
packaged format which the new members will appreciate. Thus, the
new as well as the old members of the task force are brought into
alignment, and the pre-conditions for a smooth and effective team
effort are established. Such an approach avoids making any assump­
tions regarding the ability the members of the group have either to
understand written material (circulated, for example, prior to the
meeting) or to recall in detail with accuracy the earlier events which
had led to this meeting. All too often, in the authors’ experience, the
implicit reliance on notes circulated before the meeting to create the
kind of alignment required for close teamwork spells disaster. Often
the only thing the participants have in common as the meeting gets
under way is the set of notes they’ve brought along with them which
they have read superficially, if at all. Reliance on memory usually
produced the same low quality situation. The small amount of time
invested in the full Backtrack will pay handsome dividends in terms
of effectiveness and efficiency in the meeting.
Since the manager in charge of the meeting for this phase will
know beforehand both whether there will be new members included
who need the information, and exactly what the initial Backtrack
information will be, it will be easy for him to prepare a visual repre­
sentation of the tracks to be presented in the first Frame. Such visual
representation provides the outline of an external map which can be
used powerfully to assist group members in staying in context and
to allow them to know at all points in the ensuing presentation where
they are in the overall process. This sense of orientation is essential
for an effective and efficient meeting. Since the topic here is represen­
tational, the subject of the second book in this series, we only nod
at it in passing. The reader might consider some of the visual repre­
sentations presented in segments two and three of the model as
232 PRECISION

candidates for the construction of appropriate and effective visual

aids.

FORMAT FOR EVALUATING

The manager has aligned the group by the use of the full Backtrack
Frame which includes, naturally, the Outcome Frame, that is, the
Backtrack will include a representation of the characteristics of
the desired state which is the payoff. The manager then secures
the agreement of the participants that they accept the Frame
as an adequate representation within which to work. We recom­
mend at this point that he explicitly specify the sequence of events—
the order of things to be accomplished in this meeting. The overall
target state for the meeting will typically be presented. This over­
all outcome is then broken down into a number of explicit inter­
mediate outcomes which structure the meeting. Those managers
using the Precision Model are encouraged to consider the follow­
ing sequence:

1. Description (brief) of the purpose of the meeting—the desired

state or Outcome Frame.
2. The Backtrack Frame (includes desired state characteristics)
3. Acceptance of the Frame by participants.
4. Representation of each of the pathways which purport to lead
to the desired state.
5. Each time an information gap is encountered during the pre­
sentation of each pathway for consideration, the individual
who has developed the high quality information be requested
to provide it.
6. Once all the pathways have been tracked with the appropriate
high quality information gaps filled, the participants are in­
vited to discuss each of the alternative pathways, focusing on
the question: Does this pathway get us to the desired state? Any
alternatives which fail to receive an affirmative answer to the
question are dismissed at this point.
7. All the pathways which survived the first question are now
each evaluated in turn by the group with reference to the
question: Is this pathway consistent with the long term goals
and plans of the organization? This step insures the overall
ecological soundness of the pathways for the organization.
 FORMAT FOR EVALUATING 233

Any alternatives which fail to receive an affirmative answer to

the question are dismissed at this point
8. The group is invited to consider combining the various surviv­
ing pathways so as to maximize organisational resources.
9. The decision point—the group selects the alternative(s) by
means of some decision-making model and develops an im­
plementation schedule.

We have already commented on the first three steps in this format.

The fourth and fifth steps are primarily representational skills—a
topic which belongs appropriately to the seconc phase of high quality
information processing—the subject of the second of the books in
this series. The Frames and the Pointers will be of use in these steps.
The Frames are employed to control the direction of the presentation
or discussion of the material in the presentation—particularly the
Outcome Frame. Each of the steps in the suggested sequence defined
an Outcome Frame for that section of the meeting. For example,
during the fourth and fifth steps, discussion of the presentation mate­
rial relative to the specific pathway under discussion are encouraged
and acknowledged. Conversely, any comments, questions, state­
ments concerning material not relevant to the specific pathway under
consideration are to be rejected immediately and with courtesy. The
Frames thus allow the information processor in charge of the meet­
ing to act in a principled, precise, and powerful manner to maintain
control over the direction of the meeting so as to arrive at an excel­
lent outcome efficiently. As stated previously, it is important that
out-of-context comments, questions and statements be dismissed
with speed and courtesy. Should a member of the task group chal­
lenge the dismissal of a comment, question or statement, the infor­
mation processor should use the Relevancy Challenge defined earlier
—that is, courteously invite that person to justify the inclusion of the
communication in question by demonstrating its relevance to the
Outcome Frame operating at that time. For example, if during the
fourth step in the process, where a pathway considering the increas­
ing of sales of item X is under consideration, one of the members of
the task group were to point out that it would be easier to cut back
production of item X, then the following exchange might occur:

PM: . . . . that it would be one hell of a lot easier to simply cut

back production on item X than go through all these sales
gyrations which. . . .
234 PRECISION

GM: (interrupting) Wait a minute, you’re off the point—it may

well be that you’re right about a production cut back being
easier but we are considering this (pointing to the flipchart)
possibility right now and I insist that we do that. (Then,
pointing to the flipchart, where the production cutback is
listed as a separate alternative). That’s where your comments
about the production cutback possibility will be welcomed.

If the production manager were to insist that his statement was

relevant at this point, the GM might simply say:

GM: All right, Joe—how specifically will your point assist us in

getting to our agreed upon goal—namely, to evaluate the ‘
feasibility of increasing sales of item X?

If the member of the group can convincingly demonstrate that the

point he is trying to develop does bear directly on the agreed upon
desired state (of evaluating the feasibility of increasing sales on item
X), then, of course, the manager withdraws his objection and the
point is welcomed and considered as is perfectly appropriate. The
Outcome Frame and the Relevancy Challenge of the Precision
Model offers its user a systematic and explicit way of deciding the
relevancy of any communication within the context. The effect of the
systematic use of the Outcome Frame, Procedures and Pointers is to
create a welcomed discipline to the thinking and communication
which occurs in the business transaction independent of personality.
The net gain is tremendous savings in the amount of time and energy
required to achieve high quality results, especially in meetings. The
authors have noted one further long term gain with the use of the
Precision Model is that the members of the business organization
where the model is employed rather rapidly come to anticipate the
use of the Relevancy Challenge in conjunction with the Outcome
Frame, and the number of times it is necessary for the information
processor in charge to challenge out of context contributions drops
quickly as the individuals begin to respect the Outcome Frame and
to apply the Relevancy Challenge to their own behavior.
The sixth and seventh steps in the format are fairly straight for­
ward—the task is: having a full high quality representation of each
of the possible alternative pathways which purport to lead to the
desired state, a decision is to be made as to whether in fact in the
 FORMAT FOR EVALUATING 235

judgement of the group members that pathway does lead to the

desired state (step 6). Next the decision is to be made as to whether
the pathway which is judged to lead to the desired state does so in
such a way as to reinforce or, minimally, be consistent with higher
level desired states or organizational goals.
The point of checking for an ecological fit with overall outcomes
is best made by example.
During an annual review at a large branch of a wholesale hardware
chain, the branch manager learned that there was a portion of the
inventory that was low which had a very low profit margin and
which constituted the slowest moving portion of the standard inven­
tory. Considering all the facts available to him, he determined to
phase that portion of the inventory out simply by not ordering any
further stock in those categories. Thus, he reasoned, he could simply
sell off the inventory on hand and discontinue those items—the floor
space gained could be put to better use. Within a few months after
the decision he was informed by his floor manager that the items in
question were gone. He instructed her to order additional units of
their faster moving, higher profit margin items. Over the following
six month period, the branch manager watched with alarm and
bewilderment as his gross sales fell off steadily. When the head office
demanded an explanation for this unprofitable turn of events, the
branch manager had to admit that he was baffled. He had tried
advertising, special sales, special packages, and in each case there
was an appropriate increase in sales but once the special devices were
discontinued, the sales dropped again—he expressed the situation as
—“I can get them in and I can sell to them, but I can’t get them to
come back regularly.” The branch manager now requested assistance
from the head office. A trouble shooter was sent to him. After a week
the troubleshooter was still stumped when, in a meeting, he asked the
Difference Question of the floor manager, “What is different in the
stock situation between 6 months ago and today?” The answer being,
“We got rid of some of that small stuff.” Tracking down “that small
stuff”, he learned of the decision made by the branch manager to
discontinue that part of his inventory. The mystery was now solved.
The head office had learned years ago that “that small stuff”, which
was such a slow moving, low margin part of the inventory was one
of the items that was an essential part of the inventory. Wholesale
customers expected to be able to do their entire buying at a single
location. If the wholesaler who they had bought from in the past
236 PRECISION

failed to stock “that small stuff’ they would begin to search for a
wholesaler who did. Thus, the head office had always insisted as part
of the overall marketing strategy that the branches carry “that small
stuff*. The branch manager had made an excellent decision given the
information that he had—a decision which had disastrous conse­
quences.
The point, of course, is that there is sometimes information availa­
ble at the higher level of a business—in this case a marketing strategy
—which decisions at a lower level must take into account or suffer
serious negative consequences. In the restricted context of the branch
operation, the decision to discontinue a part of the standard inven­
tory appeared to be a sound business maneuver. Seen in the light of
the larger context or system, such a decision is highly unecological
—hence the need for a well informed and articulate representative
of that level of the organization. This representative will be very
active during the seventh phase of the meeting—guiding the mem­
bers of the meeting to an appreciation of some of the fits or misfits
of the various alternative pathways with respect to the overall ecol­
ogy of the organization.
The Pointers will be of great value in the sixth and seventh as well
as the eighth step of the Evaluation format to insure that the discus­
sions proceed effectively with high quality information.
The ninth and final step in the format is the decision point itself.
It is at this point that all the alternatives individually and in combina­
tion have been evaluated both with respect to their ability to lead to
the Desired State and with respect to the overall outcomes of the
organization. The Precision Model has been used through both in
maintain direction and to insure a consistently high quality of infor­
mation—thus guaranteeing that the input to the decision point It
information which is both relevant to context and of a high quality.
At this point the members of the meeting come to a decision.

THE DECISION POINT

Since the explicit purpose of this book is to offer a set of procedure*

which allows the user to develop high quality contextually relcvnnt
information, it would be inappropriate for us to propose a decision
making model for employment at this step in the format. We nol«,
however, that whatever model for decision making the reader sclecli
for use at this juncture, it will involve the universal information
carrying code—language—and as such is subject to the same sel of
 THE DECISION POINT 237

language engineering tools we have established in this book for the

other types of transactions which occur in the world of business—
the Precision Model. Therefore, no matter which of the various
decision making models the reader employs, we encourage you to
demand the same high quality information in this activity as we have
demonstrated you may come to expect through the use of the Preci­
sion Model in other business contexts. Arriving at a decision from
a number of potentially effective solutions to implement is a complex
process which we explore in the context of the second phase of high
quality information processing—the second book in this series.
There are, however, several remarks concerning the use of language
and information we offer to assist the information processor in this
complex activity. First of all, assuming the information processor has
developed high quality information as input to the decision point and
each of the pathways solutions have already cleared the barriers of
will this alternative get us to the Desired State? and is this alterna­
tive consistent with organizational goals? then any disagreements
which arise among the decision making group are due to the fact
that there is information each of the disagreeing decision makers
has in their individual personal internal maps or representations of
the possible solutions which is at present not in the shared map or
representation of the group. Such disagreements can be efficiently
and gracefully resolved to the satisfaction of all if the Difference
Question and the Precision Model questioning techniques are sensi­
tively used to elicit from each of the internal individual maps of the
parties who disagree precisely the additional information each is
using to evaluate the possible pathways solution. Drawing such ad­
ditional information from the internal maps of the disagreeing par­
ties and using it to enrich the shared representation of the alterna­
tives is typically a rewarding experience in itself and the former
disagreements dissolve once the basis of the original difference is
made explicit.
In recent years the business community has shown an interest in
and, in some cases, a preference for, decision making models which
employ objective crite ria We take this interest to be evidence that
portions of the business community have recognized both the com­
plexity of the decision making activity and the fact that traditionally
decisi on making has been a subjective, intuitive and highly idiosyn­
cratic activity. We ourselves are in full agreement with the movement
toward a more thorough and explicit representation of the complex
activities of business. Indeed, this book is itself a presentation of an
238 PRECISION

explicit set of language engineering tools which allow the user to

develop high quality information to upgrade business performance.
However, we wish to caution the reader that in our opinion there is
not, nor can there be, any completely objective decision making
mode). Decision making is a uniquely human activity and human
beings are, in communication terms, noisy channels. By noisy chan­
nels, we refer to the fact that no matter how disciplined the decision
maker, there will be highly personal perceptions and weighting in the
individual internal maps which occur outside of the awareness of the
decision maker which will influence the outcomes. An engineered
information channel such as the temperature gauge in the cab of the
crane or the indicators on the computer console are clean—almost
noiseless in communication terms—and thus there is little or no'
interference or distortion of the signal—the information such chan­
nels are engineered to carry. Such engineered channels are special
purpose—designed to carry one and only one class of information.
Human beings are general purpose information processing channels.
Those of us who work in the world of business are also fathers, wives,
mothers, husbands, golf players, sailors, movie goers, art buffs, lov­
ers, fighters and perhaps some of us are even wild horse riders. Our
behavior in each of these activities is distinct, and to appreciate and
enjoy the full range of activities which are our right as human beings
requires that we have a degree of flexibility which is unavailable in
any engineered information channel. Thus in each of the objective
decision making models, a close inspection will reveal an intuitive
leap is required. This intuitive leap is a device which is designed to
measure the subjective preference of the decision maker and to repre*
sent that preference in an objective code—a number, for example. In
The Rational Manager we find an excellent example of such an
intuitive leap.

N ex t the m anager goes over these W A N T objectives and establishes

their relative weights, using the scale o f 1-10, w ith the m ost im por­
tant W A N T receiving the number 10. A s he gives each objective more
thorough consideration, he charges his preliminary weights until he
has achieved a set o f numbers representing the relative im portance
that he places on each objective.

K epner & Tregoe (p. 197)

The Rational Manager
 THE DECISION POINT 239

In the above text the word weights is used to describe the process
of assigning a numerical value to objectives and alternatives. We
must, of course, understand this word as a metaphor as they intend
no literal weighing with a physical scale. The process of the assign­
ment of a numerical value is described in metaphoric terms and is
itself unexplored—the intuitive leap we previously referred to. All
objective decision making models have their intuitive leaps—the
color wheel which the decision maker adjusts until the portion of
color exposed relative to the whole area that could be exposed
represents how strongly they prefer the objective or alternative at
issue. . . . What is required to lift such intuitive leaps from the
realm of the unexplored, unanalyzed and therefore the poorly un­
derstood to an explicit model—note we choose the word explicit,
not objective—is a set of techniques which as Kepner & Tregoe (p.
230) say make the invisible visible. These techniques are treated in
our book on representation—the second in this series. Again, with
respect to the complex activity of decision making, the Pointers,
especially in conjunction with the Difference Question, offer the
user the choice of upgrading such intuitive functioning to the level
of high quality information. It seems obvious to us that the use of
an explicit set of techniques which develop consistently high qual­
ity information will always prove to be more effective than such
intuitive leaps.
One of the decision making devices which has come into vogue
in the last few years is the cost benefit or cost effectiveness analysis.
In the authors' experience managers, executives and directors who
have an excellent track record as decision makers have a tendency
to use this device to justify decisions which they have reached in­
tuitively. The proof of this is the dozens of examples of such excel­
lent decision makers rejecting the finding of the cost effectiveness
analysis if it fails to support the decision they have already reached
intuitively. Thus, given a conflict between what is concluded by the
cost benefit analysis and what their own unexamined or only par­
tially examined sense of what the best course of action is, these
decision makers give priority to their experientially based intui­
tions. The amusing thing is that in most of the cases the authors’
are personally acquainted with, the intuitive based decision proved
to yield excellent results. Again, the point we wish to make here is
that the Precision Model offers an alternative to such situations.
Through the sensitive use of the Pointers and the Difference Ques­
240 PRECISION

tion, the decision maker can upgrade his intuitions from a vague,
low quality status to high quality information which can be explic­
itly examined. As any of these managers would agree, cost effec­
tiveness studies which are later dismissed are definitely not cost
effective.

CASE STUDY I (4th SEGMENT)

In presenting the final portion of the transcript of the interest-

inventory situation, we continue the format begun in Surveying by
simply identifying the Precision Model pattern being used in the
second column along side the transcript to assist the reader in under­
standing the communication patterns involved.
In the original meeting, during the surveying phase, the original
list was significantly altered. Specifically the first, fourth and fifth
alternatives were dropped by mutual agreement of the GM and the
DM. The revised list of possible solutions now as the two men enter
the meeting stands as follows:

1. Increasing divisional sales on type В motors specifically by an

intensive training school for sales reps on the type В motor
2. Cutting back production on type В motors with the labor
force involved being shifted to increased production of type A
series motors and SX power units.
3. Repackaging—creation of the SX power unit В motor combi*
nation.

(some minutes into the meeting after preliminary greetings had been
exchanged)

GM: Well, Tom, we’re here this afternoon, Outcome Frame

as you know, to make a decision about which —desired state
of the alternative solutions to your sliding for the meeting
margins problem we will implement.
 CASE STUDY I (4th SEGMENT) 241

I’ve had the three possibilities listed Backtrack Frame

there on the flip chart (points to a flip chart —very
where the three alternative solutions are abbreviated since
listed). . . . the DM has been
present
throughout
I will consider our meeting here today a Outcome Frame
success when we can decide on one or more —identification
of these courses of action and determine how of evidence that
specifically to implement them. desired state for
the meeting has
been achieved
The point of deciding on and imple­ Outcome Frame
menting one or more of these possibilities, as —desired state
you are well aware, is to get your profit mar­ for the overall
gins which have slid in the last reporting pe­ process
riod “back up where they belong”, as you so
aptly said at our last meeting.
Is that a fair enough way of putting it? requests
acceptance of the
Frames
DM: Yes, George, fair enough, I’m chom­
pin’ at the bit, rarin’ to go.
GM: Good! Did you get the information I filling of
had sent over to you about the costs of the information gaps
training school and so on? identified in
previous meeting
DM: Yes, thank you.
GM: All right, let’s take a look at the first Outcome Frame
of the remaining alternatives. It says increas­ —next alternative
ing divisional sales on type В motors—spe­
cifically by an intensive training school for
sales reps on the type В motor.
DM: Yeah, this is my baby. You know I
talked to old Larry right after our last meet­
ing and had him review each of his sales reps
242 PRECISION

performance on the newer type Bs. I had him filling of

sort the sales reps who did well on the series information gaps
В motors in the last reporting period into one identified in
stack and those who did not do well into previous meeting
another, He brought the two stacks into my
office and set them on my desk. I told him
that some of the power associated with the
head office was beginning to rub off on me—
he’s always grumbling about my spending
too much time in meetings up here—and
then without explaining what I was doing I
pointed to the stack of reps who had done
well and stated baldly that all of those guys
had attended that special intensive training
school on the В series last year. And then I
pointed to the other stack and claimed that
these had not attended that school. I really
enjoyed watching old Larry’s face. He
didn’t know what the hell was going on,
and of course, he knew that I hadn’t
checked the records on who attended the
school. I had him bring in the records on
school attendance and match them against
my claim. George, it turned out that I was
right in every case but three. . . . In addition
to baffling old Larry, it really confirmed in
my mind the value of that intensive school
—I want it, George.

GM: A little piece of magic for old Larry,

eh, Tom .. . . all right, I take it that you have
also taken a look at the preliminary cost
figures on the school7

DM: Yes, they were higher than I expected, filling of

George, but I’m willing to commit those re­ information gaps
sources because I’m really personally con­ identified in
vinced that the school thing will do the job previous meeting
for us.
 CASE STUDY I (4th SEGMENT) 243

GM: OK, Tom, let’s get explicit about this

alternative. How specifically will the school Action
thing do the job for you? Blockbuster
DM: Well obviously, after the sales reps
have gone through the intensive course, they
will sell more В type motors.
GM: More В type motors than what? Comparator
DM: Well, more than they are presently
selling, of course.
GM: How many more will they sell, Tom? Action
Blockbuster
DM: Well,. . . that’s a tough one. It’s really
hard to predict how much we will gain from
the school, George. I just don’t know how to
quantify i t . . . but I’m really convinced my­
self. Do you have some objection to the
school, George?
GM: (chuckling) No, no, Tom, I have no Evidence
objection to the school. It’s obvious to me Question
that you are personally convinced that it will
do the job for you. I know that you have
looked at the cost figures for the school, and
now I’m trying to get you to look specifically
at the gain you will achieve by running the
school. Let me put it this way. What infor­
mation do you presently have available that
would allow you to make an educated guess
about how much you might gain in increased
sales from the school?
DM: Oh! All right, now I understand. You
had me worried there for a moment. Well,
. . . uhmmm, one problem is that the older
reps—the ones that will be attending the
school really perform differently from the
younger sales reps and . . .
GM: Whoa, hold on Tom! One problem Noun
with what? Blockbuster
244 PRECISION

DM: Oh, sorry, I was thinking out loud—

what I meant was one problem with trying to
compare the sales reps who haven’t been to
the school with those that have is that they
are really different kinds of performers—so I
wouldn’t trust the figures I would get by
comparing the two groups.
GM: OK, let me make sure I understand. Backtrack
You’re trying to come up with an estimate of Frame—limited to
how much in sales figures you can anticipate the outcome
gaining from running the school. You con­ presently being
sidered comparing the performance of the worked on
sales reps who have already been through the
school and their track record on В type mo­
tors with the guys who haven’t been through
the school and their track record on В type
motors.
Have I stated it accurately, Tom? request for
validation—
acceptance of
Backtrack
DM: Yes, and I don’t trust that compari­
son because all the guys who have been to the
school already are young guys who have been
with us less than three years and all the guys
who haven’t been to the school have been
around much longer and the two groups re­
ally perform differently in lots of other areas.

GM: AH the guys, Tom? Universal

Blockbuster
DM: Huh, I don’t understand, . . . all the
guys? ... Oh, I get it. There’s what’s his name
. .. Ken. Yes, that would give me something
I trust.

The behavior of the two men will by now be quite familiar to the
reader. They are employing the same technique that commonly oc­
 CASE STUDY I (4th SEGMENT) 245

curs in phase three of the model—specifically, the technique of isolat­

ing an information gap and assigning responsibility to a responsible
agent to elicit the information required. In this case, they carry on
with a consideration of the other alternatives while the information
is being developed for them. The two then determine that although
it is possible to cut back production of type В motors, they would
have to switch back again later and the cost would be prohibitive:
An excellent example of the value of checking for the ecological fit.
The alternative is attractive when evaluated with respect to the divi­
sional situation and easily passes the test question—does this path­
way get us to the desired state? However, as soon as the information
regarding the long term plans to phase out the older series of mo­
tors, replacing them with the newer type В series is available, it is
obvious to both of the men that this alternative fails to pass the
ecological check question—is this pathway consistent with the long
term goals and plans o f the organization? Thus the alternative is
dismissed from further consideration at that point.

GM: Tom, let’s take a look at this last alter­ Outcome Frame
native? —consider the
next alternative
DM: OK, I'm ready, (glancing over at
the flip chart, he reads)—repackaging—cre­
ation of the SX power unit/B motor combi­
nation.
GM: All right, who is going to create this Noun
combination package? Blockbuster
DM: I made the assumption that my divi­
sion would be responsible for creating the
package.
GM: Good, I agree with that. How specifi­ Action
cally would your division go about creating Blockbuster
this package, Tom?
DM: I have had a series of planning
sessions with my people about this and
they have come up with some preliminary
plans.
246 PRECISION

GM: Fine! Please fill me in on the particu­ Noun

lar plans they’ve come up with. Blockbuster—
note: form is a
command
equivalent to the
strict question
which plans
specifically?
DM: All right! My first take on this runs
something like this (moving over to the flip
chart in order to write down the salient
points of the plan as he briefly presents
them). On the production side of the plan,
the only wrinkle will be the creation of a
heavy duty set of cables to connect the power
unit and the В motor. I’ve started a field
search for cable design which . . .
GM: Tom (interrupting), excellent so far— format
let me make a request of you in your presen­ instructions to
tation here. If it’s possible for you, please list establish
the major components of the plan so I have Outcome Frame
an overall view and then go back to each
component and fill me in one more of the
details.

The DM presented his understanding regarding the market informa­

tion available to date. He detailed his own attempts to secure further
information both through staff in the head office and through his own
sales reps. The GM expressed his dissatisfaction with the quality of
information regarding the market presently available and his satis­
faction with the steps Tom had taken to upgrade that information.

DM: The last major piece involves the ad­

vertising of the new package—both media
and through our sales force. I want a forceful
campaign which really points out and em­
phasizes the advantages of the new package.
I believe. . . .
 CASE STUDY I (4th SEGMENT) 247

GM: (interrupting) Excuse me, Tom. A Noun

question—what advantages of the new pack­ Blockbuster
age in particular do you want forcefully
pointed out and emphasized?
DM: (smiling) Yes, an excellent question.
. . . and a very short answer—I don’t know.
. .. however, I have taken steps to discover
what advantages the customers will most
readily appreciate.
GM: What specific steps have you taken to Noun
get this information? Blockbuster
DM: I’ve selected a couple of customers—
one who has been with us for some time and
a couple of rather new ones. These customers
were scheduled to receive both SX power
units and type A series motors. I had Larry
arrange with them to accept the new package
in lieu of the type A and separate SX power
unit. My idea is that this field experiment will
allow me to get from the customer directly,
the advantages that they perceive. Once I
have that information I will know how to
organize both the advertising campaign and
to train our sales reps to present the advan­
tages of the new package. How does it sound
to you George?
GM: Tom, I’m impressed. This whole
thing started ten days ago with a difficult
situation and it is moving rapidly toward
a creative new package which I personally
believe will prove to be attractive and suc­
cessful enough that the head office will
adopt as a mechanism to accelerate the
transition from the old series type A mo­
tors to the newer series type В. I believe
that you may have done all of us a service
with this solution. I presented your un­
refined proposal to several of the people
248 PRECISION

here in the head office since our first meet­

ing and their response was uniformly fa­
vorable. I would like your division to have
the responsibility of implementing the
package as a pilot for the rest of the cor­
poration. My sincere compliments!!

At this point in the meeting the information the GM had requested

regarding the effect that the last intensive school training had on the
sales reps performance in selling the newer type В series motors
arrived. Tom had previously received a phone call from his division
indicating that Ken had sold an average of 25% more type В motors
in the six month period immediately following the school experience
than he had in the six month period immediately preceding the
schooling. Further in the last six month period—the period six to
twelve months following the school—Ken’s average had dropped but
it was still 20% above his performance in the six months just prior
to the school.

Training Manager (TM)

TM: Here are the figures you requested.

DM: Thank you, wait a second while I take a look.

DM: I got my figures here for the difference in Ken’s perform­

ance. Let’s see how well they fit.
GM: What! This doesn’t make any sense. Tom, didn’t you say
that Ken’s average jumped around 20 to 25%?

DM: Yes, that’s the information I got from my personnel

man. Why? What do your figures from the other division»
show?

GM: They show an average performance increase of only 2 Iо

3%. Something is wrong somewhere. Jerry (the Training
Manager), are you sure about these figures?

TM: These are the figures you asked me to get.

 CASE STUDY I (4th SEGMENT) 249

DM: Well, if these figures are right . . . maybe Fd better re­

consider that school. Fm not even sure that it would be cost
effective to run that. . . .

GM: (interrupting) Hold on a second Tom. Jerry, you said that

these are the figures I asked you to get?

TM: Yes sir, I believe so.

GM: Well before we pull our hair out, let’s find out exactly what
these figures represent. Jerry, these are figures of what?

TM: These are figures which show the average increase in sales
effectiveness on type В motors for two 6 month periods—the
six month period just prior to the school and the six month
period immediately following the school.

GM: Which school specifically?

TM: The special intensive school on the newer Type В motors

conducted in March of last year near Redford.

GM: OK (muttering) . . . the average increase in sales effective­

ness on type . . . wait for just a second. WHOSE average
increase in sales effectiveness, Jerry?

TM: Why, all the sales reps in all the divisions except Tom’s.

GM/DM: (overlapping and interrupting the Training Manager)

ALL the sales reps?

TM: All of them except, as I said, those in Tom’s division.

GM: So you did, so you did (with a sigh of relief).

At this point with all of the information gaps filled (except for the
figures on the gain from the training school), the GM and DM
discussed various combinations of the alternatives remaining. Subse­
quent to that discussion, the two men reached an agreement on their
decision. The final phase included the development of a time sched­
250 PRECISION

ule and the assignment of responsibilities for the various phases of

the alternatives selected. The two men spent some time designing
into the time schedule specific ways of checking at that point in the
execution of the decision for information which would indicate that
the decision was having the desired effect. The GM made the author­
izations necessary at the head office level to put the decision into
implementation.
This last exchange with the Training Manager demonstrates the
value of the Precision Model questioning of figures specifically. Had
the GM not had the Precision Model Blockbusting questioning tech­
niques available, the alternative in question would have been repre­
sented as not being cost effective, and may have been inappropriately
dismissed (note the wavering the DM does when the figures are
presented). The GM’s response here is most enlightening.

, . This d oesn ’t m ake any sense . . som ething’s wrong som ew here

Such a response strongly suggests that the GM had already

reached an assessment of the pathway in question, and when the
figures fail to support that assessment, his response is disbelief. This
is, in the authors’ experience, not an unusual response for a good
decision maker to exhibit in such a case. Typically such an informa­
tion processor will tirelessly ferret out the discrepancy that he has
detected between what he expected based on his experience and the
information offered and what the figures show. The Precision Model
questioning simply makes that ferreting out process efficient and
effective.
There is, however, an even more important point to be taken from
this exchange. It is clear from the transcript that the initial communi­
cation of the request for information made by the GM'and responded
to by the training manager was ineffective—that is, the information
that the GM requested was not the information that the training
manager understood him to have asked for. The message—the in­
structions to the training manager—intended by the GM was not the
message received—the response made by the training manager. This
much is obvious. The outcome of this communication is that the GM
failed to receive the information he requested, and further the train­
ing manager has wasted some amount of time in gathering the wrong
information. The consequences could have been more severe—the
 CASE STUDY I (4th SEGMENT) 251

graver consequences were avoided by the timely use of Precision

Model questioning. However, the GM still does not have the infor­
mation requested and the training manager still will have to now
execute the task which the GM had originally given him. There is,
at this point no effective way of determining where the communica­
tion went awry—nor is there in our opinion much value in such an
endeavor unless some effective procedure to avoid further instances
of this type of communication would result. As mentioned in the
introduction, one of the most powerful operating assumptions—
perhaps the single most important characteristic which distin­
guishes an amateur from a professional communicator—is the rule
of thumb:

The m eaning o f a com m unication is the response that communica­

tion elicits, independent o f the intention o f the com m unicator.

By this rule, the GM would accept responsibility for the miscom-

munication and seek ways to elicit feedback from those members of
the organization who he will typically be issuing instructions .to.
There are many effective ways to accomplish this. One obvious and
fully effective feedback mechanism for a manager who has mastered
the Precision Model is to instruct his subordinates in the tasks he
wants them to carry out, invite any questions regarding his instruc­
tions, secure an agreement that they understand the task instruc­
tions, and then Precision Model their understanding of the task
instructions so that the manager knows unequivocally that the mes­
sage he intended is the message received.
Actually, in the authors’ opinion, there is an even more efficient
choice in this area—that is, simply to train the manager’s subordi­
nates in the Precision Model. Thus when the manager in charge
issues instructions, the subordinate involved Precision Models the
manager regarding the instructions until the manager in charge is
convinced that the message he or she intended has been received. The
increase in efficiency (reduction of wasted time and effort) and effec­
tiveness (carrying out the instructions appropriately and in a timely
manner) under such a system is astonishing.
It might be mentioned in passing that planning tends to involve
projections over extended time periods. It is not unusual for a busi­
ness to develop live and ten year plans to guide them toward long
range outcomes. The scope of such plans are enormous, and the issue
252 PRECISION

which frequently arises during or directly after the development of

such a plan is one of application and relevancy. That is, granted that
the plan is intelligible enough for the members of the business organi­
zation involved to come to some general, albeit vague, appreciation
of the desired state identified by the plan, the question becomes
“how, specifically, does the adopting of this plan effect my behavior
here and now and in the days to come?” The specificity guaranteed
by the systematic use of the Precision Model will allow a re-chunking
of the long term goals into smaller time units and specified actions
on the part of each member of the business which results in a unified
team effort to achieve that desired state. The optimal plan sets out
not only the desired state but a description of the desired state in
terms which are relevant for the human beings who will be carrying
that plan out—that is, in terms which are specific for the humans
involved. For the laborer, it will be cast in terms of the machines
and material he works with on a day to day basis. For the sales rep
it will be cast in terms of number of customers contacted during a
time period or number of units sold. For each member of the orga­
nization involved, the Precision Model allows a description of how
his behavior would be different if he were doing his part in achiev­
ing the overall plan. For the planners at the top of the hierarchy,
it may be appropriate and useful to think in five year increments.
For the worker at the point of production or service, if his energy
and cooperation are to be elicited, descriptions about differences in
his behavior on an hourly, daily or weekly scale must be developed
and offered.
In this last section of the transcript the GM uses a maneuver to
which we wish to call the reader’s attention:

DM: A11 right! My first take on this runs something like this
(moving over to the flip chart in order to write down the
salient point of the plan as he briefly presents them. On the
production side. . . .

GM: Tom (interrupting), excellent so far—let me make a request

of you in your presentation here. If it’s possible for you, please
list the major components of the plan so I have an overall
view and then go back to each component and fill me in on
more of the details.
 CASE STUDY I (4th SEGMENT) 253

In this exchange the GM is literally specifying the sequence of

information he prefers—he is arranging a format with the DM which
suits the particular style he prefers in being offered information.
Information offered to a manager in a sequence which matches his
preferred processing strategy makes it extremely easy and efficient
for the manager to accept such information and to act on it in an
effective manner. This is, of course, a crude form of higher level
engineering of information channels. More refined engineering re­
quires high quality information about the strategy that the manager
typically uses to accept and represent information to himself. The
power of such higher level and refined engineering of information
flow is properly a topic in the art of representation—a topic treated
in the second book in this series. The interested reader will find a
general discussion of this subject in Neuro Linguistic Programming
co-authored by John Grinder. The proposal is that the manager
instruct the members of the business organization who routinely
report to them to present the information in a format which matches
the information processing and representational strategies the man­
ager receiving the information will employ in any event.

CASE STUDY II (4th SEGMENT)

We turn now to the final segment of the transcript which began with
the sales manager noticing that he was losing approximately 10 sales
a month of special units. In attendance at this meeting are three
members of the group who have been involved from the beginning,
and two men who have not. Thus, consistent with the model, the
information processor in charge (the GM) will spend a period of time
presenting a full backtrack of the events which have lead up to this
meeting. Again, as in the other segments of the overall model since
this is a multi-person meeting, the GM will rely heavily on Frames
to give direction to the meeting and to control the relevancy of the
contributions of the individual member to insure an effective and
efficient meeting. As in the previous transcript, we simply annotate
the transcript with the names of the specific Precision Model tech­
niques being used.

Attendance: GM, PM, Pers, CEO, CH.Exec.Com

254 PRECISION

GM: This meeting was called to select an Outcome Frame

action plan from those which have been de­ —desired state
veloped in order to get us from the present for the meeting
state of losing sales due to inadequate pro­
duction to a level of production which will
meet budgeted sales. We have been unable to
hire enough skilled workers since two new
plants opened in the area and have therefore
initiated a series of meetings to determine
how we can change working conditions to
attract the people we need.
A listing of alternatives was the starting Backtrack Frame
point for our Survey meeting. In that meeting —rather full
we developed action plans to an acceptable since there are
level of precision to know what gaps there two new
were in the pathways. We assigned responsi­ members to the
bility for completing the gaps and that infor­ group
mation will be presented at this meeting.
During this meeting, we will bring ev­ Outcome Frame
eryone to the same level of high quality infor­ —specifying steps
mation regarding the alternatives so that we (structure) for
have a complete shared map of the present the meeting
state, the desired state and the alternative
pathways available between them. The
shared map will contain all the high quality
information necessary for us to arrive at a
decision on the basis of the complete map.
The purpose of this meeting is to ensure that
the shared map is adequately precise for that
task and to arrive at a decision and an action
plan based on high quality information.
We’ll proceed by completing the back­
track for each item on the pathways chart,
and filling in the gaps. Then we’ll consider
each pathway to see if it will get us to the
desired state. The desired state is to increase
production on a regular basis so that we can
meet sales requirements and deliver all or­
ders by making changes in working condi-
 CASE STUDY II (4th SEGMENT) 255

tions. For all those which meet this require­

ment, we’ll do an ecological check. That is,
determine if the plan contradicts or enhances
other corporate goals not considered to this
point. After this step, we will consider combi­
nations which might work better than the
single proposals and put any of them to the
same test.
At this stage of the meeting, all informa­ Outcome Frame
tion available should be shared by each par­ —specifying steps
ticipant. We will decide whether it is ade­ (structure) for
quate to make a decision on or not. If not, we the meeting
will provide the precise gaps which need to be
filled before we arrive at a decision and ad­
journ until those gaps are filled according to
a schedule which we decide. Otherwise, we
will arrive at a decision and prepare an action
plan.

(At this point, the GM shows a chart of Backtrack Frame

the tree structure which was generated at the —continuation of
Pathfinding meeting. He briefly explains the former back­
procedures which they used in developing track with use of
the structure and traces the development of shared visual
each pathway.) representation
(flipchart)

(He then moves to a chart developed

from the Survey meeting and explains that
the starting point for each one of these Sur­
vey charts was a specific pathway generated
in the Pathways meeting. The chart for the
pathway of raising wages looked like the fol­
lowing one.)
256 PRECISION

RAISING WAGES How much?

Whose wages?
All
Special skills
Required information
% required
cost/mo.
Cost/benefit
create categories
discuss with union representative

(He then recaps the information which was Outcome Frame

received in response to the basic questions —next step
considered and relates that information to outcome,
the specific gaps which needed to be filled. At consideration оГ
this point he asks for the information to fill one of the
the gaps.) alternatives
GM: First, if any of you have information Efficiency
which makes the alternative impractical to a Challenge
degree that removes if from serious consider­ (relative to the
ation, I’d like that information now. present Outcome
Frame) for the
first alternative
Pers: I’ve recommended a 12% raise. Our filling in of a
past experience in other departments is that previously
we don’t make an impact until we get to identified
10%. One of the plants we’re competing with information
pays more and so we have to beat them. deficit
GM: More than what? And to whom? Comparator and
Noun
Blockbuster
Pers: To all production workers. More
than we are presently paying. Some are mak­
ing more than our base because they’re get­
ting a shift differential.
GM: How much more? Action
Blockbuster
 CASE STUDY II (4th SEGMENT) 257

Pers: They pay 2% more on an average but

they pay 3V£% more to experienced assem­
blers and welders. The ones in the other plant
getting shift differential make about 3%
more.
GM: OK. What about the cost/benefit returns discussion
figures? to next item in
present Outcome
Frame
PM: If we gave the raise across the board
and got the people we wanted it’d be a net
cost of $15,000. If we gave it only to the
special skills workers it’d be a net cost of
$1,000. or less.
GM: Net of what, specifically? Noun
Blockbuster
PM: Well, accounting did the calculating
but the way I figured it was to take the total
cost and add the cost of the regular time for
the workers we*d need to hire and subtract
the cost of overtime that we wouldn’t have to
work. For those special units, I figured we
wouldn’t need any overtime which would ac­
tually make a small savings except we’d have
to pay the special guys on the regular units,
too.
GM: OK. That’s into the next item. Does request for input
anyone have anything they need to know on to present
this item? Outcome Frame
CEO: Yeah. A $15,000 cost is out of the
question.
GM: Fd like to hold evaluation until we’ve Relevancy
got all the information on these items. Joe Challenge
and Pers, here, have done a lot of research (relative to
and may have information which we don’t present Outcome
share yet. Let’s move to the next item. Frame)
258 PRECISION

FLEXTIME What is it?

Who would be covered? all production, foreman,
Special areas supervisors
Implementation assembly, maintenance» emergencies
customer service, foreman

Required information
(same as in Survey section)

GM: Let’s start with the research you did. Outcome Frame
That will help to get an overall understand­ —procedure
ing of potential benefits and obstacles.
Pers: I started by reading the literature on filling in of
it. I couldn’t find a single case of anyone who previously
started and then went off the plan. That identified
seemed a pretty good recommendation. information
There was a lot uf talk about increased pro­ deficit
ductivity too. We talked to three companies
who were using flextime and they said they
liked it and that they had productivity in­
creases. They all reported that employees
liked it and that absenteeism was decreased
significantly. They also said there were fewer
problems with tardiness. The only problem
area we uncovered was with foremen and
supervisors. They had trouble adjusting to
not being there to control the production
workers all the time. Most eventually ad­
justed and a few who couldn’t, quit.
GM: How, specifically, did productivity in­ Action
crease? Blockbuster
Pers: Well, most of them couldn’t actually
measure it because it was done in clerical and
service areas. The ones who did it in produc­
tion areas, 1 couldn’t get any figures from.
GM: What stopped you? Boundary
Crossing
 CASE STUDY II (4th SEGMENT) 259

Pers: One company wouldn’t reveal them.

.. . I think they must have been pretty good.

GM: How, do you know they’re pretty Action

good? blockbuster
Pers: I don’t know it, but they were still
using the system and they said they wouldn’t
get rid of it for anything.
GM: And the others? Recycle
Procedure
Pers: The others said they couldn’t mea­
sure it but they knew it was up.
GM: What stopped them from measuring Boundary
it? Crossing
Pers: They had made other production
method changes at the same time and didn’t
know what could be attributed to flextime.
They had increase of 15 and 22 percent in
units per man hour.
GM: OK. Does anybody want more infor­ request for input
mation here before we move into the applica­ to present
tion gaps? Outcome Frame
CEC: Yeah. Pers, what makes you think
we can reduce absenteeism with this plan.
Pers: Well, I didn’t say we could. I guess I
don’t know whether we would or not. It just
seemed as if we might. The literature reports
a decrease in most cases.
GM: Pers, you said “They all reported that Universal
employees liked it and that absenteeism was Blockbuster
decreased significantly.” “Did they all have
significant decreases in absenteeism?
Pers: Yes.
GM: What, specifically, were the de­ Action
creases? blockbuster
260 PRECISION

Pers: The three I talked to reported 22, 34,

and 50%
GM: OK. Anything else? (pause) Let’s Outcome Frame
move on to considering production needs. —next step
Joe? outcome
PM: Well, our first meeting produced a lot filling in of
of excitement. The more I talked to my peo­ previously
ple about it, the more I liked it. It takes S identified
hours to complete the assembly cycle for spe­ information
cial units and 3 hours for regular units. The deficit
men have been involved in a lot of extra set­
ups because it never works out to complete
units in a day. I never thought the men would
be cooperative in the longer day we'd need to
take advantage of this but it turns out that
they don’t like wasting time with extra set­
ups either and they really liked the idea.
(the analysis of production needs continued
with the production manager giving an out­
line of the timing requirements and how they
would have to fit in. The availability of set-up
men was tentatively fixed by arranging pro­
duction so that 2 special units and 3 regular
units, per line, would be assembled per day.
All the scheduling problems anticipated in
the Survey meeting were taken care of as well
as a few others such as line start-up and secu­
rity. The precise formulation of information
required and how to obtain it, provided a
framework which enhanced the possibility of
other gaps being discovered in the Survey
meeting and a summary of the information.
The results of the use of the Precision Model
was apparent in the following exchange re­
garding “Other demands’’.)
PM: We took carc of the gap regarding cus­
tomer relations by working out a plan with
SM that would actually provide more hours
 CASE STUDY II (4th SEGMENT) 261

of coverage than we arc giving right now.

We*re both happy with the results and he’s
drawing up a bit оГ promotion to go with it.
He thinks it’ll be an improvement that’ll pay.
We sorted out the inter-department stuff
pretty easily because we don’t have much and
none of it's on a demand basis. We decided
it would be up to us to match with their
needs. Then we sat down and said to our­
selves, “Who, specifically, are the ‘others?’
and “What, in particular, are their needs?”
We came up with a group that we’d over­
looked. Outside suppliers and shipping and
delivery would be on different schedules. It
was pretty easy to work out ways to meet
their needs when we knew who they were.
(They moved onto the specific mechanisms filling in of
for making it work, such as core time, and previously
there were few questions. The quality of the identified
information which was presented left no information
doubt that they had done a thorough job and deficit
had reached adequate precision for this stage
of the meeting. The following exchange was
one of the few which took place besides the
actual presentation.)
CEO: With those kind of hours, how can
you be sure that foremen and supervisors are
there all the time7
PM: We can’t and they might not be.
CEO: Some foremen have to be there!
GM: What would happen if they weren’t? Boundary
Crossing
CEO: They might not produce. Just goof
off. Or there might be trouble on the line that
needed a special decision.
PM: We’ve established an on-call mainte­
nance man and a supervisor for all hours so
262 PRECISION

we don’t think we have to worry about trou­

ble or emergencies. As far as goofing off goes,
I don’t think it’ll be a problem because we’ll
know the state of production when we go
home at night and can check it when we
arrive in the morning. Also the production
planning will be a lot tighter than it’s ever
been because we’ll complete each unit at
night and start new ones in the morning.

(The meeting was finished with this alterna­

tive at this point. There were no gaps to be
filled for the CEO or CEC. The information
presented had been so precise that they didn’t
need any further details or proof of the ade­
quacy of the information gathering process.)

Each alternative was considered in turn using the full Precision

Model as appropriate. Profit sharing was simply passed on as a
proposal about which the original committee had no authority and
their judgement was that it wouldn’t be economically feasible to
investigate without higher authority. When the concept of a short
week with longer days was reviewed the CEC insisted that the plant
‘couldn’t be closed on a regular business day”. The GM quickly
determined with the Precision Model that the CEC’s concern was
with the idle capital that an unused plant represented. The response
was that the plant would be operated the same number of hours per
week as before. Further, it was discovered that the increase in pro­
ductivity in those hours would reduce costs and possibly allow for
a reduction in the selling price. The result might be a greater demand
which would actually increase the total production. This particular
investigation revealed some new and valuable information which was
applicable to the flextime proposal as well.
Based on the high quality of information presented to them and
the method of presentation, the meeting had no trouble agreeing on
their selection of flextime as the best alternative to meet their person­
nel and production needs. They also approved the raise in wages as
a back-up plan in case the flextime didn’t attract the required people
to produce up to planned levels. The raise was to be implemented if
 CASE STUDY II (4th SEGMENT) 263

the problem hadn’t been corrected in 3 months. Specific authoriza­

tions and responsibilities were allocated according to the plan pre­
sented. The CEO and CEC were impressed with the efficiency and
smoothness of the whole process.

BACKTRACK

In this chapter we presented the model in the context of the fourth

step of problem solving—Evaluating. A format was offered as a series
of Outcome Frames leading from a set of alternatives to the selection
stage. The steps are as follows:

1. The overall desired state or Outcome Frame

2. A Backtrack for information and orientation
3. Acceptance of the Frame
4. Representation of each alternative
5. Filling of information gaps with high quality information
6. Consideration of each pathway against “Does this pathway
get us to the desired state?”
7. If so, is it consistent with long range objectives—an ecological
check
8. Possible combinations of alternatives.
9. The decision point.

The importance of the ecological check was stressed. Too often,

particularly in so called ‘fire fighting’ situations, the fit of an alterna­
tive with the rest of an organization and its long range plans is
ignored. The result is more ‘fire fighting’, or worse. The only way off
the constant panic alert is to consider the organization as a whole.
The requirements of decision making were discussed and we noted
that it is not an objective problem. All systems which claim to be
objective have a subjective point hidden within them. We suggest the
use of the Precision Model to elicit the differences in personal repre­
sentations which account for the differences which may arise in a
decision making process.
CONCLUSION

It is our purpose in writing this book to provide a model for

obtaining information of appropriate quality for business. We are not
proposing that this model is a replacement for the effective models
for management created by those who have gone before us.
We concur with their lament over the lack of communication skills
available to management. We wish to show that effective communi­
cation, like any other complex human skill, has structure and is,
therefore, learnable. Our model is, rather, an effective technology
which can enhance the power of those other models.
Managers live in a real world. They do not, however, operate
directly or immediately on that world. They are separated from that
world by chains of information which get longer and longer. The
managers must operate with maps or representations which they use
to guide their behavior. These representations are removed from the
real world by engineered channels and by the natural, universal
process of human modeling. The final representations are internal.
The most thoroughly studied and best understood of the represen­
tational systems is human language. Human language systems are
themselves derived representations from a more complete model—
the sum total of the experience the particular human has had in his
life. Linguistic representations have been described explicitly and a
formal model has been developed. The Precision Model relies only
upon an explication of the intuitions which every native speaker has
of his language and an explicit framework developed from the recog­
nition that management is constantly engaged in the process of seek­
ing outcomes.
Precision is a book about the first phase of high quality infor­
mation processing for business. The second and third phases will be
dealt with in forthcoming books. This book has presented a model
for verbal information processing which defines precision in manage­
 BACKTRACK 265

ment communication and provides the model to get it. The first
requirement is that the information be of high quality. The highest
quality information is realized when the object or action is immedi­
ately observable. The second requirement is that the high quality
information be appropriate to the task at hand. That is, it is in
context. A Precision statement, therefore, will be one which has the
highest quality of information appropriate to the context in which
it is used.
The Precision Model has three sets of tools which have different
specific functions and operate on different cues. The first set—
Frames—establish and maintain the context necessary for precision.
They define the boundaries of exploration and respect both the need
to know and the need not to know. They create the framework which
allows the manager to explicitly identify the appropriate quality of
information. One natural outcome of this is that the manager knows
where he is in his movement toward the overall goal at all times and
is able to orient others to that outcome. There are three Frames, as
follows:

— The O U T C O M E Fram e. By the use o f this Fram e, the manager

establishes the next target state or outcom e that is the im m ediate
concern o f the transaction. Once established, this Fram e provides an
explicit standard o f relevance and efficiency within w hich informa­
tion may be organized.
— T h e B A C K T R A C K Frame. This Fram e provides a m echanism to
review or trace the developm ent o f the inform ation m aps w hich is
relevant to the outcom e established.
— T h e A S-IF Frame. T his Fram e provides a technique for creating
a context to access inform ation w hich would otherw ise be unavailable
because o f som e present state restriction.

The Frames are powerful tools for eliciting the highest quality
information desired and available in an efficient manner. They pro­
vide access to relevant material while avoiding the usually painful
procedure of sorting through offered information which is not useful
in the context. They eliminate the apparent need for dealing with
emotion brought to a meeting, or the familiar issue of hidden agen­
das. The framework provided by this part of the model is a powerful
addition to communication technology in its own right.
The second set of tools in the Precision Model, we refer to as
266 PRECISION

Procedures- These operate on their own set of cues and are specific
procedures for maintaining Frames. They assist the information
processor to maintain the trajectory established by the Outcome
Frame. These Procedures provide efficiency. They allow the manager
to make leaps which may prove productive* They do not get to any
information which cannot be elicited with the Frames and Pointers
alone. They may speed the process if used sensitively. The Proce­
dures we call:

— T he E V ID E N C E Question. T he question, "‘W hat will you accept

as evidence,11 can be used to direct attention to a representation o f a
desired state.
— T he D IF F E R E N C E Q uestion. T he question, "W hat is the differ­
ence between (any present state) and (a related desired stale)" can
help to elicit the difference w hich is to be elim inated by an action.
— T he E F F IC IE N C Y Challenge. The question, “ W hat factors are
know n which will elim inate this potential course o f action from
consideration,'r can prevent tim e being spent obtaining high quality
information about an alternative which isn’t feasible.
— T he R E L E V A N C Y C hallenge. The question, “H ow does (state­
m ent) relate to the ou tcom e agreed on for this m eeting/* is a challenge
to any statem ent which in the perception o f the inform ation processor
is not relevant to the outcom e. This procedure dem ands that the
information source justify his statem ent relative to the context.
— The R E C Y C L E Procedure. Provides a m em o o f return points.
A ny part o f a statem ent w hich is less specified than m ight be desirable
is kept track o f and no vital inform ation will be lost when other tracks
are follow ed.
— The M ISS IN G L IN K Procedure. The question, “ How w ill that
achieve what we want?” is a special adaptation o f the Relevancy
challenge to develop new branches in the phase known as Pathfind-
ing.

The third set of tools in the Precision Model is a set of direct

responses to language cues—Pointers. These are the tools for obtain­
ing high quality information. That is, they demand increasing specifi­
city. We refer to these as follows:

— The N O U N B L O C K BU STER . A request that a noun or noun

phrase be specified further to obtain the part o f the representation
intended by the information source.
 BACKTRACK 267

— The A C T IO N BLO C K BU ST E R . A request for more specification

about how an action is to be performed, that is, what specifically that
action is.
— The U N IV E R S A L B L O C K B U ST E R . A request that m em bers o f
a group be differentiated in a useful way, inviting a closer look at a
representation.
— The B O U N D A R Y C R O SSIN G Pointer. A request for the specific
conditions or consequences w hich make an action either ncccssary or
im possible.
— The C O M P A R A T O R Pointer. A request for the standard or ob­
ject w hich is being com pared to.

The companion workbook for this phase of high quality informa­

tion processing provides lecturettes, structured experiences, and ex­
ercises for trainers. A trainer who has become adapt at the use of the
Precision Model can use the materials to facilitate the spread of these
valuable skills throughout an organization.
This book has dealt only with the verbal component of communi­
cation, The highest quality of information, as we have maintained
through this book, is behavioral. In human communication, there­
fore, the highest quality information is non-verbal. The structure of
non-verbal communication, which we will deal with in the second
book of this series, is even less studied and generally understood than
the structure of verbal communication.
It is the experience of the authors that non-verbal communication
does, indeed, have structure and, therefore, is learnable. An increase
in verbal communication skills will provide significant rewards what­
ever the level of non-verbal communication abilities.
The second area of information processing, which is the subject of
the next book of this series, is the representation of information. This
includes the various ways that we represent experience both inter­
nally and externally, and the use we can make of that knowledge. It
includes how we represent information non-verbally and how the
representations of others can be known without the aid of verbal
cues. We also cover other language patterns which relate to these
representations in powerful and creative ways. The technology repre­
sented in the second book allows major leaps to be made in represent­
ing information. The effective use of these techniques require the
prior development of verbal communication skills.
The third area of information processing, the translation into ac­
tion, provides applications of the skills and cxperiencc which are
268 PRECISION

developed from the first two areas. These are techniques which take
advantage of the patterns which all living things must have. They
access wired-in functions in ways useful for obtaining outcomes in
any human interaction. These techniques include the tools to teach
individuals how to solve problems and develop other internal pro*
cesses. These processes are no longer invisible. They can be observed
and taught. They are explicit and structured processes which can bo
modeled and learned by any manager.
A final comment on the organization of this book is required. The
authors have used the Precision Model tools to write the book along
with various other language tools such as the frequent use of mctn-
phor. We have presented the information gathering part of the pro­
cess in chapters which indicate there are separate and distinct chunk» *
which must be followed in order and separated. We want to assure
you that this was merely a presentation convenience and that Ihe
order need not be separated in the manner presented nor separated
so precisely. The only requirement is that an information ргоссамм
know exactly where he is in the process at all times. If the chunk*
presented are not followed in the same manner, the Precision Model
can still be called upon whenever necessary to establish position in
the process and proceed from that point.
The framework of problem solving was chosen as a convenient nnd
useful vehicle for presentation which would find common ground
with the experience of all managers. Whether you are the тииицм
of a unit of a company with only a few employees, general iniuingpi
of a division or of your own company, CEO of a large 0rgani7.nl Ion,
or a member of a Board of Directors, you will have the expericnot
of some form of problem solving and the frustrations which hnv*
been part of that process. The model we have presented will smoolli
that process for you, removing much of its uncertainty and inHtt
ciency. It will permit you to accomplish your goals with a fccliiiM ttf
confidence and satisfaction, knowing that you have got the imul
from your people in a creative yet comfortable way.
A major portion of management communications involves pinli
lem solving. When they are not solving immediate problem» of v n i у
ing sizes, most managers are solving future problems—referred Id м
planning when formally recognized. The model you have j(inl retd
is more useful than in that context alone. Limited lo tlmt nrrtt. It
would increase your capabilities of a manager. Applied to any
tion where information needs to be elicited or a specific
 BACKTRACK 269

frcom communication is desired, it will make your powers stand out

frcom managers without this technology and from your own past
peerformance.
Using the Precision Model, you will notice that all meetings you
hoold, for whatever purpose, will run more efficiently and be more
satisfying to everyone involved. Whether the meeting is large or only
twvo people, the combination of establishing Frames and asking the
rigght questions will be appreciated by those affected, whether they
nootice the precise difference or not.
We indicated throughout the book that planning is directly suited
to) the format presented. Planning has all the same steps and goals
ass problem solving. The basic difference is the orientation to the
fuuture and, often, a more comfortable time constraint. We want each
resader to get the full benefit of the more generalized model, however,
annd realize that the Frames, Procedures and Pointers constitute a
poowerful technology which can be applied to many areas. The appli-
caation will require only that the present and desired state be known.
Tl'he Outcome Frame will then allow you to move smoothly to your
gooal.
Resource allocation, conflict management and matrix manage­
m en t are variations on a theme: Variations which require a high
deegree of communication and meeting skills. Many managers foun-
deer in this situation or environment. An explicit desired state, which
is; agreed to at the start of a meeting, is required. “We are working
tooward a common goal; the best solution to the problem of allocating
coompany resources. Specifically, the allocation of engineering rc-
soources to the three projects we have in process now.” is such an
exxample. From the beginning, specific intermediate steps or proce­
dures may be specified and appropriate questions used to elicit a
shhared representation of the situation from which an allocation can
bee agreed upon. Conflict, which is often assumed to be part of this
situation, can be treated as an information deficit and the relevant
i(information elicited.
Performance appraisal is another major area where the model can
bee usefully applied. Many plans which require these formal appraisal
.scessions, such as Management by Objectives, are unsuccessful due to
tlihe inability of managers to carry out the sensitive meetings required.
W e recommend with such a system that the purpose and structure
ofif the meeting be stated on a form provided the manager and subor­
dinate. Further, the manager can state the outcome and get agree­
270 PRECISION

ment at the start of the meeting. An agreed outcome and framework

will enable the Outcome Frame to be used comfortably and success­
fully and move the meeting smoothly to a satisfactory conclusion.
The pointers will insure that information which is required for a
comprehensive appraisal can be easily elicited.
Any interviewing situation can, of course, use the Precision Model
effectively. The Pointers will provide the tools to elicit whatever
information is desired in the most efficient and comfortable manner.
Establishing Frames will enhance the power of any interviewer.
Negotiation, too, can benefit from the model. The Pointers can
assist in gathering information about each position and in prodding
review of inflexible positions. The most powerful tool in this area,
however, is the Outcome Frame. By establishing an agreed upon
outcome for the negotiation, some desired state which both parties
want, a basis for agreement will be established. Once this is done,
both sides will be on a trajectory to a common goal which can be
speeded by appropriate questioning. The authors recognize the
unique problems involved and have a specialized model for negotia­
tion. We note, however, that the addition of the Outcome Frame
alone to the technique of most negotiators would increase their
power and their ultimate success.
Business is the human outcome oriented activity. We have created
a model, a communication technology, which recognizes that feature
and explicitly makes outcomes a central focus. Each Procedure, each
specific Pointer, can be related back to the outcome. The easiest
access to the information required and the elimination of conflict in
that process is provided. The Precision Model will elicit information
in the most efficient manner possible—efficiency measured by re­
sources used to get the outcome desired.
We invite you to become familiar with the model presented. Make
it part of your repetoire of management skills. Notice, as this hap­
pens, how many sreas of your day to day operations benefit from the
generalization of the model you have learned. May you be delighted
at the increase is your personal power and influence as you get
results which had eluded you before.
Authors

Michael McMaster is president of Precision

Models, Inc., and is a consultant and lecturer
in the area of communication applied to man­
agement. His background includes ten years
in high level management in private industry.
Certified as a Chartered Accountant (Cdn.),
he spent five years as a computer systems
analyst and consultant. He founded two suc­
cessful businesses before developing his
present model for communication in busi­
ness. He has presented workshops all over
North America.

John Grinder, Ph.D., is a communication

specialist whose background includes a de­
gree in linguistics and development of a com­
munication model for psychotherapy which
has revolutionized the field. He has studied
the best communicators in many fields, in­
cluding management, and developed tech­
niques to make their effectiveness leamable.
A highly entertaining speaker, he has given
workshops around the world to executives,
lawyers, salespeople and therapists. He has
co-authored nine other books on communica­
tion including The Structure of Magic.
 Grinder, DeLozier & Associates
• Books

A Framework For Excellence: A Resource Manual For NLP

Charlotte Bretto
IS B N 0 - 9 2 9 5 1 4 -0 3 -3 Pbk.

Leaves Before The Wind

Edited by Charlotte Bretto, Judith DeLozier, John Grinder & Sylvia Topel
ISBN 1-55552-051-0 Pbk.

Making The Message Clear: How To Muster The Business

Communication Tools That Direct Productivity, Excellence,
And Power
James Eicher
ISBN 1-55552-048-0 Pbk.

Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson,

M.D. Vol I
R ichard B an d lcr & John G rinder
ISB N 1 -5 5 5 5 2 -0 5 2 -9 P bk.

Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson,

M.D. Vol II
John Grinder, Judith DeLozier & Richard Bandler
ISBN 1-55552-053-7 Pbk.

Practical Magic
Stephen R. Lankton, ACSW
ISBN 0-916990-08-7 Pbk.

Precision: A New Approach To Communication

Michael McMaster & John Grinder
ISBN 1-55552-049 9 Pbk.

Turtles All The Way Down: Prerequisites For Personal Genius

John Grinder & Judith DeLozier
ISBN 1-55552-022-7 Cloth
 Grinder, DeLozier & Associates

9? • Audio

THE SYNTAX OF BEHAVIOR SERIES

Presented by John Grinder & Robert Dilts
Volume 1: States And Strategies (8 tapes)
Volume 2: Anchoring: The Oldest Mystery in NLP (8 tapes)
Volume 3 Belief Systems: Methods For Change (8 tapes)
Volume 4: A Batesonian Model For Investigation (8 tapes)

THE SYNTAX OF BEHAVIOR SERIES

Presented by John Grinder & Steven Gilligan
Volume I: Tools For Mind Mastery: Meeting Life Challenges
With Wisdom (6 tapes)
Volume 2: Generative Personality: Enjoying The Present
& Building The Future (7 tapes)

ADVANCED MODELING
Replete with exercises designed to prepare you for effective modeling, the
listener is led through a scries of experiences which assist to create the state
highly valued in the pursuit of accelerated learning. (14 tapes)

MODFXING THE HEALING PROCESS

T h is series features John Grinder leading participants through the latest exer­
cises in NLP modeling technology. Methods of creating optimal states for
responding to healing interventions are also demonstrated. (7 ta p es)

TRAINING TRAINERS
Designed for experienced NLP practitioners, this series covers the topic of state
preparation and presuppositions of training, including the use of metaphor and
congruity requirements of the presenter. (12 tapes)
 METAMORphoUS
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