Group 10 All Report
Group 10 All Report
Group 10 All Report
Group 10
Habibatul Amri 18018096
Hanifatul Husni 18018098
Ifani Ramadhani 18018099
Sania Tricahyati 18018106
SOCIOLINGUISTIC
LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE AND SHIFT
LANGUAGE SHIFT
Language shift Language shift is language transfer or language replacement where by
a speech community of a language shifts to speaking another language. It’s happens when the
language of the wider society (majority) displaces the minority mother tongue language over
time in migrant communities or in communities under military occupation. Therefore when
language shift occurs, it shifts most of the time towards the language of the dominant group,
and the result could be the eradication of the local language.
2. Demographic factors
- Language shift is faster in urban areas than rural
- The size of the group is some times a critical factor
- Intermarriage between groups can accelerate language shift
LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE
Language maintenance is the degree to which an individual or grups continues to use
their language, particulary in bilingual or multilingual area or among imigrant grup whereas
language shift is the process by which a new language is acquired by new community usually
resulting with the loss of the community’s first language.
Language maintenance refers to the situation where speech commuity continues to
use its traditional language in the face of a host of condition that might foster a shift to
another language.
If language maintenance does not occur, there can be several results. One is language
death; speakers become bilingual, younger speakers become dominant in another language,
and the language is said to die. The speakers or the community does not die, of course, they
just become a subset of speakers of another language. The end result is language shift for the
population, and if the language isn't spoken elsewhere, it dies.
LANGUAGE REVIVAL
Some times a community becomes aware that its language is in danger of
disappearing and takes steps to revitalises it.
Example:
In 1840, two thirds of the Welsh people spoke Welsh, but by 1980, only 20% of the
population spoke Welsh, therefore the Welsh people began a revival process of Welsh
language by using a Welsh-language TV channel and bilingual education programs that used
Welsh as medium of instruction at schools.
REPORT 2
Group 10
Habibatul Amri 18018096
Hanifatul Husni 18018098
Ifani Ramadhani 18018099
Sania Tricahyati 18018106
Linguistic Varieties is the diversity of language which used by many people in the
world, and meanwhile the term Multilingual Nation can be define as variations of language or
diversity of language which used by many people in a community or in a particular domain. it
refers to the most colloquial variety in the person's linguistic repertoire. It is used to indicate
that a language is used in informal everyday interactions without implying that it is
appropriate.
Vernacular Language
The term vernacular is used in numbers of ways. It generally refers to a language
which has not been standardized and which does not have official status. Vernacular are
usually the first language learned by people in multilingual language communities, and they
are often used for a relatively narrow range of informal functions. The function of vernacular
language is to shows their identity when they talking with the other person from the other
place. There are three components of the meaning of the term vernacular, then. The most
basic refers to the fact that a vernacular is an uncodified or understandardised variety. The
second refers to the way it is acquired in the home, as a first variety. The third is the fact that
it is used for relatively circumscribed functions. The first component has been most widely
used as the defining criterion, but emphasis on one or other of the components had led to the
use of the term vernacular with somewhat different meanings.
Finally the term vernacular is sometimes used to indicate that a language is used for
everyday interaction, without implying that it is appropriate only in informal domains.
For example: like a children are talking with their friends used informal language from his
places.
Standard Languages
Standard language is the language which has undergone some degree of regulation or
codification in grammar and a dictionary. Usually standard language is used in the country
which have there so many dialect or the country which use multilingual nations. Or standard
language can be defined is a language variety used by a group of people in their public
discourse. Alternatively, varieties become standard by undergoing a process of
standardization, during which it is organized for description in grammars and dictionaries and
encoded in such reference works.Typically, varieties that become standardized are the local
dialects spoken in the centers of commerce and government, where a need arises for a variety
that will serve more than local needs.
Standard varieties are codified varieties. Codification is usually achieved through
grammars and dictionaries which record, and sometimes prescribe, the standard forms of the
language. The development of standard English illustrates the three essential criteria which
characterize a standard: it was an influential or prestigious variety, it was codified and
stabilized, and it served H function in that it was used for communication at court for
literature and for administration. It also illustrates that what we refer to as a standard
language is always a particular dialect which has gained its special position as a result of
social economic and political influenced.
Standard languages developed in a similar way in many other european countries
during the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In Italy, Spain, France, Romanian,
for example, there were a variety of dialects of the vernacular languages (which all derived
from varieties of colloquial Latin) which served the L functions of their communities,
alongside classical Latin, the H language. From these dialects there gradually emerged a
standard, generally based on the dialect of the political, economic and social center of the
country.
For Example: Human in their places use standard language in their places.
Pakistan persons are use urdu as in their country,
Lingua Francas
Lingua franca can be describe as a language which is serving as a regular means of
communication between different linguistic groups in a multilingual nation and used
habitually by people whose mother tongues are different in order to facilitate communication
between them. Lingua franca tend used for communication between people who has distinct
language and social interaction. This language doesn’t has standard variety.
For example:
Like in Bali, many people want to talk with other people use Balinese language.
Minang Bukittingi language can be used to Batusangkar language. Lingua franca become
officially for example is Indonesia, Indonesia is used Lingua franca officially. Lingua franca
has a strong influence.
Java language, (this language is used in trade and daily language in family interaction).
Pidgin
A pidgin is a language which has no native spekers. Pidgin language are created from
the combined efforts of people who speak different language. Pidgin develop from 2 group
are different, seems like a sign language where only them who known those language but no
one’s native language or nobody who created that language. Pidgin language do not have
high status or prestige and to those who don’t speak them, they often speak seem ridiculous
languages.
For example:
A gang who has code language to explain some things secret foer instance: police they called
cops.
Bahasa gaul (slang), this language just used by the group to group who just know this
language.
Creoles
A creole is a pidgin which has acquired native speakers. Many of the languages which
are called pidgins are in fact now creole languages. They are learned by children as their first
language and used in a wide range of domains.
Actually this language is a development from pidgin, but the different is Pidgin doesn’t has
native speaker but creoles has native speaker.
For example : if someone has a small vocabulary and he’s can be add to by creole
In the past, the church was the main influence on the written
forms of unwritten language when they translated the bible into them
Group 10
Habibatul Amri 18018096
Hanifatul Husni 18018098
Ifani Ramadhani 18018099
Sania Tricahyati 18018106
Dialects is a variant of a language according to the user. Unlike the variety of language
that is a variant of a language according to the user. This variation is different from each
other, but there are still many similarities indicate that not deserve to be called a different
language. A dialect differentiated by the vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation
(phonology, including prosody). If the distinction is only based on the pronunciation, the
accent is the appropriate term and not a dialect.
Types of dialect
Judging from the shape is divided into three dialects, namely:
Regional dialects, the dialect whose characteristics are limited by space. Often called Dialect
Area. This dialect is usually grown in a particular area, meaning that people outside the
region will not understand the dialect in question.
Social dialects, namely the dialect spoken by a particular social group. For example, people
in the Cardboard definitely have different dialects with people outside the palace. Or people
in the community office dialect definitely different from those that exist in the market
community.
temporal dialect, which dialect different from time to time. This dialect is only growing at a
certain time and when it's time to change the dialect that is not there anymore. This can be
seen from the spelling, ways of writing and pronunciation. For example the Old Malay
dialect, dialect 1970, etc.
This conversation between two Geordies (people from Tyneside in England) is likely
to perplex many English speakers. The double modal might could is typical Geordis, though
it is also heard in some parts of the Southern USA. The expression needs dumped is also
typical Tyneside, though also used in Scotland, as is the vocabulary item disjasket, meaning
“worn out” or “compeletely ruined”.
Regional variation takes time to develop. British and American English , for instance,
provide much more evidence of regional variation than New Zealand or Australian English.
In the USA, dialetologist can identify distinguishing features of the speech of people from
different regions. Nothern, Midland and Southern are the main divisions, and within those
three areas a number of further divisions can be made. Different town and even parts of
towns can be distinguished: and within those the Boston dialect is different from that New
York City. Words dragonfly in the EasternStates include darning, needle. Mosquito hawk,
spindle, snake feeder, snake dactor, and snake waiter, but of these only darning needle is used
in New York.
1. Age
Variation in language according to age may reflect either age grading or change in
progress. Age grading involves features associated with specific age groups as a development
or social stage. Normally speakers abandon the features associated with a particular stage as
they grow older and they begin to speech pretty much like the members of the age group
above then as they mature.
The kind of age – related language variation which we are most likely to notice is the use
of slang which as noted above is a variety of age grading. Slang is linguistic prerogative of
young people and generally sound odd to older person. In the mouth in New Zeeland young
people currently use the terms wicked, choice & cool to describe something they approve of.
The other example of social variation related to age grading is the use of “gonna & wanna”.
2. Social status
· People can be grouped together on the basis of similar social and economic factors.
Their language generally reflects these groupings – they use different social dialects. It is
easiest to see the evidence for social dialects in places such as India and Indonesia where
social divisions are very clear-cut. In these countries, there are caste system determined by
birth, and strict social rules govern the kind of behaviour appropriate to each group. The rules
cover such matters as the kind of job people can have, who they can marry, how they should
dress, what they should eat, and how they should behave in a range of social situations. Not
suprisingly, these social distinctions are also reflected in speech differences. A person’s
dialect reflects their social background.
Javanese social status is reflected not just in choice of linguistic forms but also in the
particular combinations of forms which each social social group customarily uses, i.e. the
varieties or stylistic levels that together make up the group’s distintive dialect. In javannese,
there are six distinguishable stylistic levels.
There are three distinct Javanese social groups and three associated dialects
1. The dialect of the lowest status group, the peasants and uneducated townspeople,
consists of three stylistic levels : 1, 1a and 2
2. The dialect of urbanised people with some education consists of five stylistic levels :
1, 1a, 2, 3 and 3a.
The dialect of highly educated highest status group also consists of five levels, but they
are different from those of the second social group: 1. 1a, 1b, 3 and 3a.
Ø Vocabulary
The term social class is used here as a shorthand term for differences between people
which are associated with differences in social prestige, wealth and education. Bank
managers do not takl like office cleaners, lawyers do not speak in the same way as the
burglars they defend. Class divisions are based on such status differences. Status refers to the
defences or respect people give someone-or dont give them, as the case may be- and status
generally derives in Western society from the materials resources a person can command,
though there are other sources too. Family background may be a source of status
independently of wealth. So class is used here as convenient label for group of people who
share similarities in economic and social status.
Social dialect research in many different countries has revealed a consistent relationship
between social class and language patterns. People from different social classes speak
differently. The most obvious differences – in vocabulary – are in many ways the least
illuminating from a sociolinguistic point of view, though they clearly capture the public
imagination. In the 1950s in England many pairs of words were identified which , it was
claimed, distinguished the speech of upper class English (‘U speakers’) from the rest (‘non-
U speakers’). U speakers used sitting room rather than lounge (non-U), and lavatory rather
than the (non-U) toilet.
Ø [r] Pronunciation
One linguistic form which has proved particularly interesting to sociolinguists studying
English-Speaking speech communities is the varriable pronunciation of [r] in words like car
and sard, for and form. In areas where [r] pronunciation is prestigious, sociolinguists have
found patterns like those described above for [h] dropping. The higher a person’s social
group, the more [r] they pronounce.
Ø Vowels
Example:
Sir – What is happening to the humble letter ‘i’ in New Zealand? In many mouths HIM
becomes HUM, JIM is JUM and TILL is TULL. I overheard a young girl telling her friend on
the phone that she had been to a doctor and had to take six different PULLS a day. After four
repititions, she had to spell it to be understood.
In this letter the writer is complaining about way New Zealanders pronounce their
vowels. The examples illustrate the difficulty of precisely describing differences in the
pronunciation of vowels without the aid of a phonetic script. Measuring slight differences in
the wat speakers pronounce the ‘same’ vowels is also a challenging task.
Ø Other language
Similar pattern can be found in any speech community where there is social
stratification. In Tehrani Persian, as well as in the Swahili used in Mombasa, the same
relationship is found between speech and social class. The higher social groups use more of
the standard forms, while the lowest groups use the fewest standard forms.
Ø Grammatical pattern
This pattern has been noted for a variiety of gramatical variables. Here are some
examples of standard and vernacular grammatical forms which have been identified in
several English-speaking communities.
Form Example
Past tense verb forms 1. I finished that book yesterday
2. I finish that book yesterday
Present tense verb forms 3. Rose walks to school everyday
4. Rose walk to school everyday
Negative forms 5. Nobody wants any chips
6. Nobody don’t don’t want no
chips
Ain’t 7. Jim isn’t stupid
8. Jim ain’t stupid
The higher social groups use more of the standard grammatical form and fewer
instances of the vernacular or non-standard form. With the grammatical pattern, the third
person singular form of the present tense regular verb (e.g. standard she walks vs vernacular
she walk), there is a sharp distinction between middle-class groups and the lower-class
groups. People are more aware of social stigma in relation to vernacular grammatical forms,
and this is reflected in the lower incidence of vernacular forms among middle-class speakers
in particular.
Sentences (6) in the list illustrate a pattern of negation which is sometimes called
‘negative concord’ or ‘multiple negation’. Where standard English allows only one negative
in each clause, most vernacular dialects can have two or more. In some dialects every
possible form which can be negated is negated.
Multiple negations are grammatical construction which has been found in all English-
speaking communities where a social dialect study has been done. In every community
studied it is much more frequent in lower-class speech than in middle-class speech. In fact
there is usually a dramatic contrast between the groups in the amount of multiple negations
used. It is rare in middle-class speech.
Notice, too that in the lowest and the highest social groups the women’s speech is
closer to that of the men in the same group than to that of women in other groups. In these
groups class membership seems to be more important than gender identity. But this is not so
true of women in group 2. Their score (of 3 per cent) for vernacular forms is closer to that of
women in group 1 than it is to that of men from their own group. This may indicate they
identify more strongly with women from the next social groups than with men from their own
social group.
SOCIAL DIALECTS
Social groups in society are not only distinguished based on the area where the group
was staying, but can also be discriminated on the basis of social conditions. Thus, social
groups within a region can still be grouped-grouped again by the social conditions of each
individual. Difference are social groups that can be defined by sex, age, occupation. The
difference can also be determined by economic status contrasted group rich and poor; or
social status as in the familiar society caste, or any group of educated and uneducated groups.
such differences also occur because of the status of power rooted in political cause the ruling
group and the group of rabble. In our pluralistic society can see their groups into one because
of heredity or ethnicity.
All social groups have the potential to have a 'variation of the language' with certain
traits that different from other groups. If the potential is really realized to be true then
'variations of the language' that is based on group This becomes a social dialect or Sociolect.
Therefore, it appears the variation of speech between different speakers, for example group
Middle Class and Working Class in England, between the Brahman caste and Shudra in Bali,
between class and class gentry farmers in Java, between Muslims, Jews, Christians in Iraq,
although they using the same language. Shape and pattern of social class stratification
between communities other diverse communities. If stratification based on employment or
income level, it is possible the displacement of speakers from members as one to the other
class members. However, if social stratification in public speaker based on caste, the social
classes will a clearly defined boundaries because they have a more assertive, namely factor
descent. Although the caste system is stable, precisely caste members sometimes necessary
know and understand various dialects at the same time.
According Trudgil (1974), the cause of the diverse dialects.
The variance due to the social constraints (social barriers) and the distance Social (social
distances). The development of linguistic features between community members hindered by
the limitations in the form of social class, age, race, religion, and factor other. Social distance
as social constraints limiting the development of features linguistic, and are the same as
geographical distance, the farther away the social level the further distinction linguistic
features. Other causes of emergence of diverse dialects is their a tendency that the elite, upper
class tend to want to differentiate themselves with the non-elite, as seen in the following
quote "Dominant social. Themselves growing niche groups to mark off symbolically as
distinct from the group they dominate and to interpret Reviews their symbols of
distinctiveness as evidence of superior moral and intellectual qualities "(Biber and Finegan,
1994). Language Standards as One Dialect
REPORT 5
Group 10
Habibatul Amri 18018096
Hanifatul Husni 18018098
Ifani Ramadhani 18018099
Sania Tricahyati 18018106
A. GENDER
S. Romaine. 1994. Language in society: the word sex has biological implications. The
word gender is more appropriate: it distinguishes people based on their social and/or linguistic
behaviour.
Women and men from the same speech community may use different linguistic forms.
(i) Gros Ventre (Amerindian tribe in Montana) pronunciation differences, for example:
[kja« tsa] women’s form
[dΩa« tsa] men’s form
‘bread’
(iv) Japanese
Vocabulary differences, for example:
Women’s form Men’s form
ohiya mizu water
onaka hara stomach
oisii umai delicious
taberu kuu eat
Speech styles of women and men vary in the frequencies with which they employ
particular linguistic alternatives.
-ing [˜] vs. -in’ [in] more women use the –ing form
In Montreal French, men delete [l] more often than women in phrases such as il y
a or il fait.
In Sidney (Australia) words like thing may be pronounced with initial [f] more
frequently by men!
In the highest and the lowest social groups women score similarly to men: social
status appears to be more important than gender identity.
Gender identity is more important in the other social groups!
Multiple negations (non-standard forms!) are used in the lower middle class group
32% by men vs. 1% by women.
Vernacular forms are used more frequently by men: a typical pattern in many
speech communities. This pattern is apparent also for young children – for
example, boys use more the in’ form, than girls; their speech contains more
frequent consonant cluster simplification in words such as [las] for last, [toul] for
told, etc.
Hypothesis: women are more status-conscious than men, thus they use the
standard form. Standard forms are associated with higher social status --
women want to signal social status when using standard speech.
Counter argument: working women (having social status!) employ more
standard forms than women staying home – Stay-home women reinforce
the use of vernacular forms used by those they are in social contact.
2
In certain social context women use more standard forms than men; in other
context they move away from the standard, for example, mother/child
conversation, see p. 168. Implications?
Women may employ rising pitch at the end of declarative sentences more
frequently, whereas men use a steady or lowering pitch.
The rising pitch variant is interpreted as a questioning contour and, according to
R. Lakoff (1975), this leads to women’s self-presentation as hesitant, uncertain,
and lacking in assertiveness.
“tag questions” (sentences in which the speaker makes a declarative statement and
adds on a tag in the form of a question about their assertion).
Lakoff states that women use tag questions as a signal of their reluctance to make
direct assertions. They can “avoid committing themselves and thereby avoid
conflict with the addressee”
Such a deferential style may be perceived as the speaker’s uncertainty and lack of
definite opinions.
Examples:
Open the oven door for me, could you?
You’re driving rather fast, aren’t you?
3
Facilitative tags: they indicate the speaker’s desire to engage the
addressee in continuing conversation.
Examples:
Still working hard at your office, are you?
The hen’s brown, isn’t it?
Holmes (1984): There is a significant difference in the functional role of tags in women’s
and men’s speech. Men more often use tags for “speaker-oriented” goals, to obtain or
confirm information about themselves, whereas women more often use tags for
“addressee-oriented” goals, particularly as strategies to engage addressees in talk.
In the interaction of gender with several social factors, there are speech
communities where gender is alone influences speech patterns:
Examples:
(i) Tyneside, England
(ii) Reading, England
B. AGE
(ii) vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar may reflect age difference: social
implications!
Research shows that in Britain and in the US there is not much gender-related
difference in the speech of children; in Denmark, however, the difference may be
there at the age of four (the role of daycare there): girls use fewer vernacular
forms.
Study the usage of multiple negation in different age groups, Figure 7.4, p. 179
C. IS LANGUAGE SEXIST?
unmarked marked
heir heiress
laundry worker laundress
poet poetess
actor actress
but: governor (governs a state)
governess (takes care of children)
mankind
the man in the street
ape-man
man-made
Peking-man
Neanderthal man
In attempting to eliminate the generic he, it is assumed that language affects thought;
research shows that generic he tends to suggest that a male referent is in mind (to be
discussed in detail later).
REPORT 4
Group 10
Habibatul Amri 18018096
Hanifatul Husni 18018098
Ifani Ramadhani 18018099
Sania Tricahyati 18018106
Ethnic Group
An ‘ethnic group’ has been defined as a group that regards itself or is regarded by
others as a distinct community by virtue of certain characteristics that will help to distinguish
the group from the surrounding community.
Ethnicity
Many ethnic groups use a distinctive language to identify their ethnicity
If the dominants/main language is use, speakers may incorporate linguistic signals
that identify their ethnic background
Examples
- New Zealanders use Maori linguistic signals like kia ora, eki, ne to express their
ethnic identity
- Chinese Singaporeans in Singapore use the tag la to express solidarity
- Italians in Boston and Sydney use particular high percentage of vernacular
pronunciations of certain vowels
- Scottish people in New Zealand retain the [r] sound
- Jewish people in Boston and New York use marked linguistic tags such as oy vay, and
Yiddish vocabulary items such as bagel
Example in Indonesia
Chinese Indonesian in Surabaya dominantly use Indonesian and Javanese, however
there are particular linguistic features, such as:
- Words related to the kinship system: tacik, koko, cece in ‘Ikut sama koko sana!’
- Use of pigi for ‘pergi’ (go)
- Use of Javanese affixations such as –e in Indonesian words: ‘namae’, ‘orange’
- /r/ sound becomes /l/ sound: /murah/ /murah/
- /t/ sound becomes /k/ sound: /lihat/ /lihak/
Pronunciation
[den], [tin] for ‘then’ and ‘thin’ [niem] for ‘name’
Morphology, syntax
Plural forms without /s/ suffix: ‘many cow’
Verbs are not marked for tenses: walk, jump for ‘walked’, ‘jumped’
Simplified pronouns: [mi] for I, me, my and [dem] for they, them, and their
- Pronunciation
Use of [d] sound: then pronounce as ‘den’, the pronounce as ‘de’
- Vocabulary
Kia ora for greetings Tangi meaning ‘funeral’
Kuia meaning ‘old woman’
- Grammar
Vernacular present tense forms: with /s/
- ‘I says you wanna bet’
Vernacular past tense
- ‘She seen it happen…’
Social Networks
People’s speech reflects the types of networks they belong to.
- Plexity
It refers to the type of transactions people are involved in
• Uniplex relationship: when the link to someone else is only in one area
• Multiplex relationship: interactions with others in several dimensions
Could be both Conscious and Unconscious e.g. Loss of Rhotic ‘r’ – Unconscious
Types of Changes
1. Incremental : Used for inventions or items of knowledge
Become standard e.g “Selfie”, “emoji” added in dictionaries
Native
- Laantain – lanter
- TV
- Mobile
- Picnic
- Park
- Menu
2. Decremental :Words not used anymore because of the less usage of the object
E.g. words related to swordfighting are not used often ‘pary’ and ‘feint’
Native
- Zarra baktar
- Manjeek – pathar phainkne wali toop
Native
- Pistol – tamancha
- School – madrassa
- Train – gaari
- Kitaab – Kutab – Kitabain
Causes of Changes
1. Social Status
people of higher status introduce changes later considered prestigious
Native
- Burger – bun kabab
- Fries – Chips
- pronunciation of ‘career’
- Baba/’Papa– Abu
2. Interaction / Contact
Borrowing
Isolation slows process of change
Interaction increases influences on other languages
Sushi – Japan
Native
- Gulluband – Farsi – Necklace
- Bandar gah – Farsi – seaport
- Mayuun – hindi
3. Dialectal Change
Difference in vocabulary or pronunciation due to difference in dialects
e.g Autumn – fall
lift – elevator
/r/ sound at the end and ‘schedule’
Native
- Shaljam – Thippar (Hazara) – Gongloo (Lahore)
- Bahaar – Basant (Lahore)
- Piyo(Lahore) – Lala (Hazara)
4. Gender
Difference between speech of men and women
Women introduce more standard forms – beautiful, sweet
Men introduce vernacular forms – cool, wicked
Women categorize – married/teenager/mrs/miss
Native
- Gaari – Daala/car/totta/mazda/jeep
- Chacha – Uncle
- Women – picky more accurate terms
- Men – simplistic
5. Laziness
Occurs mainly because of laziness
Shortening or Combining
Become widely accepted – Standard
I am - I’m
Going to – Gonna
Native
- Assalamoalikum – Salam
- Bismillah
6. Imperfect Learning
Children learn adult forms imperfectly
Majority usage - New strandard
Native
- Mehendi – Minhadi
7. Culture / Tradition
New places, situations, objects
Does not matter where they go
Native Examples
- Lassi
- Lacha
- Charkha
- Chahti
Levels of Changes
Changes occur on the following levels
Phonological (sounds)
Syntactic (structure)
Semantic (meaning)
Lexical (words)
1. Phonological
Complex Not sudden – happens over time
Examples : Same vowel rule (~a rule) pen ~ pin in some English dialects – not necessary
‘s’ sound at the end of Spanish words como ehtas / ehtah
Native
- Sajjan – Sajan
- Minhadi – Mehendi
- Gojarwalan – Gujranwala
- Kilachi – Kirachi
2. Lexical Change
Change in the words and vocabulary used
Addition of suffixes/prefixes to make new words breakable, thinkable, touchable, etc
Addition of ‘s’ and ‘-es’ drink – drinks box – boxes
Native
- Subh – Subhu – Subha
- Sabza – Sabzazar
- Deewankhana – Bethak – Drawing room
3. Syntactic Change
Changes in word order
Double negation – no longer part of English
Old English - ne aux – not never
Contracted negatives – Old English knew not – didn’t know
Comparatives – Old English most shamefullest, more happier
Native
- Phone karo – Phone lgao
- Film lagi hui he – Film chal rahi he
4. Semantic Change
Changes related to meanings
Broadening
Dogge -– specific breed - all dogs
Narrowing deer -– any beast - specific animal
Opposite Sick – Good
Native
- Bandar/gah – Bandargah
- Sikh – foolish
- Akhrot
- Bera tar jaye
- Bala (musibat) – Every bad thing
REPORT 7
Group 10
LANGUAGE CHANGE
It seems to be the case that sound changes not only spread from one person
to another and from one style to another style, they also spread from one word to
another. Sound changes spread through different words one by one. This is called
lexical diffusion. When a sound change begins, all the words with a particular
vowel don’t change at once in the speech of a community.
Group 10
Speech function
Language serves a range of functions. It is usually adjusted the speech to suit the
social context of speech. The language we talk to a child may be different from the language
we talk to our customer or colleague though the purpose is the same. The different purposes
of talk can also affect the form of language and the variety of ways. Why do we say the same
thing in different ways? The answers to the question basically imply the speech functions.
There are a number of ways of kinds the functions of speech. The following list has proved a
useful one in sociolinguistic research.
The address form is a word or words used when politely speaking or writing to someone.
MN - multiple names, found among the intimately well acquainted; names of food and small
animals seem to be especially popular. E.g : honney, sweetie, darling.
TLN - title plus last name, used to address those higher in rank or older. E.g : Prof. Anderson.
Dr. Smith.
LN - last name, a less formal address used by superiors or coworkers to show either. E.g : Ms.
Smith.
T - title, used especially in the military, less formal than TLN. E.g : my lord, Mister.
TT - title plus title, used in very formal settings or with people of very high rank. E.g : Mr.
President.
Types of politeness
Non Verbal Communication are messages that are conveyed through body movements, facial
expressions, and the physical distance between the sender and receiver. Non-verbal
Communication Cultures may be either Low-‐context or High‐context:
a. Low‐context cultures rely more on content rather than on context. They give value to the
written word rather than oral statements.
b. High‐context cultures infer information from message context, rather than from content.
They rely heavily on nonverbal signs and prefer indirectness, politeness &ambiguity.
Example :
In the UK however, the British communication culture is very different. You need to listen to
much more than the words in the UK. People say one thing but mean another. Saying
something is “fine” in the UK really means it is not fine – it’s the exact opposite.
REPORT 10
Group 10
-Women were using language which reinforced their subordinate status; they were ‘colluding
in their own subordination’ by the way they spoke (Robin Lakoff).
-She identified linguistic features which used more often by women than by men expressed
uncertainty and lack of confidence.
WOMEN’S LANGUAGE
Example :
• Hypercorrect grammar
• Express uncertainty
• Used as confrontational
Interruptions
Feedback
• Feedback is the return of information about the result of a process or activity. Woman
as cooperative conversationalists -> provide more encouraging feedback than men do
Explanations
• Why men do more interruption than woman and why men give less encouraging
feedback to their conversational partners than woman do?
GENDER
In interruption
For instance:
Woman doctors were consistently interrupted by their patients, while male doctors did
most of the interrupting in their consultations. The position of women reflected in these
patterns has more to do with gender than role or occupation.
Gossip
Gossip describes the kind of relaxed in group talk that goes on between people in
informal contexts.
Women in the police force , for instance, are sometime advised to portray a masculine
image – to wear bulky sweaters suggesting upper-body strength, and well-worn boots
to suggest they are used to hard work.
Men who work in clothing shops and hairdressing salons, on the other hand, often
construct a more ‘ feminine ‘ identify in these contexts then when they are in the pup
or the sports club changing room.
Sexist Language
Sexist Language is one example of the way, a culture or society conveys its values
from one group to another and from one generation to the next.
Sexist language encodes stereotyped attitudes to women and men. In principle, than,
the study of sexist language in concerned with the way language expresses both
negative and positive stereotypes of both women and men.
In practice, research in this area has concentrated on the ways in which language
conveys negative attitudes to women.
At first sight it may seem odd to suggest that a language rather than its speakers are sexist.
Sexism involves behavior, which maintains social inequalities between women and men.
Can a language contribute to the maintenance of social inequalities between women and
men ?
There are a number of ways in which it has been suggested that the English language
discriminates against women. Most obviously, perhaps, in the semantic area the English
metaphors available to describe women include an extraordinarily high number of
derogatory images compared to those used to describe men.
Language and Perception: (How can language affect perception and behavior?)
Most sociolinguists believe that language influences our perception of reality.
(Explanation of example 2):
This is a text written by a male medical doctor to his students. It talks about a surgery
that is done to women. It says that the doctors should explain to the women that it has no side
effects, because women wrongly believe that such an operation undermines their sexual
urge. the most obvious feature to be noticed in such a text is its impersonal and detached tone
which is achieved by the use of agentless passive constructions such as “surgery is indicated”,
and impersonal nouns like “the doctor, the patient”, and formal devices like nominalization.
The opening sentence of the text presents an insulting saying as a common knowledge.
Such a text affects the perception of the students, and influences their behavior towards their
women patients.
Verbal hygiene:
· A term used by Debora Cameron.
· It describes how people discuss matters of language.
· It covers a wide range of activities from writing letters of complain over the abuse of
language to prescribing what is regarded as acceptable, correct and proper in different
contexts. It also covers how language can be used as political weapon.
· The discussion of sexist language is a proof that women engaged actively in verbal hygiene
that reflected their belief that making a change in language use is worthwhile.
· The deliberate adoption of non-sexist forms like “chairperson” often leads to accusations of
political correctness. The debate of political correctness has often focused on linguistic terms.
For example, the term “crippled” is not acceptable any more to the extent that the Crippled
Children Society in New Zealand is now being referred to by its acronyms only. The term
was then substituted with disabled, and now to the phrase “person with a disability”.
Therefore, linguistic interventions challenge taken-for-granted offensive assumptions.
· Maoist China is also an example of the co-option of language as a political purpose. Mao
paid attention to language to widen his revolutionary goals. He controlled public
communication and the education system. “Quotations from Chairman Mao Zedong” was
published in 1964, and the quotations dominated everyday life. Quotation and counter
quotation became heard in good-bargaining in the markets, and newspapers were also full of
extracts from Mao’s works. Mao believed in the role of language in educating people, and
shaping their values attitudes. To achieve this goal, powerful groups were established called
Mao Zedong Thought Propaganda Teams. Critics suggest that Mao’s quotations provided an
ideal method of brain-washing huge populations of illiterate people. They consisted of short
formulae which were easy to remember and repeat. They encoded a particular position which
was that of the dominant party, and which were reinforced by material used in the educational
system, making it difficult to take or express an opposite position. Mao’s revolution was due
to his skills as a propagandist as well as his military and political prowess. He also used
formulaic language to promote conformist attitudes and thinking. (This approach also
suggests that here is a relation between language and thought.)
Vocabulary and cognition: (how the use of certain words affect the behavior of people’s
thinking and attitude).
The relationship between language, thought and reality has fascinated linguists. The
linguist whose name was associated with such investigation was Benjamin Lee Whorf. He
was an anthropological linguist who worked for a fire insurance company. He investigated
the American English as a hobby at the beginning. In processing insurance claims, he noticed
that particular words influenced the behavior and perception of people. for example, a person
may throw cigarette butts near a gasoline barrel just because he/she finds the label “empty”
on it.
Linguistic determinism:
This term is made by Sapir-Whorf.
It means that people of different cultures think differently because of their language
differences. A native speaker of Hopi would perceive reality differently than a native speaker
of English because they use different languages.
Linguistic relativity:
A claim that is less strong than linguistic determinism.
It means that language influences thought, perception and at least behavior. The main
problem in assessing Whorf claim is the danger of inescapable circularity. Languages and
thoughts of their speakers as well differ. But the only evidence we have for this difference in
thought is the fact that the languages used are different. This is why investigating the
relationship between thought and language is very challenging, because we want to know
how language can influence thinking without taking language as an evidence of thought
processes. Many experiments were devised to test this Whofer-Sapir hypothesis. If this
hypothesis is right, then the colors which are not identified in one’s language shouldn’t be
having names. (Why it is wrong?)
· But this was not the case in Dani, a tribe in New Guinea, where the people used only two
color terms corresponding to Dark and Light, but they could distinguish between subtle
shades of colors that their language had no names for (pale blue VS turquoise). This means
that the hypothesis is wrong.
· Other experiments suggest that people remember colors which are coded in their language
more easily than those which are not.
· Some languages have linguistic categories which take account of the shape of the
object. E.g. The form of Navaho verbs is sometimes determined by the shape of the object.
Navaho children are therefore faster than the English speaking children in categorizing blocs
by shapes, and also ten to group them according to shape, whiled English speaking children
group things according to color.
In Maori:
- the word “mate” covers a wide range of meaning that begins with sick and reaches to dead.
- Maori kinship terminology is also different as it distinguishes between siblings in different
ways.
- In Maori culture relative age is very important. Even the status of the tribe “iwi” which you
belong to will be identified in “teina” and “tuakana” terms relatives to other tribes.
- The importance of the extended family as an important social unit is also reflected in the
kinship system. Kinship labels reflect the mutual rights and obligations of different members
of the family towards each other. In rural areas of New Zealand, Maori children grow up in
close contact with their grandparents, aunties and uncles. They use the same term for the
mother and the mother’s sister “whaea” and they use the same term for the father and the
father’s brothers “papa”. The same pattern holds for terms used to refer to the child’s siblings
and cousins. In these cases, gender and relative age are semantically marked, but degree of
kinship is not lexically distinguished. So the lexical labels identify those with similar social
rights and obligations in relation to the speaker. Clearly, linguistic terminology reflects
cultural relationships.