Unit 1 Bio Potential Generation and Electrode Types
Unit 1 Bio Potential Generation and Electrode Types
Unit 1 Bio Potential Generation and Electrode Types
UNIT I
BIO POTENTIAL GENERATION AND ELECTRODES TYPES
Origin of bio potential and its propagation. Types of electrodes - surface, needle and micro electrodes
and their equivalent circuits. Recording problems - measurement with two electrodes
Bioelectric potentials are ionic voltages produced as a result of electrochemical activity of certain
special types of cells such as nerve cell or muscle cells. Special types of cells like nerve and muscle
cells in the body are encased in semipermeable membrane that permits some substance to pass
through the membrane while others are kept out. The cells are surrounded by fluid. The fluid contains
ions such as sodium, potassium, chloride etc. The fluid outside the cell membrane is called as
Extracellular fluid (ECF) and the fluid inside the cell membrane is called as Intracellular fluid (ICF).
ICF is rich in K+, Mg++, phosphates and ECF is rich in Na+, Cl−.
In normal condition when the semi-permeable membranes are in polarized state, Sodium
(Na+) ions will be outside the membrane. Since the size of Na+ ions is more than the size of holes in
semi-permeable membrane, they cannot enter inside whereas other ions like potassium (K+) and
Chloride (Cl−) can enter the membranes and exhibits resting potential. The sodium ions can enter the
membrane when the holes of it are increased by stimulation (excitation)
After stimulation of membrane, all sodium ions can enter inside by its increased diameter of
pores or holes. It constitutes depolarization and gives action potential.
Resting Potential:
Fluids surrounding the cells of the body are conducting. These conductive solutions contain
atoms known as ions. Principal ions present are: Sodium-Na+, Potassium-K+ and Chloride-Cl−. The
membrane of excitable cells readily permits entry of K+ and Cl-, but effectively blocks Na+ Ions.
According to concentration and electric charge, various Ions seek a balance between inside and
outside of cell. Due to inability of Na+, to penetrate the membrane results two conditions:
The Na+ ions inside the cell become much lower than in the Extracellular fluid outside.
(Sodium ions are +ve. It tends to make outside of cell more +ve than inside).
In an attempt to balance the electric charge, additional potassium ions, which are also +ve,
enter the cell causing a higher concentration of potassium on the inside than on the outside.
But, this charge balance cannot achieve, due to imbalance concentrate of K+ ions.
Equilibrium is reached with a potential difference across the membrane, -ve on inside and +ve on the
outside. And this membrane potential is known as resting potential of cell. This potential is
1 maintained until some disturbance upsets the equilibrium. The membrane potential is made from
inside the cell w.r.to the body fluids. Therefore, the resting potential is -ve rating from -60mV to -
100mV. The figure below shows the cross section of cell with resting potential and the state is said to
be polarized state.
Action potential:
Due to some external energy or by the flow of ionic current, a section of cell membrane
changes its characteristics and begins to allow some of sodium ions to enter. This movement of
sodium ions into cell constitutes an ionic current flow that further reduces the balance of membrane
to sodium ions. The net result is avalanche effect and tries to balance with ions outside. At the same
time, K+ ions, in higher concentration inside the cell during resting state, try to leave cell, but are
unable to move as fast as Na+ ions. The result is cell attains small +ve potential on the inside due to
imbalance of K+ ions, known as action potential. The action potential is nearly +20 mV.
When a cell is excited and displays an action potential, it is said to be "depolarized" and the
process of changing from resting state to action potential is called as depolarization. Once the
rush of sodium ions through the cell membrane has stopped (a new state of equilibrium is reached),
the ionic currents that lowered the barrier to sodium ions are no longer present and the membrane
reverts back to its original, selectively permeable condition. Now passage of sodium ions from the
outside to inside of the cell is again blocked. However, it would take a long time for a resting potential
to develop again. By an active process, called a sodium pump, the sodium ions are quickly
transported to the outside of the cell, and the cell again becomes polarized and assumes its
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resting potential. This process is called Repolarization. The rate of pumping is directly
proportional to the sodium concentration in the cell. It is also believed that the operation of this pump
is linked with the influx of potassium into the cell, as if a cyclic process involving an exchange of
sodium for potassium existed.
The Figure below shows a typical action-potential waveform, beginning at the resting
potential, depolarization, and returning to the resting potential after repolarization. The time scale for
the action potential depends on the type of cell producing the potential. In nerve and muscle cells,
repolarization occurs so rapidly following depolarization that the action potential appears as a spike
of as little as 1msec total duration.
Heart Muscles on the other hand, repolarizes much more slowly, with the action potential for heart
muscle usually lasting from 150 to 300msec.
Regardless of the method by which a cell is excited or the intensity of the stimulus (provided it
is sufficient to activate the cell), the action potential is always the same for any given cell. This is
known as the all-or-nothing law.
The net height of the action potential is defined as the difference between the potential of the
depolarized membrane at the peak of the action potential and the resting potential.
Following the generation of an action potential, there is a brief period of time during which the
cell cannot respond to any new stimulus. This period is called the absolute refractory period, lasts
about 1msec in nerve cells.
Following the absolute refractory period, there occurs a relative refractory period, during which
another action potential can be triggered, but a much stronger stimulation is required. In nerve cells,
the relative refractory period lasts several milliseconds.
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Electrodes are used to pick up the electrical signals of the body. They transfers the bioelectric event to
the amplifier. The type of electrode to be used depends upon the bioelectric generator.
Electrodes in which no net transfer of charge occurs across the metal electrolyte interface are called
as perfectly polarized electrodes.
Electrodes in which unhindered exchange of charge is possible across the metal electrolyte interface
are called perfectly non-polarizable electrode. The electrode potential is not a stable and its
variations constitute a source of variable noise voltage called artifact.
Types of Electrodes:
These are three types of electrodes
Micro Electrodes (Intracellular Electrodes):
These are used to increase the bioelectric potential within a single cell. It is divided into
metallic and nonmetallic. The microelectrodes should have smaller diameter and during insertion
of electrode into the cell, there will not be any damage to the cells. When the micro electrode is
used to measure the potential of the cell, it is located within the cell while the reference electrode
is situated outside the cell. The size of the electrode is determined by the size of the cell. Since the
size of the cell is about 50 microns, the diameter of the tip of the micro electrodes is ranging from
0.5 to 5 microns.
1) Metal microelectrode:
They are formed by electrolytically electing the tip of a fine tungsten or stainless steel wire
to a fine point. This technique is known as electro pointing. The metal microelectrodes are coated
almost to the micro tip with an material. To reduce the impedance, some electrolytic processing
like Chloriding the tip and then developing by the photographic developer can be performed. Since
the measurement of bio electric potentials requires two electrodes, the voltage measured is really
the difference between the instantaneous potentials of the microelectrode and the reference
electrode the sum of three potentials such that
EA – Metal electrode electrolyte potential at microelectrode tip.
EB – Reference electrode-electrolyte potential
EC – Variable cell membrane potential.
CD is the distributed capacitance b/w the insulated shaft of electrode & the extracellular fluid.
The capacitance between the top of the microelectrode and the intracellular fluid is
negligible because the potential difference across it does not change. Since the area of the
reference electrode is many times greater than the metal electrodes tip whose area of cross
section is very small, its impedance is very small.
The impedance of microelectrode tip is inversely proportional to the area of the tip and
frequency. When the electrode output is couple with an amplifier, the low frequency components
of the bioelectric potentials will be attenuated if the input impedance of the amplifier is not high.
Thus if the input impedance of the amplifier is not high enough it behaves as a high pass filter.
2) Non Metal microelectrode(Micropipette):
It consists of a glass Micropipet tips diameter is about1 micrometer. The micropipette is
filled with an electrolyte usually 3M Kcl which is compatible with the cellular fluids. A thin flexible
metal wire from chloride silver, stainless steel or tungsten is inserted into the stem of the
micropipette. The fraction between the wire and the stem of the micropipette and the fluid surface
tension hold the micropipette on the wire. The other end of the metal wire is mounted to a rigid
support and the other free end of it is resting on the cell.
EA is the potential between metal wire and electrolyte filled in the micropipette
EB is the potential between the reference electrode and the extracellular fluid.
EC is variable membrane potential
ED potential existing at the tip due to different electrolytes present in the pipet and the cell
When the micropipette is coupled with the amplifier terminals A and B, Then the membrane
potential EC is coupled with it via a high series resistance RT and a capacitance CD along with
electrode potentials. The impedance of the electrode pause limit on the response time of circuit
such that it behaves as a LPF when the input impedance of the amplifier is not enough high.
1) Depth Electrode:
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These are used for study the electrical activity of the neutrons in superficial layers of the brain.
Normally each electrode consists of a bundle of Teflon insulated platinum (90%) iridium (10%)
alloy wires, bonded to a central supporting stainless steel wire which can act as indifferent
electrode by an insulating varnish. The end of supporting wire is rounded for ease of insertion into
the brain. The electrode is resting on the sub cortical nerve cells. The ends of the individual wire
the bundle constitute individual electrode. The active area of depth electrode is about 0.5mm2.
Therefore the depth electrode impedance is smaller than the micro electrode impedance. In some
depth electrodes, the supporting steel wire is in the form of a capillary tube which is used to inject
medicines into the brain or to pass a microelectrode.
2) Needle Electrode:
These are used to record the peripheral nerves action potentials (Electroneurography). The
needle electrode resembles a medium dropper or hypodermic needle. A short length of the fine
insulated metal wire is bent at its one end and the bent portion is inserted through the lumen of
the needed and is advanced into the muscle. The needle is withdrawn and the bent wire is resting
inside the muscle. When the reference electrode is placed on the skin, then the needle electrode is
called polar. When we insert two insulated wires into the lumen of the needle, then the two wires
constitute bipolar electrode such that wire is reference electrode.
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Surface Electrodes
Generally large area surface electrodes are used to sense ECG potentials and smaller area
surface electrodes are used to sense EEG and EMG potentials.
Since it is suitable for application on four limbs of the body, they called limb electrodes.
During surgical procedure since patient’s legs are immobile, limb electrodes are preferred. Chest
electrodes interfere with the surgery, so not used for ECG measurement. At the same time for a
long-term patient monitoring limb-electrodes are not used.
2) Suction Cup Electrodes Or Welsh Cup Electrodes
To measure ECG from various positions on the chest, Suction cup electrodes are used. It
suits well to attach electrodes on flat surface of the body and on soft tissue regions. They have a
good contact surface. Physically they are large but the skin contacts only the electrode rim. It has
high contact impedance. They have a plastic syringe barrel, suction tube and cables. Recently, due
to infection and cleaning procedures, these electrodes are not used.
the electrode on place and tight. It also helps to avoid evaporation of electrolyte present in the
electrode paste.
5) Floating Electrodes
In metal plate or limb electrodes, the major disadvantage is the movement errors.
Motion artifact occurs due to the motion at the interface between electrode and electrolyte. The
interface gets stabilized using Floating electrodes. The floating electrodes do not contact the
human subject directly. They contact the subject via electrolytic paste or jelly. The advantage of
this type is the mechanical stability.
Control
Stimulus
Feedback
Signal condition
Transducer Display
circuit
Subject: subject is the human being on whom the measurements are made. It constitutes a
many biopotentials and living organisms. Some of the biopotentials are electrocardiogram,
electromyogram, electroencephalogram and electroretinogram.
Stimulus: In many measurements, the response to some of external stimulus is required. The
stimulus may ne visual (flash of light), auditory (tone), tactile or direct electrical stimulation of
some of the nervous system.
Transducer: it is defined as capable of converting one of energy to another. It sense the
biopotential converts to electrical signal. For example thermistor converts temperature to
electrical signal, strain gauge produces electrical signal by sensing the pressure.
Signal conditioning circuit: biomedical signal comes from transducer transferred to signal
conditioning circuit. It amplify the given signal some extent then process the signal by
removing the noise and measure signal parameters. Finally transfer measured parameters to
either display or memory for future purpose.
Display device: output of signal conditioning circuit must be converted into form that can be
perceived by one of man’s senses and that can be convey the information obtained by the
measurements in a meaningful way. It can be visual, audible or tactile information.
Recording, data processing and transmission: It is often necessary to record the measured
information for possible later use or to transmit it from one location to another. It used, where
computer control is employed so that automatic storage or processing is required.
Control feedback device: it is necessary or desirable to have automatic control of stimulus,
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transducer or ant part of man-instrument system, a control system is incorporated. This
system usually consists of a feedback loop in which part of the output from the signal
conditioning or display equipment is used to control the operation of the system in some way.
o Sensor or Sensing Element: This part is responsible for generating measurable response
with respect to the change in physical quantity to be measured.
o Transduction Element: Sensor output is carried on to the transduction element which
converts the non-electrical signal to electrical signal in proportion to the input.
Artifacts: it is component or variable is observed while doing experiment, which is not
naturally present. Thus random noise generated within the measuring instrument, electrical
interference (50/60 Hz), cross talk and all other unwanted variations in a signal are
12 considered artifacts.
Energy limitations: many physiological measurement techniques that a certain amount of
energy be applied to the living system in order to obtain a measurement. For example,
resistance measurements require the flow of electric current through the tissue or blood being
measured. Some transducers generate small amount of heat due to the current flow.
Safety considerations: methods employed in measuring variables in a living human subject
must in no way endanger the life or normal functioning of the subject. Recent emphasis on
hospital safety requires that extra caution must be taken in the design of any measurement
system to protect the patient.
The DC voltage due to the difference in electrode potential is called offset voltage of electrode the two
Electrodes of same material may also produce small electrode offset voltage. Chemical activity takes
place within an electrode can cause voltage fluctuations to appear without any physiological input.
Such Variations may appear as noise on bioelectric signal. It may reduce by proper choice of materials
or by coating the electrodes to improve stability, the best material for this is Silver-silver chloride
The resistance capacitance networks shown in the above figure represent the impedance of
the electrodes as fixed value of resistance and capacitance unfortunately the impedance is not
constant. The impedance is frequency dependent because of the effect of capacitance. Both the
electrode potential and the impedance are varied by an effect called polarization. Polarization is the
result of direct current passing through metal electrolyte interface. Some Electrodes are designed to
13 avoid or reduce polarization. If the amplifier to which electrodes are connected has extremely high
input impedance, the effect of polarization & change in electrode impedance is minimized. Size & type
of electrode is important for impedance determining. Large electrodes tend to have lower impedance.