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OISD-STD-170
First Edition
JULY 1997

FOR RESTRICTED
CIRCULATION ONLY

NO.

INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE,
REPAIRS AND REHABILITATION
OF
FOUNDATIONS AND STRUCTURES

PREPARED BY

FUNCTIONAL PANEL ON CIVIL ENGINEERING WORKS

OIL INDUSTRY SAFETY DIRECTORATE

7TH FLOOR, NEW DELHI HOUSE
27, BARAKHAMBA ROAD
NEW DELHI - 110 001.
 NOTE

OISD publications are prepared for use in the oil and gas industry under
the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas. These are the property of
Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas and shall not be reproduced or
copied and loaned or exhibited to others without written consent from
OISD.

Though every effort has been made to assure the accuracy and reliability
of data contained in these documents, OISD hereby expressly disclaims
any liability or responsibility for loss or damage resulting from their use.

These documents are intended only to supplement and not replace the
prevailing statutory requirements.
 FOREWORD

The Oil Industry in India is 100 years old. Because of various

collaboration agreements, a variety of international codes, standards and
practices have been in vogue. Standardisation in design philosophies
and operating and maintenance practices at a national level was hardly
in existence. This, coupled with feed back from some serious accidents
that occurred in the recent past in India and abroad, emphasised the
need for the industry to review the existing state of art in designing,
operating and maintaining oil and gas installations.

With this in view, the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas in 1986
constituted a Safety Council assisted by the Oil Industry Safety
Directorate (OISD) staffed from within the industry in formulating and
implementing a series of self regulatory measures aimed at removing
obsolescence, standardising and upgrading the existing standards to
ensure safe operations. Accordingly, OISD constituted a number of
functional committees of experts nominated from the industry to draw up
standards and guidelines on various subjects.

The present document on "Inspection, Maintenance, Repairs and

Rehabilitation of Foundations and Structures", has been prepared by the
Functional Panel on "Civil Engineering Works". This document is based
on the accumulated knowledge and experience of industry members and
the various national and international codes and practices. This
document is meant to be used as supplement and not as a replacement
for existing codes and practices. It shall be borne in mind that no
standard can be a substitute for the judgement of a responsible qualified
Engineer.

This document will be reviewed periodically for improvements

based on the new experiences and better understanding. Suggestions
from industry members may be addressed to:

The Coordinator
Functional Panel on "Civil Engineering Works”
OIL INDUSTRY SAFETY DIRECTORATE
7TH FLOOR, NEW DELHI HOUSE
27, BARAKHAMBA ROAD
NEW DELHI - 110 001..
 FUNCTIONAL PANEL ON CIVIL ENGINEERING WORKS

LEADER

1. Y.K. RAO, CH MGR (MTLS), HPCL, VISAKH REFINERY -

2. G.K.KHETRAPAL,SR.ENGG.MGR,IOC(MKTG-NR),N.DELHI (*)

MEMBERS

1. A. SENGUPTA, CH.MGR.(PJ),IOC-PIPELINES, HO, NOIDA

2. BABU NINAN, SR.MGR(DESIGN ENGG), CRL, COCHIN

3. S.K. KULKARNI, SR.MGR.(MINOR PROJ), HPCL REF, MUMBAI

4. S. NATH, SR. MGR. (CIVIL), IOC GUJARAT REFINERY, BARODA

5. B. K. GOEL, S.E. CIVIL, ONGCL, JORHAT, ASSAM

6. B.S.M. KRISHNA, MGR(ADV ENGG-CIVIL), BPCL REF, MUMBAI

7. RAKESH MISRI,SR MGR,VIZAG-VIJAYWADA PL,HPCL(MKTG),VIZAG

8. S.E. SUKUMARAN,SR MGR-OPS & ENGG, HPCL(MKTG),CHENAI

9. SURESH MALKANI, MGR.(PROJECTS), EIL, N. DELHI

10. V.D. KHASNIS, MGR.(OIL), IBP CO. LTD., SEWRI, MUMBAI

11. D. BANERJEE, MGR.ENGG, BPCL (MKTG), NOIDA

MEMBER COORDINATOR

12. K.R. SONI, ADDITIONAL DIRECTOR(ENGG), OISD, N. DELHI-

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

In addition to the above, various other experts from the industry contributed in the preparation, review
and finalisation of this document.

(*) Leader upto March, 1996

 CONTENTS

CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Scope

CHAPTER II - TANK PAD FOUNDATIONS & DYKEWALL

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Tank Foundations
2.1 Inspection
2.2 Frequency of Inspection
2.3 Maintenance
2.4 Rehabilitation
3.0 Dyke Walls

CHAPTER III - EQUIPMENT FOUNDATIONS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Inspection
2.1 Frequency of Inspection
2.2 Checklist for Inspection
2.3 Defects
3.0 Maintenance/Repairs
3.1 Dislocation/Corrosion of Anchor Bolts
3.2 Cracks in main body of foundation
3.3 Settlement of foundation block
3.4 Dislocation of Base Plate
4.0 Rehabilitation

CHAPTER IV - MARINE STRUCTURES

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Foundations/Structures used in
Marine Services
2.1 Pile Foundations
2.2 Offshore Structures/Platforms :
2.3 Marine Bridge Piers
3.0 Deterioration in Marine Structures
3.1 Concrete Structures
3.2 Steel Structures
4.0 Protection of Marine Structures
4.1 Controlling Quality of Concrete
Structure
4.2 External Protection of Concrete
Structures
4.3 Protection of Steel Structures
5.0 Inspection of Marine Structures
5.1 Inspection of Concrete Structures
5.2 Inspection of Steel Structures
6.0 Periodicity of Inspection
7.0 Rehabilitation of Marine
Structures
7.1 Concrete Structures
7.2 Steel Structures
CHAPTER V - PIPE RACKS AND TRACKS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Factors Affecting Pipe Racks and
Tracks
3.0 Repairs/Maintenance of Pipe Rack
System
3.1 Concrete Structures
3.2 Steel Structures
3.3 Grass/Vegetation Growth
4.0 Rehabilitation of Pipe Rack After
Fire
5.0 Checklist for Inspection

CHAPTER VI - BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Frequency of Inspection
3.0 Checklist for Inspection
4.0 Inspection of Components of
Building and Structures
4.1 Inspection of Concrete Components
4.2 Inspection of Masonry Components
4.3 Inspection of roof
4.4 Inspection of Steel Structures
4.5 Inspection of Wood Work
4.6 Inspection of Painting on
Walls/Structures
4.7 Inspection of Antistatic Sparkless
Mastic Flooring
5.0 Repairs/Restoration

CHAPTER VII - CONCRETE - GENERAL INSPECTION & REPAIRS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Concrete Deterioration
3.0 Assessing Deterioration in
Concrete Structures
4.0 Repair of Concrete Structures
4.1 General
4.2 Repair Techniques
5.0 Repair/Rehabilitation of Fire-
Damaged Concrete Structures
5.1 Effects of Excessive heat on
concrete
5.2 Repairs techniques

References
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

reference during subsequent

1.0 INTRODUCTION inspections/maintenance.

The civil foundations and structures are All the subsequent modifications to the
vital components in an oil industry structure and foundations shall be duly
installation. It is the general experience marked on the original drawing itself.
that these components do not get the The record of details of the job carried
deserved attention. Since the out shall also be maintained for future
consequences of even a partial failure of reference.
these components could be
catastrophic, it was decided to sum up
the related maintenance and inspection
practices in the form of an OISD
document.

2.0 SCOPE

This Recommended Practice (RP)

intends to provide guidelines to the Oil
Industry personnel with regard to the
maintenance, inspection, repairs and
rehabilitation of various civil structures
and foundations.

For the purpose of this RP, the civil

structures involved in oil industry
installations have been grouped into
the following sections: -

a) Tank pad foundations and dyke

walls
b) Equipment foundations
c) Buildings and structures
d) Pipe racks and tracks
e) Marine structures
f) Concrete - general inspection and
repairs

3.0 It is assumed that the users of this RP

are conversant with the terminology
used and will have basic knowledge
about of causes of deterioration of
various types of foundations and
structures.

4.0 The Committee recommends that all

records, basic design parameters, "as
built" drawings and history of
construction of various components of
foundations and structures should be
kept at one place and under a
controlling authority for ease of
 CHAPTER II

TANK FOUNDATIONS & DYKE WALLS

may damage/ erode tank
foundation.
1.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with the practices 2.2 FREQUENCY OF INSPECTION

recommended for inspection,
maintenance, repairs and rehabilitation a) Routine visual inspection
of tank foundations and dyke walls. should be carried out at
The rehabilitation of the tank foundation least twice a year both pre &
may become necessary in case of post monsoon or after any
excessive settlements, erosion etc. major accidents / natural
which will lead to shell distortion, calamity.
excessive tension in bottom plates and
piping causing to their failures. b) The detailed inspection
should be carried out every
5 years or during the M&I
2.0 TANK FOUNDATIONS shutdown whichever is
earlier. This shall also
2.1 INSPECTION include the settlement
readings along the
A successful inspection / maintenance periphery of tank at already
program for tank foundations depends established points.
upon the factors which include (but are
not limited to) the following: c) During internal inspection of
storage tanks, undulation/
a) Checking of tank settlements. - cracks in the bottom plates
Normally equidistant angle cleats should be examined
are welded to the tank periphery at specifically, from the
the time of construction at a fixed viewpoint of localised
height from tank bottoms. Levels are subsoil settlements.
to be taken with respect to a fixed
datum, which is not affected by tank 2.3 MAINTENANCE
settlement.
Minor rectification work such as filling of
b) Adequacy of drainage system. thin cracks, replacement of eroded
material in the slope, patch work, and
c) Checking of grass growth/shrubs etc storm oily water drainage system shall
on tank pad/apron. be immediately attended to.

d) Erosion of tank pad/apron. A premonsoon checklist must be

followed for each tank as detailed
e) Checking of chemical analysis of below:
concrete for ruling out alkali-
aggregate reaction induced cracks. a) Health of tank Pad : Horizontal
portion and slope of the tank
f) Condition of joint between tank pad should be checked against
bottom & foundation. undulation/erosion of bituminous
layer and for exposure of
g) Maintenance and upkeep of Tank sand/rubble core etc.
farm area including pathways
b) Slope of tank farm area for easy
h) Spillage of any tank contents on flow of rainwater towards the sum to
tank foundation from joints on avoid water logging.
suction/discharge lines of tank which
 c) Grass/bushes/vegetation on the f) To avoid/prevent soil erosion a
tank pad and tank farm area to be suitable toe wall with proper
removed. drainage system along the periphery
of tank pad may be considered.
d) No unlined pits are to be allowed Provision of R.C.C/P.C.C layer on
near tank periphery (lining to be tank pad apron will reduce the
done by concrete). growth of vegetation and soil
erosion. This also may also be
e) Any deterioration / cracks in considered.
concrete (if the tank rests on ring
wall type foundation). 3.0. DYKE WALLS

The general considerations for designing

2.4 REHABILITATION a dyke wall are covered in section 7.0 of
OISD-STD-118.
a) Rehabilitation of the tank pad
foundation may be necessitated due The repair, maintenance and
to excessive settlement. rehabilitation of earthen/masonry/
concrete dyke walls is called for in case
b) Uniform settlements to the extent of erosion, loss of height and cracks etc.
that they do not affect tank piping The reconstruction/repairs of dyke walls
connections are not harmful for tank shall be carried out using suitable
performances. Differential materials as per standard practices.
settlements may lead to shell
distortion, excessive tension of Periodic inspection of dyke wall shall
bottom plate, and additional include:
stresses on connected pipe nozzles
and pipeline resulting in failure. a) Checking of grass/shrubs on the
Such failures may also cause dyke wall
additional hoop stresses in the Ring
Beam causing failure of hoop b) Erosion and loss of height
reinforcement.
c) The methods and materials of
c) The tank foundation rehabilitation construction and repair adopted
may involve major repair such as earlier
jacking and leveling of the tank,
replacement of annular bottom d) Condition of joints in case of
plate, construction of new masonry/concrete dyke wall
foundation, strengthening and
regrading of the tank pad wherever e) Condition of drainage system
necessary. around and within the dyke wall.

d) In situation where entire raising of f) Development of cracks on masonry

tank for rehabilitation of tank /RCC walls
foundation is impracticable,
construction of ring wall by removing g) Erosion of soil around foundation of
the sketch plate is suggested. dyke wall.

e) The foundation settlement as Routine visual inspection should be

apparent from the local carried out pre and post monsoon
distortion/undulation in the bottom as detailed above and rectifications
plates may be rectified by cutting carried out as necessary. During course
small openings of say 150 x 150 mm of time, earthen dykes get flattened with
in the bottom plate and filling sand reduction in height resulting in reduction
with compressed air. Molten of the holding capacity. This is to be
bitumen is then poured in order to checked every 3-4 years and dykes are
make the layer anticorrosive and an to be rebuilt upto their original section.
integral part of the existing
foundation.
 CHAPTER III

EQUIPMENT FOUNDATIONS
f) Any unusual or abnormal settlement
1.0 INTRODUCTION as revealed by:

This chapter broadly deals with i) A sloping floor.

foundations of pumps, vessels, columns, ii) Cracks in floors and walls.
engines, compressors, transformers, iii) Displacement of some parts with
electrical equipment, EOT crane rails, respect to others.
etc. Equipment foundations are iv) Piping out of position.
specially designed taking into v) Piping under strain (as
consideration the impact and vibration evidenced by spring up or
characteristics of the expected loads disconnection )
and properties of the underneath soil vi) Broken structural bolts, rivets
under dynamic and static conditions. and welds.
Equipment foundations need special
attention since any major defect in these vii) Top levels of saddle / concrete
foundations can lead to catastrophic columns of foundations with
consequences. respect to bench marks.

2.0 INSPECTION g) Exposure and corrosion of

reinforcements.
2.1 Frequency of inspection
h) Staining of concrete.
A general visual inspection of all above
ground parts of foundations should i) Any spillage of product on
be made at least once a year or after foundation.
any major incident / natural calamity.
Detailed inspection should be carried out j) Stagnation of any oil/water/liquid near
whenever deterioration is observed. the foundation.

Cracks appearing in concrete, spalling of Wherever any unusual or abnormal

concrete, pitting of structures, excessive observation is noticed, a detailed
deflections, crazy formation on concrete inspection using ultrasound x-ray,
surface indicating carbonation etc. magnetic mapping etc. should be
should be looked into. resorted to for undertaking remedial
actions. For rectification work on
2.2 Checklist for Inspection concrete, reference be made to details
provided in Section VII.
Following should be checked during
inspection: 2.3 DEFECTS

a) Any visible cracks in the foundation. Defects generally encountered in

Equipment Foundations are:
b) Excessive vibration of foundation
block, while equipment is in a) Dislocation/corrosion/ cracks of
operation Anchor bolts
b) Cracks in the main body of
c) Calcination or deterioration of foundation
concrete. c) Damage/Settlement of foundation
blocks
d) Physical damage to foundation. d) Dislocation/Cracking of base plate
due to consolidation/expansion of
subsoil
e) Loosening or corrosion of
Foundation bolts.

3.0 MAINTENANCE/REPAIRS
 The following corrective/remedial In case of settlement of foundation
measures are recommended for defects block, reconstruction of foundation or
generally encountered in the equipment reinforcement of the bearing soil may be
foundations. However, temporary required. The method of strengthening
supporting as necessary should be the foundation and its bearing soil will
provided before undertaking repairs. depend upon the purpose of such
reinforcement, Soil characteristics,
3.1 Dislocation/corrosion of Anchor Bolts design of foundation and the time
available for re-construction work. The
Generally holes are left in the form work purpose of foundation reinforcement is
to form pockets in concrete for the to avert any further progress of
Anchor bolts and these holes are filled foundation settlement. Chemical or
with grout after the base plate is placed cement grouting of soil is resorted to for
and the bolts aligned. Bolt holes shall strengthening of subsoil. In the
be filled with concrete after clearing the strengthening of the soil strata is not
bolts of all paint, oil or loose rust. The feasible, alternate means of transferring
bolts shall be placed and bolt holes the load to firm strata shall be suitably
concreted only after the curing of examined and implemented.
concrete of main foundation is
completed. In concrete mix, the sand 3.4 DISLOCATION OF BASE PLATE
shall be well graded and optimum
cement content be used to reduce The concreting of the foundation shall be
shrinkage and increase strength. Use of stopped at a little below the level of the
non-shrinking cement is recommended. base plate and this gap shall be filled by
For urgent jobs, suitable Epoxy grout mortar after leveling. Concreting under
may be used. The grout shall be mixed / the base plates shall be done evenly
placed as per manufacturer’s and without interruption. The base plate
recommendations. may be levelled by wedges or by screw
jacks, enabling the equipment to be
Whenever anchor bolts are shear off leveled accurately. To avoid excessive
due to corrosion and vibration problem it transmission of vibration to the
becomes necessary to extend the foundation through anchor bolts, the
anchor bolts. It is preferable to expose base plate of the equipment may be
the damage bolt by breaking the fixed on a vibration absorbing medium
foundation and putting a new bolt by such as cork, shalitex, boards etc.
reconcreting the part of the foundation
after taking precautions to ensure 4.0 REHABILITATION
effective bounding between parent
concrete and fresh concrete. Whenever Various techniques and methods as
this is not possible, bolt may be explained earlier could be used to
extended as required by welding and undertake rehabilitation of concrete
providing separate piece of the metal by structures. The repair method adopted
the side and welded properly. should be specifically suited to arrest
further deterioration which may continue
3.2 Cracks in main body of foundation to ravage the structure even after its
rehabilitation. Some of the methods
In case of excessive cracking of the commonly used for repairing
foundation block, the same needs to be damaged/fire-affected concrete
replaced. However, if there are minor structures are detailed in Chapter VII.
cracks at certain places, the strength of
the concrete needs to be ascertained by
inspection and by non-destructive
testing methods before deciding
corrective action. Depending on situation
pressure grouting may be done. In case
of minor cracks epoxy based liquid may
be grouted in the cracks.

3.3 Settlement of foundation block

 CHAPTER IV

MARINE STRUCTURES

range of accidental loading of low

1.0 INTRODUCTION probability but potentially severe
consequences. These include ship
Concrete and steel structures are collision, internal explosion
generally used for partially/completely (deflagration), fire, dropped objects such
submerged marine applications in as drill collars/casing/ equipment/
harbour, coastal and ocean areas. components etc. Soil structure
Reinforced and prestressed concrete in interaction play a dominant role in
typical marine applications should dynamic design.
possess such inherent properties such
as high resistance to corrosive attack of 2.3 MARINE BRIDGE PIERS:
environment, ability to withstand
compressive loading without undue 1. COFFER DAMS: The conventional
deformations, rigidity etc. construction method is to drive sheet
piles or install cribs, and then seal the
2.O FOUNDATIONS/STRUCTURES USED bottom with a course of underwater
IN MARINE SERVICES concrete placed by either the tremie or
the grout-intruded method.
2.1 PILE FOUNDATIONS
2. CAISSONS FOR BRIDGE PIERS:
Precast or cast in-situ square and round These are generally constructed in
RCC / steel piles have been extensively stages. The lower lift or cutting edge is
utilized for bearing piles/ batter piles and constructed in a shallow basin, then
moment resisting vertical structural launched and floated out to an outfitting
columns. The concrete caps if used with dock. Here the walls are raised using
piles must accommodate driving panel forms, slip-forms, or precast
tolerance in the piling yet assure proper panels. Then the caisson is towed to the
structural behaviour (e.g. Fixed end or site where it is progressively sunk by
tension connections to the piles) in raising the top walls and excavating from
accordance with the design. When within. When it reaches its design
precast concrete caps are used, it is depth, the bottom is usually plugged with
good practice to make them over-width a course of underwater concrete.
and over-length to enable them to be
used under the most adverse 3. CYLINDER PILES: Very large
combination of tolerances in pile cylinder piles of prestressed concrete
location. are increasingly being employed to
support major bridges. These are then
2.2 OFFSHORE STRUCTURES/ capped above water to form the bridge
PLATFORMS: pier.

Extensive use of steel structures has 4. BELL PIERS: This is a form of box-
been made for offshore structures like caisson construction utilizing precast
platforms. Concrete caisson structures concrete of steel shells to form the outer
are also used. Such structures are portion of the pier. These are lowered
designed to resist very high external into place, fixed, and then filled with
pressures during construction and they structural tremie concrete.
must also resist cycles of dynamic
loading due to tidal waves.

The design of such structures not only

takes care of performance under
operating loads and extreme 3.0 DETERIORATION IN MARINE
environmental loads (such as wind and STRUCTURES
seismic loads) but also considers a wide
3.1 CONCRETE STRUCTURES also occur due to improper welding
procedure/ material.
Sea water is regarded as an active
attacking agent for cement & 4.0 PROTECTION OF MARINE
reinforcements of concrete structures. STRUCTURES
The region attacked most is the portion
of the structures above the mean 4.1 CONTROLLING QUALITY OF
tide/level where alternate wetting and CONCRETE STRUCTURE
drying occurs. The completely
submerged portions suffer much less It consists of taking precautions like
attack. selecting concrete-mix components that
will remain inert and resist the seawater
It is commonly observed that attack, which includes use of low alkali
deterioration of concrete in sea water is cement and non-reactive aggregates,
often not characterized by the expansion low water/cement ratio, good
found in concrete exposed to sulphate consolidation of concrete, adequate
action, but takes more the form of curing before immersion in sea water
erosion or loss of constituents from the etc.
parent mass without exhibiting undue
expansion. The rate of chemical attack Concrete in sea water or exposed along
is increased in temporate zones. Mixing the coast shall be minimum M-20 grade
or curing with sea water is not in case of plain concrete and M-30 case
recommended because of presence of of Reinforced concrete. The use of slag
harmful salts in sea water, which can & pozzolana cement is recommended.
subsequently back out and reduce the Further special attention is to be directed
resistance of concrete structure to sea towards mix design to obtain the
water attack. densest possible concrete. Hence slag,
broken brick, soft limestone, soft
3.2 STEEL STRUCTURES sandstone, or other weak aggregates
are not to be used. Plastering should be
Steel structure/portions fully immersed in Avoided. No construction joint shall be
sea water are comparatively less provided within 600 mm of splash zone.
prone to corrosion than portions which The cover in concrete structure is of vital
are within the splash zone (Areas near importance. Reference should be made
mean tide level which undergoes to IS-456 (1978) for meeting strength,
alternative wetting and drying and are durability and cover requirements of
attacked the most). It thus becomes concrete.
essential to have more frequent
inspections in the splash zone. 4.2 EXTERNAL PROTECTION OF
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
For Steel structures deterioration is
generally of the following types: a) Epoxy coatings. Numerous
formulations are available that can
a) Corrosion : This is most severe in be applied underwater.
the splash zone. Corrosion can
result in development of pitting/ b) Bitumastic coatings: Can be applied
holes. hot or cold.

b) Dents : This could occur due to c) Dense polyurethane coatings.

the collision with vessels, accidents,
etc. d) Epoxy coating of reinforcing steel:
Where unusually severe conditions
c) Bent Bracings: This occurs due to or abrasion are anticipated, such
collision, under design bracings or parts of the work can be protected
sometimes due to corrosion. by bituminous coatings or hard
stone facings embedded with
d) Cracks in Weld: Occurs mainly due bitumen.
to fatigue load experienced by
offshore marine structures. It may 4.3 PROTECTION OF STEEL
STRUCTURES
 by contact with water, it is important to
Steel structures can be protected using inject enough of epoxy to ensure that
epoxy paints, monel Sheathing and this contaminated layer is expelled from
vulcanised rubber sheathing. the location.

5.0 INSPECTION OF MARINE Grout-intruded aggregate and tremie

STRUCTURES concrete have been extensively
employed for underwater repair of larger
5.1 INSPECTION OF CONCRETE cavities. Small pockets may be filled
STRUCTURES with special cements designed to set
The routine inspection of concrete quickly underwater and to resist leaching
structures should include: of the cement. Special care should be
given to construction joints; No such
a) Checking for marine growth / joint should be allowed within 60 cm
organisms below low water level or within the upper
b) Checking for cracks in concrete and lower planes of wave action.
due to reinforcement expansion
c) Checking for abrasion by sand etc. 7.2 STEEL STRUCTURES:
d) Critically checking for chemical
attack in the splash zone The rehabilitation technique employed
e) Checking for leaching of concrete will be decided considering the nature of
(Chemical attack resulting in loss of deterioration as described below:
lime content in concrete) Since
major part of the concrete structure a) Epoxy paints are used to control
in service is not easily accessible steel corrosion.
for inspection, sufficient care and b) Dents may be strengthened by
effort must be made during the straightening, welding, etc.
construction stage c) holes may be rectified by clamping
or welding
5.2 INSPECTION OF STEEL d) Bent bracings may be replaced /
STRUCTURES strengthened by straight bracings,
struts, ties etc. and fixed in place by
The non-destructive methods used in bolting or welding. Under water
inspection of offshore steel structures welding can be carried out by
are visual inspection, ultrasonic creating suitable water free habitats
inspection, penetrant examination, for the work to be done.
radiography etc. e) Cracks noticed in the weld joints
should be repaired by first grinding,
6.0 PERIODICITY OF INSPECTION them off, ensuring that they are
completely removed and then
Periodicity of inspection of marine rewelding the area. However, it is
structures shall be 3 to 5 years keeping essential to determine the cause for
in view the importance of the structure, the development of the cracks and
consequences of a structural failure, take preventive action regarding its
loads carried by it, location of the recurrence.
structure etc. f) In addition to the protective coating
provided for steel structures,
7.0 REHABILITATION OF MARINE Cathodic protection may also be
STRUCTURES employed, if necessary and
wherever painting is not possible to
7.1 CONCRETE STRUCTURES: control and prevent corrosion in
offshore structures.
Epoxy injection methods have been
used for repairing & sealing cracks in
underwater locations. A hydrophobic
component in the epoxy permits the
epoxy to bond to wet surfaces; thus as
the epoxy is injected, it displaces the
water ahead of it. Since the leading
edge of the epoxy may be contaminated
 CHAPTER V

PIPE RACKS AND TRACKS

Tilting of pipe sleepers due to dislocation

1.0 INTRODUCTION of pipe shoe of pipe or excessive
expansion/contraction of pipes.
Pipelines in process units and oil
installations have to traverse long To avoid such situation the length of the
distances either in a group or singularly at shoe below the pipeline should be
different elevations. It is necessary that atleast 300mm on either side of the
some structure is made for supporting the sleeper depending upon the available
pipelines and taking care of load effects straight length, maximum temperature
introduced by service pressure, wind, variation, Co-efficient of expansion, type
earthquake etc. The supporting system is of support, etc.
also expected to restrict deflection of the
piping, to provide for its lateral 3.0 REPAIRS/MAINTENANCE OF PIPE
movements due to thermal expansion, RACK SYSTEM:
and provide clearance from ground to
prevent corrosion. This structure is called 3.1 Concrete Structures
"Pipe Rack". The corridor in which pipes
have to be laid may be termed as "Pipe Deterioration observed in concrete
Track" or" Pipe Alley". structure supporting a pipe rack is
generally due to defect in workmanship
Pipe Racks may be constructed in: and effect of environment. These
deterioration include
a) Reinforced Concrete Frame work
b) Structural Steel work a) Corrosion of reinforcement
c) Others like Rubble masonry, Brick b) Spalling of concrete
masonry etc. c) Honeycombing
d) Cracks
2.0 FACTORS AFFECTING PIPE RACKS
AND TRACKS The causes leading to these defects and
the rectification techniques are
2.1 Flow of water around foundations of pipe discussed in Section VII. However, if the
racks/sleepers may cause erosion of the sleeper is badly damaged the sleeper
foundation. It is also important to ensure should be dismantled and recasted by
that slopes are properly maintained to lifting the pipe to proper level and
avoid water clogging or stagnation of oil lengthening the shoe.
spillage in the pipe tracks. Inspection of
pipe tracks from this point of view is 3.2 Steel Structures
desirable during monsoon.
It is often required to carry out
2.2 It is known that the disintegration of repair/replacement of existing bracket/
concrete takes place whenever it comes support without removing the supported
in contact with inorganic acids or salts. pipes. Before undertaking such
Therefore, where presence of such replacement, the job should be surveyed
acids and salts is indicated, an to determine the nature of temporary
appropriate surface covering or supports needed for the pipes and also
treatment to concrete should be whether scaffolding is required to carry
employed. out the fabrication and installation work.

2.3 Vegetation/soil along the pipe track

should be closely examined for 3.2.1 Painting
excessive grass growth and direct
contact with pipeline. Suitable preventive The most common form of deterioration
measures should be taken to prevent in steel structures is corrosion. Structural
pipeline corrosion in such cases. 2.4 steel pipe rack shall be protected
 against corrosion by applying protective laboratory for examining its residual
coats of anticorrosive paints. Different strength.
schemes for surface preparation, finish c) Sagging of supported piping
paint, film thickness etc. to suit the system and leakage at joints.
environmental conditions may be d) Disengagement of piping from its
worked out. Repainting should be supports/anchors.
undertaken at regular intervals as per e) After recommissioning the unit, the
site conditions. pipe support system should be
checked for flow induced
3.2.2 Damage to Fireproof coating of vibrations, if any.
piperacks
5.0 CHECKLIST FOR INSPECTION
If cracks are noticed in the fire-proof
coating of pipe racks then the Inspection of pipe racks & tracks should
following immediate actions should be be carried out on regular basis for the
undertaken: following:

a) Check whether the crack is a) Vegetation Growth

superficial or to the full depth of fire b) Soil Contact
proof coating. c) Settlement
b) Check for top seal plate. d) Stagnation corrosion
c) It is essential that seal plate is full e) Pittings on structural members
welded and not tack welded. f) Perforations
g) Misalignment of Pipeline(Pipe
3.3 GRASS/VEGETATION GROWTH track)
h) Buckling of columns of pipe rack
External corrosion can occur as a result i) Deflection of beams of pipe rack
of grass/vegetation touching the ground j) Cracks on slabs near columns
level pipelines. due to punching
k) Displacement of anchors/
For controlling growth of grass/ supports
vegetation under pipe tracks following l) Effect of addition/alterations on
measures are suggested pipe rack
m) Vibrations of supporting members
a) Cement concreting along the pipe n) Damage to fire proofing
alley can be considered along with o) Honeycombing of R.C.C.
spraying of chemicals to prevent members
grass growth. A gap of 300mm p) Spalling discolouration of
below pipe line should be provided concrete
for taking up maintenance job for
new piperacks
b) Spreading of 50 mm thick layer of
sand with 50mm thick metal under
and around the pipe trench can
also be considered.

4.0 REHABILITATION OF PIPE RACK

AFTER FIRE

After a fire incident, pipe rack should be

checked for the following:

a) Sagging of the supporting structural

members
b) Even though a pipe rack structure
may appear sturdy after having
been engulfed in fire for a long
time, it is advisable to send a
representative sample of the pipe
rack material to mechanical testing
 CHAPTER VI

BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

3.2 Various components of buildings and

1.0 INTRODUCTION structures should be inspected for the
following:
This chapter covers the general
guidelines for inspection, A. Settlement:
maintenance, repairs & rehabilitation Uneven settlement is serious when
of buildings & structures in industrial indicated visually by a sloping floor,
environment. The type & causes of cracking in floor and wall and
failures, methods of repairs etc. have displacement of some parts with
been discussed. respect to others. It is not possible to
set any definite limits for settlement.
2.0 FREQUENCY OF INSPECTION Stresses set-up by unequal settlement
should be calculated and steps as
a) All new buildings/structures should necessary should be taken to correct
be inspected after 5 years and the problem and arrest further
thereafter at a frequency of once in settlement.
2 years or after any major
incident/natural calamity. B. Cracking:
Thorough visual inspection shall be
b) In case of any addition/alteration to carried out for cracks in masonry
the old portion, the building shall be structures. The cracks should be
inspected at a frequency of 2 years cleaned thoroughly with scraper/ blade
or after any major incident/natural to ascertain the cause of cracking
calamity. such as moisture movement, thermal
variations, creep, elastic deformation,
3.0 CHECKLIST FOR INSPECTION foundation movement, settlement of
soil, vegetation, movement due to
3.1 The inspection of the following building chemical action etc. Cracks from
components should be carried out : different causes have varying
A. cracks/settlement of foundation/ characteristics and call for adoption of
wall appropriate remedial measures.
B. floor
C. roof C. Disintegration:
D. structure Disintegration may be in the form of
E. doors & windows spalling, calcinating or attack of salt
F. painting of walls, roof, doors, water, alkalies or acids. The extent
windows and depth of disintegration shall be
G. fittings & fixtures in toilet & WC assessed visually or by detailed
H. other fittings investigation carried out by
I. choking of drains, roof drains, chipping/scrapping up to the depth of
septic tanks, etc. disintegration. Suitable remedial
J. water leakage/seepage actions should be taken thereafter.
K. plinth protection around the
building 4.0 INSPECTION OF COMPONENTS OF
L. minor electrical fittings/wiring inside BUILDING AND STRUCTURES
the building
M. steel structure 4.1 Inspection of Concrete Components
N. insulation/partition, false flooring - Refer Sec.VII.
and ceiling
O. Sparkless mastic flooring
P. Construction and expansion joints
4.2 Inspection of Masonry Components-
 Cracks in masonry joints are due to g) All the bearing connections such
temperature variation, settlement, as bolts, bearing plates etc.
excessive loads or vibrations. For must be examined thoroughly.
Masonry, which is weak in tension, h) Improve quality control through
any loading with tensile stress may inspection to detect material
cause failure. Vibration may cause and welding flaws.
minor cracks, loosening of joints or i) Inspection of corrosion of all the
complete collapse of the masonry materials
structure depending on their frequency j) Stress concentration in steel
and magnitude. Disintegration of the structures must be avoided.
mortar is another cause of k) Weather protection required for
deterioration. structural steel in the form of
protective coatings should be
4.3 INSPECTION OF ROOFS used.

Roof made of R.C.C./A.C. sheet/C.G.I. 4.5 INSPECTION OF WOOD WORK

sheet and roof gutters/rain water pipes
should be inspected at least once a Timber is liable to deterioration
year before monsoon for the following: because of a number of causes
amongst which the most common are
a) Growth of any vegetation effect of termites, lack of surface
b) Blockage of gutter and rain protection by painting /coating and
water pipes usage of unseasoned wood. Wood
c) Damage of water and work should be inspected for the
weather proof treatment following:
d) Damage of expansion joint
e) Damage of slap a) Wood shall be examined for
construction joint due to damage by termite.
vibrations/earthquake b) Painted surface should be
f) Dumping of inspected to determine if the paint
debris/discarded equipment is cracked or blistered.
g) Crack on .C. sheet/A.C. c) Wood shall be checked visually
pipe and consequent for bends, knots, cracks etc.
leakage Wood may also be subjected to
h) Cleanliness of transparent knife test.
sheet
i) Loosening/lack of sheet 4.6 INSPECTION OF PAINTING ON
bolts/washers WALLS/STRUCTURES
j) Cracks on R.C.S.
slaps/shades and The principal causes of damage of
consequent leakage painting are as follows:

4.4 INSPECTION OF STEEL a) Lack of surface preparation

STRUCTURES b) Attack by acids & alkalies
c) Efforescenes on the brick/
Steel structures should be inspected concrete work
for the following: d) Improper selection of paint and
improper application
a) Insufficient temporary bracing e) Temperature (fire effect)
during construction. f) Attack by flue gases
b) Designers and/or construction g) Painting in severe humid
errors conditions
c) particularly inadequate bearing
and load transfer junctions. The new painting shall be inspected
d) Improper welding for surface preparation, primer
e) Excessive flexibility and non- application and each coat of finish
redundant design paint. Proper record shall be
f) Proper implementation of maintained. Already painted surfaces
fabrication procedures shall be inspected for deterioration in
the paint as indicated by a change in
 its colour, peeling, blisters and of repairs are dealt separately in other
chalking. The quality of painting at chapters of this standard.
places which are difficult to reach such
as edges, covers, cervices, bolts and
nuts need to be given special
attention.

4.7 INSPECTION OF ANTISTATIC

SPARKLESS MASTIC FLOORING

The mastic flooring should be visually

checked for cracks, peeling etc.. The
bitumen mastic surface requires
relatively little maintenance though
attention is necessary to obtain
maximum service. The newly laid
surface should be protected from
damage due to careless handling of
construction equipment, spillage of
oils, paints, chemicals, plying of
vehicles etc. Concrete or mortar shall
not be mixed directly on the bitumen
mastic surface.

5.0 REPAIRS/RESTORATION

The Methodology of repairs/

restoration of buildings/structures is
decided based on following factors:

a) Cause of damage
b) type and extent of damage
c) Availability of type of
equipements, tools and materials
at site

In case of cracks/damages in masonry

work, the cracks should be opened up
and repairs be carried out to bring the
wall to its original shape. However,
hairline/superficial cracks in plaster
can be filled using plaster of paris or
other suitable compounds. In case the
masonry wall happens to be a load
bearing wall, care should be taken to
either provide temporary support or
suitably strengthen the structure
before carrying out any major repair
work involving part/full breakage of the
wall. Cracks are also occur mainly
due to difference in co-efficient of
thermal expansion of the material.
Providing expansion joint is, therefore,
essential. Adequate overtap of
chicken mesh should also be provided
during construction.

With regard to repairs of the

concrete/steel structures, techniques
 CHAPTER VII

CONCRETE - GENERAL INSPECTION & REPAIRS

c) Defective workmanship.
1.0 INTRODUCTION d) Defective shuttering and
scaffolding.
Concrete is one of the most versatile e) Faulty concrete mix ratio
materials of civil construction in f) Inadequate quality assurance.
modern times. The same ingredients
viz. Cement, Coarse aggregates, fine 2.3 The important raw material contributing
aggregates and water in varying to the success or failure of the
proportions are used for producing concrete is cement. Though ordinary
concrete of various grades and Portland cement is used extensively, it
qualities. Considering the varying may be necessary to use special
conditions under which concrete is cements, such as, sulphate resistant
produced at various locations, the Portland Cement, blast furnace slag
quality of concrete may suffer either cement, low C3A cement etc. for
during production or during service special environments, soils and
conditions, resulting in distress of the underground water properties. Quality
structure. This chapter deals with the of cement should be ensured through
nature & causes of deterioration in appropriate tests.
concrete structures, assessment of
deterioration and repairs/ rehabilitation 2.4 The quality of aggregates, particularly
of damaged concrete structures. in respect of alkali-aggregate
reaction, needs to be taken into
2.0 CONCRETE DETERIORATION account. However, cases of
defects/failures attributed to alkali-
2.1 Defects & failures in concrete aggregate reaction in India are very
structures may arise due to the rare.
following:
2.5 The use of water containing salt
a) Unexpected overloading, design concentrates for making concrete may
errors etc., also contribute to deterioration of the
b) Structural deficiency due to concrete and corrosion of
construction methods/defects. reinforcements. Excessive use of
c) Corrosion of reinforcement steel water in the concrete mix is the largest
and spalling of concrete. single source of its weakness.
d) Damage caused by fire, floods,
earthquakes, vibrations, wind and 2.6 Proper detailing of reinforcement,
impact loads etc. including adequate cover should be
e) Damage due to chemical attack ensured. Improper detailing results in
f) Damage due to marine congestion of reinforcement to such
environments an extent that concrete just cannot be
placed and compacted properly, even
2.2 Defective construction methods form the if concrete is workable.
largest segment of source of
distress to the concrete structures. 2.7 Other contributory factors that add to
Such defects can be broadly grouped bad workmanship include segregation,
as follows: improper placement, inadequate or
excessive vibration, leakage, of mortar
a) Defects due to the selection and through shuttering joints, inadequate
quality of raw materials. concrete cover, inadequate curing etc.
b) Use of defective construction
equipment for producing, 3.0 ASSESSING DETERIORATION IN
transporting and placing the CONCRETE STRUCTURES
concrete.
 Detailed investigation of damaged tools and materials are currently in
concrete is necessary for the use.
following purposes:
The repair of concrete structures will
a) To identify the problem. involve treating the deteriorated
b) To assess the structure for its material for extended durability,
condition and serviceability. and/or strengthening of weak
c) To establish the extent of the structural members to restore the load
damages/ weakness carrying capacity. Several methods
d) To establish the likely extent of and materials are in use for this
further deterioration purpose as described below.
e) To workout various remedial
measures and To make a final 4.2 Repair techniques
assessment for serviceability after
repairs. Repair of concrete structures in
general is carried out in the following
Apart from visual assessment tapping stages:
the surface and observing the sound
for hollow areas may be one of the a) Removal of damaged concrete
simplest methods of identifying the b) Pretreatment of surfaces and
weak spots. The suspected areas are reinforcement.
then opened up by chipping the weak c) Restoring the integrity of individual
concrete for further visual inspection. sections and reinstatement of
structure as a whole by various
Several methods are available for methods.
testing concrete but the most
commonly used are Core cutter, 4.2.1 Removal of defective concrete
Schmidt Hammer, Ultrasonic Pulse
Velocity and Windsor Probe, Chemical Prior to the execution of any repair,
Analysis, etc. one essential and common
requirement is that all deteriorated or
4.0 REPAIR OF CONCRETE damaged concrete be removed after
STRUCTURES providing adequate support to
affected members. Removal of
4.1 General defective concrete can be carried out
using tools and equipment, the types
Repair of concrete structures is of which depend on the damages and
decided based on factors such as: the situation where these are to be
used. Normally removal of concrete
a) the cause of damage can be accomplished by hand tools,
b) type, shape and function of the or, when that is impractical because
structure of the extent of damage, it can be
c) the type and extent of damage done with a light or medium weight air
d) the capabilities and facilities hammer fitted with a spadeshaped bit.
available with the repairing Care should be taken not to damage
agency. the unaffected portions. For cracks
e) the availability of repair materials. and other narrow defects, a saw-
toothed bit will help achieve sharp
The repair of a concrete structure may edges and a suitable under cut.
vary between just giving a cosmetic
treatment and a total replacement. 4.2.2 Pretreatment of surfaces &
Experience shows that many concrete reinforcements
structures, although they may appear
to have been damaged beyond The cleaning of all loose particles,
repairs, can be reinstated, and removal of oil from the cavity
economically, after proper should be carried out shortly before
investigation and by using well- the repair. This cleaning can be
designed equipment, tools and achieved by blowing with compressed
materials. Several such equipment, air, hosing with water, acid etching,
wire brushing, scarifying, or a
 combination. Brooms or brushes will mix is passed through and intimately
also help to remove loose material. mixed in a special manifold and then
projected at high velocity to the
4.2.3 Repair of Cracks in Concrete surface being repaired. The force of
Structures impact compacts the materials. In
good quality work a density of around
Before repairing cracks in concrete, 2100 Kg./m3 is achieved.
the extent, location, width & nature of
cracks must be established. The Before gunite is applied, the old
following techniques may be used for concrete surface is prepared properly,
filling cracks: all the cracks treated and the new
reinforcement fixed in position.
A. Bonding with Epoxies; Hairline Cracks wider than about 0.5mm
cracks may be sealed with epoxy should be cut out and filled with hand
compounds; usually pressure applied mortar or with gunite. A wide
injection is resorted to in sealing variety of gradings for aggregates
the cracks. used in guniting process is
recommended by various authorities
B. Routing and sealing; This and equipment suppliers. For general
involves enlarging the crack along guidance, requirements of IS: 383
its exposed face and sealing it would prove adequate.
with crack fillers.
A nominal mix of one part of cement
to 3.5 parts natural sand gauged by
C. Stitching; This can establish loose dry volume is suitable for
restoration of the strength and general purpose guniting work. Due
integrity of a cracked section; due to the rebound of sand particles
care is to be given to make an caused by the high velocity of the
analysis check to ensure that this mortar at the time of impact, the
will perform well under applied deposited concrete will be slightly
load. richer than the above mix. The sand
should not be absolutely dry, but
D. Drilling and plugging; this preferably have a moisture content of
consists of drilling down the length 4% to 8%. The water-cement ratio
of the crack and grouting it to form may be between 0.35 and 0.50
a key.
For effective guniting, the nozzle
should be kept 60 to 150 cm from the
E. Dry Packing: Relatively narrow work, preferably, normal to the
cracks and deep holes may be surface. When enclosing
rectified by dry packing; the crack reinforcement bars during repairs, the
is slightly undercut, the surface nozzle should be held closer, at a
prepared, and mortar with just slight angle and the mix should be
enough water for sticking is slightly wetter than the normal. The
applied. gunite is forced behind the bar while
build up of gunite on the front surface
4.2.4 Restoration using Guniting of the bar is prevented, as otherwise,
the sandy materials may collect
Gunite is a mechanically applied behind the bar weakening the section
material consisting of cement, and developing shrinkage crack.
aggregate, and water. There are two Rebound materials should not be
guniting processes in general use; the worked back into the construction; nor
wet mix and the dry mix process. the rebound materials should be
salvaged and included in the later
The cement and sand are batched batches due to the danger of
and mixed in the usual way and contamination.
conveyed through a hosepipe with the
help of compressed air. A separate Apart from guniting, the following
pipeline brings water under pressure methods are also available for
and the water and cement-aggregate
 rectification of concrete based on the
degree of deterioration: 5.2 REPAIR TECHNIQUES

a) Epoxy grouts Repairs are likely to involve the

b) Epoxy coatings removal of all concrete that has
c) Epoxy mortar coatings suffered an appreciable loss in
d) Polymer grouting strength, and its replacement by an
e) Polymer concrete equivalent or greater amount of
f) Cement grouting material having a strength at least
g) Cement concrete jacketing equivalent to that of the original
concrete. In some cases it may also
5.0 REPAIR/REHABILITATION OF FIRE- be necessary to provide additional
DAMAGED CONCRETE reinforcement.
STRUCTURES
In many cases damage is likely to be
5.1 Effects of excessive heat on superficial, confined to the loss of
concrete concrete cover to the reinforcement.
In such case, the appraisal may show
Concrete, which has reached that all that is required is the
temperatures greater than about 600 restoration of the cover concrete to
Deg. C, is unlikely to have any useful provide adequate future fire
compressive strength. The resistance.
temperature of the concrete in
structural members subjected to Structural cracks due to fire damage
typical fires frequently does not may be treated by epoxy injection.
exceed 300 Deg. C at a depth of Surface repairs to columns and
about 40 mm below the exposed beams may include addition of
surface and even in the most severe reinforcing steel and guniting. To get
fires, 300 Deg. C is seldom exceeded optimum adhesion between the gunite
at depths greater than 100 mm. and the old concrete, an epoxy with a
Other effects of high temperature on very long pot life may be brushed on
concrete include a reduction in the the concrete surface before gunitting.
elastic modulus, and the spalling of
exposed surfaces. Surface crazing Columns
and cracks, similar to those generally
associated with drying shrinkage may Additional vertical steel and binders
also occur. may be required to be provided. After
the concrete has been suitably
Generally concrete that has been prepared, the new reinforcement is
subject to a temperature sufficiently fixed and the column is then built out
high to impair its structural strength, to the required profile with gunite.
undergoes a series of colour changes.
The most important of these occurs at 5.2.2 Beams
about 300 Deg. C when a red or pink Additional reinforcement may be
colouration becomes evident. The provided in the bottom of the beams
demarcation between affected and together with new stirrups. The
unaffected concrete is usually sharp stirrups can be anchored by
and the depth that has been heated expanding bolts set in the side of the
above 300 Deg. C, therefore, be beam below the slab soffit or may be
judged to within 3 mm if a good taken right round the beam through
section is available. holes drilled in the slab. The irregular
surface of the prepared concrete
Further information on the reduction in usually ensures that a very good key
strength of concrete can be obtained is obtained with the gunite but sheat
by making strength tests on cores connectors can be provided by
taken from the affected members and expanding bolts or other means, if
comparing the results with those required.
obtained on cores taken from
equivalent unaffected parts of the 5.2.3 Slabs
structure.
 New reinforcements can conveniently
be provided usually by using an
appropriate steel fabric and the work
shall be designed to ensure continuity
with repairs of the adjoining beams.

5.2.4 Floors
Floors are strengthened by a 50 mm
topping with fresh concrete over new
reinforcing steel. Bonding is ensured
by drilling a number of holes - 50 mm
deep - in the old concrete and placing
dowels bonded by epoxy.
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