T105 - ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

UNIT V – REFRIGERATION CYCLES AND SYSTEMS

UNIT V – Reverse Carnot cycle – COP – Vapor compression refrigeration cycle and systems (only
theory) – Gas refrigeration cycle – Absorption refrigeration system – Liquefaction – Solidification (only
theory).

Part - A

1. Define refrigeration.
Refrigeration is defined as a method of reducing the temperature of a system below that of the
surroundings and maintaining it at the lower temperature by continuously extracting the heat from it.

2. What is the purpose of refrigerant?

The refrigerant is a heat carrying medium which during their cycle in a refrigeration system absorbs heat
from a low temp. system & delivers it to a higher temperature system.

3. Mention the uses of refrigeration.

 Ice making
 Preservation of food products and medicines
 Air conditioning
 Transportation of food stuffs, dry products, flowers etc
 Cooling of concrete for dams
 Treatment of air for blast furnace
 Special industrial processes such as chemicals, medicals, surgical aids, etc
 Processing of food products, beverages, textiles, printing work, etc

4. Define COP. (Apr 2010, Jan 2013,May2105)

It is defined as the ratio of heat absorbed by the refrigerant while passing through the evaporator to the
work input required to compress the refrigerant in the compressor.

5. Define capacity of Refrigerator. (May2102,Jan 2015)

It is defined as the rate at which heat can be removed from the cold body. It is called as the capacity of a
refrigerator. It is expressed in terms of Tones of Refrigeration.
6. Define one ton of refrigeration.(May 2016)

The capacity of the refrigeration system is expressed in ton of refrigeration which is the unit of
refrigeration.
A ton of refrigeration is defined as the quantity of heat absorbed in order to form one ton of ice in 24
hours when the initial temperature of water is zero degree centigrade.
1 ton of refrigeration = 210 kJ/min = 3.5 kW

7. Define relative COP.

 It is the ratio of actual COP to the theoretical COP of a refrigerator.

 Actual COP is measured during a test and theoretical COP is obtained by applying the laws of
thermodynamics.

8. Give the chemical names and boiling point of Refrigerants. (Jan 2011)

 R-10 ---Carbon tetrachloride

 R-11 ---Trichlore monofluoro methane; boiling point = 23.3oC
 R-12 --- Dichloro difluoro methane; boiling point = – 29.8oC
 R-13 --- Mono bromotrifluoro methane; boiling point = 27.8oC
 R-21 --- Dichloro monofluoro methane Ammonia (NH3); boiling point= – 33.3oC
 R-22 --- Monochloro difluoro methane; boiling point = – 41.3oC

9. Mention the various methods of producing refrigeration effect.

 Throttling expansion of a liquid with flashing

 Reversible adiabatic expansion of gas
 Irreversible adiabatic expansion (throttling) of real gas
 Thermoelectric cooling
 Adiabatic expansion
10. What is the classification refrigeration system? (Nov 2011)
 Ice refrigeration system – Ice is the refrigerants.
 Air refrigeration system – Air is the refrigerants.
 Vapour refrigeration system – ammonia, carbon di oxide, Freon
 Vapour compression refrigeration system
 Vapour absorption refrigeration system
 Special refrigeration system.
 Mixed type
11. Write the different types of refrigeration cycles.
 Reversed Carnot cycle
 Vapor compression refrigeration cycle
 Vapor absorption refrigeration cycle
 Bell Coleman cycle or reversed joule cycle
 Aircraft refrigeration cycle
12. What is the difference between vapour compression and vapour absorption system refrigeration?

Sl.no Vapour Compression Vapour absorption

The system has more wear and tear and produce noise Only moving part in the system is aqua pump. Hence
1. due to moving parts the compressor fan etc.. the system is quieter in operation and subject to very
little wear.
Waste or Exhaust steam may be used. No need for
2. Electric power is needed to drive the system.
electric power.
Capacity of system decreases very little with lowered
Capacity of system drops rapidly with lowered
3. evaporative pressure by increasing steam pressure to
evaporator pressure.
the generator.
4. Mechanical energy is supplied through compressor. Heat energy is utilized.
5. Charging of refrigerant of the system is easy. Charging of refrigerant is difficult.

13. Mention the desirable properties of refrigerants.

 It should be non-flammable.
 It should be non-explosive.
 It should be non-toxic.
 It should not react with moisture to form acids.
 It should not contaminate the food stuff or other stored products.
14. Write the merits and demerits of Air refrigeration system.
Merits:
 Air is easily available at free of cost.
 Leakage is not a problem.
 Air is non-toxic, non-flammable and hence safe.
 Maintenance cost of the system is very less.
 The air system is light in weight compared to other system.
Demerits:
 The COP of this system is very low in comparison to other systems.
 The weight of air required to be circulated is more compared with refrigerants used in other system.
This is due to the fact that heat is carried by air in the form sensible heat.
15. What are the assumptions made in vapour compression system?
 Load on evaporation in TOR.
 The temperature required in the refrigerator.
 Atmosphere temperature.
16. List out the refrigerants commonly used in practice. (or) Name the any four commonly used refrigerants.
(Jan2011, Jan2013)
 Ammonia (NH3).
 Carbon di oxide.(CO2)
 Sulphur di oxide. (SO2)
 Freon-12
17. Mention the advantages of vapour compression refrigeration system. (May2013)
 COP is high
 Running cost is less
 For a fixed capacity of refrigeration, it is compact in size
 It can be employed for large range of temperature
 The size of evaporator is small
 It is available in various sizes and capacities with easy control devices
18. What are the demerits of vapour compression refrigeration system? (May2013)
 Refrigerant cost is high
 Refrigerant leakage is a problem
 Initial cost is high
 Energy consumption in the form of electricity is high
19. Mention the basic components of a vopour compression refrigeration system.
 It consists of five main components, namely
 Compressor
 Condenser
 Receiver
 Throttle valve (or) expansion valve
 Evaporator
20. In a vapour compression refrigeration system, where the highest temperature will occur?
(Jan 2011)
The vapour compression refrigeration system, the highest temperatures will accur in after compression.
21. In a vapour compression refrigeration system, where the lowest temperature will occur?
(May 2011)
The vapour compression refrigeration system, the lowest temperatures will accur in at the inlet of
evaporator.
22. What are the advantages of vapour absorption refrigeration system?
 A liquid is compressed instead of vapour and thus the work input required is very less
 It has the same COP at part loads as well as the full loads
 Absorption systems are silent in operation
 It is suitable for large capacities
 Operation and maintenance cost is less.
23. What are the disadvantages of vapour absorption refrigeration system?
 The COP of the system is less
 It is not economical for small capacity systems
 It need more space than vapour compression refrigeration system
 Charging of the system is difficult.

24. List out the applications of cryogenics.

 In preservation of biological specimens
 Liquefaction of gases
 Production of dry ice, i.e solid CO2
 Cryogenic engine for space application
 Cooling system for supercomputers
 Cooling system for electronic components
25. What are factors to be considered in air conditioning room? (or) In which factor the performance of
refrigeration system measured? (May 2011)
 Temperature of air.
 Humidity of air.
 Purity of air.
 Motion of air.
26. Define Liquefaction of gases.

An important area of refrigeration is the liquefaction of gases since many engineering processes at
temperature below -100oC (Cryogenic temperature) depends on the liquefied gases. Eg. Separation of Oxygen
and Nitrogen from air, Preparation of liquid propellants for rockets.

27. Define volumetric efficiency.

It is defined as the ratio of actual volume of gas drawn in to the compressor (at evaporator temperature
and pressure) on each stroke to the piston displacement.

28. List out the comparisons of Linde and Claude cycles.

Sl.No. Linde cycle Claude cycle

1 Less efficient More efficient
2 Does not use an expander Uses an expander
3 Low temperature achieved Very low temperature achieved
4 One heat exchanger is used Double heat exchanger is used
5 Dual pressure Linde system can be used Dual pressure system cannot be used
6 Used for liquefaction of air, hydrogen Used for liquefaction of air, helium
7 Lesser equipment, cheaper to implement More equipment, costlier to implement
29. Sketch the T-S and P-V diagram for reversed Carnot cycle.

P-V & T-S diagram for Reversed Carnot Cycle

 Process 1-2 = Adiabatic compression

 Process 2-3 = Constant Temperature heat rejection
 Process 3-4 = Adiabatic Expansion
 Process 4-1 = Constant Temperature heat addition

30. Sketch the T-S and P-h diagram for Vapour compression cycle.

T-s and p-h diagrams for an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle

 Process 1-2 = Adiabatic compression
 Process 2-3 = Constant Temperature heat rejection
 Process 3-4 = Adiabatic Expansion
 Process 4-1 = Constant Temperature heat addition
 Part - B QUESTION

1. Explain the Reversed Carnot Cycle with P-V and T-S diagram. (Jan 20110, (Jan2013)
 Reversing the Carnot cycle does reverse the directions of heat and work interactions.
 A refrigerator or heat pump that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle is called a Carnot refrigerator or a
Carnot heat pump.
 Reversed Carnot cycle is shown in Fig.6.1. It consists of the following processes.
 Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of the working fluid with the aid of external work. The temperature of
the fluid rises from T2 to T1.
 Process 2-3: Isothermal compression of the working fluid during which heat is rejected at constant high
temperature T1.
 Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion of the working fluid. The temperature of the working fluid falls from T1
to T2.
 Process 4-1: Absorption of heat by the working fluid from refrigerator at constant low temperature T2
during isothermal expansion.

Reversed Carnot Cycle

COP of Refrigerator
(COP)ref = Refrigerating effect/work done
(COP)ref = Qe/(Qr-Qe) = T1/(T2-T1)

 Practically, the reversed Carnot cycle cannot be used for refrigeration purpose as the isentropic process
requires very high speed operation, whereas the isothermal process requires very low speed operation
 .
2. Explain the Vapour Compression Refrigeration System with neat sketch. (May2012), (Jan2015),
(May2015), (May2016)

 The vapour compression refrigeration system is most commonly used in domestic refrigerators.
 In VCRS the refrigerant alternatively undergoes a change of phase from vapour to liquid and vice versa
during a cycle.
 The system consists of evaporator, compressor, condenser and an expansion valve.
 The liquid refrigerant which is at low pressure and low temperature flows into the compressor.
 In the compressor the refrigerant is compressed and converted into a high pressure and high temperature.
 This high pressure and high temperature refrigerant then passes through the condenser where it is condensed
into high pressure liquid refrigerant.
 The high pressure liquid refrigerant is then passing through the expansion valve where its pressure and
temperature drops and it partly evaporates.
 It is then allowed into the evaporator at a controlled rate. In the evaporator, the partly liquid and vapour
refrigerant is evaporated and converted into a low pressure vapour.
 During this process, the refrigerant absorbs its latent heat of vaporization from the material to be cooled.
 Thus the body is cooled in the evaporator by continuously extracting heat.

1-2: A reversible, adiabatic (isentropic) compression of the refrigerant. The saturated vapor at state 1 is superheated
to state 2.
Wc =h2 − h1

2-3: An internally, reversible, constant pressure heat rejection in which the working substance is de-superheated and
then condensed to a saturated liquid at 3. During this process, the working substance rejects most of its energy to the
condenser cooling water.
QH = h2 − h3

3-4: An irreversible throttling process in which the temperature and pressure decrease at constant enthalpy. The
refrigerant enters the evaporator at state 4 as a low-quality saturated mixture.
h3 = h4
 Schematic for ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.

Fig. T-s and p-h diagrams for an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle

4-1: An internally, reversible, constant pressure heat interaction in which the refrigerant (two-phase mixture) is
evaporated to a saturated vapor at state point 1. The latent enthalpy necessary for evaporation is supplied by the
refrigerated space surrounding the evaporator. The amount of heat transferred to the working fluid in the
evaporator is called the refrigeration load.
QL = h1 − h4
Merits

 Smaller size for a given refrigerating capacity.

 Higher coefficient of performance.
 Lower power requirements for a given capacity.
 Less complexity in both design & operation.
 It can be used over large of temperature.
3. Explain the Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System with neat sketch. (May2012), (Jan2015),
(May2015)

 The vapour absorption refrigeration system us a heat operated system.

 It differs from the VCRS only in the manner in which the circulation of the refrigerant is achieved. In this
system, the compressor is replaced by an absorber, a generator and a pump.
 The refrigerant used in this system must be highly soluble in the solution known as absorbent.
 The most widely used system is the ammonia–water system, where ammonia (NH3) serves as the refrigerant
and water (H2O) as the transport medium.
 Other systems include water–lithium bromide and water–lithium chloride systems, where water serves as
the refrigerant. These systems are limited to applications such as A-C where the minimum temperature is
above the freezing point of water.

Schematic for vapor absorption refrigeration system.

 The liquid refrigerant in the evaporator absorbs the heat from the medium to be cooled and it undergoes a
change of phase from liquid to vapour.
 The low pressure vapour is then passed to the absorber. In the absorber, the low pressure ammonia vapour is
dissolved in the weak ammonia solution producing strong ammonia solution at low pressure.
 The strong ammonia solution is then pumped to a generator through the heat exchanger at high pressure.
 While passing through the heat exchanger, the strong ammonia solution is warmed up by the hot weak
ammonia solution flowing from the generator to absorber.
  The warm strong ammonia solution is heated by an external source in the generator. Some examples of
external sources include geothermal energy, solar energy, and waste heat from cogeneration or process
steam plants, and even natural gas when it is at a relatively low price.
 Due to the heating, the vapour gets separated from the solution.
 The vapour which is at high pressure and high temperature is condensed to low temperature in the
condenser by cold water circulation.
 The high pressure liquid ammonia then passes through the expansion valve where it is expanded to low
pressure and temperature.
 The low pressure and low temperature ammonia liquid again enters the evaporator where it absorbs the heat
from the medium to be cooled and the cycle continues.

4. Comparison of Vapour Compression and Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Systems

Sl.No. Factors VCRS VARS

1 Input energy Mechanical energy Heat energy
2 Refrigerating capacity Less than 1000 tons More than 100 tons
3 COP Much higher ( 4 to 10) Less than 2
4 Noise Noisy due to compressor Pump noise is less
5 Changes of leakage of refrigerant More No leakage
6 Maintenance and operating cost More Less
7 Size Small Large
8 Wear and tear More Less
Refrigerant used Freon – 12 or any other Ammonia or lithium
9
refrigerant bromide
10 Refrigerant vapour Compressed Absorbed and heated

5. Discuss about Gas Refrigeration cycle. (May2015)

 Refrigeration can also be accomplished by means of a gas cycle.

 In the gas cycle, an expander replaces the throttle valve of a vapour compression system, because the drop
in temperature by throttling a real gas is very small.
 For an ideal gas, enthalpy is a function of temperature only, and since in throttling enthalpy remains
unchanged, there would not be any change in temperature also.
 Work output obtained from the expander is used as an aid in compression, thus decreasing the net work
input.
 The ideal gas-refrigeration cycle is the same as the reversed Brayton cycle.
 This is an important cycle frequently employed in gas cycle refrigeration systems.
 This may be thought of as a modification of reversed Carnot cycle, as the two isothermal processes of
Carnot cycle are replaced by two isobaric heat transfer processes.
 The ideal cycle consists of the following four processes:
Process 1-2: Reversible, adiabatic compression in a compressor
Process 2-3: Reversible, isobaric heat rejection in a heat exchanger
Process 3-4: Reversible, adiabatic expansion in a turbine
Process 4-1: Reversible, isobaric heat absorption in a heat exchanger
 Process 1-2:
Gas at low pressure is compressed isentropically from state 1 to state 2.
 Process 2-3:
Hot and high pressure gas flows through a heat exchanger and rejects heat sensibly and isobarically to a
heat sink.
The enthalpy and temperature of the gas drop during the process due to heat exchange, no work transfer
takes place and the entropy of the gas decreases.

Reverse Brayton cycle in T-s plane

 Process 3-4:
High pressure gas from the heat exchanger flows through a turbine, undergoes isentropic expansion and
delivers net work output.
The temperature of the gas drops during the process from T 3 to T4.
 Process 4-1:
Cold and low pressure gas from turbine flows through the low temperature heat exchanger and extracts heat
sensibly and isobarically from a heat source, providing a useful refrigeration effect.
The enthalpy and temperature of the gas rise during the process due to heat exchange, no work transfer
takes place and the entropy of the gas increases.
6. Short notes on Liquefaction of Gases.

 The process of refrigerating a gas to a temperature below its critical temperature so that liquid can be
formed at some suitable pressure, also below the critical pressure.
 Gas liquefaction is a special case of gas refrigeration.
 The gas is first compressed to an elevated pressure in an ambient-temperature compressor.
 This high-pressure gas is passed through a countercurrent heat exchanger to a throttling valve or expansion
engine.
 Upon expanding to the lower pressure, cooling may take place, and some liquid may be formed.
 The cool, low-pressure gas returns to the compressor inlet to repeat the cycle.
 The purpose of the countercurrent heat exchanger is to warm the low-pressure gas prior to recompression,
and simultaneously to cool the high-pressure gas to the lowest temperature possible prior to expansion.
 Both refrigerators and liquefiers operate on this same basic principle.

7. Explain with neat sketch the working of Linde-Hampson System for Liquefaction of air. (May2013)

 A design scheme and a diagram of the throttling cycle of gas liquefaction are given below.
 After compression in the compressor (1–2), the gas is successively cooled in the heat exchangers (2–3-4)
and then expanded (throttled) through the valve (4–5).
 Here, part of the gas is liquefied and accumulates in a collector, and the unliquefied gas is passed into the
heat exchangers, where it cools fresh batches of compressed gas.
 To liquefy a gas by a throttling cycle, the temperature of the compressed gas before admission to the main
heat exchanger H3 must be lower than the inversion temperature.
 A heat exchanger with a foreign cooling agent (exchanger H2) performs this cooling.
 If the inversion temperature of the gas lies above room temperature (nitrogen, argon, oxygen), then the
scheme is basically feasible even without heat exchangers H1 and H2.
 The use of foreign coolants in this case has the purpose of increasing the yield of liquid.
 But if the inversion temperature of the gas is below room temperature, then a heat exchanger with a foreign
coolant is mandatory.
 For example, liquid nitrogen is used in the liquefaction of helium.
 Fig Scheme and temperature-entropy diagram for Linde-Hampson gas-liquefaction cycle based on the Joule-
Thomson effect: (C) compressor, (H1), (H2), and (H3) heat exchangers, and (Th) throttling valve.

8. Explain with neat sketch the working of Claude System for Liquefaction of Air. (May2014)

 In Claude system, energy is removed from the gas stream by allowing it to do some work in an expander.
 The flow and T-s diagrams are given in Figure 5.9 and 5.10.
 The gas is first compressed to pressures of about 40atm and then passed through the first heat exchanger.
 Approximately 80% of the gas is then diverted from the main stream, expanded through an expander, and
reunited with the return stream below the second heat exchanger.
 The stream to be liquefied continues through the second and third heat exchangers, and is finally expanded
through an expansion valve to the liquid receiver.
 The cold vapour from the liquid receiver is returned through the heat exchangers to cool the incoming gas.
 Schematic diagram for Claude System of air liquefaction cycle

Temperature-entropy diagram for Claude System of Air Liquefaction

9. Explain the details about Production of Solid Ice.
 Dry ice is the name given to carbon dioxide when it is in a solid state.
 Carbon dioxide is found in the earth's atmosphere; it is a gas that humans exhale and plants use for
photosynthesis.
 This chemical compound is colorless, odorless, tasteless, and about 1.5 times as dense as air.
 Carbon dioxide turns from gas to an opaque white solid while under pressure and at low temperatures,
turning solid at −109°F (178.5°C).
 Dry ice is manufactured primarily in two forms, either as a block of dry ice which weighs over 50 lb (22.7
kg) or in small pieces that vary in size from the size of a grain of rice to a larger pellet.
 Dry ice does not melt, instead it sublimates, meaning the solid turns directly into a gas (bypassing the liquid
state) as the temperature rises and the solid begins to dissipate.

Manufacturing Process of Dry Ice

 Carbon dioxide is liquefied by compressing and cooling, liquefying at a pressure of approximately 870
lb/in 2 (395 kg/cm 2 ) at room temperature. Liquid carbon dioxide is pumped, via piping, into huge holding
tanks so that dry ice manufacturers can remove the liquid required.
 The pressurized, refrigerated liquid carbon dioxide is piped directly into a pressurized tank or rail car owned
by the dry ice manufacturer and heads for the plant.
 The tank trunk pulls up to the factory and dumps the liquid carbon dioxide into huge tanks on the premises.
 These tanks hold the liquid under pressure, keeping it refrigerated so that it remains in liquid state.
 These tanks are situated adjacent to the factory wall and, through piping, the liquid is brought directly inside
when required for manufacturing.
 The liquid carbon dioxide is released, again via piping, from the adjacent tanks through the factory wall and
into the dry ice press.
 When the liquid moves from a highly-pressurized environment to atmospheric pressure, it expands
and evaporates at high speeds, causing the liquid to cool to its freezing point which is −109°F (−78.3°C).
 A nozzle puts the liquid into the top block of a dry ice press, which stands approximately 16 ft (4.9 m) tall.
 This press includes a large block at the top that can exert extreme pressure on the product that is brought
into it.
 When the liquid carbon dioxide hits the block of the dry ice press, it immediately solidifies since it is now at
room temperature. The carbon dioxide now resembles snow.
 This snow, now in the upper portion of the press, must be compressed into a block of dry ice.
 Thus, this top portion of the press goes up and down with extraordinary pressure (about 60 tons), squashing
the snow into a solid block of dry ice. This is approximately a five minute process.
 When the block is solid, it is generally about 2 ft (61 cm) wide and 10 in (25 cm) high, weighing about 220
lb (100 kg)

The formation of dry ice is a series of chemical reactions.