Teacher and School 14MB

Teacher and School
Block-1 School System [4]

Unit-1 School in the Societal System
Unit-2 Structure of School Education
Unit-3 School Organisation
Unit-4 Organisational Behaviour
Block-2 Teacher-Role and Development [4]

Unit-5 Personality of a Teacher
Unit-6 Roles of a Teacher
Unit-7 Teacher Development
Unit-8 Teacher Evaluation
Block-3 School Management [3]

Unit-9 Management Process and the Teacher
Unit-10 Leadership Roles
Unit-11 Organizational Climate
Block-4 School Activities [5]

Unit-12 Professional Activities
Unit-13 Co-curricular Activities
Unit-14 Instructional Management Related Activities-I
Unit-15 Instructional Management Related Activities-II

SCHOOL IN THE SOCIETAL SYSTEM:
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Society as a System
Concept of a System
Society as a System
Education as a Sub-system to Society
Socialization of the Young Generation as a Social Aim
Education as a Socialization Process
Definition of Education
Different Modes of Education
Formal Education as a Sub-system of Societal System
1.4 School as a Formal Educational System
1.4.1 School as a Formal Organization
1.4.2 Objectives of School as Emerging from Social Aim
1.5 School and Community
1.5.1 Parents of Students a s Mdiators for Linking Community and School
1.5.2 Planned Intervention in Community Activities - Importance and Modes of Action
1.5.3 Importance of llansfonning the Realities in the Community as Learning Experience
in the School
1.6 School Complex
1.6.1 Activities of School Complex
1.7 Community and Neighbourhood Schools
1.7.1 Community Schools
1.7.2 Neighbourhood Schools
1.8 Let Us. Sum Up
1.9 Unit-end Activities
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1.10 Points for Discussion

1.11 Answers to Check Your Ptogress
1.12 Suggested Readings
1.1 INTRODUCTION
All societies provide opportunities for the individual to learn appropriate behaviours and
approved group values through social interaction. In a simple society, the culture is relatively
stable and slow to change. Social status is clearly defined and social roles limited. The child
can learn its culture through direct primary relationships with his family, his peers and adults
beyond his family. He can become acquainted with almost all aspects of role behaviour
through direct observation and participation in the society. In a complex society where the
culture is rapidly changing, social roles are too numerous and complex for any individual to
learn through informal or incidental social experiences as described above is difficult. The
child in the course of his socialization may leave behind him much of the status ascribed to
him at birth and achieve a new status of his own. He, therefore, cannot gain all the social
learning he needs, from informal experiences with family, peers, or adults beyond the family.
His informal learning must be supplemented by more formal educational opportunities. The
social agency designated to undertake this educational function is the school. In other words,
school as a system is under social control, the control essentially aimed at bringing about
conformity, solidarity, and continuity of the particular group or society. In this unit, we will
discuss the role of school in the societal system and the relationship between school and
School System
1.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to :
place education in the larger societal functions;
differentiate between formal and informal education;
delineate school as the formal system of education;
find out relationship between school and community;
distinguish between different types of school systems as school complex, community and
neighbourhood schools; and
list the activities that would foster school community relationship.
1.3 SOCIETY AS A SYSTEM

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1.3.1 Concept of a System
Let us try to understand what is meant by a system. For this, let us take the example of a
scooter. As you know, the scooter has different parts, viz. brake, steering, gear, battery, etc.
All these parts have their own specific functions and unless all function properly the scooter
cannot function. These different parts of the scooter viz. brake, steering etc. are all its
components. If any part does not function, the other parts are also affected and the scooter
cannot function. This means that the components are inter-related and inter-dependent,
functioning towards the scooters effective operation. With these characteristics, the scooter
becomes a system. So, a system has a number of components functioning together in an inter-
related and inter-dependent manner towards the attainment of certain functions of the system
as a whole.
1.3.2 Society as a System

Man lives in a more or less organised cluster of people which is called society. Applying the
concept of system as described in the earlier section, society can be considered a system, with
a set of goals to achieve, different components (sections) with distinct functions, working
towards these common goals of the society. For example, a society has a certain set of
components working towards the goal of managing funds for the welfare of the people,
another set for taking care of the health of the people, another set for education of the people
and another for employment of the people, and so on and so forth. Unless all these different
sections of the society work in a coordinated fashion effectively, the goal of the society i.e.
successful perpetuation of the society cannot be achieved. Hence successful functioning of
each section is determinant for maintaining and continuing any society. Thus one can say, that
different components of a society like economic system, political system, transport and
communication system, education system etc. work in inter-related and inter-dependent manner
towards achieving the goals of the societal system.
1.3.3 Education as a Sub-system to Society

In a societal system, education as a sub-system'fulfills part of the functions of the society viz.
getting the young ones ready for the adult roles that they have to play, thus maintaining
society over time. Education works in close interrelationship with other sub-systems, say
family, economy or state. For example, policies of the stat&influence the functioning of the
system of education in any country. Funds provided by the system of economy largely decide
the structure and functioning of the system of education. Similarly, the family background of
the students of a school influences the education system. It is the educational system that
providies the necessary human resources for the other sub-systems. Thus we can say that
education is a sub-system of society and that it works in close inter-relation with other sub-
systems of society.
1.3.4 Socialization of the Young Generation as a Social Aim

One of the main aims of the society is to prepare within the children the essential conditions
The main groups and agents involved in the dynamics of the relationship between school and S c h d in the Societal Systen
community are: School administfation, teachers, non-teaching personnel of the school, students,
their parents, school governing bodies and local school boards. Beyond immediate proximity
with the schools are the local political authorities, governmental bodies and political parties
as well as other public, social and cultural institutions. In addition, there are voluntary
organizations with cultural, social or educational objectives and functions.
School has to work in close relationship with social institutions to be effective in achieving
its goals. for example, if there is a centre where handicrafts are made by rural artisans in '
A /
the vicinity of a school, it can link up with this centre and be benefited by its knowledge and
experience in handicrafts. In return schools can inform the centre about whatever is taking
place in the school in the area of socially useful productive work (SUPW). If school is in a
completely rural area, and if a majority of the people around are farmers, it is essential that
some basic knowledge in farming is given to students. The farmers could also be informed
about hybridization, fertilizers. etc. through the agency of the school.
1.5.1 Parents of Students as Mediators for Linking Community

and School
Parents are in constant touch with the school and thus form a viable channel of communication
between it and the community. The community's expectations from the school, and their
needs in general can reach the school through them. For example, if in a rural set up, a few
parents get together and request a school for adult education classes, school staff could extend
their service according to their convenience. Through parents' meetings if a school is informed
of the general ignorance of people in a village regarding keeping their immediate surrounding
clean, staff members can take up this as a serious mission.
1.5.2 Planned Intervention in Community Activities - Importance

and Modes of Action
A school has to try and get involved in its comm~mity'sactivities in all possible ways. This
has to be planned systematically keeping the objectives of the school and its priorities in
place. The areas of community activity in which the school can participate meaningfully are
numerous. illustratively these can include: adult education classes, festivals, identification of
disabilities among infants, counselling of parents of disabled regarding coping modes, and
making them aware about available opportunities etc.
Taking one of these a5 an example, like identification of disabilities among infants and counselling
of parents, a modus operandi could be worked out as follows: Teachers would need first to be
oriented regarding identification of disabilities with the help of experts in the field. They should
be associated with local hospital where children are born and should initiate a movement to
identify disabilities at the earliest. Disabilities like hearing impairment, if not identified early can
totally mar intellectual growth of a child, and hence needs serious attention.
Once identification is done, the disabled children's parents need counselling to cope up with
harsh reality. Majority of the parents do not know about the needs of disabled children and about
the openings available for them. Teachers oriented in this area can be effective to counsel and
guide parents. Activities like this should be undertaken on a regular and sustained basis.
1.5.3 Importance of Transforming the Realities in the Community as

Learning Experience in the School
In congruence with school's involvement with community activities, it is essential that its
curriculum has enough flexibility so as to accommodate certain realities in the community.
For example, festivals celebrated in the community could be discussed from the point of view
of their historical and cultural significance. School itself could provide experience to students
in organizing and participating in community's festivals.
If adult education programmes are being organized in the community, secondary and higher
secondary students should be oriented and prepared mentally, to contribute in their own way
to the effectiveness of the programmes.
A very important aspect of school education is to develop a positive attitude towards the
disabled children and adults in the community. As such our country is far behind most other 17
Scol System countries in the area of education and welfare of the disabled. Even today, disabled people
are looked at as 'burdens' and 'bad omens' by society. It is essential that students are given
a general awareness about causes of disability and the possible help a student can give to a
visually imbaired on a road, or a hearing impaired in a bus, or an orthopaedically impaired
in a large building.
The problern of dealing with sanitation could be dealt with as an important learning experience
in school, 90 that children will develop an understanding of the dangers posed by unhygienic
conditions and could in process develop positive attitude towards keeping the environment
clean. This understanding can also be passed on to the community people at large, through
children. Another instance is that of severe water shortage which requires conservation of
water to be included as an important item in the curriculum. Similarly, any relevant issue in
the commqnity should be included in the curriculum of the school.
Talung an urban situation, where road accidents are on the rise, students should be given
awareness regarding traffic rules as a rider and a pedestrian, even if this input may not be a
part of their textbooks.
In this section, we have discussed following points:
i) School is a sub-system. of the larger society.
ii) The link between school and its immediate surrounding is a part of its larger link with
the society.
iii) Parents form a functionally viable link with the community.
iv) School has to participate in a community's activities in all possible ways.
v) School cumculum should be flexible enough to accommodate community concerns so as
to help students to increase their awareness regarding these realities.
Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
8. A school can be effective only if it works in close association with its community.
Discuss briefly (in 5 lines).
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9. Parents form a viable link between school and community. Discuss with examples.
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10. How can school intervene in community activities? Explain the modus operandi
with an example.
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11. Discuss how realities in the community can be transformed as learning experiences
in the school, with suitable example.
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1.6 SCHOOL COMPLEX

The establishment of school complexes was recommended in Education and National
Development - the report of the Education Commission 1964-66. The major considerations
in making this recommendation was to encourage sharing of infrastructural resources and of
expertise by educational institutions of a specific area. More specifically, if there is a fairly
small and manageable group of teachers in secondary, and primary schools of an area, it can
function in a face-to-face relationship within accessible distance.
1.6.1 Activities of School Complex

Economic use of resources and cooperative working ethos being the basic objectives of
developing school complexes, the possible modes are: specialist teachers of a school could
render service to the neighbouring schools; library and laboratory facilities can be shared
whenever the need arises; science club, literary club etc. of one school can have activities
organized for the entire complex. In fact the Education Commission 1964-66 recommended
in general terms the idea of the school complex. The mode of operation was to be decided
upon on the basis of the conditions in a particular area. In Indian rural settings where institutional
deficiencies prevail, school complex can be of immense benefit. Among other things, it would
prevent multiplication of facilities in all the schools.
Check Your Progress

12. Explain the concept of school complex in 5 lines. Suggest five activities that can
be effectively carried out in a school complex.
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1.7.1 Community Schools

One of the relationships between a school and the community is the one which promotes the
closest structural unity possible, with school operating directly as an agent for community
betterment, and with pupils, either children or adults, taking part in community activities. This
is the community school.
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Education in a broad perspective is the process of teaching children concepts, attitudes and
of teaching them how to behave in their social, civic and economic relations. In this context,
the entire community is an instrument for education. School alone cannot do the job of
School System
educating. Education, apart from classroom instruction, is the result of living and growing up
in a community.
There are two broad characteristics of the community school. (i) It takes children to discover,
develop and use resources of the local community. (ii) It serves the entire community, not
merely the children of school age.
Learners can refer to sections 1.4.2 for different types of activities possible in a
community school. In fact, success depends upon the dedication and imagination of school
personnel.
One thing is definite, community involvement in school activities nurtures community
ownership of school which in turn leads to more and more of community school interactions.
There have been some significant examples of such success from district of Bhavnagar in
Gujarat. The school building itself was erected with community involvement in terms of
financial assistance and physical labour. This led to a feeling of ownership of the school
among the community members which catalyzed school to take up activities that interested
and involved community members like small scale farming, teaching illiterate adults, counselling
mothers, etc.
1.7.2 Neighbourhood Schools

The concept of neighbourhood schools implies that the school should be attended by all
children in the neighbourhood irrespective of caste, creed, community, religion, economic
condition or social status, so that there will be no segregation in schools. Social and national
integration are the two significant goals to be achieved through such schools. Apart from
these, a neighbourhood school can provide better quality of education as it is based on the
principle of sharing life with the common people, an essential component of curriculum by
which many of the social values can be easily inculcated. Neighbourhood school, can
also catalyse in bringing the rich, privileged classes to take interest in publically financed
education.
Check Your Progress
13. What is the purpose of neighbourhood schools?
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Schod in the Societal System
1.8 LET US SUMUP
In this unit, we stressed that education in a broad sense means socialization of younger
generation to become members of the society. Socialization stxts from day one of birth and
continues in the family. School is a social agency where formalized socialization takes place
with very specific and pre-specified objectives for different stages, unlike the less structured
process in the family. Thus, education as a system, drawing its objective from society is a sub-
system of the large societal system which bas family, polity, economy, state etc., as other sub-
systems for other functions. Education is also imparted through less structured and more
flexible channels of non-formal education which cater to the needs of a varied group. School
as a formal education system is bureaucratic and professional socializing agency with a
specific social structure.
A school has to function in close relationship with its community. Parents are the potential
mediators between a community and the school. The community-school relationship has to be
a two-way process wherein, resources available in the community could be utilized for providing
learning experiences to students, and concerns of the community become relevant elements
of the school curriculum. School activities could be organized in such a way as to involve
community members and be of benefit to the community at large rather than only the school.
Sharing of resources, both human and material, between a cluster of nearby schools, thus,
developing a school complex, is a viable alternative in Indian context to solve the problems
of resource constraints.
To conclude, school is a part of the society, and is a social agency functioning to make the
young ones ready for adult roles.
1.9 UNIT-END ACTIVITIES

1. In a remote village, where literacy is below the national average, where girl's participation
is poor, suggest a few activities (5-6) by which school community involvement can be
fostered.
2. Analyse and compare socialization of young ones (4-10 age group) in the family and in
the primary school.
1.10 POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

I. Find out literature on rural schools that function as school complexes and discuss their activities.
2. In the present Indian context, explain the importance of school community linkage.
1.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. A system consists of a number of components which function together in an inter-related and
inter-dependent manner towards the attainment of certain functions of the system as a whole.
2. Society is a system hecause it has several components which work together in an inter-
related manner towards the achievement of social goals. Education is one component of
the societal system and as a sub-system of the society prepares the young ones for adult
roles that they have to play.
3. Education helps create a new social being by imparting individual knowledge, skills and
values etc. This is how education contributes to the socialization process.
4. The major modes of education are formal, non-formal and informal.
5. School is a formal system because it has been planned consciously with the specific
objective of providing education to the younger generation of the society. It also helps
in socializing younger generation of the society.
6. The social organization of schools has four major levels. At the top of the structure is the
school board making school policies. The second level is that of school administrator1
superintendentslprincipals/supervisors.The third level in the structure is composed of
School System 7. m e objectives of schools are formulated on the basis of educational goals which are
&rived from national goals.
8. The school has to work in close relationship with its community to be effective in
achieving its goals. For example, a rural school can be benefited about the farming
knowledge by village farmers and in return can educate the farmers about the latest
develapments in farming.
9. Parents form a viable link between school and community. They communicate community's
expectations to the school and the school also reach the community through them. For
example, lack of knowledge among the villagers regarding proper sanitation could be
conveyed to the school through parents. Accordingly, the school could provide requisite
knowledge to the parents through Parents Teacher Association meetings.
10. A school can intervene in community activities in various ways. It can participate
in health awareness programme, literacy campaign, village development programme etc.
11. Realiqies in the community can be transformed as learning experiences in the school. For
example, festival celebrated in the community could be discussed in the school from the
point of view of their historical and cultural significance.
12. School complex is set up to encourage sharing of infrastructural resources and of expertise
by educational institutions of a specific area. Use of library facilities, laboratory facilities,
sports facilities, science club, literary club, etc. could be carried out by schools in a
school complex.
13. The Purpose of neighbourhood schools is to achieve social and national integration.
1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

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Sr. Eyechiel C.M.C., What do Christian CollegesrSchools existfor? New Frontiers in Education,
Vol. XXVII, No.2, April-June, 1997, pp. 153-158.
N a t i o ~ Policy
l on Education - 1986 (with modifications undertaken in 1992). Ministry of
Human Resource Development, Department of Education, New Delhi.
Sahastrabuddhe M. and Srivastava S., School Education of ~cheduledCastes and Scheduled
Tribes in India - Critical Management Issues, New Frontiers in Education, Vol. XXVIlI,
No.3, July-Sept., 1998, pp. 221-231.
Palackopilly, G., The Church and Education in the Service of the Nation, New Frontiers in
Education, Vol. XXVIII, No.3, July-Sept., 1998. pp, 232-258.
Nayar, P.R., Dave, P.N. and Arora K., The Teacher and Education in Emerging Indian Society,
New Delhi. 1982.
UNIT 2 STRUCTURE OF SCHOOL
EDUCATION
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Indian Constitution and School Education
23.1
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I n d i ~ o n s t i i u t i o nand School Education
2 3.2 Status of Indian Schools
2.3.3
2.3.4
' h e Structure of Indian School Education
Responsibilities of the Central Government in ~ c h o o ~ c X i ~ n - - - --
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2.3.5 Responsibilities of the State Government
2.4 Central Provision for School Education
2.4.1 Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE)
2.4.2 Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)
2.4.3 National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
2.4.4 National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE)
2.4.5 National I~stituteof Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA)
2.4.6 Kendriya Vidy alaya Sangathan (KVS)
2.4.7 National Open School (NOS)
2.5 State Provisions for School Education
2.5.1 State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)
2.5.2 Board of Secondary Education (BSE)
2.5.3 State Textbook Board
2.6 Regional Level Organizations
2.7 District Level Organizations
2.7.1 District Education Office
2.7.2 District Institute of Education and Training (DIET)
2.8 Role of Local Level Organizations
2.8.1 Local Bodies in Rural Areas
2.8.2 Local Bodies in Urban Areas
2.9 Teachers' Union
2.9.1 Role of Trustees and Private Managements
2.10 Let Us Sum Up
2.13 Answers to Check Your Progress
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2.1 INTRODUCTION Y
and it
The school is, as you already know, a social organization. It is created by the
exists in society to cater to its needs. Schools, therefore, are administered and +lat? PY
the society. TO administer and regulate them in our country different bodies anrauthorlUes
have been created. As stipulated in the 42nd Amendment of the Indian constirtion
''Education is the concurrent responsibility of both the Union and the State w i P p * t
Provisions for and adminisuation of education in the UnionT-f:-- . --- wqonslbdltY Of
the Union Government. S c h o w a t i n n th--wN1S, 1s a joint responsibilitj of the cenud
and State governments. we. l -~ & ~ e r e-
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, Ministry of Human Resoulce DevelO~ment
f o r e the
(MHRD), the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE), the National Council of
Educational Research and Training (NCERT), and the National Council of Teacher Education
(NCTE) etc. at the Central level. Similarly at the state level, we have the State Ministry of
Education, the State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT) or the State
Institute of Education (SIE), the State Board of Education, and the Text Book Board. At the
local level, we have the District Education Officer, the Panchayat Sarniti, the Village Panchayat
and the Village Education Committee. A school, wherever it is situated, has to cater to the
needs of the immediate community. Therefore, the functions and the structure of a school is
determined by the local level organization and administrator as well as the state and central
level agencies.
In this unit, we will discuss the structure of School Education and the constitutional provisions
for it in the Indian Constitution. We will also discuss the role of Central level,State level and
local level organizations and administrators in school education.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to :
describe the existing constitutional provisions for school education in India;
describe the status, functions and structure of Indian schools;
list roles of Central level, State level, District level and local level organizations and
administrators for school education;
state the relationship among various authorities and organizations provided at different
levels.
2.3 INDIAN CONSTITUTION AND SCHOOL EDUCATION

There exist two schools of thought concerning the relationship between the state and education.
One school of thought favours a total control of education by the state; viz., that it shall
lictate the content, the aim, and even the methods of teaching. There is no scope for private
nterprise in education. The other school of thought, however, believes in laissez faire in
lucation. According to this school, education of the child should be decided upon by the
nily, the church or philanthrophic institutions. The state may interfere in the administration
Ipolicies of education system. Being a democratic country, we have a system of education
:re the state, child, parents, priest and all concerned have the right to express their views.
structure of school education that has been developed swikes a balance between the two
:me approaches. As a result, although a common pattern of education (10+2 system)
s in our country, schools are of different kinds. From the following, you will know the
itutional provisions regarding school education, structure and functions of different types
iools and the roles of Centre and State government and local organizations in the
gement of school education.
2'- Indian Constitution and School Education

The,stitution of India specifies the obligations of the state in matters of education. It also
SPecl the organizational structure, the powers, and the responsibilities of the Central and
State vernments. The Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution contains legislative
pOwer,nder three lists viz. the union list, the state list and the concurrent list.
i, , % J n i o nList : Defines powers of the Parliament.
ii) Th~tateList :Contains all matters on which ordinarily the State Legislatures may pass
laws
...
"'1 The Cncurrent List : Contains all matters on which both the Parliament and State
Leglslatres can make laws.
74
:There
-are 97.
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subjects in this list and the following entries are
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Entry 13 : Educational and cultural relations with foreign c-es.
of its existence and perpetuation. The older generation exercises certain influences on the School in the Societal System
younger generation which is not yet ready for social life, with the objective of promoting in
children the set of physical, intellectual, and moral behaviours demanded of them by society
as a whole. In other words, each generation tries to pass on its social heritage and cultural
tradition to the next generation. This process is known as the transmission of culture.
Socialization starts right from the early years of a child where helshe is within the family
environment i.e. before schooling starts. What gets started of as socialization process is
inculcation of values - like showing respect for elders, sharing with others, being kind to
others, being honest etc. Observations of behaviour of the family members and the rewards
and punishments attached to certain sets of behaviour reinforce the practices and attitudes of
the family.
1.3.5 Education as a Socialization Process

Education is a process which reflects and maintains a society. Education is a social institution
that creates a new social being by imparting knowledge, skills (personal and social), values
etc. through years. In other words socialization is the process through which transmission of
culture takes place and behaviour patterns are adopted by the young child. The process of
socialization in an institution takes place consciously and formally by using the facilities
ecifically provided for the purpose, like schools, colleges etc. It involves deliberate
tra' rmsslon of knowledge, skills and values. The society institutionalizes these facilities by
@!!&. i n m e process, designating the personnel to carry it out, elaborating norms, providing
org
equipment and so on.
1.3.6 '~efinitionof Education

There are as many definitions of education as there are scholars defining it. Etymologically
the word is derived from 'educare' which means 'bringing up of children physically and
mentally'. Eminent sociologists and anthropologists agree on a broad definition of education
- "methodical socialization of the young generation". The chief argument in defence of such
broad usage of the term seems to be that the total effect of education is not achieved only
through formal agencies like schools and colleges. However, analytical rigour and practical
considerations necessitate a distinction between socialization and education.
Socialization may be used to refer to the total process of cultural learning that takes place
from birth to death, including instruction imparted in formal settings. But the word education
may be reserved to refer to the process of socialization that takes place consciously and
formally within the facilities specifically provided for the purpose, like schools, college etc.
Whatever learning takes place is planned and consciously designed by the society. Nothing
is left to chance or accident. Even a Street Urchin, who doesn't attend school, 'learns' a lot
of things by interacting with his physical and social environment. However, this learning is
'incidental' or 'informal'. In this context, informal learning as distinct from deliberately
planned education, can be considered synonymous with socialization. Thus, we have different
modes of education.
1.3.7 Different Modes of Education

Socialization is a process that continues throughout the life of an individual, and as a process
of transmission of culture, it is very complex and has wide-ranging implications. There are
various agencies, both formal and informal, which directly or indirectly contribute to the
process of socialization. The specific agencies involved in the process of socialization and the
way they contribute to it are to a great extent relative to the type of society and the level of
its development. Thus, in simpler societies not only is the process of socialization less complex
but also the agencies of socialization are few, simple and informal. But as societies grow in
complexity, the process of socialization also tends to become complex, with the arrangement
for socialization tending towards more structured, and formalized forms.
In tribal societies, life is based on simple technologies and there is correspondingly simple
division of labour with roles ascribed according to age andlor sex.. The cultural life of such
societies may be considered as relativel$ simple and as a repetitive cycle of generations. Often
there are no special institutions and no professional teachers in tribal communities to perform
the task of initiation, although there might be specific individuals, such as the tribal priest or
the village patriarah who plays a significant role in 'teaching' the new generation the tribal
mores and rituals.
, School System The entire family or class in general, plays a crucial role in transmitting the 'tribal language
and elementary rules of behaviour, etiquette and customs', and the restrictions and taboos to
the child. The child learns and absorbs elements of tribal culture through trial and error, play
and observation and do's and don'ts involving unconscious imitation as well as conscious
inculcation.
This process is called informal education or incidental education. The role the family plays
in socializing or educating a child is very important. In fact parents continue to be the first
educators of a child, and it is within the family that a child's personality is developed in its
early and formative years. But as far as teaching of skills that are necessary to earn a living
in modem society is concerned, the family's role has progressively become less significant
although father to son training continues to remain an important mode. The effectiveness of
the family as an agency of socialization becomes gradually weak and insignificant beyond the
formative years of a child.
Other than the family agencies that contribute towards socialization, are peer groups, work
groups, neighbourhood, mass media like press, TV,radio, and films in industrial societies. The
process of education through these agencies is predominantly informal in nature, although
conscious effort might be made to harness these resources in promoting education.
A child learns that on touching a flame, his fingers will get burnt. This is incidentallinformal
learning. It is through the child's interaction with the environment that much of the informal
learning occurs. It is not specifically designed with the purpose of promoting learning in a
child; in such a case learning may not always be desirable. For example, through peer group
pressure a child takes to smoking, although this is also learning, though it is undesirable.
As civilization advances, the gap between,capacities of the young and the concerns of adults
widens. Learning by direct sharing in activities of adults becomes increasingly difficult except
in the case of less advanced occupations. Ability to share effectively in adult activities thus
depends upon prior training given with this end in view. Intentional agencies - schools -
and explicit material are devised. The task of teaching is delegated to a special group of
persons. In other words, education of the young generation becomes formalized.
In contrast to informal learning, learning through fonpalised channels is always desirable, and
the means of bringing about such desirable learning are specifically and painstakingly designed
with such an objective under specially created conditions and with specific facilities created
for the purpose.
Thus, we can say that there are different ways of learning, like formal and non-formal apart
from incidentalhnformal learning that goes on throughout a person's lifetime. We will dwell
on each of these ways in more detail in the following sections.
Formal Education
Education has a collective function. Its objective is to help the child to adapt to the social
milieu in which shehe is destined to live. It is through education that society assures for its
citizens a sufficient community of ideas and sentiments, without which any society cannot
progress and perpetuate itself. In order that it may be able to produce this result, it is also
necessary that education should not be completely abandoned to the arbitrariness of individuals,
but be formalized and coordinated by an agency like the state, keeping in focus the broad
societal aims. It is up to the state (Government) to broadly identify ideas, sentiments, and
skills that must be impressed upon a child to help himlher adjust to the milieu in which he/
she must live.
Thus, ducation which is controlled and planned consciously ,by the state or its designated
agency such as the school with certain specific objectives is formal education. In such a
system of education there are rigid rules for age of admission, content and duration of courses,
procedures of examination, selection of elective subjects etc.
Non-formal Education
In contrast to formal education which is defined as teaching of certain knowledge, or instruction
in a particular branch of learning in a structured and programmed manner, examining etc.,
non-formal education refers to consciously organised and patterned instruction in certain areas
of knowledge, skill or values, which takes place outside the school or similarly designated
institutions, with flexibility regarding age, period of instruction, and with a choice of what to
learn. It caters to the needs of .adults, farmers, women, drop-outs etc. who are not for various
reasons. able to take advantage of formal education, either'because they have passed the age school in the Societal System
for it or because they are employed. Non-formal education is a very important mode through
which India's goals of universal elementary education and literacy are being promoted. The
Indira Gandhi National Open University and the National Open School - both centrally
operating from New Delhi and part time non-formal education centres are typical examples
of this system.
The importance of non-formal mode of education to reach different sections of the society is
increasing in thc present Indian education scenario, mainly because formal system is unable
to meet the demand for education for all the segments of the society.
1.3.8 Formal Education as a Sub-system of Societal System

It has been repeatedly stated that educational institutions impart knowledge of a variety of
types and train people in various skills so that they can fill the manifold adult roles in society,
that these institutions are endowed with the responsibility of creating and expanding knowledge,
and also that education contributes towards sodialization by providing its clientele with the
context and experience of adult roles in a social framework. This does not, however, mean
that education is a full fledged, and self-contained institution, completely separated from the
wider society. Education as an institution is firmly entrenched in society. Considering society
as a larger system, education is a sub-system of society. In fact there is a strong dialectical
relationship between society and educational institutions. Not only do decisions taken in
educational institutions influence society, but it is also true that society - in the form of
interest groups has a great deal of control over the content and modes of education. Educational
policy, whether national or restricted to a single institution, is the outcome of an ongoing
debate between people who have an interest in securing particular outcomes. Thus, decisions
about the kind of sex education which should be introduced in ischools, or the moral
appropriateness of boys growing their hair, all hinge on the definitions of people from the
society who feel they have right to contribute.
Apart from the fact that it is a social agency and that it is influenced by society, education
is inseparably related to other social institutions like family, religion, economy, polity, etc. In
fact, it is only for analytical purposes that we can isolate education from other social institutions.
The nature of the relationship between education and other social institutions is reciprocal.
Education affects other social institutions and other social institutions also affect education.
To the extent that all these social institutions are interwoven, changes in one will definitely
have an impact on others either directly or indirectly. (These aspects have been already
referred to, in Section 1.3.3).
The relationship of education with society and other social institutions can be represented
through a flow diagram as shown below:
Society L
I Culture k-
Economy
F 4 State
Religion
Fig. 1.1 : Relatiomhip of Education with Society and other Social Institutions
, 1
As an example, the relationship of family as a social institution, and education can be analysed
as follows :
For a child. the first stage of socialization starts in the family much before helshe starts
schooling. The family background of the child decides the type of socialization process that
the child is exposed to. When a child comes to school, helshe already has been moulded
through a process of initial socialization which fixther influences the changes that take place
during the schooling process. Even after schooling has started both the family and the school 11
Scl~oolSystem work on the child with the common objective of socialization. It is possible that the two social
institutions -family and school -complement each other in their purpose and also conversely,
possible that they come into conflict with each other.
The structure of the family is itself affected to a considerable extent by education. The impact
of education on rural people seeking jobs outside their home and village, has resulted in a
nuclear family structure in place of the joint family structure. Education has brought down the
birth rate in families, and has resulted in enhancement of woman's status in families, both of
which have also influenced family structure and functioning. Similarly, religion, culture, and
economy are all influenced by education and do exercise their influence on education.
We have discussed the following aspects in the previous sections :
Society can be conceived of as a system with different sub-systems working in an inter-
related fashion.
Education is a sub-system of society, which functions in reciprocation with other sub-
systems like family, economy etc.
Methodical socialization.of the young generation is one of the main aims of the society
by which it maintains itself.
Education is a socialization process by means of which knowledge, skills (personal and
social) and values are promoted in the young generation.
There are different modes of education - formal, non-formal and informal.
Formal education is a sub-system of the society working towards the important societal
aim of socializing the young generation.
I Cheek Your Progress

I
1 1. Define a system in 2-3 lines.

I
2. Justify the statement - "Society is a system a n d a a t education is a sub-system of

the societal system."
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3. Explain how education is a socialization process.
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4. What are the different modes of education?
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School m the Societal System
1.4 SCHOOL AS A FORMAL EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
We have already seen that education is a social process, that education could be through a
formal or non-formal mode, that a lot of our education is informallincidental, and that formal
education is a sub-system of the societal system.
If we recall the definition of formal education, it is that education, controlled and planned
consciously by the state with certain specific objectives, is confined to institutions specially
designed for the purpose. It is easy to conclude from this definition that school education and
college/university education are included under formal education. All the above linkages can
be represented by a flow diagram as shown under :
'7 Education
Education Education
Fig. 1.2 : Education and its Linkages
Non-formal education which is less structured and has more flexibility, is imparted through
educational institutions like National Open School, and universities like Indira Gandhi National
Open University. Now let us study the characteristics of school system that make it formal.
As you already know, in a school situation, pre-specified and desired learning is the objective
attempted to be achieved through providing a controlled environment for a student to interact
with. Hence at all stages, all activities are highly structured/consciously planned, leaving
nothing to chance. There are several reasons for the complexity of the school's structure,
chief among them being the magnitude of the student-population and their age-gradeness,
pressures for standardization of the quality of the outgoing students, and the accountability
of schools to parents, employers and the community at large. The other characteristics of a
school that make it formal are rational goal-setting, a hierarchy of offices, a division of labour
with specially trained incumbents, a proliferation of rules, elaborate record-keeping systems,
structured assessment procedures, etc.
A school is primarily under the control uf the State. The State decides the broad aims of
schooling through educational policies, keeping in focus the national goals. The content or
the syllabus for each class is given to the school by the government through a board. The
gradation of the content is structured taking into consideration the levels of mental and
physical development of children.
The age at which a child can be initiated into school is often fixed, and the criteria of
education and promotion to each higher class are fixed. Personnel with special training are
recruited to carry out the function of socialization of young ones. There is a hierarchy among
these personnel viz. a principal as the administrator, with senior teachers, junior teachers,
non-teaching staff, helpers etc. All these personnel have distinctly different responsibilities,
but all the functions are interdependent. Hence these personnel have to work in a coordinated
All the above characteristics make a school a formallstructural education system.
_ I *.<
' .Tr
School System
Within the broad class of complex organization which pursue formally prescribed goals, there
is a sub-class of agencies which is devoted to the processing function. Schools belong to this
sub-class but so do production departments of industrial firms. We, therefore, need to take a
further step and distinguish between processing of things and-of people. The latter is especially
important, as processing of human beings is quite a different matter from that of processing
of things. Humans can talk back, they can remain impervious to influence, they can defy
reliable prediction of the outcomes of processing, they can evoke responses in their 'processors'
which are irrelevant and even detrimental to the task at hand, and they are identities outside
of the organization. Further, people have a way of bonding together to solve common status
problem. These features of human processing systems affect rational, bureaucratic structure
of schools. Also, human processing agencies require a certain kind of staff whlch has special
qualifications for providing a personal service that is both highly problematic and highly
valued by society. Consequently, teaching and administrative staff of schools share certain
attributes with occupation known as professions. In short, schools are not only complex
organizations, but are professional agencies.
Another distinction needs to be made among complex organizations which process people.
Prisons and mental hospitals seek to reform persons, while schools seek to form them, or, in
sociological terminology, schools are engaged in socialization whereas prisons and mental
hospitals or rehabilitation centres are engaged in resocialization.
In sum, it is not sufficient to view schools simply as bureaucracies, nor simply as agencies
which process human begins. They must be seen as bureaucratic, professional, socializing
agencies. This means that while schools share specific attributes with other kinds of
organizations, they combine these attributes into a special form.
Schools are related to a number of other formal organizations. Some of these organizations
are integral to the educational system, i.e., colleges and universities, and state and other
educational agencies. There are other agencies which are ancillary to this formal structure, i.e.
textbook publishers and the school boards (primary, secondary and higher secondary). These
latter structures exert a great deal of influence on educational decisions at the local level. In
fact, they account in large part for the national standardization of curriculum and instructional
practices in spite of nominal local control.
As you have already appreciated, education in a school, as compared with that in the family
or in peer group, goes on in relatively formal ways. The formal character of the school is well
exemplified in the extent to which rights and duties are distributed according to age. While
the family, the peer group, and other social groups are also age-graded systems (ones in whcih
younger and older members enjoy different privileges and obligations), it is the school that
is the most age-graded of all social institutions.
Not only is the school-system a formally-organized institution, but it is bureaucratized, as
other organizations in a modern society. Bureaucracy involves increasing specialization of
work, and at the same time coordination of specialized activities into a functioning whole.
Among other processes,' bureaucratization involves centralization of authority and the
standardization of work routines. Every school has a pattern of social relations that is not only
unique but which persists through time, so that the pattern is not radically changed even when
different individuals enter or leave it.
Social Structure of the School

The school is a social structure in which various groups are. related according to a system of
rank and prestige.
In broad terms, school as a social system has four main levels of rank within it. At the top
of the structure is the school board making school policy, selecting the manager and deciding
on school expenditures. The school board acts as the agent of wider community. The second
main level is that of school administrator/suprintendents/principals/supervisors.The third level
in the*ture is composed of teachers: some occupying higher ranks than others. The fourth
level of the structure is composed of students, clients whom the school serves.
.$ 5'
School in Ule Socieial System
'
i School Board
Administrators, Superintendents,
d=) Teachers
C Pupils 1
Fig. 1.3 : The Formal Structure of the School
In general, authority flows only in one direction within the school structure downward'from
school board to student although the lower levels might affect the exercise of authority and
also the nature of educational decisions. While authority flows downward, interaction of
varying types occurs within the school structure in both horizontal and vertical directions, and
the quality of interaction affects the school functioning as a whole.
In summary, the school is a complex web of social interactions, with various types of interaction
taking place simultaneously, each affecting the whole, and each having at least an indirect
influence upon the child.
' 1.4.2 Objectives of School as Emerging from Social Aim

What a society holds to be desirable serves as the criteria for what it wants - and ultimately
what it does - in education and in all aspects of culture. Every culture has its values and
value system. In every society people differentiate between what they conceive to be desirable
and not desirable. Thus, a system of values is built upon their concepts. The values that
memhers of a society hold in common can be called cultural values. As already mentioned,
the school provides a consciously designed special environment for the younger generation
to imbibe the cultural values of the society and acquire knowledge and skills regarded as
desirable in the context of the values of the society. From this, it is ohvious that the objectives
of schools are hroadly decided upon by the society. This can be also understood from the fact
that the school is a sub-system of the societal system, which (school) functions for achieving
societal goals.
To be more specific, each country has its nationJ goals enshrined in its constitution. These
national goals are derived definately from the commonly agreed upon cultural value system
of the country. It is from these national goals that our educational goals are derived. This is
because it is through education that these goals can be achieved over a period of time. From
national goals are derived core curricula i.e. the essence of all the experiences to be provided
in the school, ultimately aiming at achieving national goals. Each state formulates its curriculum
keeping core curriculum as the focus. Different schools in a state follow the prescribed
curriculum with minor modifications.
The point that is being stressed is that in the formulation of aims of'each school, national
goals (social aims) become the reference point and deviations or modifications, although
allowed. are minimal. To cite an example, India being a country with different languages,
religions, races, etc., national goals do reflect this plurality and diversity. For example,
secularism, (i.e. respect for all religions, and religious practices, and freedom io practise one's
own religion) is one of the important values kept in focus while curriculum is designed he
it at national, state, or school level.
Sehool System
Check Your Progress
5. School is a formal system for socializing the young generation of society. Explain in
five lines.
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6. Describe the social organization of schools in five lines.
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7. Explain briefly how objectives of schools are formulated.
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1.5 SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY

School is a social institution where consciously designed learning experiences are provided
with the objective of achieving social aims at large, over a-period of time. Hence, school is
working as a sub-system of the larger system of society. The school, however, has to functionally
coordinate with its immediate environment, the community in which it is situated. Definitely,
the relationship between any school and its immediate community can be considered only as
part of this larger general relationship between education and society.
Fig. 1.4 : Relatiomhip between Education and Society
The word 'community' is meant to imply a wider grouping of people located within fairly
recognizable boundaries, and related to each other by social, economic and civic activities
which produce oneness among them sufficient to develop a recognizable identity as a group.
16
Entry 62 : The institutions known at the commencement of the Constitution as National St~dIIreof Schod Education
Library, the Indian Museum, the Imperial War Museum, the Victoria
Memorial, and Indian War Memorial. Any other such institutions financed
by the Government of India wholly or in part and declared by the Parliament,
by law to be an institution of national importance.
Entry 63 : The Institutions of National importance, specifically the Central Universities
existing during the commencement of the Constitution and to be declared by
the Parliament as institutions of National importance.
Entry 64 : Institutions of Scientific and Technical Education financed by the Central
Government of India wholly or in part and declared by the Parliament, by
law as institutions of National importance.
Entry 65 : The agencies and institutions meant for :
a) Professional, vocational or technical training
b) Promotion of special studies and research
c) Scientific and technical assistance in the investigation and detection of
crime
Entry 66 : Co-ordination and maintenance of standards for higher education or research.
Besides these, the Central Government administers education in Union Territories as specified
in Article 239 of the Constitution.
ii) List (ii) State List : It consists of 66 entries, out of which the entry related to education
is as follows:
Entry 12 : Libraries, Museums, and other similar institutions controlled or financed by
the State, Ancient and Historical monuments and records other than
those declared by or under law made by the Parliament to be of National
importance.
iii) List (iii) Concurrent List :This list comprises 47 entries. The entries related to education
are as follows :
Entry 20 : Economic and Social Planning.
Entry 25 : Education, including technical education, medical education and universities
subject to the provision of entries 63, 64. 65 and 66 of List (i).
Entry 39 : Newspapers, books and printing presses.
In aflition to the above, there are some other provisions which have implications for educational
policy making at the Central and State levels. These pertain to the rights of minorities to
establish and maintain educational institutions, reservation in educational institutions of
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes etc. These are described below :
a) Education of Minorities :Article 28 of the Constitution has made certain provisions for
the education of the minorities. These include :
i) No religious instruction shall be provided in educational institutions wholly
maintained out of state funds.
ii) If any institution is established under any endowment trust even if administered by
state, can impart religious education.
iii) No person attending an educational institution recognized by the state or receiving
funds from State government shall be required to take part in any religious worship
or instruction that may be conducted in such institutions or in any premises attached
there to unless such person, or if such person is a minor and his guardian has given
his consent thereto.
b) Cultural and Educational Rights : The Indian Constitution has made special
provision under Article 29 and 30 for the protection of educational interest of
minorities viz.
i) Article 29 (i) states that, "any section of citizens residing in the Territory of India
or any part thereof having a distinct language, script, or culture of its own shall
have the right to conserve the same".
school System ii) Article 30 (i) states that, "all minorities whether based on religion or language
shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their
choice".
iii) Article 30 (ii) states that, "the State shall not in granting aid to educational institutions,
discriminate against any, educational institution on the ground that it is under the
?
I
management of a ~ n o r i t ywhether based on religion or language".
iv) In making any law providing for the compulsory acquisition of any property of any
educational institution established and administered by minorities, the State shall
.ensure that the amount fixed by or determined under such law for acquisition of
such property is such as would not restrict or abrogate the right guaranteed to
them".
c) Admission to Educational Institutions
i) Article 29 (ii) lays down that no citizen of India can be denied admission into
any educational institution, which is either maintained by the State or receiving
aid out of state funds on ground only of religion, race, caste, language or any of
them.
ii) Article 15 (iii) authorizes the state to make special provisions for women. Hence,
separate educational institutions for women can be established.
d) Teakhing of Mother Tongue : The Constitution of India has made some provisions for
the promotion of mother tongue and Hindi :
i) Article 350 (A) lays down that, "it shall be the endeavour of every state and local
authorities with the state to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother
tongue at the primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority
groups; and the President may issue directions to any state as he considers necessary
for securing the facilities".
ii) Article 351 promotes the development of Hindi Language and it states that it shall
be the duty of the Central Government to promote the spread of Hindi language in
the country.
e) Right to Education :India is a secular, democratic and republic country. All the citizens
have equal right to education. This has been provided for in Article 41 of the Constitution.
It states that. "the state shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and development,
make effective provision for the right to work, to education, and to public assistance in
cases of employment, old age, sickness and disablement".
f) Education of fhe Weaker Sections of the Society: The Constitution has made special
provisions for @e weaker sections of our society. Following are some of the Articles
which promote and protect the education of these people.
i) Article 45 : It states that, "the state shall endeavour to provide within a period of
ten years from the commencement of the Constitution for free and compulsory
education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years".
ii) Article 46 : This Article states that " the state shall promote with special care the
educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the peop!~and, in
particular, of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them
f?om social injustice and all forms of exploitations".
In addition to the Constitutional provisions for weaker sections, minority groups, rights of
people to education etc., the Supreme Court of India has given the following guidelines to
promote education of the people :
I
i) The state can make regulatory measures to promote efficiency of education.
ii) Educational institutions of minority groups can not claim immunity from general laws
such. as Contract Law, Labour Law and Industrial Law etc.
I iii) The state can take over the management of the institutions of minority groups in case of
irregularity and inefficiency.
iv) Teachers have the right to approach to the Arbitration Tribunal in case of any injustice
1 26 to them by the institution.

Stmcture of S c h d Education
Check Your Progress
1. What are the three lists in the Constitution for the subject education?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
2. List the educational entries under each of the list.
3. Give the constitutional provisions for the education of minorities, Scheduled

Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
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4. What provisions do we have for the teaching of the mother tongue?
2.3.2 Status of Indian Schools

The Fifth AU India Educational Survey - Selected Statistics (NCERT, 1989) reveals that
there were 5.30 lakh primary schools, 1.38 lakh upper primary schools, 52,000 secondary
schools and 15,500 higher secondary schools in the country. These schools are managed by
different educational agencies as shown in the diagram.
b. Quasi-Public
Enterprises
I Government Government
Fig. 2 1 : Types of School Fnterprises in India

27
School System Out of these seven types of enterprises, around 41 % of primary and upper primary schools
are managed fully by the Centre or State governments. Around 47.5% of primary schools and
30% of upper primary schools are controlled by local bodies. At the secondary school level,
most of the schools are managed by private bodies and the percentage of such schools
managed by local bodies ranges from 2 to 6% only. Schools managed by private bodies also 1
receive grants from the government. Each year government spends about 10,000 crore of
rupees on education from the government exchequer. In addition, there is considerable
investment from the private sector in school education. The resource gfiocation on education
over the years presents the following picture :
Table 2.1 : Allocation of Finance to Different Sectors of Education in Five Year Plan
1
Sector % of Plan Allocation
in First Plan
% of Plan Allocation
in Seventh Plan I
1. Elementary Education 56
2. Secondary Education 13
3. University Education and others 31
You can see in the above table the variation in percentage of allocation between the First Five
Year Plan and the Seventh Five Year Plan. You may notide that less money has been allocated
to Elementary and Secondary Education in comparison to University Education. But as the
NPE, 1986 has recommended six percent allocation of GNP being allocated to education,
school education is likely to increase its share in the plan allocations. There have been serious
efforts to a~hieve100% enrolment at the elementary level, to improve the retention of children
for the full period of schooling and generally to improve the quality teaching and learning.
As a result of this effort, there has been continuous increase in enrolment. The drop-out rates
have also decreased to some extent. Increasing number of children are also completing their
school eduaation. In order to meet the increasing demand for education, the outlay for general
education and technical education has been increased under Eighth Five Year Plan (see
Table 2.2).
Table 2 3 : Eighth Plan Outlay for General and Technical Education
(In Crores)
SI. No. Major Head Centre States U.Ts Total

- - - - -
1. General Education 6619.00 9607.19 587.16 16813.35

2. Technical Education 824.00 1804.66 157.72 2786.38
3. (Total - 1-2) 7443 .OO 11411.85 744.88 19599.73
Source: Planning Commission, Govt. of India (1992-97). p.320.
2.3.3 The Structure of Indian School Education

The structure of school education refers to the ladder of education at school level. The ladder
of education can be visualized from two perspectives. One academic and two, administrative.
The academic structure has been given in detail in the next unit. However, it will be worthwhile
for you to know the .academic structure in brief.
i) Academic Structure: The Education Commission 1964-66 recommended the 10+2+3
pattern for adoption as a common pattern of education in the country. The 1968 National
Policy on Education strongly recommended its implementation in all parts of the country.
Finally, the 36th session of the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) held at
Delhi onblOth September, 1972 passed a resolution stating that "it would be desirable to
adopt a uniform pattern of education, i.e. 10+2+3 in all parts of the country by the end
of Fifth Five Year Plan". It also asked the Ministry of Education to work out the details
of cost. The Govt. subsequently appointed a National Level Committee on 10+2+3
educatioqal structure. It identified the merits of the proposed structure and the Govt.
accepted the 10+2+3 pattern of education.
Now, wehave a common pattern of education throughout the country, consisting of pre-
primary education, (named also as Kindergarten, Montessory Schools, Pre-basic schools Education
swctnt-e d S c h ~ d
and Play centres), elementary education ranging from standard I to standard VII or VIII
and divided into lower-primary and upper-primary education, secondary education
consisting of standards VII or VIII to X and the higher secondary education or +2
education of grades XI and XII. Thus, up to +2 level, there is undiversified school
education. Other forms of education have also developed so as to meet social demand.
These include, among others, non-formal education, open school education, vocational
education, and commercial education etc. To administer all these forms of school education,
there is an organizational structure and some constitutional provisions. The organizational
structure of school education is presented below.
ii) The Organizational Structure: Education as indicated above, is the joint responsibility
of States and the Centre. The organizational structure has been developed to manage
education at different levels i.e., Centre, State, District, Block and at village level.
a) Central Level
At the Central level, the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) is the main
governmental agency. Earlier designated as the Ministry of Education, it was renamed as
MHRD in 1985 in view of the variety of activities which it undertakes for human resource
development. The structure of the Ministry is given in the next page .
At the Central level, the Department of Education in the MHRD is responsible for all matters
pertaining to education, including overall planning of programmes and providing guidance
for their implementation. The MHRD, is headed by a Cabinet Minister of the Union
Government. The Department of Education, under the MHRD, is under the charge of a
Minister of State who is advised at the official level by the Secretary to the Department,
assisted by an additional secretary and Educational Advisor on academic and policy matters
of Education. The Department of Education consists of several bureaus, each of which is
headed by a Joint Secretary or Joint Educational Advisor. These officials are assisted by
Directors, Deputy Secretaries or Deputy Educational Advisors, who are the divisional heads.
In terms, they are assisted by Under Secretaries or Assistant Educational Advisors, who have
one or more sub-divisions under them. These divisions form part of different bureaus.
The Central Government has created a number of specialized institutions and organizations
to help and advise the Government in the matter of formulation and implementation of
policies and programmes in the field of education, particularly school education. The following
is the list of such institutions and organizations which assist and advise the Central Government:
1. Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi.
2. Central Hindi Directorate, New Delhi.
3. Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore.
4. Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages, Hyderabad.
5. Educational Consultants of India Ltd., New Delhi.
6. Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathana, New Delhi.
7. National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi.
8. National Council of Teacher Education, New Delhi.
9. National Institute of Adult Education, New Delhi.
10. National Institute of Public Co-operation and Child Development, New Delhi.
11. National Open School, New Delhi.
12. Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti, New Delhi.
13. All India Council for Technical Education, New Delhi.
14. University Grants Conunission, New Delhi.
15. National Institute of Educational Planning and Adnlinistration, New Delhi.
16. National Sports Authority of India, New Delhi.
17. National Literacy Mission, New Delhi. \
MINISTRY OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
MINISTER OF H.R.D.
I
EDUCATION SECRETARY
I
ADDITIONAL SECRETARY
I
t
ELEMENTARY
I
ADULT EDN.
I
PLANNING
I
UNIVERSITY
I D.P.E P. I EDN. 8 O.L. & NLM & HR. EDN.
I
JS (DPEP) J s (EE) JS (AE) 8 DG (NLM)
I
JS (SE & ADMN) JS (BP,UT 6 S.SHIP) JS I(M)
I
FA(HRD)
I
CCA
DIR(S) DIR(ET) DIR (SCH) DY(FA)
I l l I I I
I l l I I I I I I
II I I I I I I I I
DS DS DS DS(NFE) DS DEA DS(A) DS(S) DS(BP) DE4UT) DEA(SKT) DS(T) DENT) DEA(T) DENT) DEA(T)
-
(v) (V)
I A J LD&GGZl I-NATIONAL - UNNERSITY GRANTS - NATIONAL - NATIONAL BOOK - ALL INDIA COUNCILOF
I ADULT EDUCATION ( I INSTITUTE I COMMlSSlON COUNCIL OF TRUST DIRECTORATE TECHNICAL EDUCATION
II I'
-NATIONAL OF EDUCATIONAL -CENTRAL EDUCATIONAL - KENDRIYA VIDYA- - KENDRIYA HINDI - INDIAN INSTITUTE OF
PLANNINGAND RESEARCH LAYA SANGHATHAN SANSTHAN TECHNOLOGY
INSTITUTE OF UNNERSlTlES
ADMINISTRATION AND TRAlNlNG - BUREAL FOR
- INDIAN INSTITUTE OF
I ADULT
EDUCATION
I
ADVANCE STUDIES
SHIMLA
- CENTRAL
BOARD OF
- NAVODAYA VIDYA-
LAYA SAMlTl PROMOTION OF
URDU CENTRAL
- REGIONAL ENGINEERING
COLLEGES
SECONDARY - CENTRAL TIBETIAN
INSTITUTE OF INDIAN
- INDIAN INSTITUTE OF
- INDIAN COUNCIL OF SCHOOL ADMN. MANAGEMENT
EDUCATION LANGUAGES
SOCIAL SCIENCE - SCHOOL OF PLANNING
RESEARCH - NATIONAL - COMMISSION FOR
&ARCHITECTURE
SCIENTIFIC & TECH.
- HlSToRlCAL KSEARCH - EDUCATIONAL
SCHOOL TERMINOLOGY
- PHILOSPHICAL CONSULTANTS
RESEARCH
- CENTRAL INSTITUTE
OF INDIA LTD.
OF ENG. & FOREIGN
- NATIONAL EVALUATION LANGUAGES - REGIONAL OFFICES
ORGANISATION
- Post of Educational Advisor (Technical) is vacant and one post of JEA(T) is operated against this post.
I - 0ne.post each of JEA(G) and JS are vacant.
- Cases p e r t a i n i n g to Bureau of BP, Scholarships 8 UT, Bureau of University 8 Higher Education, Planning UNESCO,
Vocational Education and EducationalTechnology Division are routed through Additional Secretary.
There are also some All India forums set up by the Cent& Government to facilitate the , Struetore of ~.&odEducation
process of educational development in the country and to strengthen relationship between the
Central Government.and State Governments in planning, implementation, and co-ordination
of educational programmes. Such forums are the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE),
the State Education Ministers' Conference, the Conference of Education Secretaries and
Planning Commission of the Government of India.
b) Administrative Structure of School Education at the State Level
At the State level, the position varies. In some States there is the State Ministry of Education
headed by a Minister of Education which looks after the entire sector of education in the
States. There might be separate ministries for different sectors such as Higher Education,
Technical Education etc. The Minister or Ministers islare member(s) of the State Legislative
Assembly. The Minister is responsible to the State Legislature. There are a number of
Directorates which functions under the respective Ministries of Education. The Minister controls
the formulation of educational policies, directs their execution and supervises their
implementation. Other Ministers and departments control other types of education like technical,
agricultural, medical, and industrial etc. The structure of school education at the state level
has been presented in Figure 2.3 below.
Ministry of Education
I
I
Board of
SCERT Text Book Board
Education
-----------t Regional or Circle Office
El- Zila
Parishad
+ District Education
Office
I
+
District Institute of
Education and Training
Nagarpalikal
Municipalities1
Village Gram
Education Panchay at
Committee
Fig. 2 3 :Structure of Education at State Level
It can be seen kom Fig. 2.3 that under the Education Minister, there is a Secretariat. The
Secretary is the administrative head of the Secretariat. He is directly responsible to the Minister
for policy making and its execution at the school level. He generally belongs to the Indian
Administrative Service and is assisted by JointIDeputylUnder Secretaries. States have
established Directorates of Education for different sectors such as Elementary, Secondary and
Higher Secondary. In the Directorate, the Director is the executive head. HeIShe is assisted
by Joint Directors, Deputy Directors, Assistant Directors etc.
States are generally divided into educational circles on the basis of geographical proximity of
the districts. Each circle is under the charge of a Circle Inspector or Circle Education Officer.
He looks after schools in hisher circle with the help of District Education OfficersIDistrict
Inspectors of States; Block Education Officers and School Inspectors are incharge of specific
geographical regions. It is important to note that all States do not have the same'administrative
structure. In some States, there is only a two-tier administrative set up viz., the State Department
of Education and the Zonal or District Education Officer. In others there might be an
intermediary set up between the Department and the District level arrangement. There are,
therefore, variations in the administrative structure of school education at the State level.
Check Your Progress
Notes: a> Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare you answers with those given at the end of this unit.
5. What is the academic structure of school education ?
6. What are the Central Level Institutions and Organizations for School Education? Name
any four.
2.3.4 Responsibilities of the Central Government in School Education

The above sections informed you of the Constitutional provisions in respect of education and
the structure of school education. Here below, you will learn the responsibilities of the Centre
in school education. The following are the Centre's responsibilities in school education :
1. To make available free and compulsory education upto the age of 14, as directed in the
Constitution.
2. Equalization of educational opportunities with special reference to the reduction of inter-
state differences and the advancement of the weaker sections of the society.
3. To make arrangements for the provision of scholarships to the needy and competent students.
4. To promote vocationalization of secondary education in all States.
5. To improve standards of education at school stage.
6. To improve the status of teachers and organize teacher education programmes.
7. To facilitate and organize non-formal education programme.
8. To facilitate and organize open school education programme in all parts of the country.
9. To promote educational research in the country.
10. To promote and organize special education programme.
11. To administer school education directly in Union Temtories and Centrally administered
areas.
12. To provide assistance to States, local bodies, and non-governmental organization for
development of education, and
13. To provide guidance wherever required.
2.3.5 Responsibilities of the State Government

School education is under the direct control of State Governments. They prepare educational
plans in relation to their needs and conditions by taking into consideration the plan frame
and policies prepared at the Centre. The following are the responsibilities of the State
Governments.
--
Stracture of Schod Education

1. To establish and maintain educational institutions.
2. To give recognition for the establishment of schools.
3. To provide grants to schools managed by private bodies.
4. To pass laws for different types of school education.
5. To supervise schools through DEOs and Supervisors at Block level.
6. To recruit and place teachers in schools.
7. To prescribe thesyllahus and supply books.
8. To establish school boards to conduct examinations.
9. To provide special assistance to poor and backward students.
10. To organize training programmes for teachers and supervisors.
11. To initiate action against teachers and schools in case of any lapse.
12. To feed information to the Centre about schools.
13. To provide academic and training support to schools through its institutions created for
the purpose.
14. To promote research and development in education.
Till now, you have learned that to administer school education there are Constitutionalprovisions
in the Seventh Schedule i.e., List I, List I1 and List 111. The entries under these lists specify
the roles of the Central Government and State Government in education, Union Territories are
directly under the control of Central government. But in the States, school education is under
the control of States. For education of weaker sections, minority groups and teaching of
mother tongue, there are different articles, i.e. Article 28 for minority groups, Article 29 (i)
and 30 (i) and (ii) for the cultural and educational rights of all citizens, Article 29 (ii) for
admission to educational institutions, and Article 350 (A), and 351 for the teaching of mother
tongue and Hindi language. Further, you have also learned the Article 41, 45 and 46 which
state clearly the rules and regulations for the right to education of the weaker sections.
You have studied the responsibilities of Centre and State in school education. You must have
noted that the Centre has the main role to play in framing policies and the State has to act
upon them in their own context.
Now with this knowledge, you can take the following exercise to know how much you have
learned. After the exercise you may read the next section.
Check Your Progress
7. Write down the responsibilities of Centre and States in school education.

..............................................................................................................................................
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2.4 CENTRAL PROVISION FOR SCHOOL EDUCATION

The Central Government has created some forums and organizations for assisting it in policy
making and administering education at school level. These organizations include: CABE,
NCERT, NCTE, NIEPA, Educational Consultants of India Ltd., CBSE etc. You will learn
about the functions of these organizations in thz following. 39
Scbeoi System 2.4.1 Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE)
CABE is one of the oldest and the most important advisory bodies of the Government of
India on education. It was established in 1920. It was dissolved in 1923 and revived in 1935.
The Union Minister of HRD is the Chairman of this Board and membership consists of
representatives of State governments, Government of India, members of Parliament and
distinpished educationists from different parts of the country. The functions of the CABE
are:
a) to advise on educational matters which may be referred to it by the Government of India
or by States,
b) to call for information and circulate it with recommendations to the Govt. of India and
to State Goverments, and
c) to assess the achievements of the previous year and recommend educational programmes
lor the next year.
2.4.2 Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)

This Board was established in 1929 at Ajmer. It was reconstituted by the Govt. of India in
1962. The functions of the CBSE are :
a) to prescribe syllabus for secondary education,
b) to conduct examinations for secondary schools,
c) to' affiliate secondary and higher secondary schools, and
d) to develop curriculum and textual materials for secondary and higher secondary schools.
2.4.3 National Council of Educational Research and 7I;tining (NCERT)

TheNCERT was established in 1961 as an autonomous organization. It acts as an advisor to
the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) and is fully financed by the Central
Government. The Union Minister of MHRD is its President and the Education Ministers of
all the States and Union Territories are its members. The other members are the Chairman
of UGC, Secretary of MHRD, and Four Vice-Chancellors from four regions of the country.
The Council has under it the following institutions :
1. National Institute of Education.
2. Central Institute of EducationaI Technology.
3. Four Regional Institutes of Education at Ajmer, Bhopal. Bhubaneswar and Mysore.
4. Central Institute of Vocational Education, Bhopal.
It has under it departments viz., Policy Planning, Pre-school, Elementary Education, Special
Education, Educational Research, Science and Mathematics Education, Social Sciences and
Humanities. Educational Measurement and Evaluation, Publication Division, and Teacher
Education, Field Advisors, etc.
The functions of NCERT are as follows :
a) to undertake studies, investigations, and surveys relating to school education,
b) to organize pre-service and in-service training of teachers at an advanced level,
c) to wganize extension service,
d) to disseminate improved educational techniques and practices in schools,
e) to act as clearing house for ideas and information on all matters relating to school
education,
f) to frnance research on school education, and
g) to formulate policies and programmes in schooI education.
The Council works in close co-operation with MHRD and all the State Ministries of Education
and their Secretariats. It also keeps close contact with universities in the country, State level
34
- -
institutions and similar national and international organizations throughout the world. It has Structure of Schod Education
developed curriculum framework and model textbooks and guide books for teachers for
all levels of school education. The Council also publishes journals and research reports
periodically.
2.4.4 National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE)

NCTE is a statutory body of the Central Government. It was establiihed in 1995 after the bill
was passed by the Parliament. There is an Executive Committee and a Regional Committee
which work for NCTE. The main functions of NCTE are:
to promote coordinated development of teacher education,
to determine and maintain standards of teacher education programme at primary and
secondary levels,
to regulate the establishment of institutions of teacher education,
to lay emphasis on continuing education of teachers,
to reduce the gap between supply and demand of teachers, and
to advise the Central Government, State Governments, UGC, Universities and other agencies
in matters relating to teacher education i.e. priorities, policies, plans and programmes.
2.4.5 National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration

(NIEPA)
The National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration is the apex institute in the
area of planning and administration of education in the country. For th first ten years of its
existence, the institute functioned as a UNESCO Institute having been established in 1962,
as the UNESCO Regional Centre for Training of Educational Planners, Administrations and
Supervisors in Asia and the Pacific. On 1st April, it was renamed as Asian Institute of
Educational Planning and Administration. The Institute was again renamed as National Institute
of Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA) in 1979.
Some of the functions of NIEPA are:
To improve the quality of planning and administration in education by means of study,
generation of new ideas, and techniques and disseminating them through interaction with,
and training of strategic groups and to achieve the same;
To organise pre-service and in-service training, conferences, workshops, meeting, seminars
and briefing sessions for senior educational officers of the Central and State Governments
and Union Territories;
To organise orientation and training programmes and refresher courses for university and
college administrators connected with educational planning and administration;
To undertake, aid, promote and coordinate research in various aspects of educational
planning and administration, including comparative studies in planning techniques and
administrative procedures int he different States of India and in other countires of the
world.
2.4.6 Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan (KVS)

Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan, an autonomous body of Government of India, was set up on
15th December, 1965. The main missions of KVS are:
To cater to the educational needs of children of transferable Central Government employees
including Defence and para-military personnel by providing a common programme of
education.
To pursue excellence and set the pace in the field of school education.
To initiate and promote experimentation and innovations in education in collaboration
with other bodies like the CBSE and the NCERT.
To develop the spirit of national integration and create a sense of 'Indianness' among
children.
School System 2.4.6 National Open School (NOS)
The National Open School (NOS) was established in November, 1989 as an autonomous
organisation in pursuance of National Policy on Education, 1986, by the Ministry of Human
Resource Development, Government of India. The major objectives of the NOS are:
to provide opportunities for continuing and developmental education to interested learners,
through courses and programmes of general education; life enrichment modules and
vocational courses at the school level;
to provide consultancy services and to engage in model building in close collaboration
with States and a variety of other agencies or institutions.
to servp as an agency for effective dissemination of information related to distance education
and open learning.
to identify and promote standard of learning in distance education systems and open
school, which may be set up in different parts of the country through research and
evaluation and to maintain standards of equivalence with the formal system, while keeping
its own distinct character.
2.5 STATE PROVISIONS FOR SCHOOL EDUCATION

The educational structure at the State level includes the Ministry of Education, Secretariat,
Directorates, State Institute of Education, State Council of Educational Research and Training,
Textbook Board, and Board of School Education etc. You have already learned about the
Ministry oh Education, Directorates and Secretariat in an earlier sections in this Unit. Here
you will know the functions of SCERT, Textbook Board, and Boards of School Education.
2.5.1 State Council of Educational Research and 'kaining (SCERT)

In some of the states SCERT is known as State Institute of Education (SIE). It is an integral
part of the Directorate of Education and is the academic wing of the State Department of
Education. It provides academic guidance to the Regional ~ f h c e r sDistrict
, Education Officers,
Block Edwation Officers, and Principals of Schools. SCERTs are headed by Directors and
under them are the Joint Directors of different sections which include: Physical Education,
Audio-Visual Education, Institute of English, Vocational Guidance, Examination Unit, Science
Division, Curriculum Development, Teacher Education, Textbooks Production and Non-formal
Education etc. The functions of SCERT are as under:
a) It provides in-service training to teachers, primary and secondary schools and to District
Education Officers (DEO's), Block Education Officers (BEO's) and School Inspectors,
b) It supports teacher-training programme of primary and secondary levels in the state and
also fiames the teacher education curriculum,
c) It prepares the curriculum and textbooks for school education,
d) It collects data and conducts research on school education and feeds it to the Secretariat
for policy making execution; and evaluation,
e) It'looks into the scholarship, stipends, and other incentives to be provided to the children
of minority groups and ST, SC, OBC etc.,
f) It supports the improvement of instructional process in all school subjects with the help
of modern technologies and audio-visual aids, and
i
g) It develops academic linkages with NCERT, NCI'E and other Central level organizations.
2.5.2 Board of Secondary Education (BSE)

Most State governments have Boards of Secondary (School) Education. These Boards were
established in pursuance of the recommendation of the Secondary Education Commission
(1952-54). The Board generally consists of a Chairman and members. Members represent
school and university teachers of the state and also nominated members. The Boards prescribe
syllabi and textbooks for schools under their jurisdiction. The Boards are mainly advisory in
36 character. They provide recognitionlaffiliation to schools and conduct public examinations.
Schools, irrespective of their management, send their pupils for final examination conducted S'rndumdSchool Education
by the School Board. However, in States some schools are affiliated to the CBSE which
conducts public examinations and prescribe the syllabus.
a) to grant affiliationlrecognition to schools.
b) to prescribe syllabi and textbooks for schools.
c) to conduct public examination at Standard X and XI1 at the state level.
d) to maintain standards of secondary schools in the state.
e) to improve evaluation practices at secondary school level.
f) to co-operate with the State Institute of Education to provide in-service training to school
teachers,
g) to organize training programmes for paper setters and examiners,
h) to conduct research relating to problems of examinations at school stage,
i) to conduct special examinations for the award of scholarships and talent search
examinations, and
j) to maintain close relation with the state Department of Education.
2.5.3 State Textbook Board

State prescribes textbooks for the primary, secondary and higher secondary schools of the
entire state by taking into consideration the aims, objectives, needs and problems of the State.
So for production and supply of textbooks at affordable prices, each state of India has created
its own textbooks board. The Textbook Board is a statutory body of the state government and
is generally headed by a Chairman. It usually has experts in school education and distinguished
educationists and experienced teachers as its members. The main functions of a Textbook
Board are as follows:
a) to appoint subject experts to write, edit, review and evaluate textbooks in all school
subjects.
b) to publish or get published textbooks.
c) to supply textbooks to schools.
d) to conduct and support research relating to curriculum and textbooks.
e) to establish close relation with the SCERT, Ministry of Education, Directorate and
Secretariat.
f) to organize training programmes and workshops for teachers, textbook writers and experts
for textbook production.
You have just learned the Central and State provisions for school education in our country.
At the Central level institutions viz., NCERT, NCTE, CBSE, CABE etc. and at the State level
SCERT, Textbook Board, Board of School or Secondary Education work in a coherent manner.
All these institutions make an effort to promote access to education and improve the quality
of school education by looking into different aspects of education like examination, textbooks,
scholarships, syllabus, teacher education, etc. Now, on do the following exercise and then go
to the next section.
Check Your Progress
b) Compare you answers with those given at the end of this unit.
8. Name any four Central level institutions in education.
School System
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9. Name any four State level institutions in education.
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10. What are the functions of NCERT, NCTE, CABE and CBSE?
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11. What are the functions of SCERT, Textbook Board and Secondary Education Board?
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2.6 REGIONAL LEVEL ORGANIZATIONS

Some of the Indian states which are geographically large have been divided into educational
circles to raise the efficiency of school administration and supervision. The person incharge
of the circle or division is known as Circle Inspector, Circle Education Officer or Divisional
Inspector. Such educational circles are necessary to ensure the efficiency of school management.
The CEO acts as a link between the state and districts. The functions of the CXO are as
follows:
a) to co-ordinate the efforts of DEOs to avoid waste of time and money and thereby raise
efficiency,
b) to establish link between the Directorate and districts,
c) to plan and execute governmental policies in his region,
d) to determine the educational needs of the area,
e) to undertake supervision of the schools, and
f) to review the educational programmes and provide feedback to the Directorate of Education
in the State.
2.7 DESTRICT LEVEL ORGANIZATIONS

At the District level, there are the District Education Officer/District Inspectors and District
7R Institute of Education and Training. ,
Structure of'SeBeel E k k d h
2.7.1 District Education Office
The District Education Office is considered to be the most important unit in school
administration. It is under the charge of a District Education Officer (DEO) and under him
there are twolthree School Inspectors to assist him. In some States, there are separate DEO's
for primary schools and for secondary schools of the district. Both the DEOs have similar
functions at their respective school levels. The DEOs perform both academic and administrative
duties as under:
a) Supervision of schools and ensuring that schools adhere to given rules and regulations,
b) Communicating orders from the Directorate and Regional Circle Office to the schools,
c) Appoint, transfer, grant leave and look into the promotion of teaching and non-teaching
staff of government managed schools,
d) Advise and assist development of schools,
e) Establish links between the state level organizations and schools,
f) Collect data about the school and provide it to State government from time to time,
g) Guide curricular and co-curricular programmes of the schools, and
h) Attend to grievances.
Under the Panchayati Raj Scheme, Zila Parishads have been established. The Parishad consists
of representatives of block level Panchayats. As in other subjects, the Parishad is responsible
for educational development of the district, The District level education officer is usually the
member secretary of the Parishad. The pattern of functioning varies in the States. Some Zila
Parishads have substantial authority for educational development.
2.7.2 District Institute of Education and 'kaining (DIET)

The Programme of Action (POA) (1986) envisaged the setting up of DIETs in each district
of the country. Many DIETs have been established in the country. These institutes are managed
by their Principals who alongwith teaching staff conduct pre-service and in-service training
programmes for elementary school teachers. The functions of DIET are:
a) Survey the local needs and problems in elementary education,
b) Conduct in-service and pre-service training programmes for elementary school teachers,
c) Improve the competence of teachers in subjects and methods of teaching,
d) Conduct action research and training of teachers for action research, and
e) Promote the quality of learning in schools.
2.8 ROLE OF LOCAL LEVEL ORGANIZATIONS

The 42nd Amendment of the Constitution in 1991 on Panchayati Raj institutions envisages
the introduction of democratically elected bodies at the district, sub-district and gram-panchayat
levels. The Bill has made provision for the representation of women, scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes in the administrative bodies at local level viz. Municipalities, Village Panchayat
and Village Education Committee. Let us look at the formation and functions of these local
bodies in schgol education.
2.8.1 Local Bodies in Rural Areas

As per the Panchayati Raj Act, the state governments have to make arrangements for
democratically elected bodies to look after education. According to Article 40 of the
Constitution, "the States shall take steps to organize village panchayats and endow them with
such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self
government" . The Balwant Raj Mehta Committee had suggested a three-tier system of
administration viz. Gram Panchayat at the village level, a Panchayat Samiti at the Block or
Taluka level, and Zila Parishad at the District level.
School System development departments are nominated members in the Parishad. It approves the annual
budget of each Gram Panchayat in its jurisdiction, considers the demands of the Block
level samities and recommends to the state government for approval. It also guides the
work of the Block Samities and asks them for revision of plans and budget.
ii) Panchayat Samiti : This Samiti is at the Block or Taluka level. The Chairman is elected
by the members of Gram Panchayat in the Block and he is incharge of the Sarniti. The
functions of the Samiti are as under :
a) Construction and supervision of school building,
b) Supply of equipments to schools,
c) Enforcement of rules and regulations of the Government,
d)
e)
.
Involvement of the local community in education, and
Establishment of linkages between the Zila Panchayat and Gram Panchayat.
iii) Gram Panchayat : Gram Panchayats are formed by taking into consideration a big
village or some small villages in a geographical area as one unit. The administration of
primary schools has been entrusted to Gram Panchayats. Under the control of the Gram
Panchayat, there can be more than one school. The Sarpanch is the head of the Panchayat
and he is elected directly by the people. Under the Sarpanch, there are some elected
members from all the wards. The functions of Gram Panchayats in school education are
as follows :
a) To fulfil local needs through education,

bl) To bring school and local community together,
c) To expand facilities for primary education,
d) To plan school education in the village, and
e) To provide suggestions to its Zila Panchayat and Block Samiti for improvement of
school education.
iv) Village Education Committee (VEC) : The Panchayati Raj Bill envisages that each
Gram Panchayat will have a Village Education Committee in its village. The VEC would
be responsible for the administration of the delegated programmes in the field of education
at the village level. VEC comprises representatives of women, minority groups, and head
masters, sarpanch and ward members. For constituting VEC, elections may not be required.
The major responsibilities of VEC are :
a) It undertakes local level and school mapping in the village through systematic
house-to-house survey and periodic discussion with parents,
b) It ensures that all children are enrolled and retained in the school,
c) It ensures that all segments of the population participate in the education process,
'd) It ensures regular functioning of schools, and
e) It establishes close link with Gram Panchayat and other levels of administration.
2.8.2 Local Bodies in Urban Areas

Municipalities, Municipal Corporations and Nagar Palika: The Nagar Palika Bill, 1989 has
made the following provisions for Municipalities, Corporation and Nagar Palikas:
a) It will have an elected body to govern the city for five years,
b) The Chairman or Mayor will be the head of the Committee,
c) It will have a Vice-Chairman or Deputy-Mayor to assist the Chairman or Mayor, and
d) The Committee members will be elected from each locality of the city.
The functions of the Corporation of Palika in school education are as under :
a) To ensure that adequate facilities are provided in schools,
b) To establish new schools,
c) To recruit teachers, Stmctun d Sehod Macation
d) To provide adequate finances for schools, and

e) To plan along with teachers and community the development of the school under its
jurisdiction.
2.9 TEACHERS' UNION

The teachers' Union play a major role in the school management. Generally, a Union has a
President, a Vice-President, Secretary and members in it. These posts are filled up by nomination
or election. The functions of such organizations are as follows:
a) To facilitate the normal functioning of schools and teachers,
b) To suggest to school management the criteria, rules and regulation for recruitment, transfer,
leave, salary etc.,
C) To suggest to the Zila Parishad, Municipal Corporation, DEO, DPI and Secretariat for
any new provision or modification with regard to school functioning, and
d) To negotiate with authorities regarding scales and service conditions of teachers.
2.9.1 Role of Trustees and Private Managements

A large number of primary and secondary schools have been established and are maintained
by agencies like industries, religious groups, minority groups etc. These schools generally
have a Board of Trustee or Management to regulate the day-to-day affairs of their schools.
The members of the Board are mainly nominated or ex-officio. The functions of such bodies
in school education are :
a) To appoint teachers and Principal of their schools,
b) To regulate admission of students in their schools,
c) To provide finances to their school and create infrastructural facilities,
d) To see that rules and regulations of the State Government are followed in their schools,
and
e) To look into the day-to-day affairs of the school.
Check Your Progress

12. What are the local bodies that manage school education?
.......................................................................................................................................
13. What are the functions of the local bodies in school education?
14. What are the roles of Teachers' Unions?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
LET US SUM UP
In the preceding section, you learnt the functions of Regional, District and Sub-district level
organizations in school education. Regional level Education Office is charged with the
responsibility to promote efficiency of school functioning and to establish linkage between
Directorate and DEOs. The Regional Offices alongwith DEOs and School Inspectors supervise
schools, implement policies and decisions of the State Ministry and Directorate of Education.
They also provide data to Directorate about the schools under them. There are also DIETS
which conduct in-service and pre-service training of school teachers of primary schools. Local
bodies viz. Zila Parishad, Panchayat Samiti and Gram Panchayat administer education in a
democratic way. Some of the schools are also directly looked after by private managements
and trustees and although such schools work within the given guidelines.of the state, they
manage their own school by providing finances, staff, and infrastructure. In addition to these
local bodies and organizations, we have also Teachers' Unions which often play a major role
in the functions of the schools. Such unions not only take care of the interest of teachers but
also advise State government and school management on the improvement of school education.
Now you may take the following exercise.

1. Visit the District Education Office and find the ways to regulate the education of school
through different agencies.
2. Review the Constitutional provisions for the education of SC, ST and minority
communities.
POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Can a school be free from all the control of State or District level agencies?
2. Pmchayati Raj and school development.
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. i) Union List
ii) State List
iii) Current ~ i s t
2. - -
Union List : Entry - 13, Entry 62, Entry - 63, Entry 64, Entry - 65, Entry - 66,
State List : Entry - 12
Concurrent List : Entry - 20, Entry - 25 and Entry - 39.
3. The Constitutional provisions for the education of SCs and STs children are as follows:
Art.28 i) It states that if a school is run by the Government funds, it can not
impart religious instruction.
ii) If a school is established under any endowment trust, it can impart
religious instruction.
Art.29 i) Any citizen residing within the territory of India has the right to Stroctare oPSchod Ed.cl.tiw,
conserve its language, culture, script of its own.
ii) No citizen shall be denied admission to any educational institution
maintained out of state funds on the basis of caste, race, religion,
language or any of them.
Art.30 i) All minorities whether based on religion or language have the right
t to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
ii) State shall not in granting grants or aids to educational institutions,
discriminate against any institution on the ~ o u n of
d minority, language
or religion.
4. We have the following Constitutional provision for teaching of mother tongue:
Art.350 (A) State shall have to ensure adequate provision facilities for imparting
instruction in mother tongue at the primary education level to children
helonging to mino~itygroups. The President may issue directions to
any state as he considers necessary.
5. i) 10+2+3 pattern of education.
10 = Std. I to X = Elementary (Primary & Upper Primary), Secondary
+2 = Std. XI to XI1
+3 = 3 yrs. degree course
7. 1. Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi (CBSE).
2. Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan (KVS), New Delhi.
3. National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), New Delhi.
4. National Open School, New' Delhi.
8. The Cenual Government responsibilities are to make available free and compulsory
primary education, equalization of educational opportunities, make provision for scholarship
to competent and needy student, promote the vocationalization of education, improve
standarde of education, improve status of teacher education programme, organize non-
formal and open schools, promote research at school level, and administer school education
directly in union territories.
The State Government controls directly the school education in the states. The
responsihilities are to:
establish educational institutions.
provide grants to schools.
supervise Schools.
appoint school teachers and look after staff development.
conduct examination.
prepare textbooks.
feed information to the Central Government.
9. NCERT, New Delhi.
NCTE, New Delhi.
I
CABE, New Delhi.
CBSE, New Delhi.
TBB : Text Book Board

BSE : Board of Secondary Education
1 Ministry of Education.
School System 11. a) NCERT : It organizes research, extension work, training programme for pre-
service and in-service training programme, disseminate knowledge and
information, formulate policies and programmes in school education.
b) NCTE : It co-ordinates and develop teachers iducation programme at primary
and secondary level. It also advises the Central Government, State
Government, and UGC in matter relating to teacher education.
c) CABE : It advises the Central and State Government in matters relating to policies
and programmes of school education.
d) CBSE : It prescribes the syllabus for secondary education, conduct examinations,
give affiliation to schools and develop curriculum and textual materials.
12. a) SCERT : It provides in-service waning to teachers of primary and secondary
schools, DEOs, BEOs and School Inspectors. The teacher education programme
is looked after by the body. It prepares curriculum and textbooks for school
children, provides scholarships, and other incentives to them and support the
institutional process. It feeds information to NCERT and establish linkages with
other national bodies.
b) Textbook Board: It performs the following functions :
Develop and supply textbooks for school level.
Textbook evaluation researchers are conducted.
Organise training programme and workshops for subject expects to develop
textbooks.
c) Board of Secondary Education: It performs the following functions:
Prescribe syllabi and textbooks for schools.
Conducts examinations and improve evaluation practices.
Co-operate with other state institutes of education.
Organise training programme for evaluators.
Conduct special examination for the awad of scholarships.
13. The local bodies that manage school education are :
Zila Parishad
Panchayat Samiti
Gram Panchayat
Village Education Committee (VEC)
Municipal Corporation
Teachers' Union
Education Trust
14. The functions of local bodies are :
to improve quality of education
to appoint teachers
to formulate school policies
to provide finance and infrastructure to school
to look into the day-to-day affairs of school
to establish linkages with other schools, District Education Office and Block
Level Office.
15. The roles of teachers' unions are : Stmeture of School Education
to raise the status of teachers

to look into the working conditions of teachers
to facilitate the normal functioning of schools
i to suggest any change in rules and regulations of school management
1 to suggest the bodies at State and District level for any new provision in school
to negotiate with bodies at state level regarding salaries and service conditions.
L 2.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

L
Govinda, R., (ed.) (1997) : Decentralization of Educational Management :Experiencesfrom
/ South Asia. IIEP, UNESCO. Paris.
Mathur, S.S., (1990) : Educational Administration and Management, Ambala Cantt., Ambala,
India.
I
I Gore, M S . (1994) : Indian Education - Structure and Process, Rawat Publication, Jaipur,
New Delhi.
Stoops, E. and Rafferty, M.L., (1961) : Policies and Trends in School Administration, Ginn
Company, New York.
3.4.1 Re-school Education
3.4.2 Ten Year Schooling
3.4.3 Higher Secondary Education
3.4.4 University Education
3.5 Physical Infrastructure
School Building
Classmoms
Library
Laboratory
The Administrative Block
Staff Room
School Playgrounds
Other Facilities and Equipment
3.6 Hierarchies in School System
3.6.1 Qpes of Hierarchies of Structure
3.7 Manpower Resources
3.7.1 Principal
3.7.2 Supervisors
3.7.3 Teaching Personnel
3.7.4 Librarian
3.7.5 Administrative Staff
3.7.6 Pupils
3.7.7 Community
3.8 Let Us Sum Up
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Human beings are social entities. They live in groups or societies. In their day-to-day life in
a society, they have to play a viuiety of roles, perform several tasks and solve many problems.
Some of these problems individuals can handle on their own. However, most of the problems
they face and tasks they have to perform need group effort. In other words, an individual in
a society depends on others for the fulfilment of several of his needs. Take for example, the
security of the country. Every nation has to equip itself against external aggression and internal
rebellion. No single individual, however strong he might be, can defend the nation all alone.
Educating the young ones in the society is yet another example. In the past, the goals of
education were limited. Either the father of the family took up the task of educating the young
ones or the task was entrusted to one who was specialized in it, namely, the 'guru'. However,
as time progressed, the task of education became very complex. An ~ndividual,however scholarly
he might be, cannot be expected to provide children with all the knowledge, skills and attitudes
expected of the young. These are the days of specialization. In fact, we need a team of
specialists or experts specifically trained for different tasks. The society has to bring together
a number of such experts in a formal relationship to carry out the task of educating the young.
This group of experts and the multitude of pupils who assemble together in a particular place
for the purpose of education we call school organization.
In this unit, let us learn about the school as a formal organization, its structure, its various
physical infrastructure, the hierarchies present within the school system as well as the various
manpower resources present within school as an organization.
OBJECTIVES
After having studied the unit, you should be in a position to:
define what an organization is and to spell out the various characteristics that mark the
school as a formal organization;
state the main functions of school as an organization;
name and explain the structure or different layers that underlie school as an organization;
describe various aspects of the physical infrastructure associated with school;
explain different types of hierarchies the school organization usually has and state their
functions; and
spell out various manpower resources available within school as an organization and
explain their roles.
3.3 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION

In the introduction to this unit, we have noted that certain needs of a society like protecting
the society from external attack or educating the young, etc. cannot be carried out by single
individuals. For such purposes collective effort on the part of members of the society is
required. When a group of people bound together in a formal relationship to achieve such goals
as we have seen, organizations come into existence. The army, the school, the nearby
Municipality, etc. are examples of such organizations. Each of these organizations has specific
goals or purposes for its existence. We can define an organization as a set of stable social
relationships deliberately created with the explicit intention of continuously accomplishing
some specific goals or purposes.
If we look around, we shall not fail to notice the existence of several such organization in the society
some of which are formal, others informal or casual. The army, the school, the local panchayat or
municipality are examples of the former category while the cricket team in your neighbourhood
composed of local youngsters or an assembly of women in a neighbourhood meeting after their
meals are examples of the latter. A formal organization is a highly organized group having explicit
objectives, formally stated rules and regulations, and a system of specifically defined roles, each
with clearly designated rights and duties. Informal organizations are systems of personal relationships
that develop spontaneously as individuals interact within a societal set up.
All organizations, be they formal or casual, have some elements in common. All of them have
goals or purposes. In fact, no organization can come into existence without a purpose or a goal.
Similarly, all of them have some programmes or methods for achieving these goals. All of them
likewise have leaders or managers to manage affairs of the organization.

School is a formal organization. It is an arrangement or structure within which principal,
supervisors, teachers, pupils and others cooperate to carry out various activities of the school
so as to achieve the organizational goals of educating the young ones. It, being a school has
all the characteristics of a formal organization. Now, let us try to find out what those
characteristics are:
i) To run a school, one needs official sanction. Before opening a school, the prescribed
conditions have to be met and the required permission needs to be obtained.
ii) Like other formal organizations, school is a permanent body as its membership persists
beyond the immediate membership. As the old members leave, new ones keep on occupying
their position. Thus, a school never runs out of its membership.
ml System iii) A school, like any other formal organization, has an assigned hierarchy. At the apex is the
principal. Below him are a few supervisors; under each supervisor are a number of
teachers; and under each teacher is a large body of pupils. The framing of this hierarchy
is guided by certain codes and rules.
iv) Every position in the hierarchy has definite roles and responsibilities. This means the
principal, the supervisors, the teachers, etc. have their specific roles and responsibilities.
v) The objectives and tasks of a school, as in case of any other formal organization, are
perceived not only by the members of the organization, but also by everyone in the
society.
All these characteristics show that school is a formal and not a casual organization.
3.3.2 Functions of School as an Organization

In the preceding section of this unit, we have noted that school fulfills all the characteristics
of a formal organization and therefore it is a formal organization beyond doubt. Now, let us
proceed to find out the main functions of a school as an organization.
Everyone in a society, even those who are illiierate, knows that the main purpose for the
existence of school is to educate children. The term "education" had in the past a very limited
connotation. It generally referred to learning three Rs (reading, writing and arithmetic). However,
as time passed, the concept underwent a change. Education now refers to the all round
development of a child. Today, in addition to the mental (intellectual or cognitive) development
of a pupil, hisher physical, moral, emotional, spiritual, social, aesthetic and even vocational
developmant are also emphasized in education. The task of a school, therefore, is quite gigantic
and through planning and execution of various activities a school tries to achieve the
organizational goal of education.
When pupils come to school, they have already formed habits which are generally acquired
during the early years of life. A school's basic function is to identify those basic traits which
exist in each pupil. Some of these habits and traits might be seen to be undesirable. School tries
to change these traits in desired directions. Freud thought that mind was like an iceberg. As
in the case of an iceberg, only certain elements of personality of an individual are visible, while
much of it is submerged. It takes an enlightened teacher to discover those innate potentialities
lying submerged in a student. The main function of a school is to find those traits in each pupil,
some of which are visible and others invisible and could be nurtured by giving an adequate
opportunity.
Schools usually have an elaborate system of activities and learning experiences which in its
totality is called curriculum. It is with the help of this that schools bring about modification
of behaviour of their pupils in desired direction. Cumculum comprises a multitude of curricular,
co-curricular and extra-curricular activities. While debating, holding seminars, discussions etc.
are part of co-curricular activities, celebrating national holidays like the Independence Day,
Republic Day, Teachers' Day, Childrens' Day etc. and conducting special activities on such
occasions like staging of plays and presentation of cultural activities are instances of extra-
curricular activities. These activities give pupils the exposure which in turn provides them with
the experience from which they gain the required knowledge, information, skills and attitudes.
Schools, therefore, have to plan and organize various activities in such a manner that total
development of the pupils takes place.
Schools generally have a lopsided curriculum. They mainly emphasize cognitive development
of pupils at the expense of other important aspects of their personality. A curriculum should
have adequate provision for such activities, as socially useful productive works (SUPW),
music, painting various types of sports and games, etc. Physical education, for example, should
get its due share among school activities. It should not merely be considered as a series of
exercises through which a child's body is developed but as a medium which secures social and
emotional development of a child. Teams of children working together offer abundant
opportunities to develop such characteristics as endurance, co-operation, self-discipline,
leadership, fair-play, and even sportsmanship. Games which require physical strength enable
them to master their temper, control their emotions and develop good manners. In addition,
physical education provides scope for worthwhile recreational pursuits which will develop
interests for their leisure, provide fun and amusement. Physical education, therefore, should not
be looked upon as boring but as an educationally enjoyable activity.
The extent of fulfilment of educational goals depends very largely on the personality of the School O ~ + t i a n
principal. First and foremost, he should be a man of vision. He should have realistic vision of
the type of pupils that his organization would like to produce. With a vision before him, he has
to plan and organize various activities in the school. Through his constant striving and selfless
endeavour, he would be able to translate his vision into a reality by making the maximum use
of the various resources available. We can therefore, say that to a great extent the image and
status as well as the fulfilment of organizational goals depend on the personality of the principal.
Intext Activity 1
Visit one of the schools in your neighbourhood. Both through observation and discussion
with the principal and some of the teachers, find out the various activities and the
purposes for which they are being organized in the school. Assess how far these activities
are effective in fulfilling the objectives for which they are being organized. Suggest ways
through which they can be made more useful in case you find them in-effective.
3.4 SCHOOL STRUCTURE

In this unit, we have so far seen that school is a formal organization and that the main purpose
for its existence is the education of boys aqd girls in the society. Now, let us discuss school
structure.
The question of school structure is becoming increasingly important because it influences the
number and determines the distribution of the people who flow through the system. It is seen
as a major instrument by means of which policy objectives and priorities set for the system can
be achieved. Hence one of the main policy concerns is to devise educational structure which
is compatible with sound pedagogic principles and theories of individual development and will
facilitate the harmonious pursuit of a variety of objectives - social, economic, cultural and
political - served by education in a modern society.
If we look to the past, we find that schools in India were not graded. The Brahmanic and the
Buddhistic schools and the Maqtabs and Madrasas of the Muslims were supported to provide
limited forms of instruction, and anyone who wished to have education attended these schools
irrespective of his age. These were in a sense single teacher schools.
Graduation
(3 years)
Higher Secondary
(2 years)
Secondary
(2 years)
Upper Primary
/
(3 years)
Elementary Education
Lower Primary
(5 years)
Preschool stage
(Nursery and
Kinder Garten)
Fig 3.1
School System The educational hierarchy in a systematic form was introduced in India by the Wood's Despatch
of 1854. This Despatch laid down a scheme of education ffom the elementary to the university
stage. ?he entire education programme constituted of four stages, the primary, the middle, the
high school and the university. Although during the long years that followed, there have been
changes here and there and the main educational structure has remained almost the same to date.
At prewnt India has the 10+2+3 educational pattern as recommended by the Education
Commi$sion (1964-66) and the National Policy .statement issued by the Central Government
in 1968. Therefore, there is a uniform educational structure in all parts of the country. Out of
the ten years of school education, 8 years of schooling are for elementary education which
generally is divided into lower primary and upper primary and two years of secondary school.
The ten years of school are followed by two years of higher secondary education.
In many parts of the country, especially in urban areas, some form of pre-school education for
children of the age group 3 to 6 is available. It is during these years that children develop most
of their habits. This stage is, therefore, of paramount importance in the growth of the child.
Since this stage of education occurs prior to actual schooling, this stage is known as pre-school
or pre-primary education. By the time a child completes six years of age, he or she is admitted
to Standard I and during the subsequent ten years, heishe completes the secondary stage and
enters the higher secondary stage which is of two years' duration. After completion of higher
secondaxy stage, a student has to spend another three years for completing studies leading to
first degree viz. B.A., B.Com. or B.Sc. In some courses, like medicine, engineering and so on
a student need not enter frrst degree level studies. They are admitted on the basis of tests to
4-5 years of professional education.
3.4.1 Pre-school Education

Preschool education is generally given between the age of three and six. This stage of education,
as we have already noted, is very important in the life of a child for physical, emotional and
intellectual development. It provides a healthy foundation for the future of the child.
The main purposes of providing pre-school education are as under:
To develop in children good health habits, to build up basic skills necessary for personal
adjustment such as dressing, toilet habits, eating, washing, etc. .
To develop desirable social attitudes and manners, to encourage healthy group pxticipation,
making the child sensitive to the rights and privileges of others, etc.
To promote emotional development by guiding the child to express, understand and accept
and control his feelings and emotions.
To encourage aesthetic appreciation.
To stimulate intellectual curiosity concerning the environment and help the child understand
the world in which he lives, to develop the ability to express his thoughts and feelings in
fluent, correci and clear speech.
To promote cognitive development.
To promote school readiness.
Play forms a major component of the curriculum at this stage as it provides children with
all kinds of experiences that lead to both cognitive and social development. A teacher offers
children a range of play activities and helps them explore them to the full. Importantly
children develop the ability to verbalize their thoughts and activities. Thus, children are
helped to develop linguistic and cognitive skills to gain confidence in their own ability to
command appropriate vocabulary structures while at the same time extending their knowledge
of how the physical world behaves and of the appropriate skills for dealing with this world.
Thus, through play, children's ability to sort, categorize, match by colour, size and shape,
recognize familiar objects, symbols, identify the relationship between cause and effect, to
use and modify existing knowledge in the solutions of new problems, etc. are being developed.
Play is again used as a medium for developing essential manipulative skills such as using
pencils, scissors and constructional toys. Play, thus, proves to be great instrument for their
development.
Children at play would provide a teacher with opportunity to gain insight into their
behaviour which, in turn, would assist him or her to help mould their behaviour in a better School Organization
manner.
3.4.2 Ten Year Schooling

Whether or not a child has undergone pre-primary education, helshe is ready for admission to
school at the age of six. The decision to have this pattern was taken with a view to strengthening
national integration, modernizing and strengthening school curricula and raising the general
standard and quality of education at all levels. Such a step, would further facilitate greater pupil
mohility .and the introduction of vocationalization at an appropriate stage, etc. Ten years schooling
was expected to provide common, undiversified and broad-hased general education for all
practical purposes.
The NCERT has recently come out with a national curriculum framework for ten years of
schooling. It has the following main features:
a To develop human resources for the realization of national goals of development.
a To provide a hroad-based general education to all at the primary and secondary stages.
a To emphasize such core elements as history of India's freedom movement, constitutional
obligations, emphasis on national identity and India's common cultural heritage, democracy
and socialism, equality of sexes, protection of environment, observance of small family
norm and inculcation of scientific temper.
a To define minimum learning outcomes for each area of learning at all stages of
education.
a To provide flexibility in terms of content and learning experiences.
a To provide child centered and activity-based education rather than use teacher centered
approaches during the transaction of curriculum.
The framework, thus, gives a comprehensive perspective for education at national level. The
framework is suggestive and provides flexibility in adoption of its approach. In fact, what is
actually being envisaged in only a broad framework which would provide room for considerable
amount of flexibility and accommodate local specificities in terms of content, methodology,
resources, etc.
The ten year schooling also gives weightage to inter-active style of teaching and learning
instead of the prevalent expository style of teaching which leaves little room for interaction.
In the absence of interaction, students are unable to develop such qualities as independent
thinking, originality, creativity, critical thinking, scientific temper and such other qualities.
Only those styles of teaching and learning based on teacher-student interaction are capable of
producing such qualities. In the present pattern, therefore, a teacher is not visualized as a mere
transmitter of information, but as a facilitator of learning. Students are expected to involve
themselves into a variety of modes of activities such as observation, projects, assignments,
demonstration and experimentation, playway activities, role playing and dramatization,
discussion, etc. These ways of curricular transaction is pupil centered rather than teacher
centered.
Through such learning experiences, it is hoped, students would gradually pick-up the required
knowledge, skills and attitudes needed for being useful citizens.
3.4.3 Higher Secondary ~dukation

By the time, an individual completes ten years of general education, he would he showing
certain liking or aptitude in some specific direction. Aptitude, would reveal an individual's
present characteristics which indicates his future potentialities. Through a formal or informal
conference with the individual, while talking with him, from his written or oral classwork,
through administration of interest questionnaires, standard interest inventories and aptitude
tests or from school records, one could collect sufficient evidence as to one's aptitude. Based
on the data obtained, pupils at the end of Class X could be loosely classified as having
mechanical, artistic, scientific, literary aptitudes. It is desirable that teachers, parents and others
who are concerned with the education of children should see that they are diverted at this stage
to a course of study according to their aptitudes so that they could make the maximum use of
their potentialities. Higher secondary or +2, therefore, may be seen as a stage for diversification.
School System At +2 stage, as we have already noted, different possibilities are open for students so that they
can follow their inclinations after the compulsory stage of study. Thus, in accordance with his/
her aptitude, a student may select agriculture education, technical education, education in arts,
science or commerce ,or any other vocational area which heishe feels suits himher. Within
agriculture education itself, for example, the courses are so varied that they include agriculture,
animal husbandry, dairying, animal diseases, horticulture, marketing, village industry etc. The
same is the case with technical education, science, arts, commerce, etc. Technical eduation again,
for example, involves several courses related to vocational, technical and professional training.
At +2 stage, therefore, each student should choose a line in conformity with his aptitude so that
he could gradually find opportunity for self-actualization.
Unlike general education period of ten years, the higher secondary stage is meant to provide
pupils with knowledge and skills in certain specific directions. It is during this stage or at the
end of it, that students mostly decide their future course of action, or their vocation or profession.
3.4.4 University Education

At the university stage students can pursue their further studies - general or professional
education. It also provides students with a opportunity to engage vigorously and fearlessly in
the pursuit of truth, interpret old knowledge and beliefs in the light of new needs and discoveries
and to the right kind of leadership in all walks of life. Universities also have the function of
supplying society with competent men and women, well-versed and fully trained in agriculture,
arts, medicine, science, technology and various other professions. Apart from teaching and
training, universities also do several tasks related to research and dissemination.
Check Your Progress

1. Three main purposes of pre-school education are:
i) ..................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
ii) ..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
iii) ..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
2. The common structure of education in the country is
3. Upto what stage is general education provided to students and why?
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
4. What are the specific characteristics of the higher secondary stage?
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
3.5 PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
We have so far learnt that the school is a formal organization and its main function is
imparting of education. We have also found out about the school structure. Now we have
to learn something regarding the physical infrastructure necessary for schools in general.
School, as we have noted, is an organization whose main task is to provide education which
involves a series of programmes and activities. The successful conduct of these programmes
and activities depends mainly upon the availability of proper infrastructure in a school. The
term 'physical infrastructure' refers to the physical facilities of a school. It is often referred to
as school plant which includes various buildings, grounds, furniture and apparatus and other
equipment essential for imparting education.
Ideally speaking, a school should be set up in a suitable atmosphere. Its location has enormous
significance. It should have plenty of space with shady trees around, far away from the noise of
the crowded city and polluting atmosphere. However, this doesn't imply that school site should
be so far away as to be inaccessible to children, traffic and essential services. What we imply is
that there should be a calm and quiet atmosphere which is conducive to teaching and learning.
The school plant itself should be well planned in terms of space, utility and attractiveness. The
school buildings should be attractive, have adequate lighting, comfortable seating, useful service
facilities such as library, multipurpose rooms, functional play grounds, classrooms, chalk and
bulletin boards, sinks, work areas, filing and storage space and lockers for pupils and teachers
etc. Although financial limitations may not permit all these facilities, an ideal school requires
them all. If our school plants are to play the role of learning laboratories where pupils are
provided with the opportunity for doing their own study either individually or in groups, to
think togetder, to arrive at conclusions and to plan constructive programmes, etc. all these
facilities need to be provided.
3.5.1 School Building

School buildings should be planned spaciously, functionally and with pleasing architechtural
features. They should have all the space and convenience needed for carrying out the multifarious
activities and programmes of the school. What is required is that the various rooms in the
building should have the required space and facilities needed for carrying out various activities
for which they are meant.
While constructing a school building, therefore, we should keep in mind the school buildings
should have different facilities such as library, different laboratories (physics, chemistry and biology),
workshops (to impart work experience), arts and crafts rooms, staff room, principal's office, school
office, a multipurpose hall which can serve as assembly hall, auditorium, gymnasium, etc.
The architectural design of the building is important. It should allow free movement in and out
of classroom for students and teachers while it is often preferred that schools are housed in
single storey building in urban areas due to non-availability of land; multi storeyed buildings
are constructed for schools.
3.5.2 Classrooms
Every school should have adequate number of classrooms and every classroom should have
pleasant look. Walls should be painted in some light colours and rooms should be carefully
decorated. Fixed to the walls on either side should be flannel boards for pinning notices,
newssheets, charts, writeups, maps, etc. The front wall should have blackboard at appropriate
height. The wall at the back should have built-in-cupboards for keeping books, tools, crafts
materials, apparatus for experiments, maps and other teaching aids. In a classroom where there
are movable seats and work tables, where varied resources for learning are readily available
in storage cabinets, the seating can be changed in a variety of activities simultaneously. The
classroom should be well lighted so that students seated at different corners are able to see the
teacher and the blackboard.
3.5.3 Library
With the shift from formal to non-formal ways of education and from expository ways of
teaching and learning to interactive and pupil centered models of teaching and learning, the
library plays a very vital role in school. The library, therefore, is now an essential component
School System of a good school. The room should be located in such a way that students are not disturbed
by noise. This, however, does not mean that it should be so located as to be inaccessible.
Library is a place where a useful means of storing and communicating knowledge and one that
teacher today cannot do without. A library is a repository of books and should have textbooks,
workbooks, reference books, fiction, non-fiction books at various reading levels, reference
books on special topics and interests and related pamphlets, clippings, pictures, maps, charts,
various periodicals, kits containing teaching materials of various kinds, wall sheets pictures,
charts, diagrams and posters on which selected information is presented in a large format
suitable for use with large or small groups of children. Resource materials in the library should
be so arranged that they can be easily located and utilized. Normally library should have
an open shelf system so that students can pick up books and other material wherever they so
want.
3.5.4 Laboratory
Like the library, the laboratory is also essential. It is here where experiments are conducted,
where hypotheses are tested and where answers to various problems are sought. Schools with
+2 stage need a biology, a physics and a chemistry laboratory. The physics lab should have
various apparatus like optical instruments, spring balance, pendulums, glass slabs, glass prisms,
etc. The biology laboratory should have mounted slides of micro organisms like bacteria,
amoeba, mounted plant and animal cells, bottled samples of various reptiles, embryo, models
of heart, kidney, lungs, etc. A chemistry laboratory should have acids, and bases of required
concentration, various other chemicals, indicators, test tubes, flasks of various sizes and shapes,
vessels, glass rods and burners, etc. In addition to these, the laboratories should have charts,
diagrams, maps and other useful resources. Thus, the laboratories should be well-planned and
equipped to aid instruction and stimulate general interest.
As is generally known, mere knowledge would not be sufficient for building the required
competence in specific content area. If theory is supported by adequate practice and
experimentations, conceptual clarity could be maintained as well as psychomotor skills could
be developed. Hence, no school, however small it might be, can totally afford to do away with
laboratories altogether.
With the importance of computers in present day life, many schools provide for computer
labs.
3.5.5 The Administrative Block

Since administration involves both leadership and service functions, the administrative block
should be planned carefully. The school office should be centrally located so as to serve as
a good co-ordinating centre which is easily accessible to visitors, teachers, and pupils. The
principal's office should be large enough to accommodate small conferences, and should open
into the general office as well as to the corridor.
A good office of a large school requires a room for the principal, a waiting room for visitors,
an office for clerks, a store room with shelves and cupboards for office and files. In addition,
the office should have such equipment as a typewriter, a duplicating machine, a desk calendar,
rubber stamps, and such other materials to facilitate the performance of various functions.
3.5.6 Staff Room

Teachers should have a room where they can meet and interact with each other, do corrections
of home/school work of students and refer to books, etc. The staff room should have lockers
for teachers so that they can safeguard various reference books and instructional materials, and
answer-books and their personal efforts.
3.5.7 School'Playgrounds
Schools should have well maintained playgrounds. Sports and games play so vital roles in
education that they cannot be totally dispensed with. Playgrounds not only enable pupils to
develop their physical but also help them to grow cognitively, socially and effectively. Hence
any school that has its eye on the total development of children should have enough
facilities for indoor as well as outdoor sports and games. A number of schools have now
54 gymnastic for athletics and sports room for indoor games. Of course, it is important
that schools should have enough funds for purchase of sports and physical education School Organization
equipment.
3.5.8 Other Facilities and Equipment

Apart from having a good library, a couple of laboratories, playgrounds, etc., the school should
also have a11 arts room, a music room, a computer room, a workshop, etc. so that they can
enable students to participate in various activities related to work experience, painting, craft
works, music, etc. which in their own turn would contribute to the total development of the
personality of the individual students.
In short, we can say that physical infrastructure is to education as body is to the mind. A sound
body holds a wholesome mind. Similarly, only adequate and well-planned physical infrastructure
can ensure efficient and effective education.
Check Your Progress

5. How can staff as well as pupils be encouraged to take pride in their school buildings,
keep them tidy and carry out simple repairs when necessary?
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6. What is the educational value of having a school whose grounds are kept neat and
attractive?
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3.6 HIERARCHIES IN SCHOOL SYSTEM

Upto this point in this unit, we have learned about school organization, its purpose, its structure
and its physical infrastructure. Now, we will proceed to learn about the hierarchies present in
the school system in this section of the unit.
The school, as we have already seen, is the centre of many activities. In order to carry
out these activities, several people are appointed. In accordance with the roles and
responsibilities given to each, they occupy different positions, thereby forming certain
hierarchy in the school system. In fact, this hierarchy in the organization represents the
formal procedure through which the school is managed. In short, we can define structure
as a mechanism being set up in order to divide the work among the various members of
the organization.
The above chart shows that at top of the hierarchy is the Principal. Under him are two main
categories of staff, namely the academic and the administrative staff. The academic staff is
responsible for curriculum transaction, while the administrative staff helps the academic staff
in the conduct of various activities by procuring and providing various materials and other
resources and facilities needed for smooth conduct of different activities. In addition, the
administrative staff also helps in collecting fees, maintaining records, etc. Class IV employees
help both the administrative as well as academic staff either as errand boys or help them keep
the neatness and cleanliness of the school plant.
Schools with large enrolments might have a Vice-Principal who assists the Principal in looking
School system
ADPftN ]STRATIWE
srrow
off f ~ SUPERIN
e r€ND-
Fig. 3.2 : Hierarchical Structure of a School
after the schools. In composite schools there might be different people looking after primary
classes, middle classes etc. All of them, howerver, work under the guidance and administrative
control of the principal.
This shows that there is a clear hierarchy in the school system. Academic staff, for instance,
has at its heads, principal or vice-principal. Below himher are supervisors of various departments
namely science, commerce and arts. Below each supervisor are a number of teachers. All the
staff irrespective of the positions that they occupy are expected to look after education and
welfare of students. Similarly, the administrative'staff has superintendent, below whom is a
head clerk and under the head clerk are a number of junior clerks, and so on. Thus, every
organization has certain hierarchies in its system.
Apart from the allocation of various duties and responsibilities, the prevailing structure permits
the principal to coordinate various activities of the school. Coordination involves an integration
of objectives and activities of various units of an organization in order to achieve organizational
goals efficiently.
In addition to the division of labour and coordination, structure of a school also functions as
an effective tool for communication. Successful management of any organization depends, to
a great extent, on the channel of communication that exists in an organization. The structure
that exists in the organization often allows smooth downward flow of information from the
principal to supervisors and from them to teachers and through the teachers to pupils and so
on. Similarly, the structure also permits an upward flow of communication from pupils to
teachers and from them to supervisors etc.
Organizational behaviour is all about performance. To accomplish this objective we need to
learn about behaviour within organizations. The field of organizational behaviour offers a body
of knowledge about people at work and information about their performance. Acquiring this
information will improve our understanding of the behaviour of individuals and groups, as well
as the way organizations .* built and the ways organizations change and develop.
..
According to Keith Devis (1982), "Organizational behaviour is an academic discipline concerned .
with understanding and,dq@bing human behaviour in an organizational environment. It seeks
to shed light on the wh6lkcomplex factor in organizations by identifying causes and efforts
of that behaviour."
In the words of others, "Organizational behaviour is concerned with the study of the behaviour,
attitudes and performance of workers in an organizational setting; the organization's and group's
effects on worker's perceptions, feelings and actions, the environment's effects on the
organization and its human resources and goals, and the effect of the workers on the organization
and its effectiveness." . .
The above definition emphasizes the following points:
i) Formal organizations are only one of several concerns in organizational behaviour.
Individuals and groups as. separate entities are also a part of this field of enquiry.
ii) It is necessary to learn about individual and group behaviour, attitudes and performance.
iii) Organizations, groups and environments play a role in how people behave and perform.
The inter-relatedness of the parts of an organization and the environment must be considered
while discussing the issues related to organizational behaviour.
In this section, so far, the definition and characteristics of organization and the meaning and
definition of organizational behaviour have been explained.
Check Your Progress

1. Organization may be defined as:
2. The essential characteristics of an organization are:

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3. The key elements in organizational behaviour are:

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School System
4. Organizational behaviour may be defined as:
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4.4 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL SYSTEM

In the previous section, an attempt was made to understand organizational behaviour in a
general way. In this section, attempt will be made to understand organizational behaviour in
the context of a school system.
The system concept has a rich history in physical as well as social sciences. Indeed, the idea
of an organised whole, or system, occurring in an environment is fundamental and essential to
science. The notion of a social system is a general one. Therefore, it can be applied to social
organization that are carefully and deliberately planned. The school is a system of social
interactions; it is an organised whole consisted of interacting personalities bound together in
an organic relationship. As a social system, it is characterized by an inter-dependence of parts,
a clearly defined population, differentiated from its environment, a complex network of social
relationships and its own unique culture.
4.4.1 Social System

A social system is a bounded set of elements (sub-systems) and activities that interact and constitute
a single social entity. This statement implies that a social system is creative because by definition it
has praperties and purpose over and above the component parts and relationships. In a school, for
example, educated individuals are created. In the words of Marvin Olsen, "Social system is a model
of organization that possesses a distinctive total unity (creativity) beyond its component p a s ; it is
Environment
Boundary
I The School Building

Mutually interacting components
1. Elements - Sub-systems
1
Formal School Structure
Administration and Policy
Classrooms
Individuals
Inputs, Administrators
A
Other Employees
Students
2. Activities - behaviour
Administering
Teaching
Maintaining
Learning
Creating
k
Socializing I
Boundary
Feedback Loop
Fig. 4.2: A graphic illusbtion of the social system defmition using a schod building as the unit of analysis.
Source: Hoy, W.K. and Miskel. C.G. (1991): Educational Administration - ZReory, Research
-
and Practice, pp. 29.
66
distinguished ffo111 its environment by a clearly defined boundary; it is composed of sub-units, elements Organizational Behaviour
and sub-systems that are interrelated within relatively stable patterns (equilibria) of social order."
Figure 4.2 and the following discussion of each component of the preceding definition along with
a synthesis of the basic model, should help increase your understanding of a school as a social
system.
Boundaries: A given social system, such as the school building in Figure 4.2 must be
bounded in the same manner to separate it from the environment. The school building, as
the unit of analysis, coincides with the larger schooling system. Therefore, when using
social system analysis, it is important to define carefully the boundaries and the unit of
analysis.
Environment: The environment is anything outside the boundaries of the unit of analysis
that (1) affects the attributes of the internal components, and (2) is changed by the social
system itself. Educational policies, administrators, other schools, and the community are
some of elements constituting the environment in Figure 4.2. The environment contributes
students, materials, information and cultural values; the school returns.educated persons and
infornlation in matters of social significance. Thus, for any organization (here the school) to
function effectively, there must be mutual control and exchange between environment and
organization (school). This mutual control and exchange is explained in social system model
as homeostasis, feedback, and equilibrium.
Homeostasis: It is a process in which a group of regulators act to maintain a steady state
among the system components. A biological analogy illustrates the concept when an
organism moves from a warm environment to a cold one, homeostatic mechanism trigger
reactions to maintain body temperature. Similarly, in a school, crucial elements, or sub-
systems, and activities must be protected so that overall stability is maintained.
Feedback Loop: The triggering mechanism in the school social system (Figure 4.2) is the
feedback loop. This mechanism ensures that a portion of the school's behaviour and the
internal and external environment's reactions to that behaviour are filtered back into the system
as input.
Equilibrium: This exists when the social and biological parts of the system maintain a constant
relationship to each other so that no part changes its position or relation with respect to all
other parts. As administrators are well aware, progressive or disruptive stresses upset this
equilibrium and create temporary periods of disequilibrium. For example, a community group
may demand that a course on sex education be introduced in the school curriculum, while
another group may oppose the idea. Further, addition of an additional component to the
curriculum requires adjustments. This causes 'disequilibrium', but the system either changes
itself in tune with the progressive stresses or neutralizes the disruptive forces impinging on it,
and restores equilibrium. Because all parts of the social system, a school building in this case,
are related, a change in any one part necessarily produces a corresponding change in every
other part. Thus, equilibrium is re-established or maintained.
The above description of different components of Figure 4.2 reveals that a school consists of
several sub-systems. Figure 4.2 indicates the formal school structure, the different groups, and
individuals comprising these components.
4.4.2 Elements of a Social System

Figure 4.3 is an extraction and elaboration of the elements, or sub-systems, presented in
Figure 4.2. The basic formulation of a social system presented here comes from the work
of Getzels and Guba (1957) and Hoy and Miskel (1991). According to them, the social
system is conceived as two classes of phenomena which may be thought of as independent,
hut in an actual situation they are interactive. There are the institutions characterized by
certain roles and expectations in keeping with the goals of the system. And there are
individuals with certain personalities and dispositions inhabiting the system. The social
behaviour found in this system may be understood as a function of two major elements:
institution, role and expectations, which together constitut'e the nomothetic or. institutional
dimension of activity in a social system; and individual, personality, and need-disposition,
which together constitute the idiographic or personal dimension of activity in a social
system.
67
school System External Environment
f >
Boundary - School Building
r \
I 0
N
Social u
P T
u system behaviour
P
T U
T
L
Individual -> Personality -> Needs J
. Boundary - School Building

/
Fig. 43: Structural Elements (sub-system) of a System Model.
Source: Jacob W. Getzels and Egon G. Guba (1957): "Social Behaviour and the Administrative
Process", The School Review, Vol. 65, Winter, 1957, pp 423-41.
Wayne, K. Hay and Cecil G. Miskel (1991): "Educational Administration - Theory,
Research and Practice", (Lithed), McGraw Hill International Edition, Singapore,
P. 32.
Institutional Element
Institution, role and expectation are the conceptual elements of nomothetic or normative
dimension. Institutions are agencies established to carry out certain imperative functions for the
social system as a whole. The imperative functions are those which in time have become the
established functions of the social system. The school is an jnstitution because it is an agency
established to carry out the function of socialization which is an imperative function of the
social system of the school. Thus, school can be described as an institution as well as a social
system. Both terms are, however, used in a different sense. The school as in institution is a
component conceptual element of ilormative dimension of a social system.
Roles represent positions, offices, or status within an institution. A role exists only within a
particular social system and represents a particular position within that system. It involves
certain rights and duties. A person is expected to put these into effect. When he does that he
is said to be performing his role. The rights and duties expected of him may be called as role
expectations.
Individual Element
Each social system is inhabited by living people. Whenever role is being performed, it is
performed by individuals. Each individual stamps the role he occupies with the unique style
d his own pattern of expressive behaviour. Thus, personal dimension involves the personality
of the role incumbent.
The personality may be defined by the component need dispositions. The need dispositions are
conceived of as forces within an individual.
A school is thought of as a social system, with its characteristic institutional functions, roles
and expectations. As an institution it has the function of socialization. There are various
incumbents in it who have to play the roles expected of them. In the social system of a school
the goal behaviour is achieved through the integration of various institutions (classes may be
taken as institutions in the sense of performing the institutionalized function of the social
system).
The social systems are inhabited by living people and roles are performed by individuals who
have different personalities. It is because of this that each individual stamps 'the particular role
he occupies with the unique pattern of his behaviour. That is why Getzels, et. al., in 1968 had
observed: "Not all administrators "administer", not all workers "work", not all teachers "teach",
not all students "study" - at least not in the same way". In brief, the individual element of the
social system explains the behaviour of individuals in psychological terms with reference to
their personalities and needs. This personal dimension of the social system is known as the
-- idiographic dimension.
The Basic Model OrgnnizaUooal Behaviour
Till now, the analysis has focussed on two basic elements of social systems - the institutional
uid the individual. Taken separately, each explains a portion of the behaviour in social systems
in terms of sociological or psychological concepts. Together, they provide the basis for a social
-psychological theory of group behaviour in which a dynamic transaction between roles and
personality interacts, Figure 4.3 provides a summary of the basic model.
Behaviour (B) in the system is explained in terms of interaction between role (R), defined by
expectations, and personality (P), the internal needs structure of an individual, that'is,
The proportion of personality factors that determine behaviour varies with the particular system,
role, and personality. In rigid bureaucratic structures, behaviour is more likely to be determined
by prescribed roles, rather than personality characteristics. In less formal social systems, roles
are more likely to be secondary considerations, while personality attributes are likely to be
more important. The interplay and blending of role and personality vary widely from system
to system, in some systems there is a balance between the two elements, in others, roles
submerge personality or vice-versa. In virtually all social systems, however, behaviour is
determined by both the needs of the institution and the needs of the individual.
The social system operates within and interacts with a larger environment. The inputs from the
environment affect both the institution and the individual; consequently, the environment
influences behaviour within the system, which.in turn contributes to outcomes of the system.
In this section, so far, we have discussed the meaning, definition and characteristics of school
as a social system from organizational point of view by following an analytical approach. Also
we have discussed the basic components and elements of a school as a social system, by
presenting two conceptual models. However, before going into next section, let us check ,our
Check Your Progress

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of .this unit.
5. From organization point of view a social system may be defined as
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6. The school as a social system is characterised by
. .
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7. When using social system analysis, it is important to
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School System
8. "The environment is anything outside the boundaries of the unit of analysis that:
9. The mutual control and exchange mechanism is explained in social system model as
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10. Homeostasis is a process in which
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11. The triggering mechanism in the school social system is

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12. Equilibrium exists when
13. The institutional element of the social system explains the behaviour of individuals
in terms of
14. The institutional aspects of the system are termed as

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15. The individual element of the social system explains behaviour of individuals is
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Organizational Behaviour
16. The personal dimension of the social system is known as the
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. %...
...
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L
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17. Behaviour in a social system is a function of the two classes of factors
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18. To put in the form of a general equation behaviour B =
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INTERPERSONAL INTERACTION
In the previous section, we have discussed school as a social System in the context of
organizational behaviour in school. The present section will be devoted to the discussion of
interpersonal interaction in a school system. As we all know in each school there are a number
of persons who work together. They interact with each other and also those who are concerned
with the school. These interactions give a shape to the learning process that goes on in the
school. A healthy pattern of interpersonal interaction promotes the progress of school system.
In other words, healthy interpersonal interaction is a sin-qua-non for a better organizational
behaviour in a school system. Therefore, it is necessary to study interpersonal interactions.
Interpersonal interaction may be defined as the interaction between people of equal level and
of people across different levels in an organization. This definition reveals two types of interaction
patterns. They are horizontal and vertical. Horizontal interaction takes place between people of
same level and vertical interaction takes place between people of different level in an organization.
Both these types of interaction patterns help in maintaining healthy interpersonal relationship
in an organization.
When people interact there is social transaction in which one person responds to another. The
study of these social transactions between people is called transactional analysis (TA). The
purpose of TA is to provide better understanding of how people relate to each other, so that
they may develop impqoved communication and human relationships.
People interact with each other from one of the three psychological positions, known as ego
states. These ego states are called Parent, Adult and Child, and a person can operate from any
of these three positions. Parent ego state of a person is influenced by his parents, teachers and
religious preachers. The parent ego state is reflected by these characteristics: 'playing old tap",
and utter such sentences "it is right", "it is wrong" and so on.
The adult ego state will reflect rational calculating, factual and unemotional behaviour. It
shows in such forms as to upgrade decisions by seeking facts, processing data, estimating
probabilities, and holding factual discussions.
School System The child ego state reflects the emotions developed in response to childhood experiences. It
may be spontaneous, dependent, creative or rebellious. Like a child, the child ego state desires
approval from others and prefers immediate rewards.
'Qpes of Transactions: Transactions may be (i) complement
4'
Transactions are complementary when the ego states of the sender and th
opening transaction are simple reversed in the resgonse. When the patterns between ego &J's,
is charted. the lines are paralled. This re1$ions%ip is depicted in Figure 4.4 in which t h y
principal (supervisor) speaks to a teacher (an employee) as a parent to a child and the teacher
responds as a child to a parent. If a principal initiates a transaction in parent-to-child pattern,
the teacher tends to respond from a child state and the principal's behaviour is dominated by
this pattern, it may lead to reduced interpersonal and group effectiveness. Non-complementary
transaction occurs when the stimulus and response lines are not parallel, as also shown in Fig.
4.4. In this instance the principal (supervisor) tries to deal with the teacher (employee) on an
Adult-to-Adult basis, but the teacher responds on a child-to-parent basis. The important point
is that when cross transactions occur communication tends to be blocked and a satisfactory
transaction is not accomplished.
People can maintain comn~unicationwith any complementary transactions, but the transaction
that is likely to be most effective at work i s that of Adult-to-Adult.
Principal Teacher Principal Teacher

(Supervisor) (Employee) (Supervisor) (Employee)
Parent Parent Parent
Adult Adult Adult Adult
Child Child Child Child
I
( 1 1 1
Complimentary Transaction CPT~ Transaction

S = Stimulus R = e.$onse +
;,
7 ' 1 .
Flg. 4.1: Complementary and Crossed Transaction in TA
Source: Adopted from Mathew, M.J., (1993): Organizationpl Theory and Behaviour, p.175.
Organizations that have used TA report that it has been moderately successful. Training in
TA cam give teachers (employees) fresh insights into their own personalities, and it can
also help them understand why others some times respond as
'a4a do. A major benefit is
improved interpersonal communication. Teachers (employees) c n sense when crossed
communication occurs and then take steps to restore complementary communication,
preferably in the adult-to-adult pattern. The result is a general improvement in interpersonal
transactions.
In this section, so far the meaning and importance of interpersonal communication and how
transactional analysis can be used in studying interpersonal interaction have been discussed.
Before going into the next section let us check our progress.
Check Your Progress

19. In an organizatton two types of interpersonal interaction takes place. They are:
I f
3.6.1 Types of Hierarchies of Structure SE~OOI
organization
Every organization, although it has some sort of hierarchy of positions, does not necessarily
have to follow a uniform model. Some schools may have a purely bureaucratic model while
others may have a departmental model or any other model that suit them.
Bureaucratic Model
There is a clearly defined structure of authority in organizations where the bureaucratic model
of structure is being used. In this case, the head teacher wields complete authority over all that
is done in a school. Policies are formed, decisions taken at top and passed down to subordinates
to carry them out. As this model is functioning on the basis of a legalized formal authority, it
strict1y follows rules and regulations even at the expense of human and environmental factors.
As the system is highly mechanistic, it can rarely provide scope for innovation and creativity.
However, this model has the virtues of stability, quick decision-making and efficient
implementation.
Head Teacher
- Senior Teachers
- Junior Teachers
- Pupils
Fig. 3.3 : The Bureaucratic Model
Departmental Model
In the departmental model, the head delegates authority to senior members of the staff and line
of authority is lateral rather than downwards. The head will usually make clear what he would
like to see happening in the departments and will do this through discussion with the heads of
departments. However, because each department has a certain degree of autonomy, it will in
practice be the heads of departments who work out in detail the activities of their departments.
At +2 stage, the senior most teacher may act as departmental head or supervisor. Under him,
would be other teachers of the department.
( Principal
I
)
G I ELI [TI
Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor
Fig. 3.4 :The Departmental Model
The Democratic or Collegial Model

Instead of following either the bureaucratic or the departmental model, some schools may opt
for a democratic model in which one may not see clear lines of hierarchy operating as in the
above two cases. In the democratic model, all members of the staff may meet and elect one
of the senior members as their head. Policy making decisions are taken by the entire staff with
the head teacher in the role of a chairperson. As compared to the other models discussed
earlier, this model is more flexible, dynamic and organic. It does not strictly adhere to formalities
S f h o d System and procedures and therefore provides the required academic freedom as well as dignity to
individuals.
PHead Teacher
Fig. 3.5 : The Democratic or Collegial Model
All organizations, irrespective of their nature, have some sort of hierarchical structure in their
system. It is a mechanism set up by an organization for division of labour, proper coordination
as well as for maintenance of proper flow of communication. In short, we can say that it is
through such models that organizations like schools get their work accomplished.
Intext Activity 2
Visit a few schools of your district. Through observation and discussion with principal and
some of the teachers in each school, find out what model-bureaucratic, departmental or democratic
is being followed there. Then try to find out how following aspects are dealt with:
1. Policy formation and decision-making
2. Distribution of duties and responsibilities
3. Freedom of communication
4. Staff initiation and innovation
5. Methods and techniques of teaching and learning
6. Pupil performance.
Until now, we have covered various aspects of school organization like the school structure,
physical infrastructure, and hierarchies in school system. The last aspect we have to cover with
refqence to school organization is manpower resources.
As we have noted in the immediately preceding section of this unit, a school organization has a
large component of manpower resources. Generally, they comprise professionals like the principal,
supervisors, teachers, librarian, the counsellor, etc. administrative personnel like the head clerk,
junior clerk, typist, class IV employees etc. Thus, school'as an organization is composed of people
of varying potentialities, expertise and status. Perhaps, having a little familiarity with some of these
manpower resources can be of immense value to us as teachers in making.
3.7.1 Principal (Headmaster)

Principal is the most important person in a school. Helshe should be a person of a wide range
of qDdities and competencies. Helshe should be a person of sound educational background and
philosophy, good scholarship, adequate professional training, proficient in human relations,
physical and mental health and stamina, optimistic attitude, emotional stability, integrity and
scientific temper.'In addition to the above, helshe should have administrative abilities, leadership
qualities, progressive views and sound judgement, Above all, he should be a person who is
sensitive to needs of the society as well as to allround development of children.
The success and image of a school depends, to a great extent, on the personality of the
principal. As the pilot is to the aeaoplane the principal is to the school. A pilot through his
reckless flying can bring the plane to wreck and the passengers in it lose their lives and
property. Similarly. a principal through hit or miss or casual ways of running his organization
can cause loss of image and bring it ignominy.
The principal should, therefore, be a person of wide conceptual, human and technical skills. Only
suah a person will be in a position to have the right type of vision as to what his school sho~ald
be and do these by proper planning, scrupulous organization, efficient leading and effective
controlling of the various programmes and activities. Helshe is responsible for procuring and
supplying requisite resources and ensuring that they are put to optimum use. He/she is again
responsible for building up an organizational climate and culture that is conducive to teaching as
-
well as learning and thus through gradual approximation and hy constant vigilance and timely Schod Organization
action, translate hidher vision into a reality. It takes an able principal to cause all these to happen.
Supervisors, as far as a school is concerned, are senior teachers or teachers with expertise in
matters related to school. Principals usually delegate some of their powers to senior teachers
;111tl give them the responsibility of guiding and directing junior teachers with a view to
developing their resources. Supervisors, therefore, devote some of their time to nurturing the
leadership potential, motivation, decision-making, communication and problem-solving skills
of teachers under them. Thus, one of the main duties is the development of the task relevant
competency among their followers.
The concept of supervision has changed in the last few decades from one of inspection and
rating to one of help and improvement. Supervision is now mostly thought of as a way of
giving help to teachers in improving instruction. Hence, teachers can go to supervisors without
fear of being judged or rated low. In smaller schools, principal is normally the only source of
supervisory help. In larger schools, in addition to the principal, one or more senior teachers or
department heads are given time for conferencing with teachers on their instructional problems.
Supervisors should sympathetically deal with the problems faced by teachers and suggest ways
in which teachers can solve their problems by themselves rather than supply them with solutions
which are ready-made.
3.7.3 Teaching Personnel

Traditionally, a teacher is thought to be the prime source of wisdom and the giver of information.
Similarly, teaching is mainly seen as transmission of the material from hisher note book to that
of students. But with increased utilization of automated learning devices such as television,
electronic learning, laboratories, computer terminals, dial access retrieval systems, and with the
availability of quite a number of techniques, methods and media, and other models of teaching
such as discussion, enquiry, concept teaching etc. the teacher is rapidly becoming a director or
rather a facilitator of learning experiences. Teacher is now gradually moving away from the
central position in the classroom, giving room for the pupils to occupy it. Greater stress is now
being laid on learning by doing rather by listening. Pupil centered and interactive methods are
replacing traditional ways of teaching.
In spite of all these, the present day teacher is expected to carry out at least four important
functions. The first of these is as an executive or leader which involves leading, establishing
of procedures, coordinating activities of others etc. The second function which a teacher is
expected to perform is the interactive function of teaching; helshe is expected to select and use
appropriate models of teaching. The third is that of organizational functions which expect a
teacher to work with colleagues, parents and others. Lastly, a teacher is expected to provide
assistance to students, in the form of counselling to overcome some of the difficulties that they
face in adjusting to school conditions and tasks.
If all these functions are to b e performed effectively and efficiently, a teacher needs to
possess several personal qualities and professional competencies. As a person, he should
be friendly and cheerful, kind and sympathetic towards children, interested in pupil's
requirements and patient with pupils who have difficulties. In addition, hetshe should be
hard-working, enthusiastic and objective in hislher outlook. As a professional, a teacher
should know hislher job thoroughly, make his lessons interesting, involve his pupils actively
in learning and use effective classroom management techniques, etc. Hetshe should have
the desire to continuously learn and thereby upgrade his academic and professional
competency.
3.7.4 Librarian
The librarian was earlier regarded as a mere keeper of books. This view has now become
outmoded and a librarian is now seen as a person rendering important instructional services.
Hislher responsibility is to procure books, pamphlets and other materials and bring them into
the main stream of instructional programme. This is possible only when there is good rapport
among pupils, teachers and the librarian. Teachers must be able to propose a pattern of requests
for books and their circulation which the librarian should see as a systematic attempt by
teachers and pupils to use books effectively. A librarian must have as much confidence in
Scl~oolSystem motivation of teachers towards books as he has desire to develop broad reading habits among
pupils.
A librarian should offer opportunity for teachers and pupils to recommend books for purchase
by the library. Helshe should see that books are available for research by students under the
superbision of teachers and that there is increase in quantity and quality of reading material for
students. Similarly, helshe should also, develop responsibility for discovery, use and evaluation
of library materials among students. If the librarian so wishes, helshe can take assistance from
students and teachers for keeping the books in order, for checking books in and out, and for
repair of books that are damaged.
3.7.5 Administrative Staff

Apart from professionals about whom we have had a discussion, there are quite a number of
other human resources in the organization. The head clerk, junior clerks. typist, class IV
employees, etc. are part of the human resource of an organization. Their main function is to
extend assistance to academic staff in the conduct of various programmes and activities of a
school. They procure and supply necessary instructional materials like textbooks, chalk, paper,
etc. They also maintain various records related to income and expenditure, service books and
oWer record related to both teachers and pup~ls.
Class IV employees in the school not only serve the organization as errand boys but also help
in the maintenance and cleanliness of a school and its vicinity. They also help in keeping
lavatories and urinals clean. They also help in making a school beautiful by planting trees and
other flowering plants and regularly looking after them.
3.7.6 Pupils
Pupils are the most important component of a school. It is for them that all efforts are being
made. It is again for their allround development that curriculum is being designed and plannerl,
qualified principal and teachers appointed and other auxiliary services arranged.
R~pilscome to school with certain amount of information, skills and attitudes, etc. which we
call as entry behaviour of pupils. It is this entry behaviour which is regarded as an input to
insmctional process. Through various activities, programmes and the time and effort made by
principal and teachers, and through various efforts, students are enabled to acquire desired
level of knowledge, skills and attitudes. The changes that occur in behaviour of pupils in terms
of expected goals and objectives, are regarded as output of a school. The extent and quality
of change that occur in the pupils depend upon the ability of staff in planning, designing and
executing different instructional programmes and activities.
3.7.7 Community
The Community amidst which a school is located has resources which can be utilized by
a school to perform its functions. It has in it different people having experience and
expertise. There are excellent architects, engineers, doctors, scholars, musicians, actors,
lawyers, scientists, artisans and craftsmen with expertise. If tapped, their knowledge and
skills can prove to be of a great help for pupils. They could be of infinite value in
producing knowledge and skills to students. A school should, therefore, provide pupils
opportuhity to interact with such people either through interviews or discussions.
Their services could be utilized for more effective organization of school activities. For
instance, the services of local craftsmen and artisans can be used for organizing SUPW and
skill training.
r
Check Your Progress

7. What different structure models do we generally find in schools?
........................................................................................................................................
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........................................................................................................................................ School Organization
........................................................................................................................................
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8. Name four important qualities and four potentials which you think a principal should
possess:
a) Qualities:
1) ................................................... 2) ....................................................................
3) ................................................... 4) ....................................................................
b) Potentials:
1) ...................................................2) ...................................................................
3) ................................................... 4) ....................................................................
9. In which sense is community a fine source of resource for education? (Answer in five
or six lines).
........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................."'.
........................................................................................................................................
3.8 LET US SUM UP

A school is a formal organization establised by the society for educating its young ones. Like
any other formal organization, a school needs formal sanction; its membership persists beyond
immediate membership. It has plans and programmes and has leaders or managers. School
functions in different layers or progressive levels such as pre-school, primary, upper primary,
secondary and higher secondary etc. Each of these stages has its own thrusts and importance.
Every school should have proper infrastructure which comprises building, furniture, library,
laboratory, playground, other equipment and facilities required for the effective conduct of
various activities of the school. Several people are appointed in each school to carry out
various activities. Depending upon the roles they play and the responsibilities they carry out
they occupy certain hierarchical positions in the organization. This leads to the formation of
a structure which becomes a mechanism for divisions and distribution of work and
responsibilities. It also facilitates easy coordination and direction of various activities as well
as smooth communications.
A school also has rich manpower resource. In it are such professionals as the principal,
supervisors, teachers, librarian, etc. It also has a number of administrative and ancillary staff.
Above all these, the school also has a large number of pupils whose interest it vies to serre.

1. Visit a school in your neighbourhood. Discuss with a few teachers of (i) pre-school,
(ii) ten years schooling; and (iii) +2 stage and uy to find out the following:
a) Techniques, methods and media used in teaching-learning process at each level.
b) Goals and objectives of instruction at each level, and
c) Nature of content being taught at each level. 61
School System 2. Visit the library of your local school and make an assessment of the different types of
books and other instructional materials being stored there. Discuss with the librarian, a few
students and teachers and then make a report as to how students of the school make use
of the library.
3. Write an essay of about 250 words on what physical infrastructure you think necessary for
an ideal school.
4. Visit a school in neighbourhood and make a list of the m'mpower resources available there.
Explain the role that each category plays in the education of pupils of that school.

1. Three main purposes of Pre-school education are:
Please refer to Sub-section 3.4.1. of this Unit.
2. 10+2+3.
3. General education is provided up to Standard X as it would provide a general awareness
and skills needed to live in the society.
4. The +2 stage is a stage for diversification based on the aptitude of each student. This stage
provides pupils with knowledge and skills in certain specific direction.
5. By devoting certain amount of time for this in the routine of activities. The school could
distribute this task to various classes in a systematic way.
6. If school grounds are kept neat and attractive, they contribute towards creation of atmosphere
which is conducive to learning. In addition, such grounds facilitate conduct of various
Sports and games and other activities.
7. 1) Bureaucraticmodel
2) Departmental model
3) Collegial or democratic model.
8. a) Qualities: /
1) Integrity
2) Optimistic attitude
3) Scientific temper
4) Integrity
b) Potentials:
1) Leadership
2) Inter-personal skills
3) Administrative abilities
4) Sound grasp over relevant knowledge bases.
9. The community is abundant with people having invaluable experience and expertise. There
are hundreds of excellent architects, engineers, doctors, etc. whose expertise could be
tapped for enriching the pupils' knowledge and skills.

Mukerji, S.N. (1963): Secondary School Adtninistration, Its Principles and Functions, Acharya
Book Dept., Baroda.
Mathur, V.S., (1990): Towards New Education, The Associated Publishers, Ambala Cantt.,
Amb~ala.
Mohanty, J., (1981): Indian Education in the Emerging Society.
Kaul, G.N., (1964): Better Schools for India, Orient Longmans Ltd., Calcutta.
62
UNIT 4 ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Organization - Meaning
4.3.1 Characteristics of Organization
4.3.2 Organizational Behaviour
4.4 The School as a Social System

4.4.1 Social System
4.4.2 Elements of a Social System
4.5 Interpersonal Interaction

4.6 Communication
4.6.1 Meaning of Communication
4.6.2 Communication Process
4.6.3 Barriers to Communication
4.6.4 Suggestions to Overcome Communication Barriers
4.7 Let Us Sum Up

4.1 1 Suggested Readings
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In each school, there are a number of persons who work together. These persons interact with
one another. These interactions give a shape to the learning process in the school. A teacher
comes in contact with students. Helshe influences them. Hislher personality and behaviour
influences on the development of students and initiates the learning process. This is precisely
because of interactional situations that prevail in schools and which result in learning activity.
Therefore, that w e call learning as a social process. A school is a formal agency where learning
takes place. It is an organization in which various types of interactions take place and learning
is prymoted. In this unit, we will study and understand organizational behaviour against the
backdrop of schooling system.
The school as an organization has an elaborate system of communication. The personnel of the
school - Principal, and others'- communicate among themselves. They also communicate with
others who are not part of the school as such although they may play an important role in its
activities. Further, teachers communicate with students in different form and at different levels.
In a sense, education involves a great deal of communication.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
state the meaning of organization and organizational behaviour;
explain organizational behaviour in the context of school system;
explain school as a social system;
critically examine the dimensions of school's social system;
state the importance of interpersonal interaction;
q appreciate the values of transactional analysis;
63
School System a describe the importance of communication in school organization;
a critically analyse the components of communication process in school system; and
identify the barriers in the communication process and give suggestions to overcome
them, in the context of school system.
4.3 ORGANIZATION - MEANING

Generally speaking, 'organization' refers to a group of persons who are oriented towards
achieving a common objective. There are different views about the t a m organization. In the
words of Davis (1982), "Organization may be defined as any group of individuals, large or
small, that is cooperating under the direction of executive leadership in accomplishment of
certain common object." Other views are: Organization is the form of every human association
for the attainment of a common purpose and it is a process of identifying and group of the work
to be performed, defining and delegation responsibility and authority and establishing relationship
for the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in accomplishing objectives.
4.3.1 Characteristics of Organization

On the basis of the above views of the term 'organization', the following characteristics pan
be inferred:
i) A group of individuals forms an organization.
ii) Onentation towards achieving common goals.
iii) A continuous process of identifying and grouping of activities.
iv) Defining and delegation of authority and responsibility.
v) Coordination of activities.
vi) Establishment of formal and informal relationships.
vii) Executive leadership.
4.3.2 Organizational Behaviour

Human behaviour, in organizations or other situations, can not be predicted precisely partly
because it arises from people's deep-seated needs and value systems. However, it can be
partially understood within the framework in which it operates.
Organizational behaviour is the study and application of knowledge about how people act
within organizations. It is a human tool for human benefit. It applies broadly to the behaviour
of people in all types of organizations, such as business establishments, schools and service
organizations. Wherever organizations exist, there is a need to understand organizational
behaviour.
The key elements in organizational behaviour are people, structure, technology, and the external
environment in which the organization operates. When people join together in an organization
to accomplish an objective, some kind of structure is required. People also use technology to
help get the job done. So there is an interaction of people, structure and technology as shown
in Fig. 4.1. In addition, these elements are influenced by the external environment.
Structure Technology
Fig, 4.1: Key Elements in Organizatio~~al

Bel~aviour
20. The study of social interaction between people is called:
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
21. The purpose of TA is to provide:
.........................................................................................................................................
22. From TA point of view people interact with each other from three psychological
positions. They are:
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.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
23. Transactions are of two types viz.
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24. If principal (supervisor) is dominated by parent-to-child pattern it may lead to:
.........................................................................................................................................
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25. When crossed transaction occurs communication tends to be:
. ~ ~ ~
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.........................................................................................................................................
26. In transaction, the best result is obtained by:
.........................................................................................................................................
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School System
4.6 COMMUNICATION
Communication plays a vital role in all aspects of school life. Principal, teachers, administrators,
and students all engage themselves in a wide variety of communication processes to achieve
the goals of school. An understanding of communication process is, therefore, central to the
study of school organization hecause it offers an additional insight for examining a school as
a social system. Moreover, communication is the key to a healthy interpersonal interaction in
school life, which, in-turn leads to an effective organised school life. Communication is necessary
for effective decision-making. It is the vehicle by which information relevant to decisions is
transferred. Communication, whether written, oral, formal or informal, is goal directed in
organizations. At all levels, communication is intended to achieve performance that results in
the implementation of decisions and organizational goals.
4.6.1 Meaning of Communication

Attempts to define communication in terms that are universally applicable is an extremely
difficult task. Communication means sharing messages, ideas, or attitudes that produce a degree
of understanding between a sender and the receiver. In everyday usage, "Communication"
implies an attempt to share meaning by transmitting messages among people. Thus,
communication involves atleast two people - a sender and a receiver. Effective cornn~unication
depends on the ability to listen as well as to speak. The end result of communication is
understanding and to elicit a response.
4.6.2 Communication Process
Original Message Component Feedhack Component
Feedback loop
I 1
Individual A
Decoding
I.
Sender
1 r- + 4 Receiver
Conceptual Filters
-1 r
I. I
Individual A
Transmitting
2-3 6 Message in Channel Noise

Message & and Medium Message
Medium &Medlum
Encoding
1I
Receiver
Fig. 4.5: The Com~~~unication

Process
Source: Hoy,W.K. and Miskel, C.G., Educational Administralion - Theory, Research and Practice, p.348.
The Process of communication is the method by which a sender reaches a receiver with a Organizational Behaviour
message. There are basically four major steps involved in the communication process. A
schematic representation of these steps is presented in Figure 4.5.
Sender: The source, or sender, is the originator of a message (see Figure 4.5). The.communicator
need not be a person; a memorandum, newspaper, professional journal, or organizational position
such as the office of the principal, may be the source. The effectiveness of a message depends
on the level of credibility that the receiver attributes to the sender.
Idea: The sender must create an idea or choose a fact to communicate. The idea or fact is the
content of the message. In other words, the source must have something to say before the
content can be "said".
Encoding: The source initiates a message by encoding a thought, that is, organizing an idea
into a series of symbols such as words or pictures that he or she feels will communicate the
correct meaning to the intended receiver. The sender selects a particular medium because
encoding must be done in relation to transmitting medium as well as the receivers characteristics.
A telegram, for instance, usually is worded differently from an office memot and both are
different from face-to-face conversation.
Conceptual Filters: The conceptual filters of the sender, that is, the person's particular
psychological characteristics, also limit the encoding process. Communication skills, knowledge
of the subject, and personality factors such as attitudes, values, interests, and motivational
needs are traits or mental conditions that combine to limit, screen or filter what is encoded and
the quality of the message.
Transmitting: Transmitting transforms the encoded message into a signal and places it into a
channel. The symbols that have been ordered inside a person's mind are placed into physical
movement. Transmitting therefore, involves the message, channel, and medium.
Message: The message is the idea that an individual hopes to communicate to the intended
receiver. The exact form of the message depends to a large extent on the channel and medium
that are used to carry it.
Channel: The channel is the routing pattern that the niessage has to follow. The idea
becomes a physical reality in the channel as opposed to a psychological reality in the sender's
mind.
Medium: The medium is the carrier of the message. The content can be transmitted in a
verbal-oral medium as in direct face-to-face speech, or electronically via telephone, computer,
radio or television. Siniilarly, the medium can be verbal-written as in memos, letters, electronic
mail, and newspapers. The transmission also can be made through non-verbal medium as in
body language or gestures and symbolically with things that surround us such as office
furnishings, clothes, etc.
Receiver: Internal processes similar to those in the source also occur in the receiver. The
physical stimulus is taken from the channel by the receiver's sensory organs, ordinarily the
eyes and ears and is sent to the mental decoder, where the receiver gives meaning to the
message. If the listener is effective, the meaning is well understood. If the receiver does not
function, the message is lost.
As is the case with the sender, no receiver can totally ignore histher psychological characteristics
or conceptual filters..
Feedback: In broadest sense, this concept refers to any response from someone who has
received a message. More specially, feedback is defined as messages conveyed to a receiver
about task performance. The feedback loop provides two-way communication. Two-way
communication is a reciprocal process; each participant initiates and receives messages.
Each is a source or receiver only temporarily, with roles shifting as messages are passed.
The use of feedback improves the communication process by reducing the chance of major
disparities between information or idea received and the one intended.
Noise: Noise is any distraction that interferes with sending or receiving the message. Successful
message transmission presumes that whatever situational noise exists is not great enough to
observe the signal or divert' the receiver's attention from it.
School System 4.6.3 Barriers to Communication
The communication will be effective only when employees understand, accept and act upon
the information that has been transmitted to them. Sender of message must know the various
barriers that can impede not only transmission of information but also affect understanding and
acceptance of it. Communication barriers cause breakdown of communication process leading
to many managerial problems. Keith Devis (1982) has classified the communication barriers
into three types : (i) Personal, (ii) Physical, and (iii) Semantic.
Personal Barriers : Personal barriers are communication interferences that arise from human
emotions, values and poor listening. For instance, the receiver might not like the sender and
therefore, interacts on the basis of the attitude of the sender.
Physical Barriers : Physical barriers are communication interferences that occur in the
environnlent in which the communication takes place. For instance, the voice of the sender
might not be completely audible on the telephone.
Semantic Barriers : Semantic barriers arise from limitations in the symbols with which we
communicate such as language which the receiver might not know or comprehend.
4.6.4 Suggestions to Overcome Communication Barriers

Improving school communication requires a planned programme of organizational development.
Suggestions for improving school communication include the following:
1. Assess the organizational design of the system of communication so as to locate its
weaknesses.
2. Develop mechanism to facilitate the communication process, for example, close proximity
of personnel, convenient sites for formal and informal interaction, mechanical linkers, and
a committee system to accomplish tasks and make decisions.
3. Establish information storage and retrieval systems.
4. Select personnel with good communication skills.
5. Develop an in-service training programme to improve communication skills for the existing staff.
At a more specific level, three sets of conceptual derivations and applications are useful in
analysing and improving communication in schools. These aze communication skills, feedback,
and organizational roles.
From the above discussion on communication, four ma.jor conclusions seem clear, First,
communication is purposive for both the initiator and the receiver. Second, communication is
a social-psychological phenomenon. Third, the message travels through formal and informal
channels, using a variety of verbal and non-verbal media. Fourth, to ensure high levels of
understanding, feedback mechanisms are essential.
In this section, so far, we have discussed the meaning, definition and importance of
comn~unicationin the context of school system; communication process and problems therein;
and finally suggestions to overcome problems in communication process. With this we have
come to end of this unit. But, before we summarise the whole unit let us check our progress
in this section on communication.
Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given btlow.
*
27. AO understanding of communication is central to the study of school organization because
.........................................................................................................................................
28. In general, communication may he defined as
.........................................................................................................................................
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.........................................................................................................................................
29. From organizational point of view communication may he defined as
30. The four major steps involved in communication process are
3 1. Effectiveness of a message depends on the

.........................................................................................................................................
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32. The idea or fact is the
.........................................................................................................................................
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33. The sender selects a particular medium because
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34. Transmitting involves

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I .........................................................................................................................................
School Sysie111
35. What is medium ?
36. The receiver gives meaning to the message by
37. Feedback improves communication by
38. In the context of noise, successful message transmission persumes that
39. What are Communication barriers ?
4.7 LET US SUM UP

We have examined in this unit that Organizational Behaviour (OB) is the study and application
of knowledge about how people act within organization. The key dements in OB are people,
structure. technology, and the external environ~llentin whcih an organization operates. OB is
all about performance. It offers a body of knowledge about people at work and information
about their performance.
The discussion on school as a social system revealed that social systems comprise of bounded,
purposeflul, and mutually interaction elements. Regulated by feedback, such systems continuously
attempt to maintain equilibrium. According to the social system model of a school, OB is
determined by the interaction of at least three key elements - bureaucratic expectations,
informal norms, and individual needs and motives. Moreover, all the elements and interactions
within the system are coilstrained by important demands from the environment as the organization
solves the problcm of adoptio~i,goal achievement, and integration. In addition, informal and
external feedback mechanism reinforce appropriate organizational hehaviour.
Healthy interpersonal interaction is essential for the progress of school system in general and
colnmunication process in particular. It is with the help of uansactional analysis, that better
understanding of how people relate to each olher can be studied, which in turn, develops
and human relationship. Cali-inlun~cation is so persuasive in school
iillproved com~lli~liication
that it is fi~ndm~entaland integrative in education;il ;:..int~nistrallon.Con~municationmeans
78
sharing ot messages, ideas, or attitudes that produce an understanding hetween the sender and Organizatinnal Behaviour
receiver. From a study of comn~unication processes, four major conclusions seem clear,
(1) Communicatio~iis purposive. (2) It is a social psychological phenomenon. (3) Message
traverses through a variety of media. (4) Feedback mechanisms are essential.

1. T~lterviewa number of teachers in a particular school, and ask them what they consider to
be the important duties of a principal. Interview a number of parents or pupils in the same
school, aitd ask Ihem what they consider important to be duties of the school principal.
Note similarities and differences in the responses.
2. Visit a school. Observe some verbal communication situation allti identify the different
components of communicarion process. Repeat this task for written communication
too.

1. Discuss the definition, meaning and scope of organizational hehaviour.
2. "Nut all administrators "administer", not all workers "work", not all teachers "teach", not
all students "study" - at least ~ i o in
t the same way". Discuss this statenlent in the light of
school as a social system.
3. "When people interact there is a social transaction in which people respond to one another.
Transactional a~lalysisis the study of these social transactions". Discuss.
4. Discuss how do the common harriers disrupt the effective comlnunication proccss. Give
suggestrons to overcome them.

1. Any group of individuals, large or small, that is cooperating under the direction of executive
leadership in accomplishment of certain common object.
2. Group of individuals, common goal, group acrivities, delegation of authority, co-ordination,
relationship and leadership.
3. People, structure, technology and the external environment.
4. The study of hehaviour, attitudes and performance of workers in an organizational setting.
5. A model of organization that possesses a distinctive total unity (creativity) beyond its
component parts; ~t is distinguished from its environment by a clearly defined boundary;
it is composed of sub-units, elements and sub-systems that are interrelated within relatively
stahle patterns of social order.
6 . An inter-depertdence of parts. a clearly defined population, differentiation from its
environment, a complex network of social relationships, and its own unique culture.
7 . Define carefully the boundaries and the unit of analysis.
8. a) Affects the attributes of the internal components.
h) Is changed by the social system itself.
9. Homeostasis, feedhack, equilibrium.
10. A group of ragulators act to maintain a steady state among the system component.
I I. The feedback loop.
12. The social and biological parts of the system maintain a constant relationship to each other
so that no part changes its position or relation with respect to all other parts.
13, Dominant roles and expectations aimed at meeting the goals of the system.
14. The noinothetic dimension.
15. Psychological terms with reference to the unique personalities ;111d needs of individuals.
79
Schnol Systenr 16. Idiographic dimension.
17. Normative and the individual
B=f(RxP)
18. Interaction between people of equally same level to interaction within people across different
levels in an organization.
19. Horizontal and vertical.
20. Transaction analysis.
21. Better undersrstanding of how people relate to each other, so that they may develop improved
communication and human relationships.
22. Parent ego state, Adult ego state, and Child ego state.
23. Complementary and non-complementary.
24. Reduced interpersonal and group effectiveness.
25. Blocked and satisfactory transaction is not accomplished.
26. Adult-to-adult transaction.
27. It offers an additional conceptual viewpoint for examining the school as a social system.
28. Sharing messages, ideas, or attitudes that produce a degree of understanding between a
sender and receiver.
29. Any process whereby decisional premises are transmitted from one member of an
organization to another.
30. Sender, Message, Medium and Receiver.
3 1. Level of credibility that the receiver attributes to the sender.
32. Content of the message.
33. Encoding must be done in relation to the transmitting medium as well as the receiver's
characteristics.
34. Message, channel, and medium.
35. Carrier of the message.
36. Taking the physical stimulus from the channel to sensory organs and is sent to the mental
decoder.
37. Reducing the chance of major disparities between information or idea received and the one
intended.
38. Whatever situational noise exists is not great enough to observe the signal or divert the
receiver's attention from it.
39. Peisonal harriers, physical harriers and semantic barriers.
Owens, Rober G., (1970): Organizational Behaviour in Schools, Prentice-Hall, INC, Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey, USA.
Campbell, Ronald F., et al., (1963): "Introd~tctionto Educational Administration", Allyn and
Baeon Inc., Boston, UK.
Lane, Willard R., et al., (1966): "Foundations of Educational Administration - A Behavioural
Analysis", The Macmillan Co., New York.
Mathew, M.J., (1993): Organization Theory and Behaviour, RBSA Publishers, Jaipur, India.
Keith, Davis (1982): Human Behaviour at Work, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.,
New Delhi.
UNIT PERSONALITY A TEACHER
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Teaching as a Profession
5.3.1 What i s a Profession?
5.3.2 Characteristics of a Profession
5.3.3 Characteristics of a Teaching Profession
5.4 Professional Traits of a Te~cher
5.5 Teacher as a Person
5.5.1 Teacher in a Classroom
5.5.2 Teacher as a Colleague
5.5.3 Teacher in the Community
5.5.4 Teacher as a Citizen
5.6 . Need for an Integrated Personality
5.7 Let Us Sum Up
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Having understood the school system in our country, it is now necessary to think about the
teaching profession. In Block 1 we have studied the importance and place of school in a
society. We have also read about the structural and organisational, hierarchies of a school
system.
Let us t ~ y
to classify schools of our country in brozid categories. One mode of classification is
by levels viz. primary and secondary schools. Other classification is private and public, English
and regional language medium schools, schools with almost all the required facilities and
schools with hardly any infrastructure facilities available and so on. In all categories of
schools, a team of teachers is working to achieve the national goals of education through the
media of different curricular and co-curricular activities. Apart from this, the student clientele
is drawn from different strata of society. Students differ from one another in many respects,
like socio-economic background, educational background of the family, interest to learn and so
on. Such situations demand from a teacher an understanding of the complexities involved in
the teaching profession. What makes teaching a profession? How is teaching different from a
vocation? What different roles has a teacher to play in order to achieve the goals of education?
In this unit, we shall find answers to such questions.
5.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you wifi be able to:
define the concept 'profession';
list characteristics of a profession;
differentiate between a profession and a vocation;
list the characteristics of a teaching profession;
Teache-Role m d Development describe different roles that a teacher is expected to play while carrying out teaching
effectively; and
describe the need for the integrated personality of the teacher.
- --
5.3 TEACHING AS A PROFESSION

In order to understand teaching as a profession, let us first understand what is meant by a
profession.
5.3.1 What is a Profession?

'
A profession can be defined as an occupation which requires some specialised study and
training, and the purpose of which is generally to provide skilled services and guidance in lieu
of a definite fee or remuneration. However, some professionals may provide services without
asking for payment.
A profession is a calling and it implies acquisition of a fund of knowledge, range of skills and
their application in the semce of humanity The service rendered by a professional may be
direct as in the case of teachers and doctors or indirect as it is in the case of teacher educators
i.e. teachers of teachers. Further, this service may be rendered for a limited segment of the
population or for a limited period of time or phase of life. This service is not rendered to the
entire student population which gets graduation or post-graduation, but, it is rendered to those
who have aptitude for the profession. It is rendered for a l~mitedperiod of time in the sense
that an iadividual is expected to go through training before taking up the profession and then,
is expected to update hidher knowledge and sk~llsafter a regular interval of time.
There is another way of looking at the same situation. Any professional person provides
professional service for a limited period of time when hidher clientele are in an institution or
within the institutional framework; for example, a teacher who is a professional person renders
hidher service for a period of time when students (clientele) are in educational institutions and
within the institutional framework; of a school, college or university. A profession can be
practiced independently or within an institution or both. This means if teaching is accepted as
a profession, a teacher can teach either independently to students or within a school along with
a team of teachers.
So far, we have learnt that a profession is based upon specialised study and training, it
provides skilled service and guidance for a definite purpose to a limited section of the population
for a limited period of time and can be practiced independently or within an institution.
5.3.2 Characteristics of a Profession

A profession indicates certain specific characteristics. They are:
i) A profession demands possession of a body of specialised knowledge and extended

practical training.
ii) A profession renders an essential social service.
iii) A profession demands continuous inservice training of its members.
iv) A profession has a clearly defined membership of a particular group, with a view to :
safe-guarding the interests of the profession.
v) A profession involves a code of ethics.
vi) A profession sets up its own professional organisation.
vii) A profession assures its members a professional career.
As stated above, a typical profession exhibits a complex of characteristics.
Let us try to understand them with the following clarifications.
The forming of a professional organisation, developing a code of ethics, offering a life career
to its members, or even granting of action are all shared by trade associations or guides. Then
where is the difference? There are two criteria that are basic to a profession. A profession Personality of a Teacher
"professes" to do two h n g s : one is to serve and the other is to serve with conscious
understanhng and efficiency. While all other vocations also serve, the profession not only
serves but makes service its prime motive. Even when there is a conflict behveen the interests
of the client and that of the society, selfish .interest recedes in favour of the professional
interest. The profession and other vocations differ in the sense that a profession is well
iI
grounded in its sound knowledge and expertise. It has good qualities like altruism and longing
for authentic knowledge on the part of the members which differentiates a profession from a
trade.
5.3.3 Characteristics of a Teaching Profession

In this sub-unit, we shall try to elicit the characteristics of a teaching profession and then try to
understand why teaching is called a profession.
The following are the characteristics of a teaching profession:
i) It essentially involves an intellectual operation.
I
ii) It draws material from science. .
iii) It transforms raw material for a practical and definite end.

iv) It possesses an educationally communicable technique. I
V) It tends towards self-organisation.
vi) It essentially performs a social service.
vii) It involves a lengthy period of study and training.
viii) It has a high degree of autonomy.
ix) It is based upon a systematic body of knowledge.
x) It has a common code of ethics.
xi) It generates inservice growth.
Having identified the characteristics of a teaching profession, let us analyse each of these
characteristics in detail.
i) It essentially involves an intellectual operation

~ e a c h t h it~ ,has been said, is not mere taking. This is so because teaching requires
conscious organisation of learning activities, deliberate creation of a conducive and
supportive learning environment. While providing learning experiences a teacher has to
constantly analyse and evaluate classroom climate and evolve a suitable plan of action
to achieve the pre-specified desirable change in the behaviours of a group of learners
who are constantly varying with respect to their interest and understanding speed. All
such operations, which are to be carried out by a teacher, are intellectual operations.
ii) It draws material from science

Teaching is not only an art but also a science. On the basis of tlus assumption, a teacher
can be trained. The moment it is accepted as a science, it has definite steps which are
followed in training a teacher.
iii) It transforms raw material into a practical and definite end

In teaching profession, the learners constitute the raw material. These learners are
prepared to teach in a continuously evolving society which has varied expectations.
Learners are trained into a practical and definite end by means of providing practical
training in teaching and other pedagogical courses.
iv) It possesses an educationally communicable technique

As teaching is a science, teaching techniques are systematic and have definite steps to
be followed. It is easily communicable.
and Development v) It tends towards self-organisation
It is self-organised in a sense that the personels who are engaged in teaching profession
are sengitive towards growth and development. They evolve a definite mechanism to
sustain and promote the standards of teaching profession.
vi) It essentially performs a social service

Teaching is a social service. It has generally been accepted that education is potent tool
to bring about changes in any nation. The obvious evidence of such a statement are the
developed nations like U S.A., U.S.S.R. These and other nations have been able to
constantly develop bzcause of high rates of literacy. It is through teaching that a society
develops. -
vii) It has a lengthy period of study and training
Teaching cannot be learnt in a year or so. A person willing to take up this profession
has to study for a number of years and acquire a mastery over the contents of the subject
matter. After this helshe has to undergo training in teaching.
vii) It has a high degree of autonomy

In our earlier discussion, we mentioned that definite steps have to be followed in
teacning as it is a science also However. there IS a high degree of autonomy in teaching
profession nght from curriculum development, planning activities of a year, identifying
instructional objectives, deciding upon the method of teaching, deciding upon the use of
media, identifying evaluation criteria, using appropriate evaluation techniques to deciding
upon the admission and promotion rules, and autonomy in planning and execution of
co-curricular activities. Ultimately, all these activities are planned keeping in mind the
goals of education which are to be achieved in a limited penod of time.
ix) It is based upon a systematic body of knowledge

Teaching profession is based upon a systematic body of knowlcdge which has been
derived from social, psychological, historical, political and economical spheres of life. It
is also influenced by the religious and spiritual beliefs of a society.
x) It h?s a common code of ethics

All over the globe, teaching profession has a common code of ethics, the details of
which are described in sub-unit 5.4.
xi) It generates inservice growth

In teaching profession, the teacher is learning at all the stages of teacliing. This leads to
growth of a teacher while inservice.
Apart from these, education is a dynamic discipline. New knowledge is continuously being
generated with regard to teaching methods and other foundation courses of teaching. A teacher
with a professional train~ngbefore becoming a teacher. needs to get oriented to the new
knowledge and also update the already acquired knowledge and skills of teaching. For this in-
service training is essential, which would ultimately lead to performance of the expected tasks
by a teacher in an effective way.
From the preceding discussion, it is clear that the teachng profession has thc distinct
charactejstics for it to be termed a profession. It is a complex profession in the sense that it
has to take into consideration needs and expectations of an ever changing society. It is atfected
by the political ideology of a nation, and is influenced by the economy of a nation. It learns
from the history of not only a nation but other nations too. Students, who are the clientele, vary
with respect to such variables as interests, ability, socio-economic background etc. With all
such and many other cornplcsitics, tcaching is a noble profession with the prime motive of
rendering service to society.
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Space is given below for your answers.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. List the distinct characteristics of a profession that distinguish it from a vocation or
a trade.
...............................................................................................................................
2. "Teaching is a complex activity." Discuss.
5.4 PROFESSIONAL TRAITS OF A. TEACHER

Professionally, a teacher should possess the following traits:
i) Mastery over content
ii) Knowledge of teaching skills
iii) Other attributes
I Fig. 5.1
9
Tenche-Role and Development Mastery over content: Unless one has mastery over content of a subject one can not become
an effective teacher. Content mastery can be achieved through various ways like reading books,
magazines, periodicals, dictionaries, encyclopedias, newspapers etc., attending seminars,
workshops, symposia, conferences, public meetings; discussing with colleagues, experts,
authorities; meeting leaders and other professionals, observing the happenings in and around
the environment; and so on.
Knowledge of teaching skills: The knowledge and use of a set of skills facilitates teaching-
learning process. These skills are known as instructional skills. Instructional skill is defined as
the cluster of behaviour mamfested by a teacher which can be acquired through practice. The
list of instructional skills that help a teacher to carry out instructional process effectively is
given below:
i) Introduction
ii) Questioning
iii) Prubing
iv) Reinforcement
V) Explanation
vi) Illustrating with examples
vii) Recognising attending behaviour of students
viii) Using audio-visual aids
ix) Using blackboard
x) Silence and non-verbal cues
xi) Stimulus variation
xii) Achieving closure
Other attributes: Alongwith content mastery and knowledge of instructional skills, the other
effective attributes of a teacher are sense of responsibility, showing concern for students,
acknowledging and appreciating the effort of students, accepting each student as a distinct
individual, loving and caring etc. These help a teacher to understand students as they are.
1
Over and above the aforementioned three essential personality traits i.e. content mastery
knowledge of instructional skills and other attributes, a teacher needs to be guided by professional !i
ethics since helshe is a member of a professional group.
1
Professional Ethics of Teachers 1
1
For developing professional ethics, teachers and teacher-educators must be able to distinguish
between philosophy of education and philosophy of teacher education and also the difference
between social and historical frameworks of the teaching profession. A teacher has to be an
example for hidher students and society and therefore the value system helshe holds should be
clear, precise and ethical. Helshe should be honest not only when he stands to gain by being
honest bud in situations where helshe is likely to suffer a loss. In such cases, hidher conscience
to do the hght thing must determine hidher behaviours. Helshe must exemplify the dignity of
labour and professional commitment, however stresshl the circumstances may be.
Teachers must be an embodiment of eternal values - values that remain the same, however
much the circumstances may change. Truth, love and goodness are values that are admired
across creeds, cultures and religions. Helshe should be a sheet anchor for society amidst the
tumult of social change. Helshe should be conscious of the accountability to profession of
teaching by being accountable for effective teaching and effective learning of students. Helshe
is accountable to society and this aspect must be channelled through an appropriae hierarchy
of competent professional authority.
The profession of teaching reflects a high degree of academic excellence, repertoire of teaching
skills and practical wisdom on the one hand and a well-integrated value system on the other,
both being oriented towards altruistic service. The personal development of a teacher is the
core of professionalisation and forms the base for professional ethics.
10'
:Teachel~Role
and Development be or may not be available. They may be sufficient in some cases in number while in others
these may be insufficient. Similarly some of these may not be in good working condition. A
teacher has to decide upon what and how to cany out hidher duties in different conditions so
as to achieve the goals of education.
Also, formal schooling involves a time bound programme which is expected to be completed in
stipulated time that has been decided upon as academic tenn.
Moreover, curricular framers have prescribed the weightage to be given to different items of
content in terms of hours of teaching per week.
A school with its organisational structure, physical and human resources and management
goals also provides a framework for the teacher to function. The functioning of a school in
general and a teacher in particular is also governed to a great extent by expectations and needs
of a soqiety, political decisions and cultural heritage of the nation at large.
A teacher will be able to efficiently perform Merent roles with and other educational experiences
that he/she has gained. This educational experience adds to a teacher's hnking, observation,
ability and skills of management. A teacher who performs these roles in an INTEGRATED
manner is able to perceive the need for the all-round development of student's personality and
provide appropriate learning opportun~tiesto achieve the pre-specified goals of education.
Check Your Progress
3. List the characteristics of a teaching profession.
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
4. How can one acquire instructional skills?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
5. Describe various modes through which a teacher can acquire mastery over content.
................................................................................................................................
6. Why should a teacher play different roles?
7. Explain the need for the integrated personality of a teacher.

............................................................................................................................
Personnllty of a Teacher
5.7 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have focused on the characteristics of teaching as a profession, which differentiate
it from a vocation or a trade. It is a profession with primary motive to provide service to the
nation at large. A teacher is required to have content mastery, knowledge of instructional skills
and desirable attitudes.
As one of the key persons in the field of education, a teacher is expected to exhibit a multi-
dimensional personaliv, like a classroom teacher, a colleague, a member of the community
and a citizen.
Under different situations, a teacher has to work to bring about a desirable change in the
behaviours of learners.

1. Analyse professional expectations of a teacher. Suggest the ways to m l them.
2. List desirable behaviour for the instructional skills.
3. Compare the personality of a teacher with other professional persons like a doctor and a
lawyer.

1. If your peer student-teacher (or teacher-trainee) is not confident in content mastery, how
will you help h i d h e r to acquire the same.
2. If you are put in a school as a science or a language teacher and the school does not
have the infrastructure facilities required by you, how can you perform the expected
roles successfully?

1. The distinct characteristics of a profession that distinguish it from a vocation or trade
are:
- the prime motive of a profession is service
- the profession is based on sound knowledge and expertise
- the profession has highest qualities like altruism and expertise
- the profession has highest qualities like altruism and desire for authentic knowledge
on the part of members.
2. Teachng is a complex activity because of the following:
- it requires conscious organisation of learning activities.
- it requires deliberate creation of a conducive and supportive learning environment
I
! - while teaching a teacher has to constantly analyse and evaluate classroom climate
and a suitable plan of action to achieve the pre-specified desirable changes in the
I behaviours of learners who are constantly varying with respect to their interest and
understanding.
- over and above these, the facilities available vary from school to school. These
facilities in school play a major role in facilitating learning environment in school.
3. Characteristics of a teaching profession are:
- it involves an intellectual operation it draws material from science *
- it transforms raw material into a practical and definite end

Teachel~Roleand Development - it possesses an educationally communicable techniques
- it tends towards self organisation and performs social services
- it 'has lengthy period of study and training
- it has a high degree of autonomy
- it is based upon a systematic body of knowledge
- it has a common code of ethics
- it generates insenice growth
4. One can acquire instructional skills through:
- understanding the components of each skills
- practising them in simulated situation
- continuously evaluating own performance improving upon those aspects which
need refinement.
5. Various modes through which a teacher can acquire mastery over content are:
- reading
- discussions
- participating in seminars, workshops
- observation
6. A teacher should play different roles to take care of all-round development of students
and to help the cornrnunity/society to develop and progress.
7. Need for the integrated personality of a teacher can be described in terms of the
following:
- teaching profession is complex
- learners vary with respect to certain variables like interest, motivation level, socio-
ecoilomic background, etc.
- social, political, religious, economic factors affect education
- a teacher has to function to achieve the broad goals of education.
All these necessitate an integrated personality in a teacher.

Crow, L.D. & Crow, A. (1956): Human Development and Learning, ~ u r a s i a ~ u b l i s hHouse,
in~
New Delhi.
Haddan, E.E. (1970): Evolving Instructions, The Macmillan Co., U.S.A.
Passi, B. K. (1976): Becoming Better Teacher -Micro TeachingApproach, Sahitya Mudranalya,
Ahmedabad.
Traverse, R.M. (1967): Essentials of Learning: An Overview for Students of Education
(2ndEdition), The Macmillan Co., New York.
Barbara Gross Davis (1993): Tools for Teaching, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco.
UNIT 6 ROLES OF A TEACHER
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Role of the Teacher as an Instructional Input
6.4 Role of the Teacher as a Manager
6.4.1 Role of the Teacher in the Re-teaching Phase
6.4.2 Role of the Teacher in the Teaching Phase
6.4.3 Role of the Teacher in the Post-teaching Phase
6.5 Teacher as a Facilitator
6.6 Teacher as a Counsellor
6.7 Teacher in the Community
6.8 Let Us Sum Up
6.9 Unitend Activities
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Every person performs a whole set of social roles. A teacher assumes the roles of a worker,
husband/wife, parent, a member of hidher religious group, and a citizen. In describing the
roles of teachers, however, we shall not deal with various roles performed by teachers as
persons, but only look at the roles performed by them as teachers. Thus, it is relevant here to
examine the process' of reaching in its complexities.
Teaching is a complex activity. It is a process in which students are provided with a controlled
environment for interaction with the purpose to. promote a definite learning in them. The
environment provided to students is constituted by the content, the teacher who organizes and
provides specific learning experiences, different ways and means of providing learning
experiences and the school setting. All these components, called instructional components,
interact in an interdependent and coordinated manner, in order to bring about the pre-specified
desirable changes in the students. It is this interaction between human and non-human
components that makes the process of teaching-learning a highly complex activity.
Conventionally, the word 'teaching' denoted a teacher-centered activity in which teacher
imparted knowledge and students passively received it. The teacher's presence was very important
in the whole process and helshe had an authoritative and unassailable role in the class. In
modern era teaching is viewed in a broader perspective. Teaching is viewed as a comprehensive
process, and there has been a tremendous change in the way of understanding teaching and a
teacher's roles. Teaching is conceptualized as an active interactive process that goes on between
the consciously designed environment and the student, (where teachers may or may not be
present), with a definite purpose. It includes all the activities organized by a teacher to bring
about learning, be it inside or outside a classroom, with or without the presence of the teacher.
One of the analyses of teaching describes the whole process as comprising three different
stages:
Pre-teaching -+ TeachingrLearning Process -+ Post-teaching
Pre-teaching consists essentially of the planning of a lessbn. The planning of lesson needs to
be seen in broader terms, not merely the designing of a lesson plan. Planning includes
idenufylng the objectives to be achieved in terms of students learning, the strategies and
methods to be adopted, use of teaching aids and so on. The second stage includes the
=
and Development execution of the plan, where learning expericnccs are provided to students through suitable
modes and evalqtion of students learning is done. Post-teaching includes infemng from
performance evaluation of students the extent of students' achievements and problems, reflecting
on the performance of self and also on deciding on changes in the way of proceeding with the
entire process of teaching-learning if required.
As is obvious from the above analysis, the roles that teacher has to play at different stages arc
different ranging from a designer, to a participant, to a decision maker etc. In this unit we will
delve deeper into these roles giving specific illustrative situations.
6.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through the unit, you would be able to:
define the concept of instruction;
i d e n w different roles of a teacher in the entire process of instruction;
explain the role of a teacher as an instructional input;
explain the role of a teacher as a manager;
explain the role of a teacher as a facilitator and counsellor;
explain the role of a teacher in the community as an extension work of school
responsibilities;
point out the specific role of a teacher in each of the particular situations presented to
hidher; and
analyse the multitude of roles of a teacher, in the complex process of instruction.
6.3 ROLE OF THE TEACHER AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL

INPUT
In ordcr to understand the role of a teacher as an instructional input, the concepts instruction
and input are briefly explained:
Instruction is the complex process by which learners are provided with a deliberately designed
environment to interact with, keeping in focus pre-specified objective of bringing about specific
desirable changes. Whether instruction goes in a classroom, laboratoq, outdoors or library,
this environment is specifically designed by a teacher so that students interact with certain
specific environmental stimuli, like natural components (outdoor), information from books,
certain equipment (laboratory) etc. Learning is directed in pre-determined directions to achieie
certain pre-speclfrc goals. This does not, however, mean that, in the pre-determined environment
no learning other than what a teacher has decided upon as instructiohal objectives does not
take place. The variety of experiences that students go through with a teacher, among them-
selves provide learning opportunities.
Input essentially means all those elements which help the process to start and which gets
transformed into a product as a result of the process. The product or the transformed input is
the output of the process. These concepts are essentially borrowed from industry, where raw
materials are the inputs, which go through a process (such as manufacturing) and are transfarmed
into the finishcd products of the industry which become the outputs. For exa~nple,in a soap
factory the chemicals and other ingredients are the raw materials that are the inputs in the
process and they get transformed as the soaplthe output by following a pre-determined pmcess.
In this illustration, the worker who puts in h s labour is also an input.
In the context of such a complex process of instruction, let us analyse the 1-ache1 's rolc in the
following situation.
i) A teacher introduces a lesson
ii) A teacher explains a concept.
iii) A teacher clarifies doubts of students with suitable illustration.
OUTPUT
Student
emerges with
changes in
learning
to change the mode of operation, to suit to the needs of learners. In these situations, a teacher Roles of a Teacher
is functioning as a designerlmanagerldecisionmaker. In fact helshe is at a transitional stage or
shifting from the role of a participantlas instructional input to a different mode as a decision
maker. This shift can be understood clearly from the Fig. 6.2.
I Teacher explains 1 I Students - passive . ( Teacher senses that the (

1 Gandhiji's philosophy -4 listeners - get explanation does not
of non-violence in appeal to students and
Class V. that students are
disinterested.
participant-as an
instructional input
story. Students listen to narrate an episode

attentively and ask from Gandhiji's life to
questions in between. illustrate his philosophy.
Transitional stage of shift

from one method (expla-
nation) to another (story-
telling) decision-making
stage. Role of the teacher
as a manager.
Fig. 6.2: Teacher as a Discipllnarinn
You all must be familiar with such comments that people make: "she can manage the class
very well" or "students are well disciplined in his class". In such situations it is obvious that
a teacher is effectively managing students with alternative solutions to problems as and when
they emerge in the class. These alternative solutions depends on many factors like, age group
of students, physical fitness of the group (if they are not interested in a class after a physically
tiring PT period), general climate of the school (if annual day is approaching, or fun fair is
due, and students are in a fun-making mode) etc. An effective teacher would succeed in
maintaining discipline and managing students well without losing hidher cool and at the same
time the confidence of students. A lot of knowledge of the psychology of child/adolescent is
required by teacher for being w effective manager in such situations. A teacher has to be
empathetic, tactful, patient and tolerant.
6.4.3 Role of the Teacher in the Post-teaching Phase
Post-teaching phase, as described in the introduction of this section, is the one that involves
teacher's activities such as analysing evaluation results to determine students' learning, especially
their problems in understanding specific areas, to reflect on the teaching by self, and to decide
on the necessary changes to be brought in the system in the next instructional period. Examine
the followjng activities of a teacher:
i) Teacher analyses the written performance of students (of class 111) and realizes that 80%
(Class 111) have not been able to do single digit multiplication correctly.
ii) Teacher goes through the plan of the lesson on multiplication and realizes that student's
knowledge of addition was presumed, but not revised.
multiplication is based on thorough mastery of addition the teacher
I decides to start all over'again with addition.
In these three situations, the teacher is a designer in the post-teaching phase-designer of the
next instructional system.
We can summarize by saying that in the post-teaching phase, a teacher analyses results,
reflects on self and modifies the teaching-learning process, all with purpose of being an
effective as a teacher.
--
In order to see the roles of a teacher as a manager at different stages the flow diagram
(Fig. 6.3) would help:
Pre-teaching ---+ Teaching Post-teaching
Planning the Decision-making Analysis of results,

instructional b to shift from one b
Reflection on self-
system. mode to another. analysis of student's
problem, decisions to
make necessary changes.
To the pre-teaching
phase of the next
Fig. 63: Teacher as a Manager at Diierent Phases of Teaching
3. Explain the role of a teacher in the pre-teaching and post-teachng phases in 10-15
4. What is the role of a teacher:
a) When hetsle draws a diagram on the blackboard to clanfy a doubt.
.........................................................................................................................
b) When helshe sets question papers.
I
c) When helshe decides to repeat a lesson in a different way to make it more clear
to h d h e r students.
I
6.5 TEACHER AS A FACILITATOR

To facilitate means, to promote, to help forward, to make easy. Therefore, in the context of
instruction, a teacher's role would be to promote learning, to help students to develop more
and more by learning, by providng them a conducive environment to interact with, in order
to bring about learning and further development. In this role as a facilitator of learning,
student's role of interacting and moving fonvard is emphasised, and the teacher's role is in the
background as a guide and a facilitator different from what we have already seen in section
6.3, i.e. as an instructional input.
To explain further, when a teacher is part of the environment in which students are learning,
or is participating in the process of instruction, helshe is an instructional input. But when he1
she is providing certain guidance in order to bring about learning of students by way of their
interaction with relevant instructional components, shelhe is a facilitator of learning. Look at
the following pair of situations.
i) Teacher gives a lecture on importance of keeping the surroundings of our homes clean.
ii) Teacher shows paper cuttings/slidedvideo films exposing dirty surroundings and their
negative impact on human life and initiates a discussion on students observations-
finally leading to importance of keeping the surroundings of homes clean.
and
i) Teacher lectures on the phenomenon of change of colour in a flower induced by difference

in intensity of sunlight.
ii) Teacher guides students to do a project work on the phenomenon of colour change in a
rose, induced by difference in intensity of sunlight. Teacher does,not tell them about the
change of colour, but instructs regarding what is to be observed in the plant in its
natural settings at different times of the day and night and the way their observations
have to be recorded. She later holds discussion on their observations, finally arriving at
the phenomenon of influence of sunlight on the colour of the flower.
In the above pair of situations, the roles of a teacher are distinctly different in the two
situations. In situation No. 1, of both pairs, learning is based on what the teacher explains, or
it is a teacher-centered method followed, where students' role is minimum. In other words,
teacher's role is that of an instructional input. But in situation No. 2, of both the pairs,
learning is by means of students interaction with specially designed eilvironment of visuals
and discussion (as in the first case) or in natural situation - observation and recording followed
by discussions (as in situation No. 2 of the second pair). The sequences organized are student
centered, where the focus is on what students observe, understand, record or dscuss, with
teacher guiding at required stages, to FACILITATE learning involved in the process.
'77
T-he-R* -dDeveloplnc*t There are W r e n t methods of promoting learning. Some are student-centered - like l i b r e
work, project work, experimentation, home assignment etc. where major focus is on how
students organize their steps of learning by interacting with different environmental components
like printed matter, natural realities etc. In all such methods teacher guides students as to how
to go about learning sequences, thus facilitating their learning. In other words in all student-
centered methods teacher is a facilitator and not a participant. Here are more examples:
i) After a brief initiation into the philosophy of John Dewey, the teacher gives a list of
references available in school library, and asks students to write an essay on the topic.
As their work is in progress, students meet the teacher and receive guidance to move
forward in the task assigned to them.
ii) Students are asked to collect samples of leaf formation, preserve, draw them and discuss
in the class, with teacher's guidance.
iii) Students are asked to sow seeds in a pot, and observe in different light situations,
ranging from absence of light to full sunlight to &cia1 lighting, with reporting the
development of different at stages and discussions with the teacher.
So far, we have seen the roles of a teacher as an instructional input, a manager, and a
facilitator. There are many more roles which a teacher performs. These we will discuss in the
next sections.
Check Your Progress

5. Explain the role of a teacher as a facilitator of learning as different from that of an
instructional input.
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
6. What is the role of the teacher when:
a) HeIShe guides student during their project work?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
b) HeIShe corrects a write-up developed by a student for a debating competition?

................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
'..
TEACHER AS A COUNSELLOR
The role of the teacher as a counsellor is quite different from other roles described so far. To
counsel is to give advice, according to dictionary, although it is more than mere advising
In the context of a school, the teacher is the counsellor and the student either approached the
teacher when shehe has a problem, which cannot be solved by self. or the teacher senses, the
problem and offers help to the student to solve the problem.
I Teacher as a counsellor addresses not only problems related to school, studies etc. but also
I
those related to friends, family, health, etc.
24
Teacheerno Development When we examine teacher's role in the community in the Indian context, certain ground
realities have to be kept in mind. They are:
1) We still have poor emolment and retenti prim
ii) Our literacy rate is very low.
iii) Our population growth is f r i;htening.

~
I iv) Economically we are backward.

Women's literacy is very low.
I vi) Our awareness about health is very poor.
I vii) Mgority of Indians are rural people and are farmers.
In the above context, a teacher has a very dynamic role in the community. The various aspect's
of this role include:
i) One of the major roles is to promote the importance of education among parents
particularly those in rural areas so that they enroll their children in schools.
ii) Teacher has to be part of the adult education programmes organized to educate adults
who have not had an opportunity to go to schools in thelr childhood.
iii) Mwy of our rural folk need awareness programmes regarding vaccination, birth control
measures, woman' health during pregnancy and child birth, cleanliness in and outside
home, contagious diseases, personal hygiene, etc. Teacher, being an educated person
should either directly inform people or lead them to proper sources of information like a
doctor.
iv) The role of teachers in national literacy campaigns goes witliout saying. In rural areas,
it is very relevant to put in! whatever ort one towards .teracy
programmes.
Teacher, whether in rural or urban setti I expr
work, and census data collection as an educated citizen.
vi) Community members especially, parents of students expect a teacher to be a model for
their children than they are themselves. They want a teacher to avoid any behaviour
which might be bad for children to imitate.
vii) In a rural community where a majority of the adult population is likely to be illiterate, a
teacher also has to play the role of a guide, philosopher and a counsellor. Generally,
people would approach a teacher for seeking solutions to their problems.
It is evident that the expectations of the community of a teacher, especially in a rural area are
manifold. The teacher's role, therefore, is multi-dimensional. It is also obvious that to cany
out all these varied roles in a community, a teacher has to have attributes like:
a Service-mindedness
a Self-lessness
a Being conscientious
a Not being too money-minded.
a Being loving to people
a Being empathetic and patient
a Being a good listener.
Roles of a Teacher
Check Your Progress
Notes : a) Write your answers in the space given below.
7. In which activities of the community can a teacher be of great help?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
8. What are the attributes required of a teacher to be effective in community participation.
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
LET US SUM UP
We have, in this unit, discussed the different roles of a teacher in the complex process of
instruction, and also in the extended context of the community. To examine the roles within
the instructional process, we categorized the process into pre-teaching, teaching and post-
teaching phases and discussed the different roles played by a teacher in each phase, giving a
few examples.
In the pre-teaching phase, a teacher's role is essentially that of a manager/pla~er/decision
maker. In this phase, teacher decides instructional objectives, ways and means of achieving
these objectives, and ways and means of measuring the extent to which the objectives have
been achieved. In the teaching phase, or when a teacher actually puts hidher plans into action
teacher becomes a component of the entire process. In other words, shelhe becomes an
instructional input. At the same time helshe also becomes a manager when helshe decides to
change hislher plans, or when helshe contemplates on students responses to take the next step
of action etc. Apart from these roles teacher also has to play the role of a facilitator whereby
helshe remains in the background and actually catalyses or guides learning by students. Here a
teacher does not become drectly a part of the system but plays an indirect role. Beyond these
roles is a very important role of a teacher i.e. that of a counsellor. Whenever a student has any
problem, be it something personal or otherwise, academic or-emotional, a teacher has to help a
student to deal with through adoption of suitable measures and responses.
The above mentioned roles performed by a teacher are in educational setting of a school and
students. A teacher has also a role to play in the community - as a model, as a leader and as
a participant in various activities like literacy mission, adult education, women's development,
health awareness, population control etc.
UNIT-END ACTIVITIES
1. List a few activities of a teacher:
a) as a manager
b) as an instructional input
c) as a counsellor
d) as a community participant.
2. During your school and college days you might have observed the different roles performed
by your teachers. Analyse the various roles of five teachers whom you remember and
write which were the roles that they most often performed.
27
Teacher--Role and Development
To be taken up in Counselling Session and Peer Groups.
1. what are the specific competencies required of a teacher for performing the roles of a
manager, participant, facilitator, counsellor and community participant?

1. When a teacher takes hislher stvdents for a study tour, helshe performs the role of a
facilitator or a guide.
2. As an instructional input, a teacher organises the teaching-learning environment for

transaction of learning experiences. Helshe introduces a lesson, explains a concept,
clarifies students' doubts and evaluates their performance.
3. A teacher performs various roles in the pre-teaching phase. These roles are different
from the doles helshe plays in the post-teaching phase. Hislher roles in the pre-teaching
phase are basically planning in nature. Helshe analyzes the content, decides on the
portion bf the content to be selected for instruction, decides instructional objectives for
the chosen content, sequences the learning experiences, decides on methods and media
to be used and decides on the methods of evaluating students performance.
In the post-teaching phase, helshe analyses evaluation results to determine students'

learning, evaluates hislher teaching, and decide on the necessary improvement to be
brought in hidher teaching.
4. a) When a teacher draws a diagram on the blackboard to clarify a doubt, helshe

performs the role of a designer.
b) When a teacher sets question papers, helshe performs th6 role of an evaluator.
c) When a teacher decides to repeat a lesson in a different way to make it more clear
to hislher students, helshe performs the role of a decision maker.
5. As a facilitator, a teacher helps hislher students to be effective learner by providing

them conducive environment to interact with. When hetshe participates in the process
of instruction or becomes a part of the learning environment, helshe then is an
instructional input.
6. a) When a teacher guides students during their project works, helshe performs the
role of a guide.
b) When a teacher corrects a write-up developed by a student for a debating

competition, helshe performs the role of instructional input.
7. A teacher can be of great help to the community in the following activities:
a Adult Education Programme
a National Dietary Campaign
a Family Welfare Programme
a Election Work
a Census Data Collection.
I 28
I
Rdes of a Teacher
8. The following attributes are required of a teacher to be effective in community
participation:
Service-mindedness
Self-lessness
Conscientiousness
A good listener
Being loving to people
Being emphathetic and patient.

--
6.12 ST.'lGGESTEDREADINGS
Rajan, K.M. (1997) : Teachers Role in Three Organizational Models, New Frontiers in
Education, Vol. XXVII, No. 1, Jan-March 1997, PP. 63-68.
Rajput, J.S. (1997): Role of the Teacher in 21st Century. New Frontiers in Education, Vol.
XXVII, No. 1, Jan-March, 1997, PP 69-7 1.
-
National Policy on Education 1986 (with modifications undertaken in 1992), Ministry of
Human Resource Development, Department of Education, Delhi, PP 32.
Nayor, P. R., Dave, P. N., and Arora, K. (1982): The Teacher and Education in Emerging
Indian Society, NCERT, New Delhi, PP. 217-226.
UNIT 7 TEACHER DEVELOPMENT
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Need for Development of Teachers
7.4 Personal and Professional Development of Teachers
7.4.1 Personal Qualities
7.4.2 Professional Development of Teachers
7.5 Training of Teachers
7.5.1 Pre-service Training
7.5.2 induction Phase
7.5.3 Inservice Training
7.6 Different Modalities of Inservice Training
7.6.1 Auto-instructional Methods
7.6.2 Workshops
7.6.3 Professional Meetings, Seminars, Conferences, Panel Discussions and Olher Study Programmes
7.6.4 University Courses
7.7 Let Us Sum Up
I 7.8 Unit-end Activity
INTRODUCTION
In the past, several people have felt that teachers are born and not made. There is some
justification for such a belief. Any person, who had the gift of fluency and eloquence, could
easily read, explain and interpret anything to his audience with certain amount of conviction
and persuasion. It was easy in those days to appear knowledgeable and scholarly in quite a
number of areas. But in these days, the situation has undergone complete transformation.
Mere eloquence and the ability to explain do not make an effective teacher. Much more is
expected of a teacher today than a few decades ago.
Apart from knowing the aims and objects of education, he must have an understanding of
basic principles of child growth and development and of the processes by which a child
learns. He should have the ability to plan and present his subject matter in a manner which
arouses the interest, sense of purpose and thought processes of the pupils. He has to have
adequate knowledge of the methods of presenting knowledge which will evoke lively
cooperation and thoughtbl understanding among hls pupils. He has to create opportunities
for his pupils so that they develop worthwhile interests, participate in recreational activities
and possess a sense of responsibility.
Knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to perform all these tasks may not come to a person
spontaneously or easily. Unless he has been adequately trained, he would not be in a position
to carry out effectively all the tasks expected of teacher. Hence, a person who intends to be a
teacher needs to undergo rigorous training not only before joining the profession but also
throughout his career as a teacher.
7.2 OBJECTIVES
I After havipg studied this unit, you will be able to:

state some of the important reasons that necessitate training of teachers;
spell out various personal qualities as well as professional competencies required to be
an effective and efficient teacher;
- -
explain the rationale as to the necessity of the different phases of training such as pre- Teacher Development
service, induction, and inservice training;
explain some of the processes involved in various phases of training of teachers; and
name and explain some of the modalities that are generally being employed in the
development of teachers.
7.3 NEED FOR DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHERS

Teachers occupy a pivotal position in any nation as it is they who prepare the citizens of
tomorrow. While the quality of nation depends to a great extent on the quality of schools, the
efficiency and effectiveness of schools lies in the hands of teachers. If teachers are trained for
the job they are supposed to do, they will be in a position to educate pupils placed in their
charge.
Earlier in many traditional societies, there was very little being taught by way of fonnal
education. Education, if it did exist, was in the form of a symbiotic process. Boys picked up
knowledge and skills from their fathers in the very process of living together. Similarly, girls
learned from their mothers such skills as cooking, child rearing, etc. Later. when education
came to be regarded more as an accomplishment rather than a necessity, in some traditional
societies, teaching became hereditary in nature. Traditionally, it was the Brahmin's who took
to teaching. Never did teachng then occupy such crucial roles as it does today nor was the act
of teaching as complex as we see it today. Education remained confined to certain sections and
was imparted on almost one to one basis. In due course, fonnal education system emerged in
the form of Gurukulas and universities like Nalanda and Takshshila in India and in others
parts of the world.
Even during most of the 19h century, schooling was somewhat narrow in scope and a teacher's
role was rather simple compared to later eras. Basic literacy and number skills were the
primary goals of 19h century education for the people at large with the cumculum dominated
by what we today call as the three Rs, viz. reading, writing and arithmetic. A large majority of
the people were not required to attend school and those who did so remained there for
relatively brief periods of time. Professional training of teachers was not deemed important or
necessary; nor was it considered to lead to a career.
The early 20h Century saw a sudden spurt in the spread of education and its objectives and
with it teachers' roles took an added dimension. The goals of education gradually moved
beyond the narrow purposes of basic literacy and number skills and came to include health,
command of fundamental processes, worthy use of leisure, development of character, etc. All
these made a teacher's task more and more complex and greater awareness and competencies
came to be seen as pre-requisites for being a teacher.
Today more than ever before, teachers are expected to have adequate knowledge and to use this
knowledge in their day-to-day instruction. Teacher training should ensure that teachers fulfil
the requirement of at least a minimum of the knowledge base as a pre-requisite before certiQing
the individual's competence to teach.
Societal and national expectations of educators are quite high. The demands on teachers are so
varied that they often find it difficult to meet the needs of pupils coming from various socio-
cultural backgrounds. Over-crowded classrooms, availability of multiplicity of techniques,
methods and approaches, possibilities of an infinite number of modes and media. etc. have in
their own way contributed toward making teaching more difficult.
Modern society needs schools staffed with expert teachers to provide instruction and take care
of children. In our society teachers are now being accorded professional status. As experts and
professionals, they are expected to use the most effective practices to help students learn
essential skills and attitudes. It is no longer sufficient for teachers to be warm, and loving
towards children; nor is it suffkient for them to employ teaching practices based solely on
intuition, personal preferences or conventional wisdom. Contemporary teachers are held
An ideal teacher (of course, if such a one could exist) should have the character of a 'Sanyasi', Teacher Development
the knowledge and skills of an expert and the ability to apply them with the sensitivity and
feeling of an artist.
All these show that a teacher, to be effective, should develop several personal qualities and
professional competencies. In this part of the unit let us discuss to some extent some aspects of
the issues concerning personal and professional development of teachers.
7.4.1 Personal Qualities
We have already stated that to be effective and efficient, a teacher requires a number of
personal as well as professional qualities. Let us have a look at some of the personal qualities
that go towards making of an effective teacher.
Every one expects a teacher to have a sound value system. If a teacher is lazy and lacks
enthusiasm and the will to do hard-work, he cannot be expected to inculcate these values in
pupils. Pupils are keen observers. They are intelligent enough to observe discrepancies between
what a teacher preaches and how he actually behaves. If a teacher smokes, he has no right to
advise his pupils to avoid smoking. Similarly, if he is dishonest and avoids his duties, he has
no right to advise his pupils to be honest and sincere. Values like honesty, truthfulness, loyalty,
punctuality, cleanliness, dedication, affection, etc. are imbibed, often through observation of
others' behaviours rather than taught. This means that a teacher has to stand as a model for
his pupil so as to provide a lasting and inspiring example if ever they are to have in them these
qualities of personality and character.
Activity
We have already noted that teachers in general need certain values or positive
character traits to be effective. Since you as an individual have had several years of
schooling in the past, you could re-collect some of your teachers who impressed you.
Recall and write down in the space provided below some of these personal qualities
and values they exhibited:
Your list of traits or values, among others, will probably include such qualities as affection,
kindness, love, concern, understanding, sincerity, cooperation, dedication, humour etc.
Affection, as you know, 1s one of the basic traits that a teacher needs to have. We do not expect
P every teacher to be as knowledgeable as Einstein nor do we expect him or her the dedication
that we find in Florence Nightingale. However, everyone of us expects a certain amount of
I affection in every teacher. In fact, there is no human being on earth who does not crave
I affection from those around, especially from parents and teachers. Just as a mother pours forth
her affection on her child, a teacher should show love and concern for his pupils. In the
absence of affection we as teacher cannot make our pupils feel wanted and accepted. If they
feel that they are unwanted and not accepted fully their minds would be clouded with sad
thoughts which will prompt them to be inmerent to activities going on in the classroom.
Non-participation leads to poor performance and poor performance to withdrawal from the
1 system etc.
I
t Empathy
I
Empathy is another great virtue that you as a teacher will need to possess. This quality will
enable you to feel concerned with your pupils' problems and the efforts they make to cope with
them. This quality, would enable you to understand your pupils better both emotionally as well
33
Teache-Role and Development as intellectually. To see the world through a child's eye, you need a lot of emotional flexibility.
Empathy will enable you to be judicious, impartial and objective. It will engender in you the
requisite understanding to avoid stereotyping and prejudices and treat all pupils with equanimity
irrespective of the background from which they come. In addition, empathy will create in you
a better awareness of the fimctioning of a child's mind which in turn would permit you to
avoid the use of-words that insult and actions that hurt.
Concern and Commitment

Genuine concern and commitment to the tasks are other two qualities that we ex@ in
teachers generally. You should be as dedicated and concerned about the development of your
pupils as their parents generally are and then try to do all within your ability to see that they
are given aropportunity for their growth and development. You should remember that
improvement seldom occurs spontaneously. More often it is attained through deliberate effort.
To reach a child's mind, you must capture his heart. Only when a child feels right, he can
think right. Therefore, if you want to improve your relations with children, you need to
unlearn your habitual language of rejection and acquire a new language of acceptance. The
way you talk to a child reveals how you feelpabout h i d e r . If made without thinking, your
statements can sect his self-esteem and self-worth. If you are genuinely dedicated and concerned
with the growth of your pupil, you will try to eradicate the inconsistencies in your talk that
tells a child to distrust his perception, prevents him to discuss his feelings and creates doubt in
him. In so far as possible, you should avoid blaming and shaming, ordering and bossing, and
ridiculing and belittling your pupils. Only with genuine concern and commitment to their
welfare you can acheve this.
I
Fig. 7.1
j4
Again, if you are genuinely interested in the well being of your pupils, you need to be Teacher Development
authentic, genuine and sincere. You have no right to preach patience, when you are impatient.
You do not have to demonstrate hypocrisy by acting nice, when you feel nasty. If you are
enlightened, if you have proper awareness about yourself and your pupils, you do not have to
be &aid of your anger or impatience provided that you have learnt to express them without
doing damage. What you need to master here is the art of expressing anger without being
insulting. You should not offend him nor his family. You should not come out with gloomy
warnings and predictions about his failure. It would be damaging to children to predict where
they would end up. Therefore, as a teacher, you need to pick up the secret as to how to be
authentic and genuine even when you feel differently.
Humour
An element of humour is a good trait in a teacher. When we combine elements in a way that is
different, unexpected and incongruous, we wind up with humour. You, as a teacher should
develop the ability to play spontaneously with ideas, concepts and relationships. Similarly, you
should have the ability to juggle elements into impossible juxtapositions and express the
ridiculous. All these can bring in an atmosphere of humour in the classroom. A joke here or a
witty utterance there can make your pupils feel happy and dispel the monotony. It can arouse
laughter or a smile on their lips, which could make their mind lighter. Humour, thus, can turn
out to be a good tool in the hands of an enlightened teacher. With it, he can make a classroom
come alive and create a relaxed atmosphere in it. However, care should be taken to see that
humour in not at the expense of any individual student. Don't hurt children inadvertently.
Avoid sarcasm. There is no place for disparaging remarks in teacher pupil communication.
Bear in mind that a teacher's role is to heal, not to injure. You should shun any comments that
hamper a child's self-esteem.
Other Characteristics
To be effective, a teacher needs a certain amount of personal values like cleanliness, punctuality,
honesty etc. This does not mean that we expect teacher to be as pious and honest as Buddha or
Mahavir. However, the presence of such values in a teacher would enable him transmit them to
his pupils just like a lamp that lights another lamp into equal brightness. Hence, you need to
have these traits so that you can inspire your pupils to be honest, punctual, truthful, etc. Mercy
can be taught only mercifully. Aesthetics cannot be taught unesthetically. Similarly, kindness,
honesty, truthfulness, etc. are learnt from people who reflect these virtues in their interactions.
You cannot teach virtues through lecturing just as swimming and peddling a bicycle cannot be
taught through it. These are learnt through experience. It takes a virtuous teacher to inspire his
pupils to these values.
In this section of the unit we have noted that several personal qualities like aEection, empathy,
concern, dedication, humour, etc. are needed in a teacher to be effective. We have also seen
that most of these traits or qualities are not taught but developed. The truth being so, every
teacher including those in the process of becoming teachers make a conscious effort to acquire
more and more of these traits so that they would continue to be more efficient and effective.
Check Your Progress

1. Some of the personal qualities required in a teacher to be effective are:

ii)
I
iii) iv)
Tc9ekr--R& md Development
v) vi)
vi i) viii)
ix) x) -
2. Write in 5-6 lines as to how you can acquire these personal qualities.
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7.4.2 Professional Development of Teachers

We have already noted that a teacher requires several personal traits as well as professional
competencies to do his job successfully. In the preceding section, we discussed at some length
various personal traits or qualities that helps a teacher id hislher job. Now, let us proceed to
examine some of the professional competencies required of a teacher to be effective.
As a teacher you require a certain amount of teaching competencies such as the capacity to
plan instructional sessions, to prepare appropriate instructional material, to conduct group and
individualized instruction, and to assess student progress. Similarly, you should have sufficient
ability in diagnostic and evaluation skills such as ability to gather and analyse data related to
student behaviour, to design, develop and administer appropriate instruments to measure
student development and the ability to interpret objectively the findings obtained through the
use of such tools. He should also have the required communications skills, etc.
You have now some idea as to what we mean by professional skills required of a teacher.
Teachem need skills to carry out their various tasks at school. Note down in the space provided
below some of those skills or competencies which you think important for teachers.
The following professional skills are necessary for a teacher to be effective:
Your list, among others, might include such professional skills as planning and preparation of
classroom i~struction,classroom management, teaching techniques, guiding pupils, evaluating
pupil progress, contact with parents, etc.
In the first place, to be an effective teacher, you should have knowledge (conceptual skills)
especially in the subjects for which you are appointed as a teacher. If you lack competence in
the discipline, you cannot face your students with confidence and motivate them to learn the
required concepts, skills and attitudes. Hence the first thing required of a teacher is to have a
knowledge base pertaining to hislher field of specialization. In case you find yourself lacking
in the expected content mastery, efforts should be made to pick up the basic content knowledge Teacher Development
at the earliest. Apart from this basic knowledge base you are expected to have knowledge of
the methods and media, of pupils and their characteristics, of educational objectives etc. The
more you are well-versed in various elements of the knowledge base, the greater is the possibility
that you will be able to handle various tasks related to your job as a teacher.
Knowledge of the discipline-and related areas would alone not enable one to be effective.
Along with this, a teacher is expected to develop certain amount of professional skills such as
planning, preparation, behaviour interventions and instruction. You should be in a position to
carry out instruction in accordance with the specific needs of students. You should also be able
to select effective instructional systems and use adequate audio-visual aids. It is also expected
of you to facilitate student learning by using precise, remedial, compensatory and realistic
teaching techniques. You should be able to communicate in a variety of media such as discussion
and debate, drawings on the chalkboard, interviewing, questioning, explaining clearly, etc.
Through the ability of asking lower, middle, and higher order questions as the occasion
demands, you are expected to involve pupils in discussion leading to discovery. In addition,
you are also expected to design proper instructional programmes both for purposes of exposition
as well as for supplementation.
Another professional competency expected of the teacher is a certain amount of interpersonal
skills. As a teacher, you should develop the ability to communicate with your students clearly
and precisely, to iden@ student concern and needs, to respond to students with an open and
stable attitude, to demonstrate self-confidence in dealing with them and to interact with them
in ways that are adaptable. Thus, by dealing with them kindly, effectively and fairly, you
should be in a position to develop their strong confidence in you.
Organizational competency is yet another asset of a teacher. As a teacher, you should be able to
manage the material resources available in your classroom and plan and utilize different
equipment. Your awareness of group dynamics helps you to a great extent in the management
of a classroom. Your familiarity with individualized, group as well as teacher centered techniques
of instructions will facilitate your work. In addition, you are expected to develop expertise in
handling library resources such as use of dictionaries, encyclopedia, library catalogues, atlases,
maps, etc. Above all these you. should be good at such information gathering skills as
interviewing, note-taking, using reference materials, etc.
The ability to inspire and motivate histher pupils is another great asset of a teacher. As a
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teacher you should know that a major obstacle to learning is fear fear of failure, fear of
criticism and fear of appearing stupid. A teacher should learn to tolerate mistakes. It should be
I taken as a conscious attempt on the part of a student towards learning. Instead of chiding a
student, the teacher should try to find out strong points in each student and give them the
required opportunity and motivation to promote their growth and development. Only through
b
such exposure and motivation, will you be able to lead them to self-actualization.
In addition to all these competencies, a teacher should also possess a certain amount of
qagnostic and evaluative skills. He/she should have the ability to gather data related to student
'khaviour, analyze student misbehaviour in a classroom and idenufy the causes of such
misbehaviour. Further he should be able to assess a student's personal history and identlfy his
behavioural characteristics. Similarly, a teacher should also have the ability to design, develop
and administer appropriate instruments to measure student achevements and interpret objectively
the findings obtained through the use of such instruments.
In short, we could say that to be a teacher, an individual has to develop several personal
qualities as well as professional competencies. All these, we cannot expect a person to develop
automatically. In fact, helshe needs to be trained so that he develops the required awareness,
knowledge, skills and attitudes to be effective as a teacher.
to teacher trainees. The theory seeks to provide trainees with required philosophical, Temcher Development
psychological and sociological as well as methodological aspects related to education. Along
with theoretical training, trainees are also given the required practical training so as to equip
them with the ability to prepare assignments for pupils to work on, to design various testing
tools scientliically, to prepare low cost teaching aids, charts or sketches as aids to their
teaching and to prepare instructional materials for their pupils. Trainees are initially given an
orientation, pertaining to. these aspects which later on are followed by workshops in which
trainees are literally made to do such tasks.
Practice teaching is the most vital and crucial ingredient of these training. Training pertaining
to teaching is generally carried out in three phases. The first is the knowledge acquisition
phase in which trainees are told that teaching consists of a large number of skills. This phase
is followed by the skills acquisition phase in which the trainees initially develop various skills
such as introducing a lesson, questioning, probing, illustration, bringing in stimulus variation,
achieving closure, etc. Trainees generally acquire these skills in simulated situations in which
one of the trainees plays the role of a teacher while others play the role of pupils. Each
teaching session is followed by feedback session in which practitioners are given required
suggestion for improvement both by the supervisor as well as the peer group who act as pupils.
This mode of picking up that skill is continued till every trainee gets su&cient mastery in
them. This skills acquisition phase is followed by skills transfer phase which puts the trainees
in an classroom situation.
In the course of the year of pre-senice training, teacher trainees pick up the required knowledge,
skills, and attitudes required for taking up the job of a teacher.
7.5.2 Induction Phase

This phase of training is designed to make newly appointed teachers familiar with the practices
and activities of the institution where they are appointed. Induction training is usually identified
with the period of probation. It is meant to help a teacher gain better understanding of
classroom realities and become familiar with tricks of the trade. The induction phase usually
attempts:
to acquaint a new teacher with school organization and its policy;
8 to acquaint him with general and specific duties and responsibilities;
to i~lformhim about equipment, materials and facilities available in the institution; and
to provide him help in the conduct of various recreational and social activities.
In short, induction is the preparation required to equip a new member of the staff for the duties
and responsibilities of hidher specific initial assignment. If done systematically, it can serve
several purposes. It can provide a new teacher with the required knowledge, understanding
and skill necessary to begin and help hlm develop right values towards the school and his new
job. Further, the new teacher's realization that school is concerned about his success and
welfare can boost his morale. Proper induction also benefits a school as it paves the way for
proper and full utilization of the teacher's abilities. A new teacher who begins his job with
necessary knowledge, understanding and'skills and with a high moral will be able to devote
hidher full energy to hidher duties in hand as he/she does not have to waste his time hunting
for information or resorting to trial and error.
7.5.3 Insewice Training

The third phase of teacher education is continuous inservice training. This phase is expected to
be the longest and relatively more important. The initial training is only meant to supply a
teacher with a 'license' for teaching and provides him access to the career of a teacher.
However, it provides only the basic minimum knowledge and teaching slulls required for the
profession. But to continue worlung effectively, a teacher requires continuous personal and
professional renewal in knowledge and teaching skills and redirection of tasks and expertise as
the changing society necessitates. Hence, every teacher needs to pursue training beyond hislher
initial certification.
T - h e ~ - - ~ ~ ~ ~ We have already seen that inservice training is unquestionably an issue that every teacher
needs to pursue. Therefore, no teacher should and would not be satisfied with the initial and
induction training that he has received. He requires inservice training to move fonvard in
expertise and specialization. It is also required to equip a teacher with competencies required
for taking up new responsibilities. Let us now try to put down the various purposes for which
teachers need ko undergo inservice training. The major purposes may be thought of as under:
To provide adequate professional training for effective teaching.
To keep teachers abreast of new developments in the profession.
To upgrade academic qualifications of teachers.
To develop skills and attitudes responsive to emerging national development goals and
programmes.
To develop necessary skills and attitudes to enable them to be effective change agents in
the community.
To disseminate specific information and undertake educational innovations, such as
curriculum change, SUPW,population education, etc.
, To find solutions for the problems encountered while functioning in a school.
Inservice education or training of teachers while in jobs is essential for helping them to teach
pupils more effectively for continuing professional growth of teachers and for helping teachers
absorb and adjust to change and innovative approaches.
The new dimensions of teacher's role arising out of policy thrusts necessitates inserv,ice
education for teachers so that they can understand the nature of proposed reforms and be able
to implement them properly. Education system has to be geared to changing demands of the
society. No system of education, however comprehensive in content and form, can meet these
changing demands, unless a teacher, who is main agent is fully equipped with academic and
professional competency.
7.6 DIFFERENT MODALITIES OF INSE'RVICE TRAINING

Inservice traimng, as already noted, is a lifelong process in which a teacher is constantly
learning and adapting to new challenges of his job. A variety of modalities or methods aie at
present being used for this purpose. Perhaps, a look at some of these modalities will be of
most importance for us as they would provide us with some awareness as to how a teacher can
keep himself alive to the situations that helshe has to confront in hls day-to-day professional
life. .
7.6.1 . Auto-instructional Methods
One of the modaliues that a teacher could use for this purpose is to have recourse to
auto-instructional methods or reading of professional literature. Much of the information,
understanding and skills required of a teacher could be picked up through selfdirected activities
such as reading books and articles on education. There is a considerable body of ever growing
educational literature, whch can never be neglected by teachers desirous of improving their
teaching potent~alities.Most problems which confront teachers elsewhere may concern you
also as a teacher. Usually there is an article or a book, and in some cases many, which contain
some solutions others have found feasible. Hence professional materials should be regarded
and consulted as resources of h g h priority to improve teaching. Teachers seeking to get
materials concerning particular problems need to know the usual sources for identifying pertinent
writings and to have access to these sources. During pre-service training, a trainee should be
given the opportunity to learn skill, locate periodical literature, research studies and other
sources. Educational journals will be one source of educational information. They should also
be trained to use bibliographies appearing in recent books or other publications to identlfy
additional materials.
Teacher Devela
Fig. 7.2
In case your school library contains self-learning materials, programmed instructional materials,
modules, etc. related to your profession, you can use them to learn without much dependence
on teacher educators. The NCERT has, for example, brought out a few books and a couple of
insenice teacher education packages. Such materials are prepared keeping specific needs of
teachers in view. The advantage of such materials is that teachers themselves can get enriched
on their own with little intervention by outside agencies.
7.6.2 Workshops
Workshops have been found to be another effective mode of training teachers while i n - s e ~ c e .
By participating in them they can gather, apart from the required theoretical knowledge,
practical experience with regard to problems that they face. Workshops, first introduced by the
Progressive Educational Association at Ohio StateUniversity in 1936, have now turned out to
be st'very powerful, popular and common modes of various types of educational study, especially
for solving problems connected with instruction.
Workshops are generally organized when an organization is confronted with certain instructional
problems. When it seeks to solve such problems through workshops, it has to find the required
resources such as consultants, materials etc. in terms of the problems in hand. The organizers
of a workshop generally plan a variety of activities to provide both the breadth of learning
experiences and full opportunity for Intensive work on selected problems. A workshop also
provides for considerable activities for small groups constituted around certain urufylng factors
such as common interests, mutuality of problems, etc. so as to facilitate discussion, planning
and problem-solving activities. Often the organization and schedule of workshop is maintained
on a flexible basis so as to make provision for meeting and other activities which might not
have been anticipated in advance.
Tenche~--RY.e and aveloPment In gcneral, we can say that the workshop is as good as or even better than any other mode in
providing teachers with potentiality to solve their problems faced during instruction. Its main
advantage, probably, is the relatively relaxed opportunity for extended and intensive study and
discussion, the homogeneity of the people and problems and the active participation in planning
of those participating in it.
7.6.3 Professional Meetings, Seminars, Conferences, Panel Discussions
and Other Study Programmes
Other modalities that are commonly uscd by organizations are professional meetings, seminars,
conferences, panel discussion, etc. These provide worthwhile inservice education opportunities
to their group members. By holding small group meetings around specific problems, clinics,
demonstrations, seminars etc. these centers should help teachers in their quest for improving
teaching. The ideas, insights and skills gained through such sessions can provide teachers with
ample scope for trying out innovative activities in their own classrooms.
Seminar is generally used as one of the common devices by organizations connected with
education to impart information regarding specific topics. A seminar may either take the form
of a small group discussion session followed by the presentation of a paper or a lead lecture, or
a short course or conference of a number of session with a high degree of participation and
discussion between experts and participants. Such discussion not only provides the participants
with required knowledge and insight but also an opportunity for clarification of doubts.
Panel discussion is yet another device that could profitably be used for orientation purposes. In
this mode, a panel of experts will first present their own thinking on selected aspects of a
problem to be followed by questions from the audience and responses by panel members. This
is a fine way of providing information and knowledge pertaining to a problem of common
concern to teachers.
The school system can thus use these or other types of meetings and discussions to provide
specific help on instructional problems. One-day institute on general or specific teaching
problems, clinical problems of pupils, demonstrations with learners, exhibitions of teacher
prepared teaching aids or instructional materials, etc. are other examples of the kinds of
programme that school system could provide to their teachers to make them enriched in their
profession. Their programmes may concentrate to give help on systemic or school related
problems such as reporting to parents, using local resources for guidance of pupils etc.
All such programmes can be made profitable to teachers in improving their quality of teaching
if they are organised in a permissive atmosphere where participants are given optimum
opportunity to share their problems, feelings and even their contribution and experimentations
and if thc organizers make adequate provision for availability of human and material resources.
Check Your Progress

3. What are the benefits that a teacher derives from the induction phase of teacher
training (Answer in 3 or 4 sentences).
.............................................................................................................................
I State any four reasons as to why inservicz training is very important:

1) iii)
Teacher Development
5. Name any five modalities that could be used for imparting inservice training.
i) ii)
iii) iv)
v)
7.6.4 University Courses

At present a wide variety of courses for teachers is available. Many open universities, central
institutes and teacher education centers in our country offer several such certiticate and diploma
courses such as Diploma Course in Creative Writing, Diploma Course in Tcaching of English,
Diploma Course in Distance Education, etc. Since these courses are mostly run by non-formal
agencies, teacher can join these courses while they are employed. Such courses usually supply
standard self-instructional materials. Radio and television broadcasts, content programmes,
etc. usually supplement such materials. Teacher should take advantage of such courses and try
to enrich their knowledge base as well as instructional competcncics through them.
In short, a teacher has several modalities available for enriching hidher career as a teacher.
Self-study courses, correspondence courses, exposure to professional literature promoters of
innovation and experimentation, confcrences, seminars, workshopes are some of them. We, as
teachers, have a moral obligation to work for better teaching throughout our professional
career. What is needed is the motivation and desire to excel in the profession.
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7.7 LET US SUM UP

The main point under discussion in t h ~ sunit is the development of teachers. Training of
teachers is inevitable as the destiny and prosperity of the nation lie in the type of education
being imparted to the new generation. The quality of teachers, therefore, is of vital importance.
A teacher needs to develop several personal qualities as well as professional skills to do hisher
job effectivcly. These qualities and skills cannot be developed by teachers on their own. They
need to be trained. The training of a teacher may be perceived in terms of three phases, namely
(i) per-service (ii) induction and (iii) inservice. The pre-service training is meant to provide a
teacher with the license required for taking up a job as a teacher. The induction hclps him get
acclimatized to the specific teachng-Gaming situation in an institution. The inservice phase ,
of training helps him acquire expertise and specialisation needed for carrying out the new
responsibilities. A number of modalities such as seminars, workshops etc. are being used for
the purpose of providing teachers with the required knowledge, competencies and attitudes
needed for canying out instruction in accordance with the changing needs of thc time.
7.8 UNIT-END ACTIVITY

1. Visit a school or two in your neighbourhood and have a discussion with some of
teachers there. Find out the problems they face whilc tcaching and the way they try to
solve them. Also find out the different modalities they use for the attainment of their
personal and professional growth.

1. i) Affection ii) Empathy iii) Concern
iv) Commitment v) Hpour vi) Punctuality
vii) Honesty vii) ~leaniness ix) Dedications
X) Enthusiasm, etc.
Te=he~--Role and Development 2. The teacher should pose as role model who reflects these values. Values are caught
rather than taught. When the pupils find that their teacher pr&esses these values, they
will begin to value, accept and internalize these qualities. Forced values make not much
imprat. Therefore, teachers should not try impose them an their
3. i) Teacher becomes familiar with the organization its policies.
ii) Teacher becomes acquainted with histher general and specific duties and
responsibilities.
iii) Teacher becomes familiar with equipment, materials and other facilities available
in the organization
iv) It would enable him or her to cany outVarious educational activities with ease and
comfort.
4. i) to keep teacher abreast of new developments
ii) to upgrade academic qualifications of teachers
iii) to develop skills and attitudes responsive to emerging national development foals
and programmes
iv) to provide adequate professional training for effective teaching.
5. i) Auto-instructional methods
ii) Professional meetings
iii) Seminars
iv) Conferences
iv) Panel discussions.

Arends, R.I. (1994): Learning to Teach, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York.
Gerlach, V. S. and Ely, D.P. (1980): Teaching and Media: A Systematic Approach, Prentice
Hall Inc., New York.
Quina, J. (1984): Effective Secondary Teaching: Going Beyond the Bell Curve, Harper and
Row Publishers Inc., New York.
Dunhill, J. (1961): A Teacher Training Manual, University of London Press Ltd., London.
UNIT 8 TEACHER EVALUATION
Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Need for Evaluation of Teachers
8.3.1 Teacher's Role
8.3.2 Meanu~gand Concept of Performance Students
8.3.3 Need for Teacher Evaluation
8.4 Student Evaluation of Teachers

8.4.1 Need for Student Evaluation of Teachers
8.4.2 Tools for Teacher Evaluation by Students
8.4.3 Problems of Student Evaluation of Teachers
8.5 Self and Peer Evaluation

8.5.1 Self-evaluation
8.5.2 Peer Evaluation
8.6 Let Us Sum Up

8.7 Unit-end Activity
8.9 Answers to Check your Progress
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8.1 INTRODUCTION
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Many of us have so'me idea about the importance of a teacher's role and functions. The
traditional role of the teacher has undergone a considerable change and innumerable
responsibilities have been entrusted to himlher. It is beyond doubt that you have a more varied
role to play than was probably the case earlier. However, we have felt for a long that one of the
weakest links in our educational system has been the evaluation of teachers although the
importance of teachers for an effective teaching-learning process has been recognized for long.
We still do not have an accurate way of knowing whether practising teachers are really
adequate for their jobs or not. In the light of the above it is not really surprising that teacher
evaluation is currently receiving a lot of attention in India. In this context, it becomes relevant
for us to address a few basic questions. What exactly do we mean by teacher evaluation '? Who
is going to evaluate teachers? What evaluation procedures should be used? How is the information
Ii gained going to be finally used?
In this unit, we will provide you with a deeper understanding of the meaning and concept of
1 teacher evaluation, the need for teacher evaluation in present educational context, students and
peer group as the different appraising agencies and various appraisal procedures which can be
used effectively.
8.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, you will be able to:
define performance appraisal;
explain the need for teacher evaluation in schools;
I explain the need for student evaluation of teachers;
ident@ different tools of teacher evaluation by students;
describe problems of student evaluation of teachers;
Teachc elopment explain the concept of self-cvaluation;
identify merits and demerits of self-evaluation;
explain the concept of peer evaluation;
identlfy merits and demerits of peer evaluation; and
identify tools of self and peer evaluation
8.3 NEED FOR EVALUATION OF TEACHERS

In order to understand clearly the increasing need of teacher evaluation in schools today, let us
first t ~ yto understand the significant and varied roles teachers play and the meaning and
concept of teacher evaluation.
8.3.1 Teacher" Role

We find that today, as never before, teachers 'are dangerously overloaded. Their traditional
functions of instruction, socialization, evaluation and classroom management are not regarded
sufficient to make them effective. Present time posses challenges that were never faced by
traditional school teachers. They are facing a flux in the educational scenario which contains
innumerable and complex situations.
We very often find an ever-changing composition in today's classrooms There are unstable
home and community conditions for children from all social classes, poverty and hunger and
the classroom becomes a mirror of society's varied problems. As teachers you are greatly
accountable to parents, administrators and students and due to this there is an increased sense
of pressure on teachers. A teacher needs to exhibit leadership traits and innumerable managerial
functions have been added to his every changing role. He/she manages resources, curriculum,
co-cunicular activities, examination, innovation and changes, time, -conflicts etc. A teacher
has to solve various behavioural and social problems in the classroom before he can actually
start teaching.
Such changes in situation call for effective teachers. What was traditionally regarded as
effective may not be relevant in today's circumstances. Today's teachers are facing situations
which their predecessors did not face. Therefore, they have'to resort to effective handling of
the various competencies in an organizational context which may be different from the one
that teacher had to deal with a few decades ago. We will not be wrong to say that the
responsibility for change and improvement in schools ultimately rests on the shoulders of
teachers. Whatever be the nature, proposals for change and improvement in education, their
implementation depends upon how they perceive them to be and how they translate'them into
effective classroom practices. Evaluation of a teacher's performance, therefore, becomes
significant, particularly to identlfy the strengths and weaknesses of the system.
The need for appraisal of teacher effectiveness becomes also significant in the context of the
resources that society allocates to education. Of late, society has become particularly concerned
with the failure of the education system to contribute to its economic and social development.
Increasing deviant behaviour on the part of the young is often attributed to the failure of
teachers to inculcate among the students desirable values and behaviour patterns.
Teacher evaluation and its need are not really new to educational institutions. Teachers are
aware that they are being constantly evaluated, be it in an informal or unsys.tematic manner, by
students, parents, colleagues, superiors and the community at large. However, no systematic,
formal procedure of evaluation in relation to their key functional areas, appears to have been
evolved. The importance of systematic teacher evaluation system in education cannot be
underrated at any cost. Let us first try to understand the meaning and concept of performance
evaluation or performance appraisal.
8.3.2 Meaning and Concept of Performance Appraisal

Theorists, and practitioners have defined performance appraisal or evaluation in a variety of
I
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II Teacher Evnluatlon
ways. Let us examine some of the definitions and try to understand what performance appraisal
actually means.
Performance appraisal is defined as a systematic, periodic evaluation of the worth of an
individual to an organization, usually, made by a superior or some one in a position to obseme
his performance.
Still another dimehion to this definition is that performance appraisal is a systematic evaluation
of an individual with respect to his performance on the job and his potential for development.
In other words, we can say that performance evaluation reveals the developmental need of an
individual. We agree that an appraisal of employee on a continuous basis i.e. a teacher in the
school context, is highly desirable. Appraisal of individuals as a formal process is, therefore, of
vital importance of any school. Hence we can say that performance appraisal involves a
systematic, periodic and as far as humanly possible, an impartial rating of an employee's
excellence in matters pertaining to his present job and to his potentialities for further
development.
i
I
Stoner and Freeman (1992) have stated that two major purposes of a formal systematic appraisal
are:
To get the individuals know formally how their current performance is being rated. For
example, current rating of a teacher's perfonhance in school becomes very significant
i keeping his multifarious functions in mind.
1
To locate individual who need additional training. For example, teachers as essential
components of classrooms need to develop on a continuous basis. By a system of
appraisal, their strengths and weaknesses can be identified.
By now, it must be clear to you that appraisal is not just a series of periodic events but
a continuous and systematic process intended to help individual teachers with their
professional development and career-planning. Evaluation can reassure teachers that
they are doing good and valued jobs, give security and status to well functioning
teachers, spread innovative educational ideas, and reassure that teachers are successfully
contributing to society. It also helps to ensure that inservice training and development of
teachers matches the needs of individual teacher and schools. It also relates to access to
inservice training, career management, guidance, counselling and training for teachers
experiencing performance dficulty. Let us try to understand the need for teacher
evaluation in depth.
8.3.3 Need for Teacher Evaluation
The quality of educational s e ~ c e sdepends ultimately on the quality of the people who
provide them. Teachers comprise a major force in the school system. The quality of teachers
has, therefore, a direct bearing on the quality of education imparted in our schools. It is not at
all unreasonable that increasingly educated public should expect teachers to be accountable for
performance of school and students. Therefore, teacher evaluation or appraisal is high on
education agenda and is of considerable concern to teachers. The reason for a management's
intention to introduce formal appraisal procedures seems to arise from the growth of concern
for public accountability. Public interest in education all-around us is strong and definitely
legitimate. It has to be satisfied under all circumstances. One has only to read newspapers to
become aware that all professions be it medicine, law etc., are being opened to public scrutiny
on the demand of a better-educated and interested public. We have reason to believe that
public today resents the exclusiveness of the teacher's position and are demanding the right to
say the way that schools are run. Teacher evaluation has the purpose of letting interested
groups know how well, and in what ways, teachers contribute to their students and to society,
However, most teachers remain quite tense and apprehensive when it comes to their evaluation.
It is something they would rather avoid. But evaluation being an inescapable feature of the
human resources development, plan has to be viewed in the right perspective. Today a teacher
can turn evaluation process to his advantage with regard to evaluation and accountability. He
must realize that evaluation process offers opportunities for:
improvement of teaching performance
47
Teder-Role Development identification of inservice training needs
promotion of improved communications.
As teachers you will be leading a busy teaching life and it will be very mcult for you to know
what is actually happening. In fact, it will be even harder for you to know what you are doing
in the classroom merely from your own consideration of pupil feedback and the feel of the
lesson. We have some evidence from observational research which tells us that there are often
gaps between what teachers think and say they are doing, what they appear to be doing and
what they actually are doing. Teacher evaluation schemes lead us to agree that successful
schemes do have results which are often remarkably beneficial for individuals and the whole
school.
Many feel that, compared to other professions, evaluation of teachers is of greater significance.
The main reason is that the clients with which teacher's deal are young. Society entrusts them
to a teachers' care. Thus, monitoring the activities of teachers becomes essential if we want to
protect our young ones. For example, the quality of a dentist may be affirmed by the number of
patients who come back to him or her. On the other hand, teachers are always entrusted with
a group of mdents irrespective of their past performance. Students have virtually no choice
which they can exercise. Therefore, teacher evaluation assumes a seriousness which cannot be
neglected at any cost.
Evaluation can bring about renewal of motivation. more effective classroom teaching, improved
relationships with pupils and colleagues, more sharing of ideas and problems, and a general
improvement in the atmosphere of a school.
You will agree that a well conducted teacher evaluation gives an opportunity to teachers to get
their contributions appreciated. Let's take the example of a teacher who has adopted an
innovative approach, and teaches social studies by making use of different stamps. An evaluation
system gives him a chance to get his efforts appreciated and known to others. The fact that
self-esteem is thus boosted is considered by many teachers to be as important as financial
rewards.
There exists a strong feeling among teachers that appraisal process offers them the opportunity
to discuss and reflect, on a one-to-one basis, their individual concerns. This may not be
possible in a school where schedules keep every one busy and pre-accupied. The introduction
of an appraisal system gives teachers an opportunity to talk about their own performance and
the constraints upon it.
Appraisal process can increase the sense of belonging to a school, specially if the process is
two-way. A teacher can feel that he has a contribution to make towards the policy-making of
the school.
If we consider the need of teacher evaluation or appraisal from the school management's point
of view, we find that the process can greatly enhance the level of institutional awareness.
Information about staff-feelings, achievements, strengths and dficulties, constraints and
problems can mean increased sensitivity to working atmosphere and improvement in decision-
making and communication. Training needs of the staff become more clearly apparent and this
has implications for provision of resources and inservice initiatives.
Teacher training programmes could benefit from welldocumented evaluation reports of
successful teachers. 'Knowledge base' can be developed which is not distant from activities in
classroom.
If we conduct a survey of schools, we can easily conclude that many teachers are under-
utilized and they shape their career towards lower limits of what could possibly be done.
Hence, they become incompetent and ineffective through years of unproductive and alienating
experiences. Any appraisal scheme, therefore, should be decidedly focused on growth and
development. It is felt that a performance appraisal system helps each teacher to understand
more about his role and become clear about his functions. The confusion and uncertainties a
n
teacher faces about his job when faced alone, can reduce a teacher's sense of confidence.
Evaluation can decrease a teacher's sense of powerlessness and can increase his sense of
efficacy. Such systems can be powerful instruments in creating a positive and healthy climate
in school, motivating them to give their best. The major benefits which result from teacher-
evaluation are given below to provide you more clarity:
I. For a competent and good teacher
to enhance job satisfaction;
to enhance motivation;
to share ideas and expertise;
to support new initiatives and staff development; and
to raise or restore self-esteem.
11. For teachers in difficulty
to offer support;
to offer counselling;
to help improve performance;
111. For the school
I
to help pupils through supporting their teachers;
to build a whole school approach; and
to identify inservice and staff development needs and plan programmes
IV. For teacher training institutions
To develop a sound 'knowledge base' from evaluation reports.
We have no doubt that to bring about quality learning in our classroom, teacher evaluation or
performance appraisal of teacher goes a long way.
Check Your Progress

1. Which of the following statements are true?
a) The present posses innumerable challenges to school teachers.

b) Teachers today need not be involved in managerial functions.
c) Performance appraisal of teachers does not identlfy their training needs.
d) Educational institutions are accountable to the community around them as never
before.
e) Teacher evaluation does not lead to a general improvement in the school climate.
2. Define performance appraisal.
................................................................................................................................
3. What are the main objectives of teacher evaluation ?
I Teachef-Role and Development Let us now see the role of students in the ~rocessof teacher evaluation.
The time has come when positive efforts have to be made to involve students directly in the
process of teacher evaluation. Pupils' perspectives on teachers go a long way in making
teacher-evaluation more objective and worthwhile. Apart from indicating this extent of
effectiveness or otherwise of teacher, student evaluation of teachers provides feedback on how
teachers can be effective.
But now you must have understood the pressing need for teacher evaluation in today's educational
scenario. Let's try to understand the need of student rating of teachers, different tools which
can be used for evaluation and the fears and anxieties which teachers harbour about students'
ratings.
8.4.1 Need for Student Evaluation'of Teachers
You all would agree that students happen to be a Gery good source of information about teacher
quality as they are the group of people with whom teachers work directly and spend most of
their time. Important, useful and reliable data can be obtained through student reports about
teacher performance.
It is sad but true that whenever we think of teacher evaluation we tend to Gderrate students
as a source of teacher development. If we collect evidence more thoroughly from students, we
could get better clues about what and how to improve; students are good sources of information
about their teachers because they know their own situation well, have observed a number of
motivation in the claCsroom, opportunity for learning, degree of rapport and communication
developed between teacher and student and classroom equity. The availability of a large
number of students as reporters provides high reliability for evaluating many types of teacher
performances. Students' report data, often obtained through questionnaires are relatively
expensive in terms o'f time and personnel. Finally, student evaluation of teachers can be
justified on the grounds of students as consumers and stakeholders of good teaching. Let's'see
the different types of tools which cab be used effectively for this purpose.
I 8.4.2 Tools for Teacher Evaluation by Students

A) Survey form
Students can rate their teacher using these forms, The general format of survey forms is
to have a number of items or statements about the teacher and class or pupil presented
with a scale to indicate the student rating. Some forms have space for open-ended
questions but they are difficult to interpret. Surveys with a few items are better than
long surveys which try to ask too much. As educators, we may be curious about many
things that students may think. For example, statements can be constructkd on various
topics like materials, classroom structure, learning, teacher behaviour, transfer of learning
outside school etc. We have to keep in mind that different data sources provide some
valuable information to the teacher, not all information. Therefore, long rating forms
should be avoided as students get distracted and there are chances of halo effect. Halo
effect means that if students find a few characteristics of teacher favourable, they have a
tendency to rate them favourably in all. Proper instructions have to be given to students
regarding anonymity and to write their own opinion, not what other people think.
I
1 B) Interviews
Teacher Evaluation
I
Interviews with students can be semi-structured in the form of question-and-answer
sessions. They can be conducted by a person who is not the teacher, administrator,
principal or a fellow teacher at the school. Student responses can be recorded by the
interviewer and a summary report prepared.
Interviews can either be group-interviews or individual interviews. We find that group
interviews give more perspective, details and spontaneity. Interviews should involve a
large sample of a class rather than the entire group. The following questions can be
I
t asked in a group interview setting: What are the different activities which should be 1
often repeated in the class? What is one way in which test, or grading could be improved?
Group interviews are found to be as valid and reliable as surveys and also cost effective.
Individual interviews permit discussion of more sensitive issues that students in groups
might be reluctant to discuss. However, individual interviews turn out to be more
1
expensive in terms of interviewers' time, analysis and presentation of results.
i
I 8.4.3 Problems of Student Evaluation of Teachers
I You, as teachers will soon realize that although students are in a good position to report useful
I
information, they also have definite limitations so far as judging the quality of teachers is
concerned.
Students at school level are still not mature enough, thus their judgement may differ from
those of the adults. Students are not subject matter experts, therefore, they might not be able to
judge quality and delivery of content taught in the class.
If there exists any kind of friction in the teacher-student relationship, then it may cause
problems in assessment. For example, if a teacher behaves with a student in a stem manner,
then there is a possibility that the report of these students may not give an accurate picture of
teacher performance. Another problem with student evaluation is that there could be a tendency
of some teachers to get high ratings. The possibility arises when one aspect of a teacher's
behaviour tends to influence student ratings in other aspects. There are chances that the long
term interests of students may get neglected in the process. One common fear that teachers
have is that students are too easily influenced by extraneous factors.
We have just seen that although student reports or evaluation have c e m n constraints, their
benefits cannot be underrated at any cost. Any school which makes a systematic use of student
reports of teachers gives its students practice with the procedures and as years pass the ratings
tend to become more objective and worthwhile.
Now let's try to understand self-evaluation, peer group evaluation and their respective advantages
and disadvantages.
Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Wnte your answers in the space given below.
4. Explain the following in about eight lines.
a) Advantages of student evaluation of teacher

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
51
monitor their own behaviouIT in relation to goals, expectations and outcomes. They are also Teacher Evaluation
more likely to act on self-gained data than on information from other sources. Teachers can
write a descriptive account, evaluating various aspects of their performance indicating their
strengths and weaknesses. If we further want to widen the scope of evaluation and bring some
structure and objectivity to the whole process, a checklist or rating scale can be used. The
checklist or the rating scale can concentrate on the main tasks and responsibilities of the
teacher The different part of the job, which has given the teacher the most and least satisfaction,
can be focused on. The teacher gets an opportunity to think, reflect and write down the
problems and constraints, whch come in the way of hisher effective functioning. The different
remedial measures which could be taken and the changes which can be brought about in
school organization for improving on-the-job performance of teachers can be emphasized.
Teachers get a chance to predict their main targets for the coming year and think about their
career advancement.
A checklist or a rating scale is also structured so as to consider past performance, to set future
targets and consider career development and training needs. The teacher's performance is
evaluated in the classroom, in the community and as a manager. In t h s process an extensive,
detailed set of questions are prepared evaluating all aspects of a teacher's conuibution, together
with suggesting maximizing potential in the areas of training, further experience and additional
responsibilities. T h s process also offers much needed opportunities for recognition of valuable
contributions and how to help the teacher develop.
Disadvantages of Self-evaluation
There is a general tendency for weak teachers to over assess their capabilities while teachers
tend to be more conservative while estimating their potential and capacity. Results seem to
vary depending on the personality of a teacher. It is seen that confident teachers do not wish to
appear over confident and boastful, while the over confident ones have no such reservations.
Empirical studies have generally demonstrated that there is a tendency among teachers to give
themselves better ratings than ratings given by students, colleagues and administrators. Most
teachers overstate the quality of their own performance relative to others.
8.5.2 Peer Evaluation

Peer evaluation is a process in which teachers use their own direct knowledge and experience
to examine and judge the merit and value of another teacher's practice. The term 'peer' means
that 'achers in both roles are equivalent in assignment, training, experience, perspective and
information about the setting for the practice under evaluation.
Teachers who evaluate peers should not teach at the same school and should not be connected
with each other socially or professionally. Peer evaluation means, for example, that a class
tenth teacher is evaluated by another tenth class teacher of similar experience and training,
who knows students and school conditions of the teacher being assessed. It definitely does not
mean using any teacher of any level, having vastly different experience and training or
teaching in a different socio-economically school.
Advantages of Peer Evaluation

We find that peer evalcation has some distinct advantages. Teacher colleagues are familiar
with school goals, values and problems. They know the subject matter, curriculum, instruction
materials. At the same time, they are aware of actual demands, limitations and opportunities
that the classroom practitioners face. Therefore, in the profession of teaching you will very
soon discover that you have built up a language common to teachers.
Teachers in the same subject area can give highly specific feedback. For example, at the higher
secondary level, a science teacher is able to recognize different techniques and strategies for
balancing student learning of facts, concepts and scientific processes. It requires a practicing
science teacher to identrfy the dangers to be avoided and the exciting moments which could be
created bv another teacher. Peers are good iudees of subiect-matter ewertise.
Teefhe-Rele .nd Development Peer evaluation removes teacher-teacher isolation. Teachers learn from each other effectively.
We have access to each others' ideas, information and techniques. In the absence of this kind1
of .evaluation, teachers are unable to learn from colleagues and therefore are not in a strong
position to experiment and improve. New ideas become inaccessible to them and they indulge:
in 'safe' and non risk-taking forms of teaching. A sense of professionalism is strengthened1
with the idea of shared knowledge. It has been found that one of the main causes of uncertainty
among teachers is the absence of positive feedback. Most teachers become isolated in theiir
workplace because they neglect each other. They do not often compliment, support ant1
acknowledge each other's positive efforts.
Peer evaluation offers an opportunity to teachers to plan, design, research; evaluate and prepare
teaching materials together. By joint work on materials, teachers share to a considerable
extent, the burden of development required for long-term improvement, thus raising the quality
of their work and those attained by their students.
Disadvantages of Peer Evaluation
There are considerable difficulties which exist in peer evaluation of teachers. It is not as easy
as it sounds. Reliable procedures have to be devised, they should have credibility to the outside
audiance and we will have to create a positive culture for peer evaluation. Teachers' organizations
should support peer evaluation of any kind. When we think of peer evaluation, we immediately
think of peer visits to classrooms. We may not realize but their visits could be unreliable due to
the few number of observations, judgements, based on political considerations or friendship,
and over-reliance on style preferences that have little to do with the objectives of teaching.
There could be a possibility that the present group of teachers may not be interested lto
participate in peer evaluation as they may prefer to avoid the responsibility and prefer to leave
the task to others. Teachers may also have doubts about their own training and abilities for
peer evaluation.
Despite the doubts and reservations which might exist about peer evaluation, most teachers,
even the most experienced of us believe that teachers never stop learning. We all recognize the
fact that at times we all need help. Giving and receiving help does not, therefore, imply
incompetence. It is a part of the common quest for continuous improvement. It is assumed that
improvement in teaching is a collective rather than an individual enterprise and that evaluation
and experimentation in concert with colleagues are conditions under which teachers improve.
As a result, teachers are more likely to trust, value and legitimize sharing expertise, seeking
advice and giving help both inside and outside school, enabling them to become better teachers
on tbe job.
Criteria of Good Peer Evaluation
, positive approach
I bottom up growth
voluntary participation
indepth study
professional cooperation
respect
We have to make sure that if there are peer visits to classrooms in the case of peer evaluatuon
then classroom observations have to be made as systematic as possible. They simply cannot be
conducted in a haphazard manner according to the whims and fancies of the appraiser.
The following criteria provide the minimal requirements for a fair and systematic observation
in teacher evaluation:
\
The observer should be a neutral outsider to the school system, trained in observation
techques, having established reliability.
Observations are taken from a reliable number and timing of visits. Number of visits is TondKr EvJlutlon
based on the regularity of teacher performance; often this means an adequate number of
unannounced visits to the classroom.
Focus of observation is limited to a few major categories of events, and not to a wide-
ranging collection of attractive but collusive themes.
Recording systems like checklist, narratives etc. should be systematic and reliable.
Check Your Progress

6) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
6. Explain the following briefly.
a) Selfevaluation
*
b) Peer .Evaluation
7. The merits and demerits of selfevaluation have been summed up. Write 'My
against
Merit and 'D' against Demerit.
a) Teachers can evaluate themselves and identify their strengths and weaknesses.
b) There is a general tendency among many teachers to over-assess their capabilities.
c) There is a possibility that confident and capable teacher might under-assess
themselves.
d) A self-rating scale can be used to set future targets.
e) The teacher gets an opportunity to reflect on and write down the constraints
which come in the way of his effective functioning.
8. Which of the following statements are true or false.
a) The peer group is unaware of actual demands, limitations and opportunities the
classroom teachers face. 1
*
b) Teachers in the same subject area can give highly specific feedback.
c) In peer evaluation ideas and information can be shared
d) Peers visits to classrooms are always reliable.
e) Personal friendships and political consideration among peers could lead to biased
judgements.
9. What criteria would you'keep in mind before evaluating your peers?
Teuche-Rolc and Developme&
8.6 LET US SUM UP
The present unit has attempted to provide the basic meaning and concept of teacher evaluation,
and the vi& need for teacher evaluation as it has been increasingly felt in the 2ofh century.
The role of different appraising agencies l i e students, peer group and self have been focused
upon. We have seen in detail that the different evaluation procedures like selfevaluation, peer
group evaluation of teacher have certain advantages and constraints too. These evaluation
procedures go a long way in making teacher evaluation more relevant and meaningful in
school setting. The present unit, hence, provides the necessary perspective for other units in
this course.

1. Make a visit to a school of your choice. Have a discussion with a few teachers on the
dserent appraising procedures and appraising agencies they would prefer for their
evaluation and also their preferred frequency of teacher evaluation in one academic
year. Discuss the reasons for their preferences.

1. Do you think that in the present Indian context, student evaluation of teachers should be
practised?
2. Suggest different ways to overcome the problems which would come in the way of
students rating of teachers.

1. a) True
b) False
C) False
d) True
e) False
2. Performance appraisal is defined as a systematic, periodic evaluation of the worth of an
individual to an organization, usually made by a superior or some one in a position to
observe hi$ performance; it reveals the developmental need of an individual.
3. Performance appraisal of teachers in schools have various objectives. It enhhces
intermotivaltion levels, job satisfaction on and self-esteem. It offers support and counselling
and helps to improve the performance of teachers. The appraisal procedures helps to
identrfy insbrvice and staff development needs and plan programmes.
4. a) The need for student evaluation of teacher exists. The students are the group with
whom teachers work directly and therefore they can contribute reliable and useful
data. Student ratings are an important source of information regarding the
development of motivation i n classroom, opportunityfor learning, degree of rapport,
teachers, communication skills and classroom equity.
b) A survey form is a common tool used for teacher rating by students. The general
format of a survey form is to have a number of items or statements about the
teacher gnd class. The students may not be in a position to rate the teacher on all
dimensions. However, student-rating can be given on instructional material, class-
room structure, learning, teacher behaviour, transfer of learning outside school etc.
The number of items should be restricted as it leads to the possibility of halo effect.
c) Interviews with students can be conducted by a person who is not a teacher, Teacher l % d ~ n ~ n
akninistrator, principal or a fellow-teacher for the purpose of objectivity. Interviews
can be conducted either with groups or individuals. Group interviews are found to
be effective if general, routine questions have to be asked. Individual interviews
permit discussion of sensitive issues which students in groups might be reluctant to
discuss.
I 5. Teacher harbour genuine anxieties a far as student rating of teachers is concerned. They
1 feel that students are still not mature enough at the school level and their judgement
i
I may not be accurate. It is often said that students are not subject-matter experts and may
I not be able to judge the quality and delivery of the content adequately. The student-
I teacher conflicts frequently affect teacher ratings. Many teachers may resort to populist
measures for favourable student ratings.
6. a) Self-evaluation is monitoring our own behaviour and performance in relation to
I
goals, expectations and outcomes.
b) Peer evaluation is a process in which teachers use their own direct knowledge and
experience to examine and judge the merit and value of another teacher's practice.
8. a) False
b) True
c) True
d) False
e) True
9. An objective and fair peer evaluation requires the following criteria to be kept in mind.
The observer should be a neutral outsider to the school system, trained in observation
technique. Observations should be taken from a reliable number of classes. The focus of
observation should be limited to a few major categories of events, and the tools used
should be systematic and reliable.

Montgomers, D. and Hodfield, N. (1989): Practical Teacher Appraisal, Kegan, London.
Mhaughlin, M.W. and PfeiEer, R.S. (1988): Teacher Evaluation : Improvement Accountability
and Effective Learning, Teacher's College Press, New York.
Rayes, P. (1990) (ed.): Teachers and their Workplace: Commitment, Performance and
Productivity, Sage Publication. London.
Wilson, J. D. (1988): Appraisil~gTeaching Quality, Hodder & Stoughton, London.
Stoner, J. A. F. and Freeman, R. E. (1992): Management, Prentice Hall Inc., U.S. A.
NOTES
UNIT 9 MANAGEMENT .PROCESS AND
THE TEACHER
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Management Processes in the School
9.3.1 Meaning of Management Processes
9.3.2 Different Management Processes in the School
Decision-making: The Concept
9.4.1 Meaning of Decision-making and its Importance
9.4.2 Decision-making Process
9.4.3 Group Decision-making Techniques
Teacher's Role in Decision-making
9.5.1 Changing Role of the Teacher
9.5.2 The Teacher as a Manager
9.5.3 Teachers and Decision-making
Involvement of Pupils in ~ecision!-makin~
Let Us Sum Up
Unit-end Activity
Points for Discussion
Answers to Check Your Progress
Suggested Readings
INTRODUCTION
We have chosen the teaching profession as a career. Many of us have a fairly good idea of the
role of a teacher and hisher functions. We are also aware that the job of a teacher has changed
immensely in the last decade or so. Teaching is not what it was. Expectations ofteacher's job have
changed. His job also includes now a number of different managerial functions. A teacher needs
to have a deep insight and thorough knowledge of the various management processes of a school.
Decision-making is one of the important management proceses. The involvement of teachers in
decision-making assumes special significance as teachers, like planners or architects, are
continuously involved every day in making innumerable practical, small and big decisions,which
are of great importance for students, colleagues and management. The total involvement of
students in decision-making also goes a long way in realising organizational goals. In this unit,
we will gain a deeper understanding of different management processes, different types of
decision-making techniques and of involvement of teachers and students in decision-making
processes.
9.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, you will be able to:
define management processes;
enlist various management processes in a school;
explain the meaning and concept of decision-making;
describe Brainstorming technique;
describe Delphi technique;
identify various draw-backs of different decision-making techniques;
describe the role of a teacher in decision-making; and
describe the role of pupils in decision-making.
School Management
9.3 MANAGEMENT PROCESSES IN THE SCHOOL
In order to understand the various management processes in a school and their uses, let us first try
to understand the meaning of management processes.
9.3.1 Meaning of Management Processes
Management processes are those processes which are performed by managers. We invariably come
across managers who are involved in planning, organiiing, directing, motivating, controlling and
decision-making. These processes are also called organizationalprocesses because they go beyond
an individual manager and affect the entire organization.
We are well aware that teachers cany out their work on a day-to-day basis in conditions of
endless variety, disturbances and sometimes even unpredictability. Let us take the example of a
teacher's typical functions which could be that shelhe
formulates a plan of action (for carrying out instructions) of a year, a month or a day,
organizes a debate in a class,
motivates learners by giving positive reinforcement on their efforts,
decides on the audio-visual aids to be used while teaching a particular topic,
directs students for assignments and projects, and
measures and monitors performances of students and takes corrective action as and when
required.
Ifwe examinethe above list closely, we can easily conclude that the above functions involve, directly
9r indirectly, basic management processes i.e. planning, organizing, motivating, decisiop-making,
directing and monitoring. These are the various management processes which are undertaken in
school and in the absence of which no school can function effectively.Now let us study in detail these
management processes and their importance in a school setting.
9.3.2 Different Management Processes in the School
Planning
Importance of planning in schools has been generally recognized by all. Without planning there is
very little scope for intelligent and directed activity. Planning is an essential component of any kind
of meaningful activityto take place in a classroom or outside. As teachers, we need to understand that
there has to be a systematic, organized and an articulatedscheme ofworking. Although planning may
not be a solution for all foreseeable and unforeseeable problems, it is an extremely useful exercise
to be undertaken by all teachers. Planning can be thought of at the beginning of the week, or the day,
to list things that they have to do and spend some time thinking about the actions to be taken, problems
to be solved, decisions'to bkmade, and the relative priorities that should be attached to these activities.
Some of the planning activities which teachers carry out are:
i) planning on what to teach and how to teach the content

ii) lesson planning
iii) planning out co-curricular activities for the semester or annually, and
iv) allocating the emphasis to be given to unit/topic/lesson, i.e. whether the topic has to be dealt
with in detail or cursorily.
Organization
Schools have to develop as an organization where work gets done effectively and efficiently. This
means responsibilities have to be defined and relationships have to be developed. The essential
element is people: what they do and how they work together. In the present times, fluidity and
flexibility are becoming increasingly the norms for organization. Therefore, schools can no Management B m s s
and the Teacher
longer remain static institutions. In spite ofthe fact that ateacher is in a constant state of flux, he/
she has very little scope to organize or reorganize the school . But this may not always be true as
there is usually some room for reallocating responsibilities in relation to changing circumstances.
In determining a teacher's responsibility for organizing any activity in a school, the basic
elements to be considered are to :
i) define the purpose and objectives,
ii) analyse and identify activities or tasks required to meet these objectives,
iii) allocate .related activities to individuals,
iv) group related activities logically,
v) provide for management and co-ordination of activities at each level of responsibility,
and
t
vi) establish a reporting and communication channel.
I
I In order to have further clarity on this approach to organization, we can take the example of a
i teacher who is incharge of organizing a cultural programme for the school annual day.
i
The organization of the activity would involve:
i) determining the nature and sequence of various activities,

ii) defining the role of different teachers incharge of different items for the programme,
iii) defining the role of students who are directly participating in any item,
iv) dividing the school into primary, secondary and higher secondary levels and defining the
responsibility of the supervisors at each level,
v) deciding on the school staff required and help from community, office staff, principal,
vice-principal, paf-ents, industry, etc., and
vi) establishing a basis for co-ordinating and controlling operations through regular meetings
and reporting systems.
Direction
I
I
Direction is an important function of management and other processes like planning, organizing
etc., will not succeed if proper direction is not there. Direction involves getting the work done
through instructions and orders. For getting the work done individuals have to be supervised,
motivated and communicated with. The ultimate aim is to see that work is accomplished
according to policies and programme and given instructions. To realise the goals of an
organization, communication has to be in a language which is unambiguous and cieady
understood. Adequate guidelines have to be provided to get the work completed in time. Let us
take the example of teachers who are employed in schools with a view to achieving'objectives
which will contribute to the attainment of the overall mission and goals of the organization. To
do this they have to direct operations and therefore individuals (which includes pupils) towards
meeting these requirements. Providing a sense of direction is a key managerial task to which we
also have to add motivation to ensyre that people move towards the desired goals. Directing
invoIves exercising leadership motivating people, determining accountability and developing
guidelines for action. For example, if a group of students is going on a botanical study tour, the
objectives will not be met unless the teacher gives proper direction which includes the above
components.
Motivation pIays a major role if we want people to move in the right direction and do what they
are expected to do. A teacher in a classroom can get any work completed to satisfaction if learners
are adequately motivated. A teacher has not only to motivate students who have a low level of 7
school Management interest but also has to nurture the interest of the already motivated learners. A teacher can achieve
this by:
i) adopting a positive attitude towards learners instead of a fault finding one,

ii) giving positive reinforcement i.e. appreciation and encouragement,
iii) making academic and non-academic activities in a classroom relevant, meaningful and
joyful,
iv) giving assignments and project work to students of different abilities and potentials so that
they can work at their individual pace,
v) involving students in discussion and in activities that call for collaboration, co-operation and
communication among students,
vi) responding to student queries and problems in an encouraging manner, and
vii) making the teaching-learning process an experimental one, so that learners can identify with
what is happening outside the classroom.
Controlling
Controlling involves rneasuring and monitoring performance, comparing results with plans and
taking corrective action when required. It indicates how far the goals have been achieved and to what
extent there is deviation from the plans. The basis of control is.measurement. It depends on accurate
information and feedback about what is happening compared with what should be happening. In
other words, we can say that control deals with the difference between planned and actual
performance.
As a teacher you will be given total responsibility for all that happens within your command. You
cannot delegate that responsibility; in fact you will have to try and monitor everything that goes on
the classroom and outside.
Monitoring performance of your pupils will be your main responsibility. In order to exercise
effective control teachers need to:
i) plan what they aim to achieve,
ii) measure regularly what has been achieved,
iii) compare actual achievements with the plan,
iv) take collective measures to ensure that deviations do not take place,
v) take actiop to improve performance.
On an individual basis also, teachers need to monitor their own performance against objectives or
standards that have been set for them. We are now going to study in detail the meaning of another
management process i.e., decision-making. We shall discuss the use and importance of the decision-
making procesis and decision-making techniques for teachers.
We have to remember that various processes described in this unit constitute no more and no less than
an orderly and disciplined approach to the management by teachers of a variety of uncertain,
unpredictable and changing situations. Teachers spend a lot of their time dealing with immediate
events. They do not consciously divide their day into distinct phases of planing, organizing,
motivating, directing, controlling and decision-making. They cany out these processes as and when
required. These tasks often overlap. However, to maintain a momentum in the direction in which they
need to go, teachers must from time to time deliberately sit back and make and review plans,
reconsider the way in which the organize their work, decide what needs to be done to increase
motivation or commitment, and monitor progress towards already set goals. These processes
provided the framework within which teachers exercise their skills to deal with different situations.
Management Process
Check Your Progress and the Teacher
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1. Explain the meaning of the term 'management processes' in about six lines.
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2. Given below are a few activities of teachers. Tick those which are involved in the
management process.
a) Teacher maps out the teaching points in his mind in a logicaland sequential order.
( )
b) Giving instructions and a set of guidelines to students to make a revisional
assignment. ( )
c) Praising those students who perform well in the group discussion. ( 3
d) Taking remedial measures to improve performance of weak students. ( )
e) Choosing the most appropriate audio-visual aid for teaching 'Living and
Non-living Things'. ( )
DECISION-MAKING : THE CONCEPT

In order to understand what we mean by decision-making, let us try to understand the term
'decision-making' in greater detail and the different stages of the decision-making process.
9.4.1 Meaning of Decision-making and its Importance
Decision-making is an essential function of management. Decision-making is defined as the

selection of one course of action from two or more alternative courses of action. Thus decision-
making actually means choosing behveen alternatives. George Terry defines it "as the selection
based on certain criteria to select one appropriate alternative out of two or more alternatives". The
Webster dictionary defines it "as the opinion framed in ones own mind to take a particular course
of action". Decision-making is actually a part of problem-solving. There would be no decision
for teachers to make if there were no problems. On making a decision, the matter is closed. The
decision also serves as a rule for the future. Deciding implies that we make a choice from several
ofmany possibilities. It is the determining ofwhat is to be done ratherthan actual doing. It is the
process of choice whichleads to action. A teacher makes a number of decisions in hisher different
spheres of activity. For example, each time a teacher chooses a particular methodology to teach
a specific content matter, he is taking a decision.
The decision-making power for teachers has a special significance. In fact, as teachers it is
impossible for us to imagine what would happen in the absence of decision-making. It would
undoubtedly lead to chaos and confusion and duplication of efforts. ~ecision-making'controls
the
entire activity of an organization and lends clarity to different tasks to be carried out.
Scbool Management 9.4.2 Decision-making Process
We find that the decision-making process is a normal process which we use everyday; every time
we order a mleal or choose a dress we take a decision. Sometimes, it may so happen that decisions
get influenced by emotions, power, politics, influence of other people, and the decision-maker's
own biases and values. However, this does not always mean that the decision arrived is irrational.
The total personality a person is involved :knowledge, imagination, attitudes, judgement, and so
on.
The process of decision-making comprises seven distinct and separate steps. These are indicated
below:
COLLECTION OF INTERPRETATION
INFORMATION OF INFORMATION
AND ANALYSIS
I IV
V
DEFINlTION DEVELOPMENT
OF PROBLEM OF ALTERNATE
A SOLUTION
VII
v
EVALUATION OF SELECTION
EFFECTIVENESS OF THE
OF THE DECISION BEST
A SOLUTION
VI
IMPLEMENTATION
- OFTHEDECISION < I
Fig. 1.1 : Decision-making Model
The processes are interrelated, each influence the other. For instance, the implementation of the
decision-making may lead to a change in definition of the problem.
Step I : Definition of the Problem
This initial phase consists of searching the environment for a problem which calls for a decision.
An individual has to undertake this activity to resolve the tensions created by a situation that
hampers a normal course of activity. We have to make sure that the problem is clearly defined or
even that no amount of efforts will yield the desired results. The diagnosis of problem has to be
correct. Sometimes, it may so happen that poor decisions are the correct solutions to the wrong
problems and they are considered poor because they do not contribute to the realisation of stated
goals. A good wpy of getting behind the problem is to ask the question why. Why have the results
of the class gone down? Why is students' attendance poor ? Though this approach involves listing
a11 causes and is, therefore, time consuming, nonetheless it is betterthan solving the wrong problem.
When we take the help of others in solving problems, it may be necessary to restate the problem in
terms which are intelligible to those who are asked to participate.
Step I1 :Collection of Information and its Analysis
The situation needs to be surveyed and the relevant information collected. In dealing with people
this information may have to include opinions, attitudes, feelings, prejudices, etc. which influence
behaviour. In many instances, we have to gather facts or information which is not available with us.
However, there are two kinds of problems which do not require any gathering of additional
information.First, there are those problems that clearly fall within the scope of existing rules and Management Process
policies. These problems are generic which means that they can be solved through a rule, policy and the Teacher
or principle. For example if a school Principal has to grant 'leave without pay', all he has to do
is to look into the existing school policies. The second type of problems which does not require
gathering of any additional information are those which fall within the decision maker's range of
experience. The decision maker may possess, as a result of past experience and training, the
information necessary to make a decision. For situations that do not fall within the range of
existing policies or with the decision makers range of experience, it is necessary to acquire
additional information.
Step I11 : Interpretation of Information
The step involves proper classification of the information we have gathered. All the gathered
information may not be useful to us. We need to separate the relevant from the irrelevant and
decide the weightage to be given to each piece of information. Sincethe information gathered can
never be complete in all respects, some assumptions may have to be made. We have to be careful
and logical and try to be as objective as possible while doing this and make sure that our own
prejudices do not interfere.
Step IV :Development of Alternate Solutions
The development of alternatives is usually regarded as the central step of the decision-making
process. After we gather and interpret information, a number of possible solutionsor alternatives
come into being. During this step, some solutionsto the problems suggest themselves. Very often
we can combine different solutions and arrive at a better one.
Step V : Selection of the Best Solution
The selection of the best solution is making a choice between two or more alternatives
available to us. Here, we have to keep in mind the short term and long term effects of each
possible solution. Making the correct decision about a solution is not an easy task. There is
often an element of risk involved because the environment is changing and the information
we desire may be incomplete or unavailable. Because of the difficulty which we face in
selecting the best decision, we have to ask ourselves three important questions :
i) To what extent will the objectives be achieved by the choice we have made?
ii) Does the decision represent the maximum degree of economic effectiveness? This means
that there has to be maximum utilization of all available resources as anything less that
would not contribute toward maximum economic effectiveness.
iii) 1s the decision that has been made capable of being implemented? Here we want to know
whether it is possible to develop a plan to make the decision effective.
Step VI : Implementation of the Decision
In this step we convert the selected decision into an action or a sequence of actions. The timing
has to be considered as to what is the best time to implement the decision. We have to understand
that the decision we have made, when translated into action, may create additional problems
which will demand solution andthereforenew decisions.The decision made has tobe communicated
in clear and concise terms and has to be intelligible to those who will translate the decision into
action.
Step VII : Evaluate Effectiveness of Decision
It is always wise to evaluate from time to time, the effectiveness of the decision made. We
can compare the actual results with the ideal results expected from the decision. At this
juncture we all have to ask ourselves a number of questions:
i) Are the stated objectives being achieved?

ii) Have the resources been utilized efficiently?
iii) Has the decision led to other problems which require a solution? ..
School Management 9.4.3 Group Decision-making Techniques
In a formal organization like the school it is rare for an individual to complete the entire decision-
making process without functioning as a member of a group. There are a number of situations when
a single individual is assigned the task for solving a specific problem, still we find that the execution
ofdecisions requires the participation ofothers. Group decision-making assumesspecial significance
because the involvement and commitment of the members is needed. The wide range of knowledge
which is shared by group members is of great benefit for the definition of the problem and
identification of possible alternatives. A variety of perspectives on a problem is provided by people.
Further participation in decision-making usually results in a better understanding of the decision
reached. However, there are some clear disadvantages of the group decision-making process. '.I a
fonnal organization the relationship between superior and subordinates may not result in ar.y real
participation on the part ofthe subordinates.Very often, a proposed solution may be accepted without
a thorough evaluation of its quality; simply because there is a consensus favouring that solution. On
many occasions members of groups become engrossed in winning the argument rather than seeking
the highest quality decision. In such a situation, apart from no clear cut decision emerging, there is
considerable loss of time and resources.
We find that those decision-making techniques wbch trigger creativity, motivation and acceptance
are lagging far behind. At the same time creativity and acceptance are really required to solve the basic
problems in any organization. Let us study in detail the creative techniques like Brainstroming,
Delphi and Nominal Group ~ e c h n i ~ u e .
Brainstorming
The brainstorming technique was developed by Alex. F. Osborn and is used in all situations where
there is a need for a large number of new solutions in order to answer any particular problem. The
meaning of 'brainstroming' is that the brain storms a particular problem and in a commando fashion
to attack the same objective.
We,firsthave to create an atmosphere which is conducive for free flow of ideas. To obtain maximum
creativity in brainstorming technique, the following ruleslsuggestions have to be followed :
i) The brainstorming session may last between 40 minutes to 1 hour. Even short sessions of
10-15 minutes duration can be effective.
ii) A small conference table can be used to allow people to communicate with each other easily.
iii) The probleqs should be clearly stated. They should not be too broad. For e.g. a problem
could be 'less participation of student in co-curricular activities in Vidya Niketan School'.
iv) The probleq should not be revealed before the session. An information sheet or suggested
reference material on a selected subject should be used if prior knowledge of a general field
is needed.
v) When ideas are given, no judgement or evaluation should be made. Criticism should be
withheld till later in the day.
vi) Freewheeling is appreciated which means, the wilder the idea the better it is. The reason
behind this is that it is easier to turn down ideas than think them up.
vii) Quantity is wanted. The greater the number of ideas, the better it is.
viii)Combination and improvement are sought. In spite of contributing ideas of your own,
improvement of other peoples' ideas are sought turning them into better ideas or how two
or more ideas can be joined into other ideas.
ix) Ideas should be recorded on a flip chart, blackboard or recording machine.
x) Group members should belong to diverse background helps. If we have a balance of highly
active and quiet members and mixed groups of men and women, it is often more effective.
xi) The group size can range from four to twelve, but six to nine are recommended.
Criticisms
i) Only very simple decisional problems are solved.
ii) Only superficial ideas are brought out. Management Process
and the Teacher
iii) It is extensive but not intensive. The emphasis is on quantity, not on quality.
iv) It is time consuming and thus costly. In the school setting, 'brainstorming' technique can
be used in solving very simple problems. Let us take the problem of 'absenteeism among
teachers' or 'lack of discipline among students' Here this technique can be used for the
generation of ideas and deciding on the best alternative.
Delphi Technique
The Delphi technique was first developed in 1950 by N.C. Dalkey and associates in Rand
Corporation. It has been named after the orcale at delphi in ancient Greece. Recently, it has
become popular as a technique to help in making risk-uncertainty decision i.e. when long
range forecasting or predictions have to be made. For example, if we want to predict the
effect of a new innovation like the 10+2+3 system after a span of ten year, Delphi technique
can be used. For example, it can also be used to find out the success of DPEP i.e. District
Primary Education Programme after a span of 5 years. This technique may have variations
but if generally works as follows:
i) A panel of experts is gathered on a particular problem from inside and outside the
organization. These panel members do not have face-to-face interaction with each other.
ii) A carefully structured questionnaire is given to each panel member and each expert is
asked to make predictions without revealing hidher name.
iii) With each subsequent round of questionnaire, feedback of opinion from previous
questionnaire is provided to each member. This means that each panelist gets a
composite feedback on the way other experts answered the questions.
iv) Based on the feedback new norms or estimates are set-up and the process is repeated
several times.
v) Finally, in the last round of questionnaires each member is asked to vote on the issues
and the aggregation of individual votes determine the group's choice.
Advantage of Delphi Technique
Flexibility ofresponses - the major key to this is anonymity of the responses given by the panel
members. They don't have to 'save face'. In atraditional interacting group, experts may be more
interested in defending their position than making a good quality decision.
Criticisms
i) It is time consuming.
ii) On a board effect (it is broad game). This means there is no scientific approach or effect.
Nominal Group Technique
This technique has been labelled Nominal Group Technique by Delbecqual and Vandevien and
is an example of a group decision-making process. It was designed to overcome problems
inherent in group decisions.
A nominal group is a paper group. It is a. group in name only because no verbal exchange is
allowed between the members. Research has found that in terms of the number of ideas,
uniqueness of ideas, quality of ideas, nominal groups are superior to real groups. It is generally
believed that interacting groups inhibit creativity so far as the generation of ideas is concerned.
The Nominal Group Technique has the following steps.
i) Each member silently expresses his or her ideas about the problem and alternative
solutions in writing without consulting any other member.
ii) Each idea is recorded on a flip chart or board without disclosing whose idea is what and
the process continues until all ideas are listed.
Check Your Progress
Notes: ,a) Space is given below for your answers.
3. Explain what you understand by 'decision-making'. Give a few examples from your
day-to-day life where you take decisions.
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4. The different steps in the decision-making process are:
i) ................................................................................................................
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iii) .................................................................................................................
iv) .................................................................................................................
v) .................................................................................................................
vi) .................................................................................................................
vii) .................................................................................................................
5. Given below are some problems faced in a school situation. As a teacher, which
decision-making technique would you use to generate alternatives and take the right
decisions.
a) Naming the new school auditorium which has just been constructed.
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) To find the effedt of multi-media approach in teaching in the near future.
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c) The problem of regular late-comers to school.
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families, communities, religious organizations to educational institutions. Schools are now MlAlgeIIIeAt Process
expected to perform a leading role in socializing and educating the young. Parents and amd the Te8eher
communitiesare demandingaccountability from educational institutionsand increased participation
and involvement in educational decision-making.
There has been an invasion of media as never before. The young mind has beenexposed to various
alternatives from which it draws inspiration, knowledge and values, not all of which may be
compatible with the ethos ofa school and classroom learning. Yet, we find that any shortcoming
in the learning and behaviour of youngsters is seen to be the responsibility of our educational
institutions and ultimately that of the teacher.
In modem industrialised society, the role of a teacher is open to many pressures and conflicts.
These stem from the impact of the changes in our socio-political environment which can be felt
directly on our education system. Economic policy changes like liberalization, privatization and
globalization have their impact on the functions andmanagementofeducational systems, making
a teacher's role more technical and specialized.
A brief look at what the teacher's role was traditionally indicates that 'instruction' was the most
obvious of his or her roles. Helshe was expected to transmit a body of knowledge and skills to
students, keeping in mind their abilities and needs. Socialization is another important function as
the teacher prepares the child for participating in the way of life of his society. The values and
norms of a society are also inculcated to some extent. Evaluation forms an important part of his1
her function as a teacher differentiates children on the basis of their intellectual and often social
skillsand prepares them for the social and occupational roles which they will eventually play. He/
she makes judgements regarding promotions, and counsels parents and children with regard to
appropriate school coursesandemploymentpossibilities. Classroom management which includes
the ability to control a class is also basic to the expectations from a teacher and a teacher's
competence is assessed in the first place upon his ability to maintain order in the classroom.
The teaching oftraditional curricula was in many ways arelatively simple matter. The teacher had
to possess a certain amount of mostly factual information which had to be learned and reproduced
by pupils. But nowadays, upgraded and reformed curricula and assessment are at the core of his
job, challenging for him and students. There is less emphasis on memorization of content and
more concern with understanding. Curriculum and examinationreforms provide good illustrative
examples of skills and co-operative abilities of a teacher that would have been seldom required
in the past.
Today, when we conceptualize the role of a teacher we regard himlher as a manager. The major
traditional function of a teacher has been instruction, socialization and evahation. Today, in
addition to this, he also performs a number of managerial functions in the area of curriculum
planning, resource management, management of examinations, management of co-curricular
activities, time management, conflict management, management of innovation and change, etc.
These functions greatly facilitate his job. In a number of situations a teacher first perfoms his
managerial role before proceeding to perform his instructional role. But the two sets are not
always so easily distinguished. Nor does a teacher think of them as being separate. Inside a
classroom he performs a set of sub-roles, any one of which might involve simultaneous
hlfillment of a number of functions. They are responses to a total teaching situation. The teacher
performs his traditional and managerial role to lead his pupils towards those learning and
behaviour goals which have been prescribed or which he himself has decided upon. Now, let us
examine in detail why a teacher is regarded as a manager in the twenty-fmt century and the
' managerial role he plays to meet educational objectives.
9.5.2 The Teacher as a Manager
The quality bf schools, to a very large extent, depends on the quality of its teachers. Teachers are
the key to quality and learning in classroom. If we want a school to prosper and grow, it is
axiomatic that teachersmust perform their functions to the best of their abilities. The notion that
teachers are managers is still quite new. It is of very recent origin in India and many still doubt
whether it is possible or required.
School Management Definitions ofmanagement are many and varied. Our aim, however, is not to philosphise but to offer
practical guidance. Management in a broad sense is about:
i) Setting directions, aims and objectives.

ii) Planning progress that will be made.
iii) Organizihg available resources (people, time, material) so that goals can be economically
achieved in a planned way.
iv) Controlling the process (i.e. measuring achievement against plan and taking corrective action
where appropriate).
V) Setting and improving organizational standards.
(Everald & Morris, 1990)
As all teachiqg jobs contain at least some element of management, one can say that every teacher is
a manager. More restrictive definitions of 'management' argue that a 'manager' must aaditionally
'direct' the work of others. In their classroom role, this definition could apply to all teachers, and
almost all the principles of management have a direct application to managing a classroom.
Management of Resources
We find that till recent times the only tools, which were at the command of a teacher were text-books,
paper, blackboard and a classroom full of pupils. There was scarely anything to manage. While these
are relatively easier to manage, a new teacher has become a manager of a variety of resource at his
command. These resources include self-instructional materials, language laboratories, slides,
educational technologies like programmed texts, television and radio, computers, audio and video
cassettes etc. There is great concern today for meeting the needs of individual children, and
consequently there is a great demand for more materials and different kinds of materials. The
conventional textbooks cannot meet the demand as the format is too rigid and reliance on the printed
word is excessive and unresponsive to a child's questions, doubts and probings. The printed material
need to be supplemented by different technologies and they need to be incorporated into the new
instructional design. However, it has to be understood that the actual impact of the new technology
is not simple or one-way. It depends on the choices that are made and how technology should be used.
The practicability and success of new approaches depends crucially on attitudes and capacities of
teachers. An important problem today is the difficulty that the teacher faces in choosing among a wide
variety of available learning packages and it becomes vital that he makes a correct choice. Teachers
need to recognize that as managers of learning situation being provided for their pupils, they are in
a position to draw upon resources made available by a wide range of media, including newer types
of media which bring to children a variety of quality presentations which they themselves could not
provide. Management action involves not only the most effective use of the material resources but
also the identification of available resources in the community, maintaining available resources and
developing accountability towards control and monitoring of resources.
Curriculum Planning
It is generally felt that the quantum of knowledge thrust upon the child is beyond his capacity and
comprehension. The problem is not to dismiss the essential content but to select the most relevant part
for children who will be adults for the next fifty years. It is important to select objectives in relation
to the needs of the children, not the needs ofthe subject. Decisions are made best at the point where
most relevant information is available. When we are concerned with what to teach and how to teach
it, it is the teachers alone who are in a position to assess individual needs, abilities and aptitudes of
children. In schools today, the concept of a teacher as an obstructive manager both of the learning
resources available to the children and of various ways in which these children spend their time has
steadily gained ground and is now widespread. Hetshe is manager of pupil's learning situation and
resources.
Management of Innovation and Change
The teacher is directly concerned with the implementation ofany innovation in the classroom. He has
to manage the conditions and environment so that any innovation can be implemented with maximum
effectiveness. Different forms of change rely on the "teacher factor" for their success. For example,
-
if a decision is taken in the school to bring about some changes in the teaching,methodology,it Management Process
would surely raise many administrative issues. It would involve the deployment of school and the Teacher
resources for development such as in-service training programmes, library as a resource centre,
production of new materials, ancillary help, framing time tables, etc. Therefore, we have to re-
,think the role of a teacher, because a number of managerial functions have to be performed.
Management of Co-curricular Activities
In recent years the importance of co-curricular activities on personality development of children

has gained recognition. In earlier times, emphasis in schools was generally on bookish
knowledge and co-curricular activities had been put in the background. Today, the role of co-
curricular activities in the total integrated personality development of the children has been
widely realized. Teacher has to understand the objectives and importance of co-curricular
activities. He should have knowledge of different co-curricularactivities like debates, elocution,
contests, quizzes dramatics, dance, music, etc. He has to plan different co-curricular activities in
advance and organizes different clubs like science club, language club, mathematics club, NSS,
NCC, etc. He organizes educational tours, exhibitions, field trips and morning assembly in
schools.
Management of Examinations
This has always been regarded as one of the traditional functions of teachers. However, if we
examine this closely, we can conclude that in the performance of the function teachers are
involved in making innumerableminor and major decisions at each step. A teacher has to possess
an understanding of the importance of evaluation and should have a knowledge of different
evaluation techniques. The planning of an examination schedule, identification of suitable
examination techniques, preparation of question-papers on scientific basis, execution of the
examination by following standard norms of examination administration etc., are some of the
responsibilitiesthat a teacher has to fulfil. He is further involved in providingfeedbackto students
and in the development of remedial instructional stategies for students who do not perform well.
Conflict Management
The teacher as a manager has to develop a variety of leadership techniques which taken together
constitute a leadership style. A teacher faces a common set of basic problems in a classroom.
Students belonging t?o a multicultural and multiethenic background face various adjustment
problems. The different ways which they adopt to solve these vary considerably. A teacher has
to listen to and understand the needs of others impartially and consider the other's viewpoints.
The focus has to be on issues and facts rather than on personalizing the conflict. An open
environment is to be created and opportunities are to be provided for discussion between the
concerned individuals.
Time Management
We should not forget that teachers themselves are valuable resources of an organization.Among
their managerial functions the central one is the optimum utilization oftheir time. It is a hard fact
that those teachers who are prepetually racing against time are seldom the most effective.
Teachers are keenly aware that theirjob has changed immensely in the last decade or so. Teaching
is not what it was, expections have intensified and teachers are dangerouslyover-loaded. In such
a scenario the time management techniques that they possess assume special significance.
Teachers use time analysis and list all activities to be done everyday, review the previous day's
list and carry forward anything not done. A teacher arranges all academic and co-curricular
activities on the basis of their relative importance.
9.5.3 Teachers and Decision-making
Decisions are constantly being made whether a decision maker is the -house-wife,a mother
planning her day, a family organizing their holiday, a Board of Directors launching a new project
or a teacher planning his work. Every one in education is constantly making decisions.
Departments and schools make policy decisions about the curriculum, recruitment, etc. Outside
I%' III,UI \lanagenlent agencies such as employers and universities make decisions about administration and selection. It
could be said that the quality of education depends on the quality of the decisions that are taken.
One ofthe important functions in your teaching careerwill be making decisions. This aspect becomes
crucial from day one as you would be shouldering innumerable responsibilities. It is in making
decisions that teachers most acutely feel the responsibilities,the power and the vulnerability of their
jobs. Logical and mature decision-making is an important skill which everyone requires, specially
those who are aspiring for teaching positions. The decisions made by teachers can have long term or
short term implications. One is constantly making decisions about what one is doing and these
decisions are usually based on a constant flow of information about what's going on and how one's
plans are working, together with a basic sense of direction and purpose. There can be minute by
minute dec'isions and critical decisions which require weeks of deliberation. Life in a classroom is
no exception; for there are also decisions continually being made by a teacher.
The following four examples are some of the decisions a teacher made in a single day:
i) He assigned students to various group on the basis of reading ability.

ii) He handed out books for different groups.
iii) He sent a child to the principal office for misbehaviour.
iv) He accepted to organize an item for the school annual day.
While making any major or minor decision a teacher has to consider all the alternatives open to him.
Decisions may prove to be bad because the decision maker failed to take into account all the available
alternatives or by making decisions too late, he has reduced options available to him.
In recent times, a lot of organizational changes have taken place as a result of decentralization.
Consequently, decisions are now not only taken by a central authority, but also by people nearer
classroom situations. If we empower teachers to make decisions, it means that decisions can be made
on the basis of greater knowledge ofthe manner in which adecision is likely to yieldmore appropriate
results. Autonomy in decision-making for teachers has a marked influence on teacher morale which
is the key to good education. Decision-making gives teachers a sense of personal significance and
identity. Teachers become a foundation of any long term solution. There are more teachers than
principals and more principals than school board trustees. The power of decision-making should be
put in the hands of the majority.
We find that increased participation of teachers in decision-making process reduces the sense of
powerlessness and isalation experienced by many teachers as employees in a school. Participation
in decision-making also develops an increased trust among participants in the administration of the
school. The trust is derived from the knowledge that there are structures and mechanisms which exist
in an institution to reduce the excessive influence of only a few people. Teachers have access to
information from sources other than a school leader. Moreover, as more staff become aware of the
complexity ofproblems confrontingschool administration,the 'them versus us' mentality is reduced.
Teachers feel that they are an important part of the organization and its functioning.
Some of the important functional areas where teachers take decisions at every step have bern listed
below. We find that most ofthe decisions taken by the teacher involve complex, social, philosophical,
psychological and moral judgements.
Management of Examinations
A teacher :
i) Decides dates, place, time and invigilators for an examination.
ii) Decides the examination pattern by consulting other teachers.
iii) Prepares questions papers on a scientific basis and decides appropriate weightage to
content, to different types of questions etc.
iv) Decides what remedial instructional strategies need to be adopted to help backward students.
C'i.rssroorn Management \lanngc~ncnt Process
and the Teacher
The teacherhas to take various decisions regarding:

i) Confronting a student in the class or avoiding it.
ii) Letting a child's discovery run further, intervene or direct it.
iii) Classroom discipline.
iv) Classroom fairness.
v) Freedom of the child versus the need for teacher intervention and support.
Management of Resources
Decisions have to be made by the teacher regarding:
i) Media and technique to be used for communication of information.
ii) Development of indigenous teaching aids.
iii) Mobilisation of required resources from the community.
iv) Formulating accountability criteria towards control and monitoring of the resources.
Curriculum Planning and Instruction
The teacher has to make sound judgements on :

i) Instructional material.
ii) Appropriateness of subjects or activities to pupils of different ages and abilities.
iii) Learning strategies to be adopted in particular situations, for example, whether it should
be exposition based, discovery based or enquiry based.
iv) When the course of learning should be controlled by the teacher and when by the pupil
and in what grouping the people should learn.
I
I Management of Co-curriculur Activities
I The teacher is the key in the management of co-curricular activities. There is widespread
participation of teachers in the decision-making process in this area.
Decisions are made regarding :

i) Suitability of different co-curricular activities like debates, elocution contests, quiz,
dramatics, dance, music, etc.
ii) Identification of talent among students.
iii) Organization of different co-curricular activities in advance.
iv) Organization of educational tours, exhibition, field trips, etc.
v) Organization of morning assemblies to promote patriotic feelings and faith.
The above mentioned activities are some of the important areas where teachers make decisions
at every step. However, their decisions extend much beyond these.
Joint Teacher Decisions
Teachers in school also indulge in collaborative decision-makingi.e. they make decisions with
the help and support of their colleagues. Teachers as a group are allowed greater discretion in
making decisions with and on behalf of children they know best. Joint decisions by teachers are
not only concerned with sharing of resources, ideas and other immediate practicalities, but are
also concerned with what teachers teach and how. While making collaborative decisions, one
thing has to be kept in mind viz., that joint decisions should not be taken on minor m'atters which
are likely to consume a great deal of time.
School Management Decisidns made by a teacher either individually or collaboratively have a definite impact on the
teaching-learning process. However, we have to keep in mind that many decisions have to be
consultative i.e. participation of pupils is also required. Involvement of pupils in decision-making
helps a teacher to view problems from a broader perspective.
We have just seen the role teachers in decision-making. Now let us take a look at how pupils also
involve themselves in decision-making.
9.6 INVOLVEMENT OF PUPILS IN DECISION-MAKING

Down the ages we have seen that pupils have just been regarded as passive listeners and decisions
are thrust upon them. However, for quite some time now there has been emphasis on individual
learning and pupil-centred approach. The focus has shifted to the learner in the classroom. The
identity of each learner and his or her capacity for free expression, definite viewpoints and decision-
making powers are being widely recognized today.
A learner is undoubtedly the pivot round which the entire teaching-learningprocess revolves. His or
her involvement in decision-making goes a long way in making decision-making process more
democratic and participative.
Today, the involvement of students concerning the framing of new rules and regulations is very large.
But some positive effort has been made in this direction. In many educational institutions where
decisions have to be made which have an impact on students community, the views of students'
representatives are considered.
Let us take an example. A change is to be brought about in existing school timings. If the views of
the students are considered, the final decision would be more acceptable to the larger public. For
example, if students are actively involved with do's and dont's concerning school discipline, there
is greater possibility of their accepting and following rules and regulations. Then the feeling among
pupils that the students' group is an alienated one is minimised to a great extent.
The area dfco-curricular activities requires a genuine involvement ofthe pupils. In the organization
of various co-curricular activities, like dramas, debates, quiz, elocution contests, dance and mpsic,
festivals etc., minor and major decisions are taken by students themselves. The organization of field
trips, educational tours, exhibitions further give an opportunity to pupils to enhance their decision-
making powers. The annual day and sports day events in schools require students to exhibit their
decision-making abilities, as they enthusiastically participate in these functions.
A large number of schools today provide student amenities, like drinking water facility, canteen
facilities, mid-day meals, uniforms, textbooks, etc. They are important for student welfare. The main
recipients ofthese welfare schemes are students themselves and their say should carry a lot ofweight
when any decision is being made. If we take, for example, of students' complaint of the unhygenic
preparation of food in the canteen, student representation is a must so that different alternatives can
be analysed and the best course of action can be chosen.
We are not wrong if we say that each school is a micro unit where training for democracy is being
provided. School government, school unions, houses all have school presidents, vide-presidents,
house-captains etc. Therefore, pupils get ample scope to make decisions at every step and training
for citizenship is enhanced, For example, during school elections, students are required to vote and
their ability for logical and rational decision-making can be observed. We, therefore, find that the
scope for pupil's involvement in decision-making exists in a few areas. However, a deliberate and
conscious effbrt has to be made to provide it a greater focus.
Check Your Progress
6. 'A Teacher is a Manager'. Do you agree with this statement. Substantiate your answer
with illustration.
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7. State a few decisions a teacher takes in different functional area.

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8. Mention a few decisions taken by pupils of a school.
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This unit has attempted to provide basic ideas on different management processes like planning,
organizing, directing, controlling and decision-making which are crucial for the effective
functioning of any school. We now know that all these management processes go hand in hand
and have their own importance and uses. However, the major focus in this unit has been on the
teacher as a decision maker. The role of a teacher has undergone a change in the last decade or
teachers can use as and when problems arise and situation permits. However, teachers and their
decision-makingpower cannot be taken in the form of purely individualinitiatives i.e. in isolation
of our pupils. Cooperation, coordination and discussion are important if we want to successfully
school ~ a n n g e m e n t accomplish the goals of education and face new tasks and challenges that arise. Therefore, pupils
involvement, in decision-making goes a long way in making teaching-learning process more relevant
and meaningful. The present unit, hence, provides the necessary perspective for other units in this
course.

1. Make a visit to a school of your choice. Have a discussion with a few teachers on the typical
problems they face in various functional areas. Then apply any one of the decision-making
techniques you have studied and offer possible solutions. You may have to think imaginatively.
Even if your solutions are tentative, discuss them with teachers in the school.

1. Do you feel you have enough autonomy to take decisions in various functional areas?
2. What major constraints do you face in taking routine decisions in your school?
3. What are those decisions, often entrusted on you which you would like to take?

1. Management processes are those processes which are performed by managers in their
different functional areas. The different management processes a manager is usually
involved in are planning, organizing, directing, motivating, controlling and decision-making.
2. a) planning
b) directing
c) motivating
d) controlling
e) decision-making
3. Decision-making is the selection of one course of action from two or more alternative
courses of action. We select the best for the most appropriate alternative out of the various
alternatives available to us. Decision-making is a part of problem-solving. When problems
need to be solved, decisions are required to be taken.
In our day-to-day life innumerable decisions need to be taken. As parents when we decide
to admit our child in a particular school, we have taken a decision. If we make a choice to
visit Shimla during our vacations, it is called a decision.
4. The different steps in the decision-making process are:
i) Definition of problem
ii) Collection of Information and Analysis
iii) Interpretation of Information
iv) Development of alternate solution
v) Selection of the best solut~on
vi) Implementation of the decision, and
vii) Evaluation of effectiveness of d e G :.
5. a) Brainstorming technique
b) Delphi technique
c) Brainstorming technique
6 . 1 fully agree with the statement that 'A Teacher is a Manager'. A teacher sets directicj.?-
plans how progress will be made, organizes available resources and controls differen;
processes and takes decisions. A teacher is involved in the management of curricirlunl
examination, innovation and change, co-curricular activities, time and conflict, etc.
22
7. A teacher takes different decisions like deciding dates, place, time for class tests. He Management Pr I , e ..
and the Idaal, ,.a
often decides on the remedial instructional strategies to be adopted to help slow-learners.
The teacher takes a decision on what media and technique to be used for the commu-
nication of information.
8. Today, many schools involve students in the decision-making process. The common
decisions pupils take is in the organization of various co-curricular activities like drama,
debates, quiz, elocution contests, etc. Pupils also have a say in the functioning of welfare
schemes like drinking water facility, canteen facility, etc. which are implemented for
student benefit.
I
Adair, John ( 1985): Effective Decision-Making. Pan Book, London.
Gosh, B. (1994) : A New Look at Organizational Behaviour, Himalaya Publishing House,
Bombay.
Mathew, M.T. (1993): Organization Theory and Behaviour, RBSA Publisher, Jaipur.
Sisk, H.L. (1977): Management and Organization, Soults Western Publishing Co., Ohio.
Taylor, George (Ed.): The Teacher as Manager, National Council of Educational Technology
(NCTE) Symposium, Camelot Press Ltd.
Armstrong, M. (1990): Management Processes and Function, Short Run Press, London.
Brubaker, D.L. (1972): Introduction to Education Decision-Making, KendallIHunt Publishing
Co. & Nelson R., Carolina.
OECD (1990): The Teacher Today: Task, Conditions, Policies, OECD.
Structure
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Objectives
10.3 Leadership at Different Levels of School Hierarchy
10.3.1 Meaning of Leadership
10.3.2 Nature of School Leadership
10.3.3 Styles of Leadership
10.4 Teacher as Leader
10.5 Role of Headmaster
10.6 Leadership Roles of Pupils
10.7 Let Us Sum Up
10.8 Unit-end Activity
I 10.10 Answers to Check Your Proeress
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10.1 1 Suggested Readings
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Our concept of leadership can, probably, be best understood ifwe reaIise the importance of a 'leader'
in any organization or system. Normally, in any organization, a set of people are involved at different
positions, working for the attainment of the pre-defined goals. At times, people
. - in the organization
-
require support, guidance and motivation in carrying-out their tasks. Sometimes, disagreements may
arise in a group regarding the opinion, working style, skills and competencies. This kind of situation
hampers progress and the realization of goals. There is need for an individual who can control the
system, guide personnel, plan, organize and lead the system towards a sustainable development. Such
an individual can be called a 'leader' and the quality he possesses is 'leadership'. Thus, leadership
meets the needs and preferences of group
- . members, utilises what is known about human motivation
by relating an activity to its consequences and elicits the maximum contribution from each member
in the group. In a way leadership is the process of helping others to discover themselves and their
potential for achieving objectives which an orgnization has set for itself.
With this context in view, let us examine leadership roles in school situations. As we all know, school
is a formal organization created for providing education, wherein teachers and learners interact with
each other, and co-exist to achieve learning objectives within the school framework. Apart from the
teaching-learning process, there are certain activities which support this and the overall management
ofthe institution. These activities are usually looked after by the Headmaster or the Principal of the
school. Thus, the important components of any school system are the HeadmasterIPrjncipal, teachers
and students. For effective functioning of the institution, the above three components have to play
different roles.
I In this unit, we will discuss educational leadership in different school hierarchies and focus on the
leadership roles of Headmaster, supervisor, teacher and students for effective functioning of the
school.
10.2 OBJECTIVES
I After going through this unit, you should be able to:

a
a
define leadership in the school context, along with the focus of its nature and types;
discuss school hierarchy and the leadership roles of Headmaster, supervisor, teacher and
pupils;
explain the importance of educational leadership; and
discuss leadership roles of different components for better school management.
HIERARCHY
School is a formal setup of education, wherein teachers and students interact with each other for
achieving pre-determined objectives. It is through this interaction that students learn. The quality
of interaction enhances the quality of learning outcomes. Classroom processes and interaction
depends upon many factors in a classroom, like regularity in classroom activities, discipline,
motivation of students, resources available, and so on. Classroom interaction also gets influenced
by the school environment outside the classroom like cleanliness, state of buildings, conduct of
co-curricular activities such as assembly, sports, cultural activities and also the functioning and
behaviour of staff including peons.
For enhancing the quality of interaction many factors have to be controlled and this cannot be
done by a single individual. Due to this reason, a hierarchical administrative structure is created
in a school along with different leadership positions.
The usual leadership positions that exist in a school are given below:
PRINCIPAL
OR
HEADMASTER
!I
SUPERVISOR
TEACHERS
STUDENTS
Fig. 10.1 : Leadership Position i n a School
The Headmaster of the school is considered to be the leader of the school, because helshe looks
after all academic, non-academic and administrativefunctions of the school. You must have seen
in schools where the Headmaster stands in front of students during morning prayers. You must
also have seen the Headmaster's room, wherein the whole plan of school activities is displayed.
Similarly, teachers prepare unit plans, instructional plans, evaluation techniques and other co-
curricular activities in the school. Recall your school days and remember your teacher sitting in
the staff room and preparing for the next class, correcting note books, etc.
Studentsalso have a different type of leadershiprole in the school. They are the assets of a school.
The detailed description of the different leadership roles is given in subsequent sections.
People involved in different positions at school hierarchy tend to perform leadership roles. Now
let us understand the meaning of leadership, its nature and types of educational leadership.
School Management
Fig. 10.2 :Headmaster's Room
10.3.1 Meaning of Leadership
According to social psychologists, leadership evolves from a dynamic and interacting group that is
held together by loyal ties to an individual, and is concerned with the goalsofthe group. Thus, a leader
may be anyone who is recognised by individuals or by the group as an available source of help.
The leadership behaviour must adequately recognise the importance of each individual in
accomplishing the task by the contribution of the individuals through group activity. Power and
position may not be the criteria for leadership. Leadership requires specific characteristics which an
effective leadership must possess. The qualities, characteristics and skills required for an effective
leader are:
i) Sociability vii) Initiative
ii) Intelligence viii) Creativity
iii) Self-confidence ix) Co-operation
iv) Adantability x) Scholarship
v) Responsibility xi) Risk taking
vi) Dependability xii) Verbal clarity
Do you have any ofthe above qualities? Ifyou have qualities and exhibit them through your activities,
then you are an 'effective leader'.
Leadership evolves from groups. These groups are usually unified around mutually agreed upon
goals. The individual in the group who works for attainment of the goals and maintains group
solidarity, gets support and affiliation of the group. Members of the group accept the proposals Leadership Roles
made by such individuals and accept them as their leaders. Thus, leadership includes the
follower-ship also. Gandhiji was a national leader and the entire country accepted his principles
and followed him in the freedom struggle. Similarly, in a educational setup we find leaders and
followers. The Headmaster leads the entire school and teachers lead students. Therefore,
leadership always involves follower-ship. In the next section, we focus on the nature of
educational leadership.
-. Activity 1
Give the name of a leader. Justify how he can be called a leader.
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10.3.2 Nature of School Leadership
As discussed in the previous unit, the school is an institution for learning. Management of school
means managing different activities in the school which are directly or indirectly affecting
student learning. Leadership is important in planning, organizing, directing, supervising and
evaluating school programmes.
Let us examine different leaderships which are essential for the school management.
School Leadership
I
Administrative Instructional
Fig. 10.3 : Kinds of School Leadership
Administrative leadership requires the utilisation of available human and material resources
through the adoption of sound management techniques for the progress of the school.
Instructional leadership could be viewed as providing assistance to staff members of a school in

identifying and formulating learning objectives and for planning strategies to attain the goals.
For the above tasks, a leader could be - anyone Headmaster, Supervisor, teacher or any person
of the school management committee. Each one of them has specific leadership roles to perform
in school administration. The administrative process of a school always emphasises learning by
students. In fact, administrative functions are the support service for academic functions. Co-
ordination between these two functions needs to be maintained.
So far, we have discussed the nature of school leadership and the two types of leaderships which
are essential for better school management. The following sub-sections discuss in detail the
leadership roles of Headmaster, teacher and pupils.
School Management 10.3.3 Styles of Leadership
The leadership styles of individualscould be classified on the basis of how leaders use their authority1
power. Usually leaders are categorised according to three basic styles. They are :
1. Autocratic leader
2. Democratic leader
3. Free-reinlLassiz fair leader
The autocratic leader uses power and authority, commands and expects compliance, is dogmatic and
positive, and leads the organization by the ability to withhold or give reward and punishment.
The democratic leader consults with group members on proposed actions and decisions and
encourages participation from them in the management process. The democratic leaders involve the
group members in the decision-making process and listen to the members' opinions.
The Lassiz fairIFree-rein leader uses his power sparingly, if at all, giving sub-ordinates a high degree
of independence in their operations. Such leaders largely depend on group members to set the goals
and the means of achieving them.
You musthave seen the principal in your school behaving in amanner as described above. You must
have also noticed the effect of hisher leadership style on the school climate.
Activity 2
Identify the leadership style of your school Principal and list down the consequences of this
leadership style on School Programmes.
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Check Your Progress

1. What do you mean by leadership role in the school context?

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2. Explain the nature of educational leadership.
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28
Leadership Roles
10.4 TEACHER AS LEADER
The National Policy on Education, 1986 stated that "No system of education can rise higher than
its teachers". A teacher is the most important element in the educational process. A teacher is the
vital component in teaching-learning process. Before identifying the teacher as leader in the
instructional process, we have to understand the process of classroom interaction.
The Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) stated, "We are convinced that the most
important factor in the contemplated educational reconstruction is the teacher". A teacher usually
performs three different types of activities in a classroom. They are pre-active, interactive and
post active functions.
Pre-active Interactive Post-active
Fig. 10.4 :Functions of a Teacher in Classroom
Let us examine, how a teacher performs the above activities and.guides the instructional
.
process.
Pre-active functions are those which are to be performed before going to the classroom. They
are:
Planning curricular and co-curricular programmes,

Organizing programmes,
,a Selecting appropriate strategy of teaching,
Preparing lesson plans, assignments and teaching aids, etc.
Activity 3
Observe the activities that a teacher performs before the commencement of classroom
'teaching and write them down here:
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In the interactive phase the leadership role of a teacher is directive. Here a teacher is the leader
ofthe overall transaction. Let us list the different functions ofthe teacher in the interactivephase.
a Creating an appropriate classroom climate for better learning

Explaining, illustrating and questioning
a Providing motivation and positive reinforcement
Getting feedback from students, and
Evaluating students' learning.
A teacher perfoms the above activities in the classroom. During classroom teaching, a teacher
acts as a leader and guides the classroom instructional process.
The post-active phase of teaching consists of the following
a Supervision and guidance,
Communicating with parents,
a Maintenance of cumulative records,
Preparation of evaluation reports/progress reports,
a Organization of tutorial classes, and
Maintaining inter-personal relations.
brhuul hlanagement These are the activities which are to be undertaken by the teacher after classroom teaching.
The pre-active, interactive and post active functions discussed above, require leadership qualities in
a teacher. As the Education Commission, (1964-66) stated, "the destiny of the nation is shaped in the
classroom-'.Teachers are a1so:xpected to perform leadership roles in non-teaching situations. These
would include co-curricular and extra-curricular activities and set the tone of the school. Teachers
become leaders of national reconstruction.
Teachers are also responsible for canying out non-academic activities in the school, for example,
celebrating school day, days of national importance, sports and games etc. Therefore, teachers are
expected tb perform leadershiproles in organizing co-curricular and extra-curricular programmes of
the school.
In the above discussion, we have looked at multiple roles of a teacher in school. These roles are linked
with students' learning. Tomorrow's nation will depend upon the type of citizens trained and
educated today in schools. Hence the teacher is a leader and literally the arbiter of a nation's destiny.
Check Your Progress

3. What are instructional leadership roles of a teacher?

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10.5 ROLE OF HEADMASTER

Schools become great, not because of the magnificent buildings but because of the effective and
efficient PrincipalsMeadmasters. Headmaster in a school is like a spring in the watch, a wheel in the
machine and an engine in the steam ship, A Headmaster is the organizer, leader, governor, director,
guide and co-ordinator of school programmes.
A Headmaster in a school is vital to school administration.Helshe is the leader for both administrative
and instructional processes. Now, we shall discuss the position ofthe Headmaster in a school and his/
her responsibilities.
Study the Figure carefully. It shows the multiple responsibilities of a Headmaster in a school. He is
a leader to all the sub groups in the school, working for the achievement of the goals.
Leadership Roles
STAFF & NON-

TEACHING
HEAD-
COMMUNITY MASTER
SCHOOLS
GOVERNMENT TECHNOLOGICAL
ADVANCEMENT
& KNOWLEDGE
EXPLOSION
LOCAL BODIES
VOLUNTARY
ORGANIZATION
I
Fig. 10.5 : Multiple Responsibilities of a School Headmaster
Let us elaborate these roles by understanding the activities that a Headmaster preforms in
schools.
He plans and organizes school activities,

Allocates duties to staff and non-teaching staff,
Maintains relationship with parents, community and Government,
Develops networking with other schools,
Acquaints himself with recent trends in technology and information,
Organizes social activities,
Procures infrastructure and materia1 resources,
Mobilises available resources for the development of the school,
Visualises future of the school in the society,
Coordinates different school activities,
Appraises performance of the teaching staff, non-teaching staff and students, and
Organizes staff meetings on various aspects for decision-making.
School Management
Activity 4 I
List out specific leadership roles of Headmaster of a school in where you a r e w q b g .
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Who can be a good headmaster?
Fig. 10.6 :Diagram of the Headmaster's Seat
The above diagram represents the multiple dimensions of an effective and efficient school Principal/
Headmaster. These are also the qualities of a leader. Let us understand the position ofPrincipa1 in the
educational hierarchy.
The Principal is the key-stone of the arch of educational administration. He is in the strategic centre
ofa web of instructionalinter-relationships, self development and school management.The Principal
oftoday finds more responsibilitiesarising from new responsibilities assigned to the schools by the
community
The above activities require leadership qualities to mobilise resources in the system for attaining the
objectives of the school. Therefore, from this discussion, we understand that PrincipaYHeadmaster
is a leader of teachers and non-teaching staff, students, community etc.
Leadership Roles
Activity 5
Principal of a school holds two types of leadership positions.
i) Instructional Leadership
. ii) Administrative Leadership
List the various activities under these positions.
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In the next section, we discuss the leadership roles of students in a school. As in the case of
teachers and Principal in school administration, students have also equal importance in
school hierarchy. In fact, without studentsthe existence ofschool has no meaning. Let us examine
the leadership roles of students.
Check Your Progress

4. How do you justify that the Principal is a leader in the school management? Give
illustrations.
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School Management
10.6 LEADERSHIP ROLES a F PUPILS
Pupils are the legitimate actors in a school. It is for them that all educational activities are organized
and undertaken. It is they who occupy the focus or the limelight of school activities for which
curricula are planned and designed, school plant is set up, qualified teachers and principal are
recruited and auxiliary servicesare organized. In fact, pupils are the measure of all these endeavours.
The entire set ofactivities in a school are planned, organized and evaluated in relation to pupils. There
should be aseciprocal behaviour on the part of students'. This means, that students have to participate
actively in all activities organized in the school. In some context, students have to organize
programmes such as students literary club, annual day, teachers' day celebration, national festivals
etc.
Let us elaborate these roles in the school context.
Student is a leader in a classroom. The quality of interaction in the classroom enhances the quality
of learning. Students have to take part actively in classroom process. If students are passive and the
teacher is active in teaching, the process becomes passive and teacher loses interest. In a teaching-
learning process, students and teacher are the wheels of a cart and they should move simultaneously
to move ahead.
Imagine a situation,where students are active in interaction.Is it not a challengingtask for the teacher
to match the students' interest with their participation?
Activity 6
Suppose in your class, students are leading the teaching-learningprocess. How do you prepare
yourself for teaching in such a class?
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The other type of leadership that students have to 'perform is that of "leadership in co-curricular
activities". Many a times, school provides opportunities to students to organize co-curricular
activities in a school. These activities may be in terms ofmonitoring the class and school, organizing
school prayer, cultural programmes, celebrating the national days of importance, conducting
competitions among students in the school and among schools,maintain the dignity ofthe school etc.
Usually, we observe that "school pupil leader", with the help of class leaders, organize these
activities. Of course, the involvement of teachers in these activities is also important. Here teachers,
guide the students in organizing activities,but in organizing the activities students have a significant
. role in making activity successful.
From the above discussion, we come to know that students have dual roles to perform in school
administration. They are leaders in classroom interaction and in co-curricular activities.
In the above discussion, we looked at the leadership roles of teachers, principals and students in
school management. Each one has specific tasks to perform. The whole process revolves around these
three components and hence the effectiveness of a school depends upon the quality leadership of
teachers, students and the principals in the school activities.
Leadership Roles
Check Your Progress
5. List the leadership roles of students in the school.

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10.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we discussed leadership at different levels in school hierarchy. In this context, we
defined a leader as anyone who is recognised by individuals or by the group as an available source
of help. We pointed out the characteristics of an effective leader. We also focussed on two major
types of leadership in the school context. These are administrative leadership and instructional
leadership. The role of ateacher as a leader in school was touched upon. The leadership functions
of a school teacher are mainly classified into pre-active, interactive and post-active. The most
important leadership role is performed by the Headmaster of a school. He is a leader for both
administrative and instructional process in the school. Finally leadership roles of school students
in classroom interaction and in co-curricular activities were discussed.
I
1. Take two schools in the locality you live including your own school, study and compare
the leadership behaviours of the Headmasters or principals of these schools.

1. Imagine a situation, where students are leading the instructional process in the class.
What steps would you take to meet the needs of the students suitable to such a classroom
situation?
2. Explain how the leadership roles of teachers, principals and students enhance the school
management.

1. School is a centre for learning. For promoting learning in students on various aspects for
all-round development, it organizes curricular and co-curricular programmeslactivities.
For the above tasks, a leader could be anyone - Headmaster, Supervisor, teacher, students
etc. ,Each has specific leadership roles in the school context.
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2. Educational leadership is mainly of two types administrative leadership and instruc-
tionallacademic leadership. Administrative leadership requires the management skills for
the optimum utilisation of human and material resources in the school context. Instruc-
tionaVacademic leadership requires the skills and competencies to prepare the curriculum
and implement them in the school programmes effectively. Thus the nature of school
leadership is broadly administrative and academic in nature. 35
School Management 3. Instructional leadership role of a teacher consists of the following :
defining educational objectives,
preparation of the curriculum,
selecting appropriate learning experienceslmethods of teaching, and
adapting standard evaluation techniques, etc.
Instructional leadership mainly focuses on the curriculum related activities in the school
context.
4. The role of a PrincipallHeadmaster is vital in school administration. A school becomes
reputed and effective, not because of the magnificant buildings but because of the leadership
style of its principal. A principal's style of decision-making, communication skills, interper-
sonal relationships, motivational devices and the values and moral judgements have signifi-
cant effect on school climate, as the Principal is the Chief Executive of the school. Helshe
is responsible for the whole set of activities in the school.
For example: I. Planning the school calender which contains the details of both
academic and non-academic programmes in the school.
2. Allocation of duties/responsibilities to the teachers and non-teaching
staff for conducting programmes like school prayer, celebrating the
days of national importance, competition among students etc.
5. Leadership roles of students are:
Leadership role in curricular and co-curricular activities,
Leading the instructional process by actively participating in the teaching-learning
activities,
Conducting debateleassay writing/quiz/drarna etc. competitions for the students themselves
in the school,
Holding the positions like "School Pupil Leader" and "Class Leaders" to represent
students problems to the PrincipalIManagement committee, and
Captain of a school sports/games team for competing at inter-school competition.

Bhat, B.D. and Sharma, S.R., (1992): Educational Administration: Emerging Trends, Kanishka
Publishing House, Delhi.
Govt of India (1986):NationalPolicy on Education MHRD, New Delhi.
Harold W. Boles ahd James A. Davenport (1975) : Introduction to Educational Leadership, Harper
and Row Publishers, London.
Kochhar, S.K. (1987): Secondaty SchoolAdministratron, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore.
Leonard, 0.Pellicer and Lorwin (1995) :A Handbookfor TeacherLeaders, SAGE Publishers, Delhi.
Louse M. Berman (1 971) : Superv~sion,StaffDevelopment and Leadership, International Series of
Education, Charles E. Merrill Publishing House, New Delhi.
Mukherji, S.N .(I 963) :Sc~oolAdministrationandFunctions inIndia, AcharyaBook Depot, Baroda.
NCERT (1966): Education and Development, Report of the Education Commission, New Delhi,
1964-66.
Patel N. Bhikhubhai (1977) : Leadership for Better Instruction, A.R. Sheth & Co. Publishers,
Ahmedabad.
Rustam, S. Davar (1993) : Creative Leadership, UBS Publishers' Distributors Ltd., New Delhi.
Talvi Marja, Bhasky Rao (1996) : Educational Leadership: Social Change, Discovery Publishing
House, Delhi.
UNIT 11 ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Concept of Organizational Climate
1 1.3.1 Concept of Organization
11.3.2 Concept of Climate
11.3.3 Concept of Organizational Climate
Parameters of Organizational Climate o f a School
11.4.1 Dimensions of School Climate
11.4.2 Types of Organizational Climate
School Climate and Effectiveness
Role of Teachers in School Effectiveness
Organizational Evaluation
Let Us Sum Up
Unit-end Activities
Points for Discussion
11.1 1 Answers to Check Your Progress
11.1 INTRODUCTION
The main aim of formal education is to produce human beings who are able to appreciate the
benefits ofeducation and contribute to development ofthe community in different spheres of life,
be it political, moral, social, economic or technological. A school is not merely a centre for
disseminating information and knowledge. Most governments see education as an important
investment and, therefore spend large sums of the tax payers' money each year for provision of
education at all levels. Thus, there is a serious concern on the part of the government to ensure
that the money provided for education is wisely spent. There are a number of resultant
administrative, financial and political problems which require attention. Educational reforms
have generally neglected the psychological life of schools or organizational climate which holds
key to the success of reforms. This climate, in fact, can be used to ensure the success of new
programmes. It is important to examine the concept of organizational climate and understand its
implications.
11.2 OBJECTIVES
define the concept of organizational climate;
state the different dimensions and types of school climate;
relate school climate to school effectiveness;
state the need for organizational evaluation; and
explain the role of a teacher in school effectiveness.
11.3 CONCEPT OF ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE
11.3.1 Concept of Organization
Human beings have always lived in organized groups. Initially, group activities were simple
like gathering food, migrating or defending the security of the group. The outcome of this 37
School Management group effort was mainly that it gave people a chance to pool their talents and efforts for attaining
larger goals such as building and protecting their communities. The group also gives it a distinct
identity. Later on, specialised nature of functions enabled individuals to concentrate on tasks that
they were best at, instead of doing every task which was required for survival and progress. This
sort of group activity requires co-operation without which members may work at cross-purposes
and thus miss the benefits of association. To achieve this co-operation and thereby the desired
goals, some system of structural relationships had to be established. This type of a system of group
relationship built on co-operation, is basically the meaning of an organization. In a nutshell, an
organization can be seen as two or more people working co-operatively towards a common
objective or a set of objectives. This system of co-operation is made up of several components: the
human element, physical element, work element and coordination element. All these components
put together collectively can be thought of as an organization.
Thus, an organization can be viewed as a social system of co-operation that is designed to enhance
individual effort at goal accomplishment.
11.3.2 Concept of Climate
Organizations differ in many respects - their goals, ethnic composition of their population etc. yet
one can sense or 'feel' the individuality of an organization. Sometimes, this individuality is labelled
as the atmosphere of the organization. Other similar commonly used terms are tone of the
organization, environment, personality of the organization or organization's climate. This 'feeling'
which enables us to know that one organization is different from another is relatively intangible,
yet we have some proof of the atmosphere of one organization differing from that of another. If
we observe the behaviour of people in an organization we get proof of this. For example, in one
organization members may seem relaxed and at ease with each other while in another we may find
greater tension which is seen on members' faces, their speech, how they work etc. In some
organizations, the boss may be showing authority and status, generally empahsising formality in
dealing with others while in others, he may be informal in his behaviour without reducing the
importance af his role in the system. These subtle differences which characterise the psychological
environment are the domains of the climate ofan organization. The term 'climate' is coined to refer
to the general feelingltone of persons in groups towards each other and some of the attitudes they
reveal in their behaviour.
11.3.3 Concept of Organizational Climate
Organizational climate is a term that was probably first used by Cornell in 1955. He used the term
to denote a "delicate blending of interpretations or perceptions by persons in the organization of
their jobs or roles in relationship to others and their interpretation of the roles of others in the
organization". He interpreted organization in the sense of a formal structure. The term organizational
climate has been defined in different ways by different writers. Argyris (1957) used the term
'personalityYor organizational climate while some others referred the term as 'a general flow of
behaviour and feeling' and felt the organizational climate to be the interaction between
environmental and personal variables of members of a group or groups which operate in an
organization. Organizational climate is created by the interaction, with one another, of the
organizational components, namely culture, structure, system, leadership behaviour and
psychological needs of the members of the organization.
We can conclude from the above that organizational climate can be discussed in terms of how it
is perceived or felt by members of the organizational members. Thus a climate may be seen as
hostile or supportive, as conducive to achievement or stifling and so on.
Organizational Climate
Check Your Progress
1. What is an Organization?
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
2. Define climate in 3-4 lines.

.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
3. Three authors, viz., Argyris, Halpin and Forehand have used three different terms
for the concept of organizational climate. Which one do you consider the best and
why?
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
11.4 PARAMETERS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE

OF SCHOOL - - -- - ---
11.4.1 Dimensions of School Climate

School climate is a multi-dimensional concept. It helps us to understand how schools differ in
their climate, what causes these variations and how these underlying influences affect school
effectiveness. Certain adjectives have been used which describe different dimensions of the
climate. Halpin and Croft identified eight dimensions of school climate. The four characteristics
of these dimensions need to be understood:
i) They are conceived as presented in operational terms,

ii) They comprise two categories of behaviours, (a) group i.e. teachers' behaviour and
(b) leader's i.e. principal's behaviour,
iii) In case of each set of four behaviours two are negative and two are positive. The
variations in the climate arise due to the complex web of interacting positive and
negative behaviour on the part of teachers and Principals,
iv) Variations in the tjrpology of climate is built up due to high, average and low levels of
behaviour exhibited under each dimension.
Now let us understand different dimensions of school climate.
The Headmaster or the Principal is the formal head of the school organization and is the leader
of the school community, which is made up of pupils, teachers, headmasters, clerical and class-
IV staff. A continuous interaction among them takes place and the Principal's behaviour and his
relation with teachers and interaction and communication flow among the teachers, create an
School Management atmosphere or school organization's climate. When the Principal's behaviour with his teachers and
interaction among teachers make a different pattern, the school climate becomes different.
The eight dimensions of school climate are described as follows:
a) Teacher's Behaviour (Group Characteristics)

1. Disengagement refers to a teacher's tendency to be "not with it". It describes a group which
is "going through motions", a group that is "not in gear" with respect to the task at hand ...
In short, this focuses on the teacher's behaviour in a task oriented situation.
2. Hindrance refers to the teachers' feeling that the Principal burdens them with routine duties,
committee demands and other requirements which they feel are unnecessary work. They feel
that the Principal is hindering rather than helping their legitimate work.
3. Espirit refers to "morale" of teachers, a feeling that their social needs are being satisfied and
that they are at the same time, enjoying a sense of accomplishment.
4. Intimacy refers to a teacher's enjoyment of friendly social relations with each other. This
dimension describes a social need satisfaction which is not necessary associated with task
I
accomplishment.
b) Principal's Behaviour (Leader's Characteristics)

1. Aloofness refers to the behaviour of the Principal which is characterised as formal and
impersonal. He "goes by the book" and prefers to be guided by rules and policies rather than
deal with teachers in an informal, face-to-face situation. He keeps himself at least 'emotionally'
at a distance from staff.
2. Production Emphasis refers to behaviour by the Principal which is characterised by close
supervision of the staff. He is highly directive. His communications go in one direction and
he is not sensitive to feedback from the staff.
3. Thrust refers to the behaviour of the Principal which reflects his evident effort in trying to
"move the organization". This behaviour shows the Principal's attempt to motivate teachers
through examples set personally. His behaviour is viewed favourably by the teachers.
4. Consideration refers to the behaviour of the Principal with an inclination to treat teachers
'humanely', to try to do something extra for them in human terms.
In brief, all the eight dimensions are divided into categories,four referring to teachers' behaviour and
four to principal's behaviour.
Dimensions of School Climate
Related to Related to
Teacher's Behaviour Principal's Behaviour
Disengagement Aloofness
I Hindrance Production
Emphasis
Espirit
Thrust
Intimacy -
Consideration
I Fig. 11.1: Dimensions of School Climate
11.4.2 Types of Organizational Climate

I - --- ...and Croft
Halnin - -..were
- . . able
.-
- - to identitv
.-
- - - orofiles on the basis of sarn~ledschools and identified six such
- -~
--
2 r - - - ~
school climate profiles which were viewed as descriptions. They have given different names to s
-
different orghizational climates and ranked them in order from open to closed climate schools.
1 40
a way they can be arranged on a continuum from the closed to the open, with variations in between.
i) Open Climate : This depicts a situation which has relatively more openness. Teachers Organizational Climate
are not hindered in their work either by the management or the school principal. They
I work together without complaints or infighting. They are intimate and friendly with one
another. Teachers are not overloaded and are motivated enough to overcome difficulties
and frustration. They have job satisfaction. They are proud to be related to the school.
ii) Autonomous Climate : This has less openness than open climate. The headmaster gives
almost complete freedom to teachers to provide their own structure-for-interaction so
that they can find ways within the group of satisfying their social needs. Teachers
achieve their goals easily aid quickly and work together well and accomplish tasks of
the organization..Morale of the teachers is high but not as high as in open climate. The
principal runs the school in a business-like manner and remains aloof from teachers. He
has set procedures and regulations which provide guidelines which teachers can follow.
He is considerate and works hard himself to set examples. He is genuine and flexible.
iii) Controlled Climate : This manifests lesser degree of openness than both open and
autonomous climate types. The climate is marked by emphasis on achievement at the
expense of satisfaction of social needs. All work hard and there is hardly any time for
friendly relations with others or for deviation from established controls and directives.
Teachers are expected to get work done and they expect to be told personally just how
to do it. There are a few genuine, warm relations among teachers but social isolation is
common. Job satisfaction is not from satisfaction of social needs but from task
accomplishment. The principal is more result oriented, shows bossism. He has low
human qualities and gives little love, warmth or sympathy to his teachers. He is
dominative and directive, formal and impersonal, ego-centred. He delegates few
responsibilities and does everything to keep the school moving.
iv) Familiar Climate : The main features of this climate is the obviously friendly manner
of both the principal and the teachers. Social needs satisfaction is extremely high while
little is done for the group activities to be directed towards goal achievement. Socially,
teachers will be all part of a big happy family. Morale or job satisfaction will be average
which will come from social needs satisfaction. As the principal does not want to disrupt
the 'big, happy family' he is afraid to make changes. He does not make any attempt to
motivate or lead teachers to put their best efforts. He exerts littie control on teachers'
activities. The leadership lacks commitment and is feeble. He lacks the will and
competence to emphasize production. Although no one is 'wrong', no one works to full
capacity. Little is done either by direct or indirect means to evaluate or direct the
activities of teachers. Principal is regarded as a "good guy" who is interested in the
r welfare of the teachers and who "looks out for them".
v) Paternal Climate : This climate is characterised by ineffective attempts of the principal
to control teachers as well as to satisfy their social needs. It is a partly closed climate
and his behaviour is non-motivating. He becomes intrusive and wants to know everything
at once. He is eveywhere at once, checking, monitoring and telling people how things
should be done but still nothing seems to get done. The climate shows more closeness
than familiar-type climate. The principal has an inflated ego and his centre of interest
and concern are the school and network of activities therein.
Teachers do not work well together; there are factions. The principal's inability to
control activities of teachers leads to lack of establishment of group maintenance. A
great deal of work is done by the principal, thus teachers have few hindrances. As the
principal takes care of things as best as he can, teachers give up trying. They do not
enjoy friendly relations with each other nor have adequate satisfaction with regard to
t
task accomplishment. As the principal fails to provide an example or an ideal which
teachers can emulate, they are not motivated.
vi) Closed Climate : This is the most closed climate and the least genuine and it
characterises the other extreme of the climate spectrum. The principal is ineffective in
directing the activities of teachers; at the same time he is not inclined to look out for their
personal welfare. The principal will be highly aloof and impersonal in controlling and
directing teachers activities. He sets up rules which are normally arbitary. He will "go
i by the book" rather than get too involved personally with teachers and their problems.
His words are hollow and himself possesses little thirst and he does not motivate the
4 teachers by setting good personal examples.
F
School Mmrgement
Check Your Progress
Notes : a) Write your answers in the space given below. I
4. The four characteristics of the dimensjons of organizational climate are:
i) ................................................................................................................
ii) ................................................................................................................
iii) ................................................................................................................
iv) ................................................................................................................
5. Main dimensions of school climate are:
i) Disengagement
ii) ................................................................................................................
iii) ................................................................................................................
iv) ................................................................................................................
v) ................................................................................................................
vi) ................................................................................................................
vii) ................................................................................................................
viii) ................................................................................................................
6. Name different types of school climate :
i) The open climate
ii) ................................................................................................................
iii) ................................................................................................................
iv) ................................................................................................................
v) ................................................................................................................
v i) ................................................................................................................
.7. Differentiate between open climate and autonomous climate.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
The quest for effective school begins with the commitment of Principal and his staff towards their
school and pupils. The concept of the school's effectiveness is difficult to conceptualize since it is
multi-dimensional. Factors to be considered for school effectiveness are administrative functioning,
leadership behaviours, teacher morale, level of trust, culture and climate, parental involvement,
community support, teachers' efficiency and commitment, loyalty and satisfaction of teachers and
students' academic performance. There are two underlying dimensions of school effectiveness -
instrumental activities and expressive activities.
lnstrumintal activities help to biing about organizational effectiveness - like students' achievement
which is related to social-emotional growth of students, satisfaction of teachers, efficient use of
resources, innovativeness, adaptability and goal accomplishment. These activities help the school
to adjust to external demands like set goals, and mobilise the resources necessary for response.
Expressive activities convey organizational meaning and are significant, in which the members
develop a sense of social cohesiveness and build organizational culture. Activities indicate
teacher and student commitment, trust and morale.
The study of climate of schools provides the basis for evaluation of school. It is the resultant
accumulated effect of the ways in which the principal interacts with teachers and the way
teachers interact among themselves and with the principal. The nature and quality of
interaction that take place among participants of school in terms of their role expections
actually generate organizational climate. The six categories of climate typology referred to
earlier would enable one not only to label a school's climate but also evaluate it in terms of
its effectiveness in its totality and in terms of particular input or inputs. Climate has much
to do with 'social needs satisfaction'. The role assigned to different personnel of a school
system has achieving effectiveness as its ultimate goal. It also has dimension of need
satisfaction without which role performance and goal achievement in terms of school
effectiveness are difficult. A school has its own distinct personality. The patterns of socio-
psychological behaviour and interaction of principal and teachers taking place in a school can
affect its effectiveness.
School effectiveness may be viewed in the perspective of school climate. The three way
classification of schools could be most effective, effective and least effective. Most effective
schools have open climate and least effective schools have closed climate. More of the effective
schools have relatively more open climate in comparison to less of the least effective schools.
Few of the most effective schools and more of the least effective schools have closed climate. In
the open climate category, the degree of operiness gets decreased as one moves from 'most
effective' to 'effective' to 'least effective'. More of the least effective schools have more of
closeness.
School effectiveness is one of the eight significant predictors of school climate. Organizational
climate is a crucial input in maintaining and raising school standards. For making classrooms as
effective centres of teaching and learning, schools must be helped to move towards openness of
the climate, since it provides typically a situation where teachers work well together without
complaining, enjoy friendly relations, have job satisfaction and are sufficiently motivated from
within.
There is a marked co- relation between school climate and achievement ofstudents. It is observed
that when a school climate has certain expectations from a student, we find students perform their
best to meet those expectations. A conducive and open climate which allows pupils freedom of
thoughts and expression would amply reflect in the positive attitude and performance of pupils
in all aspects.
In a nutshell, to make a school as an effective 0rganization;there has to be free flow of

communication - vertically as well as laterally, from top to bottom and bottom to top, and in
parallel forms from teachers to teachers and by defining the goals in tangible and realistic terms
with the full consent and cooperation of teachers who will be given a chance to participate in
making decision concerned with strategies or goals to be achieved. The management and the
principal should work in such a way that teachers develop positive attitude towards their work
and show a real concern for goal fulfillment. Effectiveness in this sense is the extent to which the
set goals or objectives of a school programme are accomplished and such effectiveness can be
seen in term of above discussed factors.
To make a school an effective organization you will require:

Open climate
Free flow of communication
Clarity of goals
Goals should be realistic and tangible
Full cooperation of teachers and their participation in decision-making.
School Management
11.6 ROLE OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS
"Of all the different factors which influence the quality of education and its contribution to national
development, the quality, competence and character ofteachers are undoubtedly the most significant.
Nothing is more important than securing a sufficient supply of high quality recruits to the teaching
profession, providing them with the best possible preparation and creating satisfactory conditions of
work in which they can be fully effective" (Report of the Education Commission 1964-66). The
teacher is the soul ofthe school. A teacher isa friendand guide to his pupils, who suggests and inspires
and gets lessons learnt, not by force but by creating interest among students and motivating them to
learning. He must adopt the profession of teaching with dedication and spirit of service. The success
of the teacher is measured on the basis of the achievement of the aims of education.
The teacher is the dynamic leader of a group ofpupils in the classroom. As a leader he has to motivate
pupils for better learning. He has to guide students in a variety of matters - proper selection of subjects,
to whole;some choice of vocation. He has to respect their personality, identify and appreciate their
strengths and weaknesses and adjust his own attitudes and behaviour so that helshe is able to motivate
students for hard work.
As a teacher he has to help students develop right attitudes towards work. He has to set an example
by having the right attitudes to work. He has to inculcate in students the habit of punctuality and
regularity. The teacher has to help students organize their work on a systematic basis. He should not
impose on students but stand by and intervene as and when necessary. A teacher should bring
desirable and constructive changes in students through instruction, example and influence.
A teacher has various roles which ultimately, if performed well, leads to school effectiveness. These
include:
i) Teacher as a Manager : As a manager helshe has to plan and prepare curriculum,

timetables, audio visual aids and curricular activities which have to be carried out on a daily,
weekly, monthly and yearly basis. He has to manage time and available resources. After
planning, a teacher has to organize activities that have been planned. These include
curricular and co-curricular activities, instructional work, library work of pupils, ensuring
regular attendance and work. He has to maintain discipline and keep records of day to day
academic work, participation in activities, fees paid etc. Finally, he has to evaluate
achievement of pupils from time to time, diagnose their weaknesses and find out strengths.
ii) A teacher has, as a norm builder, to set examples before the students by setting up certain
norms and put them into practice by following them.
iii) A teacher is also a facilitator. He does not resort to 'spoon feeding' pupils or imposing on
students. He helps, guides students in canying out their tasks by showing the right method
of doing that. He is considerate and cooperative. He provides students with objects of
interest suited to various abilities of students and helps them to organize themselves.
iv) A teacher takes, as an initiator, a lead in taking up various academic and curricular
activities and then helps students to carry them out. He develops new methods of teaching
and gives scope to students to work on their own and thus learn by doing.
v) As already mentioned earlier, a teacher acts as a guide to students. He leads them along and
helps them to find out the best way of learning. He is an educator in the sense that he only
helps pupils to learn and acquire knowledge on their own. He guides them to the sources
from which they can acquire knowledge.
As a teacher, one should be ready to face the various conflicts within the school and his role is to
resolve as many of those as possible and should not expect a smooth sailing at the workplace since
there are different personnel in the organization - principal, teachers, administrative and non-
teaching staff, pupils etc. - and there is interaction each day among themselves. This may lead to1
conflict of interest, ideas, beliefs, ego etc. between teacher and teacher, principal and teachers,
teacher and students, student and student, teacher and parent, teacher and other staff etc. It depends;
on the imndividual teacher as to how, with his insight and imagination, he tackles the situation andl
resolves the conflicts.
Organizational Climate
Check Your Progress
8. To make a school an effective organization you will require.
a) ......................................................................................................................
b) ......................................................................................................................
c) ......................................................................................................................
d) ......................................................................................................................
e) ......................................................................................................................
9. Give reasons why a teacher is called the dynamic leader in the classroom.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
10. The major roles, ifplayed well by the teacher, which will lead to school effectiveness
are:
i) ......................................................................................................................
ii) ......................................................................................................................
iii) ......................................................................................................................
iv) ......................................................................................................................
v) ......................................................................................................................
11.7 ORGANIZATIONAL EVALUATION

The purpose of evaluation is to improve the quality of an organization. It is a necessary tool in
monitoring effectiveness of the organization. Evaluation involves reviewing the entire
organizational process to find out why certain things have happened or what should be done to
improve performance.
Organizations which accomplish goals are referred to as successful organizations. If they are
capable of achieving what they are supposed to achieve, they are referred to as efficient
organizations. The four main functions of evaluation are :
i) Diagnosis of the weaknesses

ii) Prediction about the creativity of the pupils
iii) Selection of proper personnel, and
iv) Grading of students.
Evaluation is a key managerial skill. It is concerned with judgement for the purpose of
improvement or accountability. It involves regular review of all the facilities available in the
organization. Organizational effectiveness refers not only to results which are important but also
to a number of other aspects - values, philosophy, policies, process and outcomes.
For schools, the forms ofevaluation are academic (teaching, professional development), external
adoption(training) co-curricular (personal, social, culturaland physical development ofstudents)
and morale (absence of conflict, strain and smooth internal organizational process). Effectiveness
of school ethos is closely tied to the existence of some key school management characteristics.
These include sound teaching and learning, functional school organization, good personal
relations, effective guidance and counselling, a good school and effective leadership and
continuous monitoring and evaluation.
School Management
11.8 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have examined the concept of organization and organizational climate, parameters of
organizational climate, its effectiveness, role of a school teacher in relation to school effectiveness
and evaluation of an organization.
An organization can be viewed astwoor more people working cooperatively towardsthe achievement
of a common objective or a set of objectives. This cooperation is made up of several components.
Organizational climate may be defined as "a set of attributeswhich can be perceived abouta particular
organization and or its sub-systems, and that may be induced from the way that organizations and/
or its sub-systems deal with their members and environment.
The eight dimensions of school climate are :

a) Teacher Behaviour (Group Characteristics)
i) ~isen~agernent, ii) Hindrance, iii) Espirit, iv) Intimacy
b) Principal's Behaviour (Leader Characteristics)
v) Aloofness, vi) Production Emphasis, vii) Thrust, and viii) Consideration
The six different types of organizational climates are :
i) Open ii) Autonomous
iii) Controlled iv) Familar
v) Paternal vi) Closed.
School effectiveness is the extent to which set goals or objectives of a school programme are
accomplished. Effectiveness can be been in terms of certain factors.
A teacher has various roles which, if performed well, leads to school effectiveness. These roles are:
8 as a manager, initiator, facilitator, guide, norm builder.
The purpose ofevaluation is to improve the quality ofan organization. It is necessary for monitoring
effectiveness of the organization. Evaluation is a key managerial skill.
11-9 UNIT-END ACTIVITIES

1 . Visit a school in your vicinity. Write a report about the climate you perceive in the school
with reasons for your perception.
2: 'W2et some teachers of a school and find out what steps they are taking to improve the
. .
.effectiveness of their school.
3. Visit the school around your place and prepare a report of how evaluation takes place.

1. If you are asked to describe the climate of a school, what observation would you make irr
that school to get a correct picture. Discuss the various parameters of the school climate you
would observe.
P
2. You are asked to prepare a report of the steps needed to be taken in a school to improve
its effectiveness. Discuss at length the various steps you will take and how they will result
in improvement in school effectiveness.
3. As a teacher, how would you improve your own functioning to help bring about an open
climate in your school?
Climate
..I1 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. An organization can be viewed as a social system in which people are working
cooperatively towards the achievement of a common objective or a set of objectives.
This cooperation is made up of several components, which put together collecti~elycan
be thought of as an organization.
2. Climate refers to the general feeling of persons in groups towards each other and some
of the attitudes they .reveal in their behaviour.
3. I consider the one by Forehand (1968) the best because it includes interactions between
environmental and personal variables of members of a group. This means it includes
culture, structure, system, leadership behaviour and psychological needs of the members
of the organization.
4. The four characteristics of dimensions of organizational climate are:
i) They are conceived as presented in operational terms.
ii) They comprise two categories of behaviours.
iii) In case of each set of four behaviours, two are negative and two are positive
behaviour.
iv) Variations in the typology of climate is built up due to high, average and low levels
of behaviour exhibited under each dimension.
5. Main dimensions of school climate are:
i) Disengagement v) Aloofness
ii) Hindrance vi) Production Emphasis
iii) Espirit vii) Thrust
iv) Intimacy viii) Consideration
6. i) Open climate iv) Familiar climate
ii) Autonomous climate v) Paternal climate
iii) Controlled climate vi) Closed climate
7. In open cliniate teachers are not hindered in their work either by the management or the
school principal. The principal and teachers are intimate and friendly.
Autonomous climate has less openness than open climate. Morale of the teachers is high
but not as high as in open climate. The principal runs the school in a business like
manner and remains aloof from teachers.
8. To make the school an effective organization we will require :
a) Open climate
b) Free flow of communication
c) Clarity of goals
d) Goals should be realistic and tangible
e) Full cooperation of teachers and their participation in decision-making.
9 A teacher is called the dynamic leader in the classroom because helshe not only guides
the students in a number of matters but helshe also respects their personality strength and
weaknesses and adjusts his own attitudes and behaviour so that helshe is able to motivate
students to work hard. He is always ready to bring in change, new ideas, new thinying.
10. Major, roles, if played well by the teacher, which lead to school effectiveness are:
i) Manager ii) Norm builder
iii) Facilitator iv) Initiator
v) Guide
School Management
Anderson, Donald P. (1 964): OrganizationalClimate ofElementat-ySchools, Educational Research
and Development Council of Twin Cities, Metropolitan Area Inc., Minneapolis.
Applewhite, Phillip B., (1960): Organizational Behaviour, Trivstock, London.
Argyris, Chris (1958) : Some Problems in ConceptualizingOrganizational Climate, Administrative
Service Quarterly, 2, March, 1958
Brown, W. (1971): Organization, Heinman Educational Books Ltd., London.
Feldvebel, A.M., (1 964) : 'Organizational Climate, Social Class and Educational Administrative
Note Book' No. 12.
NCERT (1966): Education and Development, Report of the Education Commission, New Delhi,
1964-66.
Sharmas M.L., Buch Piloo and Rai, Kamala (1973): Diagonising School Personality, CASE, M.S.
University, Baroda.
Shelat Neela, (1978): School Climate and Educational Change, A.R. Sheth & Co., Bombay.
PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES
Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 Need for Professional Activities
12.4 Action Research to Deal with Teaching and Related Problems
12.4.1 Definition of Action Research
12.4.2 Examples of Action Research
12.5 Organisation of Activities such as Seminars, Workshops and Symposia
12.5.1 Organisation of Seminars
12.5.2 Organisation of Workshops
12.5.3 Organisation of Symposia
12.6 Development of Resource Centre
12.7 Let Us Sum Up
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Professional activities involve scholarly work, discussion and some constructive work.
Professional activities are planned, interactional, purposeful and are governed by the needs of
the school, students and society. They characterise profession and provide it with an identity.
They are planned and carried out by members of the profession. The quality of teachers
determines the nature and significance of professional activities. They usually emerge from
experience and interaction with members constituting the profession. Although education is
seen as a profession, some people consider that it has not reached the full status of a profession.
Teaching as a profession is equated with medicine and law, for it has a long history and
established tradition. Professional activities aim at excellence, to set higher standards in
interaction and ethics. In this unit, we will discuss professional activities in the context of a
secondary school.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
define professional activity;
define action research;
solve teaching-learning problems systematically through action research;
explain systematically the details of organisation of seminar, workshops, and symposia;
describe the scope of participation in seminars, workshops, and symposia;
discuss the use of a redirce centre; and
organise visits to a resource centre.
12.3 NEED FOR PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES

Professional activities of teachers are very important for they build the personality of individuals
in a formal setting. They add to the teacher's strength. The provide him with competencies
School Activities which are essential for the performance of roles in different situations. They are planned
activities with clear objectives and implemented in a systematic manner. These activities f
could comprise teaching, reading, discussing, doing research, giving lectures, organising ;
I
seminars and workshops, writing articles, reviews, and papers for professional journals (refereed
journals), editing papers, journals, and books, providing counselling, guiding the choice of
i
students, preparing instructional materials, preparing new instruments, apparatus, improvising
apparatus or instruments etc.
Teachers are mostly dependent on government or formal institutions such as NCERT, NIEPA,
etc. for their training and development. Teachers need to explore the possibilities of self-
I
development through continuous upgrading of their competence, knowledge and skill using
local resources or working with non-governmental agencies. Teachers need to realize that self
awareness and continuous efforts to develop on one's own is going to pay more premium to
them in future. The self reliance developed by the teacher provides him the confidence to take
up more challenging tasks and look clearly at the goals of development.
Professional activities give a focus and enhance the value of work due to organisation, precision,
accuracy and debate with constructive criticism. Although all educational setting and related
problems must equally concern professional teachers, the formal setting gets more importance
than others. Education being a socialising activity, it has to take into consideration the context
of educational setting, the wider society and the objectives of the institutions. The influences
of family, media (T.V., radio, press, print, video, films, audio cassettes, etc.) and peers (co-
learners) are significantly affecting students' learning activities. Teachers need to capitalise
on these resources while designing and providing inputs to children in schools.
Teachers could mobilise local resources for their training in some useful art or craft. They
could work in their leisure time with an artisan to acquire additional skill such as repairing
radio, T.V., electrical gadgets, etc. The teacher could work with cable operators at local level
for educeentertainment. School teachers may develop audio, video cassettes for providing
additional educational experiences, exercises and activities. Teachers could develop a
professional association or forum. They could meet frequently to discuss their problems and
develop strategies for development. They could start a newsletter to keep himselves and
others informed of the latest developments in the field of education and significant developments
in the world.
Teachers could use locally available toys, puppets, and handicrafts for educational purpose.
It need not be cost intensive. Low cost or no cost teaching aids could facilitate teaching.
Teachers need to be aware of the various sources of audio-visual media in the local areas (at
state and national level). They may develop relations with voluntary bodies working for
teachers development. Science centres funded by voluntary bodies and industries provide
opportunities for teachers to participate in professional activities.
Check Your Progress

1 1. List the criteria to designate an activity as professional.
~ ~~
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
2. List activities which you consider to be professional activities.
...............................................................................................................................................
Professional Activities
12.4 ACTION RESEARCH TO DEAL WITH
TEACHING AND RELATED PROBLEMS
You have studied in section 12.3, about the need for professional activities. While oganising
professional activities, a teacher has to face many problems. The problem could consist of
o~ganisingteaching, ensuring students' attention, evaluation, maintaining discipline in the
classroom, lack of resources, equipment materials, chemicals etc. The problems also could be
students coming late to classroom, students not paying fees on time, lack of support material,
lack of furniture, lack of equipment, and apparatus, lack of chemicals and non-availability of
teaching aid of a required standard, textbook, work book, journals, and writing materials etc.
These problems are solved by the everyday teacher on a day-to-day basis with an eye for
practicality. However, the teacher is faced with many problems simultaneously which makes
the work ineffective. A teacher would not be able to derive satisfaction because problems are
many and resources in terms of time, finance and support material are often inadequate.
A teacher by applying histher mind and effort solves many problems. Sometimes, a teacher
takes another teacher's help to work out a solution for the problem. He may involve parents
or community in finding a solution to certain problem. Many teachers in recent times are well
qualified and often take up teaching with zeal.
A resourceful teacher could solve difficult problems of teaching and of school with a small
term, small' scale research programme. Such action oriented problem-solving is known as
Action Research.
12.4.1 Definition of Action Research

Stephen M. Corey (1953) first used the term Action Research. Action research is a systematic
attempt to solve immediate problems of teachers and classrooms. It represents the
implementation of Dewey's idea of harnessing classroom teachers' capacities in the solution
of their particular problems.
Those problems may be specific to an institution or general which could initiate a joint action.
For example, teachers could take up small projects relevant for teaching methods, curriculum,
grouping of children, assessment and examinations, psychological or sociological problems
related to teaching, in-service training of teachers, etc.
Zuber and Ortum (1992) have defined action research as the "Critical collaborative inquiry
by reflective practitioners being accountable and making results of their inquiry public, self
evaluating their practice and engaged in participative problem solving and continuous
professional development". This definition clearly describes the role of a teacher as an action
researcher involved in solving immediate problem. Action research calls for better preparation,
clear definition of the problem and systematic appraisal of the situation for possible solutions.
Advantages of Action Research

Action research has certain advantages:
1. Discussions connected with the planning stages of action research are generally very
helpful in providing teachers with insight into the nature of educational problems. A
teacher will be able to relate the research problem with the relevant profess~onalliterature.
The general familiarity with the immediate problem helps a teacher in developing greater
understanding of the problems in a classroom and greater competence in deriving solutions.
both from published literature and from more adequate investigations of their own. Teachers
learn to avoid unnecessary problems and focus their attention on important problems.
2. Action research is completely empirical and local in nature, and therefore provides realistic
and feasible solutions.
3 Action research is not rigorous and thus its contribution to the development of education
as a science is likely to be secondary. Under optimum conditions, it could provide
supportive data. For instance, it can contribute facts to be integrated into theory and it
can help in the testing of a theory. It can help in verification and clarification of a theory.
and it may eventually help integrate previously existing theories. It is seldom generalized
for lack of similarity with existing structure, and limitations of the method itself.
7
School 12.4.2 Examples of Action Research
Many teachers do not have the time, resources, inclination to undertake action research.
However, certain teachers have shown interest in doing action research. For example, the
Teacher Education Department, NCERT, New Delhi invites teachers every year to present
findings of theii investigations for discussion at the national forum. The CASTME
(Commonwealth Award for Science Technology and Mathematics Educators) award given
every year by the Commonwealth to innovative teachers is another example of this kind of
research. The Indian Science Congress has created a forum for school education in sclence,
where teachers can present innovative ideas, experiments and discuss problems with a view
to arriving at solutions to problems and find ways for development.
Action research meeds a clear and specific teaching or related problem. Once a problem is
identified, probable strategies need to be thought of to solve it. A research design suitable for
situational problem must be identified. A teacher needs to collect empirical data systematically
and process it scientifically in order to arrive at certain tentative conclusions. These findings
or conclusions help to provide a remedy to the problem or improve contact. For example,
computer education is to be introduced in a school. For this purpose a teacher needs to prepare
or train himselflherself for teaching the courses, list competencies to be attained by the target
group and design a course or borrow one already available and implement it considering the
needs of students.
A teacher may develop certain instructional material (exercises) for teaching a difficult concept
or construct and evaluate its effectiveness in the classroom through a well designed study. A
school may not have the required apparatus for an experiment. It needs to think of borrowing
apparatus from a neighbouring school or design or improvised apparatus or modify the
experiment in order to suit the conditions of the school without foregoing the essential principles
of the discipline.
Check Your Progress

3. Give a problem you are faced with in your school.
...............................................................................................................................................
..............................................'.................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
4. Examine whether the problem could be solved through action research.
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
12.5 ORGANISATION OF ACTIVITIES SUCH AS

SEMINARS, WORKSHOPS AND SYMPOSIA
You have learnt, in the preceding section, about action research which is an important
professional activity. In addition to this, teachers are also expected to conduct certain other
professional activities such as seminars, workshops, and symposia. What are these activities?
In the following sections, we will discuss these activities and the processes involved.
12.5.1 Organisation of Seminar

Seminars could be organized to discuss current issues, and problems or share ideas. A teacher
in secondary or higher secondary school could organize seminars. A seminar is a small group
discussion in a formal setting with a clear agenda. A speaker presents a theme or a set of
papers and it is discussed by all those who participate. The chairmanlchairperson of the
seminar guides, directs, coordinates and organises the discussion in a systematic way in order
to optimize time, resources and get more benefits. In a seminar, teachers could discuss the
problems of admission, of staff, of development, evaluation, a new idea or relevant innovations Professional Activities
etc.
Activity 1
1. List any three themes for a seminar which can be organised at school level.
A secondary or higher secondary teacher needs to he resourceful in organising a seminar. He/

she may contribute a paper or an idea, constructively criticise or review a conventional
approach. Helshe has to enlist cooperation of the principal and supervisor in school. Helshe
needs to take the help or support of colleagues to organise the seminar.
A group of teachers could also organise a seminar. The resources required for organising a
seminar are finance, facilities to sit and discuss (a seminar room with adequate furniture and
lighting facilities), facilities to present (over head projector, black or glass board green in
colours, chalks, slides, projector, etc.) The general themes to be discussed, dates and time
need to be communicated to participants giving adequate time for preparation (programme
schedule or a letter (note) indicating the date, time, theme (topic) presentation. For example,
the time given for preparation could he one or two months. It applies to the host institution
and the participants. All the papers received for presentation need to be classified and made
available at the requisite time in the format required to facilitate clear presentation. A few
teachers could act as recorders of discussion and present and overview to arrive at a few
conclusions by the group on certain issues or problems.
Activity 2
I . Given an opportunity to you, how would you organise a seminar?
...............................................................................................................................................
2. Describe the steps you would take to organise a seminar.
Step 1 ..................................................................................................................................
I Step 4 ..................................................................................................................................
A report of the proceedings of the seminar needs to be prepared and distributed to all the
participants of different institutions for their observations and to further channelise the thoughts
through certain experiments, activities or teaching. It could be published by the host institution
as an instructional and educational activity.
12.5.2 Organisation of Workshops

A workshop is generally organised by an institution or professional association in order to
develop certain instructional materials, hook, resource material, supportive material, work
book etc. Workshops can be organised to develop certain skills in teachers. For example,
teachers could be provided certain knowledge about computer language for which they could
develop some simple computer software. Teachers could be trained in certain new laboratory
skills, develop a question bank. analyse questions in set different examinations and suggest
School Activities reforms. A workshop could mean hard and concentrated work on the part of experienced
teachers to create certain educational materials. For example, teachers could develop
instructional material in a regional or local language for National Open School or in-service
training material for District Institute of Education and Training. The inexperienced teachers
could be oriented to institutional ethos, problems and perspectives through institutional visit,
interviews, discussion and practising skill of human relations. Generally, a workshop comprises
a small, selected group of teachers or experts drawn from actual working situations or related
experts who theorise on the activities (For example, teacher educators).
1. Write any five relevant activities which could be included in a workshop.

...............................................................................................................................................
12.5.3 Organisation of Symposia

Symposia on different aspects of teaching behaviour and teachers functions at secondary and
higher secondary levels of education could be organised by a group of teachers in a resourceful
I issues: problems to be discussed need to be system~tically

outlined f i r worthwhile discussions
form of a research paper, a theme paper, a review, or a model to visualise professional

problems and issues in a given context.
Development of a learning resource centre at each modal place facilitates learning of large
number of pupils one and at the same time. A resource centre may have a coordinator and
a few resource persons (teachers) to help, assist and guide students. The centre could also
mobilise teachers for some social action to solve local problems, for example, to organise a
literary or literacy campaign in a district, to provide rational explanation (scientific information)
to certain issues under debate in the area. The District Institute of Education and Training
(DIET) could be effectively used for providing in-service training to teachers (primary level)
on a continuing basis, for developing instructional materials. developing teaching aids.
I with Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bombay. The latter organises in-service training
for science teachers. It also has field based programmes in rural areas of Maharashtra state. Such
centres could be created in a nodal place in the country in order to achieve national objectives.
I A resource centre could be used to ~ r o v i d esome counsellin,o services for educational,
across the country. More and more teachers, inclined to take up such activities, need to be
mobilized for providing non-formal educational resources. Some resources such as finance,
building, furniture. personnel need to he made available on a Dart tlme bzsis
Professional Activities
Activity 4
I. Visit a Learning Resource Centre and identify a few growth opportunities.
A resource centre must be equipped with a good library and/or laboratory for teachers and
some motivated and intelligent students to involve in innovative activities, to do experiments,
discuss, verify data, design new experiment and disseminate ideas to schools for better
informed discussion and participation in developmental process.
A resource centre could invite few experts such as scientists, engineers, senior managers,
social scientists, teacher educators etc. to visit and interact with teachers for exchange of
idcas which are beneficial to teachers and/or students. Some scientists, engineers or teacher
educators could be associated with the resource centre for providing advice and to act as
leaders to motivate teachers to involve in creative activities and discussion.
Study Centres of IGNOU or Rcgional Centre, IGNOU or an established teacher education
institution with requisite facilities could be one of the venues for a resource centre to provide
organised knowledge in a non-formal way and at a convenient time of the participants.
A resource centre could be equipped witti a screen to show instructional films. It could also
he equipped with T.V. sets for receiving spccial programmes for teachers through satelite
transmission. In this way, Inany teachcrs could get oriented to some extent, trained to view
issues and problems with a clear perspective and update themselves to become global
participants for more interaction and exchange of ideas for development. The local area
networking is possible through a resource centre with the help of mobile telephone services,
cellular telephones, pagers, voice and image (video) transmission to mobilise more teachers
and students and network with other resource centres in a meaningful way for faster growth
and development. These technological developments would involve more resources but would
increase the communication process for better understanding. In order to develop these facilities,
Ccntral and State governments may need few years of planned and focussed selective action
towards development. These ideas may be implemented in the Ninth and Tenth Five year
plans in a phased manner for increased training and developmcnt.
Professional activities in schools and resource centres, help teachers to continuously renew
their knowledge, to comlnunicate better and organise for common development of teachers
through training at a faster pace and develop more insight into development.
I Cheek Your Progress

h) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
15. How would you plan to utilise a Resource Centre?
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
0. Rreparc a list of benefits accrued to you after the v~sitto a Resource Centre.
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
School Activities
12.7 LET US SUM UP
This unit has focussed on professional activities that a teacher could meaningfully engage in
order to solve teaching-learning problems systernatically. A teacher would gain understanding
of professional development activities such as helping in organising and participating I ~ I
seminars, workshops, symposia. The idea of a Lcarning Resource Centre is explained for
teachers to contrihute, participate and grow with the institution to achieve professional
excellence and give better quality of service to society at large.

I' Select insiructional problems and try to solve through action research.
2. Disseminate your experiences selectively through articles, reports in organised forums
such as NCERT, Indian Science Congress Association, Commonwealth Meet of Science
and Mathematics Teachers. etc.
3. Organise and participate in a seminar, a workshop, and a symposium and prepare a rcport
of each of them.
4. Visit the nearby Learning Resource Centre and seek resources (information, guidance,
and programmes) l'or growth.
5. Contribute to a Learning Resource Centre tl~roughparticipation, innovation, discussion
and dissemination.

I. How can teachers enrich themselves professionally'?
2 . What are the institutions supporting professional enrichment?
3. What are the rcsources available to teacher for professional development?
4. List the professional activities in which you have participated in the previous year,

I. Criteria to name an activity as a professional activity as follows:
a) The activity must contribute to teaching-learning.
h) The activity must contribute to the self development of the teacher.
c) The activity must enhance competence, lcarning skills, and improve the conditions
of learning.
d) The activity must ensure more purposeful and continuous interaction of teacher for
development.
e) It must he educational and.contribute to development.
2. Suggested professional activities:

a) Teaching-learning process.
h) Enrolling or organising talks by experts, senunars, workshop or symposia.

c) Creating learning materials.
d) Designing instructional materials for teachers.
e) Developing educo-entertainment articles, games, puzzles, problems, stories, situations
etc.
f) Editing school journal, newslcttcr. hooks.
I'
Contributing to journal, newsletter, books. Prnfessional Activities
g)
h) Conducting surveys for research organisation, and
i) Doing supervision of examinations, organising examinations and helping in bringing
results within time.
3. Certain problen~sare listed. Zck [ d ] the problems relevant to you and feel free to write
any other problem not included in the list.
a) Number of tcachcrs is less than required.
h) Number of students is more than fifty.
c) Many students do not attend the class.
d) Some students come to the class late regularly.
e) There are no audio-visual aids available in school.
f) There is no library in the school.
g) Laboratorylexperimental kit is not present.
h) A teacher is required to do many activities in addition to teaching.
i) Keeping school premises clean is a problem.
j) There are no sports material available in school.

k) Transport facility to school is not regular.
1) Blackboard and other writing materials are not available.
4. Criteria for deciding the work as action research are as follows:

a) The action research needs to focus on solving immediate problem in a limited time.
b) The problem must have a solution.
c) A person (teacher) with lesser training on systematic inquiry could locate, diagnose
and find solution to the specified problem.
d) Action research is empirical and local in nature.
e) Action research is not rigorous and it contributes to facts to be integrated into
'
theory. It can help in the testing of a theory.
5. Resource Centre is utilised for:

i) reading additional material on the selected topic.
ii) reference work.
iii) discussing with people the question in your mind.
iv) scanning the reading material and selecting the appropriate reading material.
6 . A visit to the resource centre helped in the following ways ( tick [ d ] the relevant
alternat~ves).I
a) got acquainted with new reading material of my interest.
h) developed interest in certain questions.
C) could meet few learned people to discuss issues of concern.
tl) was able to acquire new skills.
e! was able to organise thought to formulate a concept.
t developed concern for learning and systematic development.
School Activities
Report of the University Education Commission, Vol. 1, (1948-49): Ministry of Education,
Government of India (1962), New Delhi, pp. 174- 175.
Report of the Secondary Education Commission, (1952-53): Ministry of Education and Culture,
Government of India, New Delhi.
Evans, M.K. (1 968): Exploring Education: Planning Small Scale Research, National Foundation
for Educational Research in England and Wales, London.
Budd, C.N. and Kelly, P.S. (1970): Educational Research by Practitioners: An Elementar),
Case Book, Harper and Row Publishers, London.
Joshi, M.M. (1996): Action Research in Higher Education, University News, Vol. XXXIV, No.
21, (May 20, 1996): pp. 8-10.
Corey, M.S. (1953): Action Research to Improve School Practice, Teachers College, Columbia
University, New York, pp. 406.
Zuber-Skerritt and Ortrum (1992): Action Research in Higher Education, London,
Kogan Paul cited in Joshi, M. M. Action Research in Higher Education, University News,
Vol. XXXIV, NO. 21, May 20, 1996, pp. 8-10.
Rajput, J.S. ( I Jan.-March, 1997): Role of the Teacher in 21st Century, New Frontiers in
Education, Vol. XXVII, No.1, pp. 69-71.
National Policy on Education (1986): Ministry of Human Resource Development, GOI, New
Delhi, pp. 25-26.
Programnie of Action (1992): Ministry of Human Resource Development, GOI, New Delhi,
pp. 109-111.
Kalra R., Sharma S.S. and Somasekhar G. (1996): Curriculum Framework for Teacher
Education, Discussion Document, National Council for Teacher Education, New Delhi, pp.
29-30.
Mehdi, B. and Arora, G.L. (1982): Teaching-Learning Strategies for Pupil Development,
Efiective Use of School Curriculum, A Series for Teachers, Publication No.3, NCERT, New
Delhi, pp. 30-49.
Scierice Edrlcation Newsletter; No. 136, The British Council, Manchester, 1998.
UNIT 13 CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
Structure
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 Need for Co-curricular Activities
13.3.1 Concept of Co-curricular Activities
13.3.2 Types of Co-curricular Activjties
13.3.3 Need and Importance of Co-curricular Activities
1 3.4 Organisation of Co-curricular Activities in School
13.4.1 Organisation of Literary and Cultural Activities
13.4.2 Organisation of Physical Education Activities
13.4.3 Role of a Teacher in Organising Co-curricular Activities in School
13.4.4 Difficulties Faced in Organising Co-curricular Activities
13.4.5 How to Overcome these Difficulties?
13.5 Let Us Sum Up
13.8 Glossary
I Answers to Check Your Progress
1 3.10 Suggested Readings
13.1 INTRODUCTION
S o far, you have been learning about the multifarious ways of hecoming an effective teacher.
Alongwith good teaching, a teacher has to undertake a number of activities in a school such
as administration and organisation, guidance, counselling, and so on and so forth. If a teacher
teaches all the time, however effective and excellent a teacher may be, the atmosphere of the
school will become monotonous. Apart from this, he will not be performing other functions
that helshe is expected to perform. In an earlier unit, we have discussed the various roles
which a teacher performs. Helshe performs a variety of roles since they are essential for
promoting all-round development of students. One of the roles that helshe performs is the
organisation of co-curricular activities. In this unit, we will discuss the importance of these
activities, how to organise them, what principles have to be kept in mind, which objectives
are to be achieved and what is the role of a teacher.
Lct us first understand the place of co-curricular activities. They are by no means new. They
are as old as organised education itself. A number of activities which we perform today in the
name of co-curricular activities existed in schools even in ancient times, for example, music,
debate, drama, athletics, etc.
In between they were somewhat ignored and neglected, with more importance being given to
academics. It was soon realized that some objectives of education can not be achieved by
academics alone. A pure academician develops a lop-sided personality, and all-round
development remains a far off dream. All-round development means mental, physical,
psychological, spiritual and vocational development. Can we achieve this all-round development
by following mere teaching-learning procedures? The answer is certainly 'no'.
Today's school is giving attention to a child's health, hygiene, sanitation and safety. In addition,
recreational games and activities are being increasingly and intelligently designed and promoted
for the purpose of wholesome physical development, good citizenship, character education,
manners and courtesy. The development of worthy emotions and feelings, heightened
insplratlnns and wholesome aspirations are also provided in schools.
Outs~de~ h o o ol r classroorn actlvltles are equally as important as those Inside clasbroom, as
they suppienicnt curr~cularact~vities.In slmpler words we can say that thc true aims of , 15
School Activities education can be fully realised by introducing co-curricular activities at every stage of education.
Do you agree?
Nowadays co-curricular activities have been accepted as an integral part of a school's
programme because they provide scopc for democratic living, develop social skills, a sensc
of cooperation, team spirit and self discipline, which are important for a citizen to function
in a democracy. All this is possible only through students' participation in co-curricular
activities. Hence the need for co-curricular activities is increasingly felt in schools. They are
an integral part of the activities of a school. as its curricular work and therefore their proper
organisation needs much care and thought.
13.2 OBJECTIVES
9 define the concept of co-curricular activities;
9 discuss the different types of co-curricular activities;
explain the need and importance of co-curricular activities;
' 0 explain principles underlying organisation and administration of co-curricular activit~es;
enumerate the difticulties faced in organizing co-curricular activities;
suggest measures to overcome such difficulties; and
assess yourself as to whether you possess the required skills for organising various
co-curricul:~ractivities.
13.3.1 Concept of Co-curricularActivities

Before discussing the importance and need of co-curricular activities, let us be clear about the
concept of co-curricular activities.
Four decades ago it was comparatively easy to define co-curricular activities because all of
them were organised and promoted largely by students themselves, with relatively little
assistance from teachers and administrators. Equipments were meager, little official recognition
was given and no credit was allowed for participation.
These activities were really extra curricular.
Today, it is difficult to define co-curricular activities because all teachers have some definite
responsibilities for their organisation; many full time professional teachers are employed,
school rooms, time, equipment and materials are provided; their relationships with regular
curricular activities are regarded as vital; credit for participation is allowed and recognition
is also given.
In short, we can say that according to modem education thinkers, curriculum is not only
teaching and learning in classroom. It also includes work in library, laboratory and workshop,
participation in games and sports in playground and numerous informal contacts between
teacher and pupils in these places. In these informal contacts there are very many activities.
one of which is co-curricular activities. It is a part of curriculum of the institution.
13.3.2 Types of Co-curricularActivities
I Co-curricular activities are categorised under seven headings:
I I.
2.
Literary Activities
Physical Development Activities
3. Aesthetic and Cultural Development Activilies
4. Civic Development Activities
5. Social Welfare Activities
16
6. Leisure Time Activities CO-curricularActivities
7. Excursion Activities
In the following chart you will find different activities under the main heading.
Debates and discussion, subject-wise club, School

ACTIVITIES Magazine, Dramatics, Study Circle, Story Writing,
Seminar, Recitation, Kavi Summelan, Library Work.
Games, Indoor and Outdoor Athletics, Mass Drill,

DEVELOPMENT
Parade, Scouting, NCC, ACC.
ACTIVITIES
Music, Dancing, Drawing, Painting Sculpture,

AND CULTURAL Dramatics, Exhibition, Fancy Dress, Folk Dance,
Folk Songs, Variety Programme.
Cooperative Bank, Cooperative Store, Assembly,

Students' Council, Canteen, Celebration of
DEVELOPMENT
Religious, National and Social Festivals, Organising
of School Panchayat Mock Parliament.
r""l
Social Study Circle, Social Services on Special
occasions like Fairs, Festivals, Professions, Cultural
WELFARE
Programmes, Assembly, Scouting, or Guiding, First
ACTIVITIES
Aid and Red Cross, Social Survey.
Stamp Collection, Coin Collection, Collection of

LEISURE TIME
Copies, Photography, Reading, Needlework and
ACTIVITIES
Knitting.
Picnic, Visit to Museum, Zoo etc., Visit to

ACTIVITIES Exhibition.
b
13.3.3 Need and Importance of Co-curricular Activities
Looking at the list of various types of activities, the question will arise in your mind is how
do these activities help us in achieving the objectives of education. Also what is the need and
importance of these activities? Let us first discuss the advantages. Curricular activities have
a number of values like educational value, development of social spirit, character training
education for leadership, worthy use of leisure time or recreational value, team spirit,
development of civic virtue, physical development, improved discipline, aesthetic development
and development of cultural values. Let us discuss them one by one.
Educational Value
These activities have great "educational" potential. All classroom teaching is theoretical.
Practical knowledge can be imparted through co-cunicular activities.
Excursions and tours provide first hand experience and reinforce classroom knowledge
in subjects like history, geography, nature study etc.
Language and expression improves through debates and recitations.
.Teaching of History gets vitalised by dramatisation.
School Activities Practical lessons in civics can be given through student self-government.
School magazines teach students the art of writing forcefully and effectively.
Celebration of functions develops organisational capacities and leadership qualities in
students.
Projects provide direct learning opportunities.
Fig. 13.1 : Activities as a Valuable Media for Realislng the Manifold Aims of Education
Psychological Value
These activities as the name suggests meet the psychological needs of the students, mainly
with reference to social demands of the pupils. They help in expressing personal behaviour
and provide a vehicle for creative thinking.
a) These Activities act as Agent for Sublimation of the Instincts

Co-curricular activities are a means of channelising students' instincts into healthy and
fruitful channels e.g. instinct of curiosity can be fruitfully channelised by library, stamp
and coin collection etc. The instinct of gregariousness can be directed thronnh self-
government, social service and other group work.
b) Emotional 'Health
A student is a bundle of innate urgzs or drives. It is natural for himher to be curious,
to show off, to master, to be loyal and to be sympathetic. Co-curricular activities provide
valuable opportunities in which these drives may be capitalised for educational benefit.
But fortunately or unfortunately, they may not come up to the required expectation e.g.
some students who are backward in studies develop inferiority complex and find school
life disgusting and can get emotionally unbalanced. Such activities provide a means of
emotional adjustment for students.
C) To'Increase the Interest of Students

A student who gives his time and effort to his school is, therefore, more interested in it,
because of his contributions e.g. the athlete talks about school spirit.
d) Recognition of Individual Differences Co-curricular Activities
By providing a number of co-curricular activities, we can ensure the expression of

potential capacities of each individual e.g. writing, public speaking, dramatics, painting,
different games and sports, organisation of functions etc. which provide training in different
aspects of personality of students. These activities, thus, cater to aptitude, interests and
abilities of students and sometimes act as a determining factor for the choice of future
vocation.
Development of Social Value

Social cooperation is recognised as one of the important demands of citizenship. It is difficult
to teach through school subjects like Languages, Mathematics or Social Sciences. By
'participating in group activities, students learn good manners and develop a sense of
cooperation. Membership in a club, student council, dramatic cast or an athletic team requires
co-operation. Students learn to appreciate the relationship of an individual to the social group.
Through team activities, students learn social cooperation. They develop group spirit, 'we' -
feeling, belongingness, unity and ability to be co-operative.
Development of Civic Value

In group activities students learn the value of doing one's duty. For example, students' self-
government in schools provides an excellent training in exercising one's franchise and
shouldering responsibilities. These activities train the students for good citizenship. Co-
curricular activities offer many opportunities for the development of self-discipline e.g. NCC
and ACC. They develop in students a spirit of toleration of others' views, healthy exchange
of ideas, fellow feeling and accepting victory and defeat with grace.
Secondly, the school is a miniature society and the activities of the school should have direct
relations with the activities of the society.
Qualities like initiative and leadership are not always developed in a classroom. On the
playground, students get opportunities to develop leadership qualities like initiative, decision-
making, judgement, tolerance etc. These qualities are required for a democratic society. Many
girls and boys have little practice in controlling themselves and in directing their own affairs.
They have not developed the ability to do these things. As a result, when they are placed in
settings that demand self-direction, they are lost. Co-curricular activities provide numerous
situations in which students may gradually get increasing responsibilities for their own direction.
The settings for developing these carry-over values must be definitely provided. A school
must be a workshop in democracy.
The traits and qualities of leadership are developed in students, when they organise these
activities by themselves under the guidance of teachers. Students learn to plan, organise and
I
execute the plan that has been developed. This develops in them initiative, planning, thinking
and power of independent judgement.
These activities provide excellent moral training. Through these activities are learnt the
importance of obeying the law, rules and regulations, love for truth and above all, these
activities develop moral consciousness by providing moral experiences. For example, a boy
in charge of finances has to act honestly. On the play field, one has to show sportsman spirit.
Physical Development Value

While games, sports and athletics directly contribute to physical development of students,
other co-curricular activities also indirectly contribute to it. These activities provide a useful
channel for the growth and development of the body.
Recreational Value
Lack of ability and training in proper utilization of one's leisure time is one of the major
defects in our present system of education. By providing and organising various activities, we
provide wholesome opportunities to our students, rather than to spend their spare time in
undesirable activities e.g. Movies, TV, idle talk etc. Hobbies developed at the secondary
school stage become life long habits.
Schod Activities Cultural Vfrlue
Some co*curricularactivities are of tremendous value, as they help in providing opportunities
for better understanding of our cultural heritage and traditions, for example, activities like
dramatics, foik songs, dance, folk music, exhibitions and celebration of various religious and
social festivals provide better knowledge and understanding of our culture, foster cultural
tastes and awaken cultural interests among students. Student would appreciatdlearn all these
though our language, religion, culture, food habits, dress etc. are different but we are one, and
that we are lwman beings of the same universe.
Thus, co-curricular activities will help in developing national and international understanding.
We can concbde by saying that co-curricular activities cater to the development of a child's
entire personality, draw out the latent powers of children of different temperaments, supplement
academic work, develop social and civic sense. Without these activities students would be
mere book-worms.
Check Your Progress

1. Which of the following statements are true?

a) Cwcurricular activities are part and parcel of school organisation.
b) Cotcurricular activities are as old as organised education itself.
C) These activities are not appropriate media to achieve aims of educatioh.
d) Exbursion provides first hand experience.
e) Cecurricular activities provide opportunities for better understanding of our
cultural heritage.
...............................................................................................................................................
2. Find out the type of co-curricular activity to which each of the following belongs:
Exhhbition, Photography, Mass Parade, Fancy Dress, Performing Dance, Recitation of
Poems, Celebration of Social Festivals.
...............................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
4
...............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
......,.......................................................................................................................................
d
..............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
............. ................................................................................................................................
)
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
13.4 ORGANISATION OF CO-CURRICULAR
ACTIVITIES IN SCHOOL
By now we are clear about various types of co-curricular activities and how these activities
help in achieving the manifold goals of education. A question may arise in your mind. "Can
I organise activities in my school though I am not a specialized teacher in any activity?"
Yes, you ban, if you are specialised in some specific areas like dance, singing, painting,
writing etc., If you do not have any specialization in any activity, do not worry, you can
develop skill and abilities for organising activities, if you are keen about it.
When we think about organising co-curricular activities, the nature of the aotivity, involvement
of students, teachers, parents and community as well as objectives of a particular activity
must be thought of. Secondly, we have to remember that it is a joint activity and joint effort
of many people. The learning experiences of the students are improved when the organiser
of co-curricular activities utilizes the talents and energies of all optimally. A better climate
for learning is established and finally, school community relationship is always improved.
13.4.1 Organisation of Literary and Cultural Activities

In this section, we are going to discuss organisation of literary and cultural activiaies in a
school, what are the points to be kept in mind and what role a teacher has to play. Before
discussing these points, let us find out what is a literary activity and what are the activities
included under literary activities.
What is a literary activity? Which activities are included under literary activities?
Literary activities are those activities which are related to literature. It includes activities like
debate, elocution, recitation, writing articles, organising visits by eminent personalities, study
circle, essays, recitation of self-made poem, dramatization (dialogue writing), literature comer,
exhibition, news bulletin etc.
How will these activities help us in achieving educational objectives?
Literary activities help in language building and in enhancing vocabulary, improve articulation,
expression, communication, creative writing skills, independent thinking etc. They also give
an opportunity to students to show their hidden talents and develop self-confidence. Thus
literary activities help in achieving educational objectives.
By now, we are cleaf about what activities are included in literary activities and also, we
know how they help in achieving educational objectives.
Let us now look at cultural activities. What are cultural activities? What arf h e activities
included in them?
Cultural activities are those activities which are based on culture and tradition, e.g. celebration
of religious, social and national festivals, folk songs, folk danco, music, drama, dance, painting,
picnic, excursion, fancy dress, funfair etc.
How do these activities help in our day-to-day teaching?
Cultural activities contribute towards attainment of group feeling i.e. belongiagness, which
provide an opportunity to show hidden talents. Students learn group responsibilities, express
ideas, share ideas, etc.
Through celebration of religious festivals or birthday celebrations students learndmut culture
along with entertainment. They get good exposure to our rich cultural heritage. Feelings and
emotions are developed and they get a change from routine life.
So far, we have discussed how cultural activities help the students to know their culture and
heritage. When we observe well-planned literary activities or cultural activities, we immediately
react, "The activity is nice and well organised.
How to organise these activities? What are the points to be kept in mind to make t k s e
activities meaningful and effective?
If we want to make any programme successful, we must look after its organisation. Without
organisation, objectives cannot be achieved. Moreover, resources are wasted, planning and
organisation help in making activities successful.
I
School Activities What are the points to be kept in mind for planning and organisation of activities?
For organising the following points need to be considered:
Students should feel the need for activities and should demand them.
Activities should be selected keeping in view students' interests. There are a number of
activities and there are also differences in students' interests and liking. An activity
should be selected in such a way that all students are able to participate i.e. there should
be maximum involvement. More and more students should be involved. Activities should
be such that all students are able to participate.
A teacher should help students plan and organise co-curricular activities. The ultimate
planning and implementation should be done by students.
Activities should be organised during school hours but some activities like tours, picnics
can be organised on holidays.
I Minute details of activities should be worked out for the success of the programme.
Activities selected should be economical i.e. they should not place unnecessary financial
burden on the school or parents.
Activities having educational value should be selected. The selected activities should
support and enhance classroom learning.
Activities selected should be such that they provide opportunity to students to learn and
I
also to become self-reliant.
Activities should not be imposed on students. They have to be selected by students
themselves.
Students should meet and discuss such aspects as the venue, date and resources available.
Objectives of activities should be made clear.
Various sub-committees should be formed e.g.
I) Stage committee 2) Decoration committee
3) Seating arrangement 4) Reception committee
5) Invitation committee 6) Overall organisation
Work has to be allotted to various committees depending upon abilities of persons.
Activities should be supported by teachers, principal, parents, community members and
management.
The rules and regulations regarding activities should be mentioned well in advance to the
students.
The best participants are to be identified.
Activities should be planned yearwise so that they find place in school calendar, and that
parents know their dates in advance.
Expenditure on activities should be borne by the school only. Only in unavoidable
circumstances should students be charged.
Records should be kept of the activities.
In order to make co-curricular activities successful, what should be the contribution of a
school?
The school should provide necessary facilities and infrastructure, and a dark room to show
T.V. or films. It should provide necessary equipment and allocate proper time for various
activities. It should also provide required stationery and provide financial help. Apart from all
these. it should reduce the workload of teachers in charge of co-curricular activities.
We have fully discussed how to organise literary cultural activities systematically and effectively.
.Now let us look at the objectives of these activities.
Objectives of Literary Activities

A participating student will be able to do any or all or some of these:
express histher feelings effectively,
get exposure to various literary works,
develop independent thinking, Ccr-curricu~ar
Activities
trace references related to a topic,'
comprehend magazine articles and edit them,
develop interest in supplementary reading,
collect articles related to subject matter,
develop skill of articulation, comprehension and analysis,
develop creative ability,
develop interest in literature, and
communicate effectively.
Objective of Cultural Activities

Students will be able to:
develop effective expression
control their emotions
develop creativity
use leisure time properly
build good character and develop personality
exhibit hidden talents
become socialised
promote national integration
co-operate and co-ordinate with teachers
develop skill of planning and organising
know and respect their culture and traditions.
Now, let us discuss the principles to be kept in mind to make these activities effective.
Principles Underlying Organisation of Co-curricularActivities

The Fig. 13.2 below summarizes the main principles which need to be kept in mind while
organising these pctivities.
Select activities that are closely related to curriculum. They should be educationally
relevant.
The selected activities should be constructive and should aim at development of higher
level objectives, which are not attainable through regular classroom teaching e.g, novelty
and originality, writing, skill of recitation of poems, discussion etc.
Co-curricular activities should have place within school timings so that all can participate.
As far as possible all students should participate in one or other activity going on in the
school.
The Atmosphere has to be democratic : more suggestions and ideas can be incorporated
in democratic atmosphere so nothing is imposed on students.
Leadership should be proper and careful : every time the same person should not get
a chance to lead. Leadership should be rotational and maximum number of students
should get opportunity to conduct an activity.
Administration and supervision : the responsibility for organising and arranging the
programme should be placed on students, while teachers can supervise and facilitate.
Regularity : co-curricular activities should be organised regularly i.e. they should have
a place in school time-table.
Advisor : the teacher should have an advisory role and should not impose hisher will
on students.
Programme should grow from small to large gradually. Initially there may be a few items
and a few students but gradually the programme should widen with maximum number
of students being. involved.
school Activities Equipment :necessary equipment should be provided well in time to students for practice
and organisation.
A record of each programme should be maintained. Teachers should enter the details in
a special co-curricular register.
CONSTRUCTIVE REGULAR
and aim at CCA should be
in regular
ob,jective time table
SUPERVISION & DEMOCRATIC PROGRAMME

ADMINISTRATION Nothing should should grow from
Responsibility is be imposed small to large
given to the teacher
NO COMPULSION EQUIF'MENT EDUCATIONALLY

Students should not Necessary RELEVANT
be compelled equipment should Closely related to
be provided curriculun~
LEADERSHIP COOPERATION MAXIMUM

Propb and The students and PARTICIPATION
careful Principal should Most of the students
cooperate should participate
CLARITY OF ADVISOR
PURPOSE Teacher should
Why and what for have Advisor's role
-
DURING RECORD
SCHOOL Periodically
HOURS evaluate - keep
the record
)Fig. 13.2 : Principles underlying organisation of co-curricular activities

13.4.2 Organisation of Physical Education Activities CO-curricularActivities
Physical development is a crucial and important aspect of human development. A sound mind
rests in a healthy body. Physically, a person has to be fit in order to concentrate on various
activities. So physical training has become one of the important aspects of school education,
Physical development activities include mass drill, parade, ACC, NCC, sports, indoor as well
as outdoor games. Indoor games include chess, table tennis, badminton, etc. Outdoor games
include kabadi, cricket, kho-kho, football, volleyball, hockey, etc.
Physical activities in the form of sports, games and athletics are important not simply because
they provide physical exercise, but for a number of other reasons also. They develop qualities
of sportsmanship, self-confidence, perserverance, judgement, foresight, judiciousness, fair
play etc. Through team games and competitive games, sociability, co-operation, team spirit,
sp3it of self-sacrifice and attitude of healthy competition develop. In short it can be said that
these activities ensure an all-round development of the personality of students.
A playground is said to be the cradle of democracy. Students have lots of energy. This energy
is displayed on the playground. For students' proper physical and mental development, sports
are a must. On a playground students become fresh and active. Physical, mental and moral
development are possible through sports. They will learn to concentrate on academics, develop
good hobbies, get opportunities to exhibit hidden talents and develop control over emotions
and aggression.
For physical development, sports and games play an important role e.g. muscles develop,
heart and lungs become strong, blood circulation becomes proper. As a result, mental fitness
increases.
Now we will discuss how to organise games and sports in schools.
Sports and games should be properIy organised in each school. Activities of the entire year
have to be planned out and also termwise charts should be prepared. Games have to be
selected, depending upon available resources. The season must be kept in mind while selecting
the games. For instance, outdoor games cannot be played in rainy season and or on a very
hot day. Activities should not be monotonous. Games should be of various types. Games and
sports should be planned according to need, facilities, equipments and finances available.
Rules and regulations have to be obeyed.
Teachers should get app;opriate representation in sports' committee. They should prepare
students for inter-school competitions. They should point out strong points and should also
point out where improvement is needed.
It may be emphasised that it is ultimately the responsibility of the headmaster to ensure that
adequate facilities for sports and games are available in the school. Helshe is also to ensure
that each student chooses one or the other game or physical activity and participates in it.
For physical activities in a school, there should be a physical instructor. Helshe must be
assisted by teachers. They should supervise the play activities of students and provide them
with necessary guidance.
In short, all students should participate in sports and arrangements for them have to be done.
Every student should get an opportunity to play.
Objectives of Physical Activities

Students will be able to:
gain physical development,
get psychomotor development,
develop discipline,
inculcate in themselves team spirit, ,
develop leadership qualities, and

develop social qualities.
Principles Underlying Organisation of Activities

The following principles need to be kept in mind while organising physical activities: 25
School Activities Various games and sports have to be selected in such a way that students get chance to
play according to their age, abilities and interests.
a Games and sports have to be organised keeping in view the needs of boys and girls.
Students should be divided into various groups.
Students have to be encouraged to participate in games and sports in an increasing
measure.
a In one week three to four periods can be kept for sports.
Before and after school, student should get opportunity to play.
A plan for sports activities should be drawn.
Teachers should make pupils aware of rules and regulations of sports and games.
In addition in the playground which are important for sports equally important is need
of enthusiastic, energetic, strong, sports teachers.
Every student should be encouraged to participate in one or other game. Some good schools
call all the students on the playground in the evening or during school recess. This is good
practice. It is necessary that each student learns to play some game. Students should be
encouraged to excel in competitive games but this should not become the end for all physical
or games activities.
13.4.3 Role of a Teacher in Organising Co-curricular Activities in School

As a Planner
The teacher must be a good planner and should plan out all the activities to be performed
in a year, preferably in form of a chart.
Planner Leader Innovator Director Oganisrr
Recorder &
Evaluator
Fig. 1 3 3 : Role of a Teacher in Organisig Co-eurdcular Activities
.Asa Leader
The teacher should give the student opportunity to exhibit their leadership qualities and
,
this opportunity should be given in rotation.
As an Innovator
In order to break monotony of activities, a teacher should try to introduce some novelty
(new programme) gradually.
As a Director
As a director teacher should see that the Droaammes selected by the students are
constructive. The programmes or activities should be scrutinised for their educational Cwurrlcuhr Activities 1
relevance.
As an Organiser
The planned activities should be implemented through a strong organiser. The teacher
should supervise activities of students for effective programmes.
As a Recorder and Evaluator

A teacher has to keep a record of all activities undertaken in the academic year. The
record must consist of names of participants and winners. The programme should be
evaluated periodically.
As a Manager
The teacher has to be an effective manager in order to plan, organise, co-ordinate, direct,
record, evaluate and control activities.
As a Decision Maker
As far as possible a teacher should use democratic methods for taking decisions regarding
organisation of activities. Care should, however, be taken that style of decision-making
is democratic.
As an Advisor
The role of a teacher is to advise students as and when it is required. Teacher should not
impose upon and compel students to accept hislher ideas.
As a Motivator
At times, students are reluctant to participate in some co-curricular activities. In such
circumstances, the teacher must motivate them to participate in such activities.
As a Communicator
The teacher should be able to communicate well regarding the programme and its objectives
very clearly and well in advance.
As a Coordinator
The teacher has to co-ordinate resources, time and activities. Helshe should also co-
ordinate effectively amongst students, colleagues, principal, management and community
in order to have an effective programme.
When a teacher organises any activity, whether it is literary or cultural or sports or games, he1
she should not think that everything will always be smooth. Many difficulties may arise at
organisation and planning stage as well as at performing stage. Sometimes there is financial
crisis; equipment is not in order, electricity has failed, the time is short and place is not
suitable. Like these there are many problems which prove to be hurdles. But a teacher should
not lose hope. Helshe should try to solve the problems.
There will always be financial problems. Fund be low and activities more. At the end of the
year, there has to be an annual day and sports day, for which money has already been
allotted. What is to be done through out the year without money? Every activity needs some
finance.
Without finance also activities can be organised. A teacher should select such activities, which
do not require any finances e.g. debate, quiz, kavi samrnelan, fancy dress, antakshari, role
play, jokes, monoacting, songs etc. An exhibition can be arranged. Students can be asked to
bring items to exhibition and at the end of the exhibition they can take them back. Even sports
and games do not require finances. A teacher should be competent and resourceful to manage
activities, even without finances.
13.4.4 Difficulties Faced in Organising Co-curricularActivities
Difficulties faced by students
Students do not take active interest in co-curricular activities because:
School Activities Provision for these activities in schools is not adequate to meet all the needs of all the
students.
In crowded cities, it is generally not possible to have spacious playgrounds.
Activities are not given a place in school time-table, during school hours. These are
either Bxed before or after school hours and many students do not participate in them
because it is neither convenient nor compulsory for them to do so.
Sometimes students feel that these activities interfere with their studies. Therefore,
whenever they are organised, students participate in them unwillingly.
These activities are not assessed in the examinations. No extra credit is given for them.
At present one passes an examination without participating in these activities.
Teachers are not competent to organise a sufficient number of activities. There is hardly
any trained staff to inspire students to participate in these activities.
Students are not economically well off to bear the extra expenses involved in participating
in these activities.
Many students work and learn, they do not have sufficient time for these activities.
Heavy homework is assigned to students. So they do not find time to participate in these
activitiks, though they are interested.
Some students are not familiar with the importance of these activities due to lack of
proper guidance.
Students are too shy to participate in these activities. Some students do not know their
hidden potentialities.
Problems faced by the teachers

Teachers expect extra allowance for organising these activities.
They lack of knowledge and training to organise such activities.
Few teachers realise that the aim of education is the development of the total personality
of children. They assess students only on the basis of their performance in examination
and consider these activities as superfluous.
Thus we have discussed the problems faced by the students and by the teachers. The question
is can we solve these problems? How?
One should remember that these problems are not permanent in nature. They can be solved
by using various techniques and foresight.
13.4.5 How to Overcome these Difficulties?

As far as possible, these activities should be accommodated in the time-table duriig
regul&r school hours. This will enable all students to take part in these activities and also
give more importance to these activities.
A wide variety of activities should be planned in order to meet the different needs of a
large number of students.
Activities having educational value should get greater attention e.g. literary activities like
debates, elocution contests, composing poems etc.
' Activities should be selected according to the economic means of the school aid needs
of the students. Activities thus differ from school to school. Different activities are
required for rural and urban schools and for primary and secondary sections.
Students should be motivated to participate in activities by asking them to choose activities
of their interest, for example, students who are interested in taking part in drama should
choose dramatics.
Aims and function of each activity should be well defined. Each activity should have its
objectives which should be made clear to the participants.
A system of rewards should be instituted for best performance. Some prizes, merit,
certificates, shields, running trophies etc. would motivate students to participate.
While allowances may not given to teachers for organising these activities, the principal
can reduce their workload !through proper allocation of duties.
Unnecessary expenditure is to be avoided. For example, on a sports day too much money
is generally spent on equipments, coaches etc.
Work done should be properly recorded and periodical evaluation of the activities is also
done. And on the basis of the evaluation, problems can be sorted out and modifications
in the programme are thought of.
Regular time should be devoted to these activities in the time-table.
Some credit, either in the form of less teaching periods or in the form of extra payment
must be given to teachers.
13.5 LET US SUM UP

The school can be made a dynamic or multi-dimensional affair, if suitable curricular and
co-curricular activities are organised in a school in which each student participates,
contributes his maximum and prepares himself for becoming a good citizen of the
society.
Co-curricular activities should be organised in such a manner that students utilise their energy
and school facilities are used in optimum way. Activities should be such that they help in
achieving goals of education, make students enthusiastic, develop leadership qualities, develop
sociability and enhance their learning ability. Activities should be designed keeping in view
the objectives and principles of organising co-curricular activities.
We have described only a few important co-curricular activities here. The organisation of
these activities is equally important and every effort should be made to introduce as many
activities as financially and administratively possible in the school.
One can not think of a school without co-curricular activities. Assembly, games, competitions.
programmes, publications, exhibitions, and other activities bring students together, unite them,
develop in them the 'we' - feeling and help them to make their own contribution for the
betterment of the school.

1. List a few activities, which according to you, are literary or cultural activities.
2. What co-curricular activities would you like to introduce in your school? How will you
organise them to enrich the daily class work?
3. Analyse your function as a teacher of co-curricular activities and list the various
activities, skills which you use and classify them inta various categories of co-curricular
activities.

(To be taken up in counselling sessions and peer groups.)
1. If a teacher is not efficient in conducting co-curricular activities, can this be
improved?
2. A few students are study minded, can they be motivated to take part in activities?
3. A few students are very interested in co-curricular activities, can they be controlled?
4. Co-curricular activities help in enrichment of curricular activities. Is it true? How?
5. Without financial help is it possible to conduct co-curricular activities on the school?
How?
13.8 GLOSSARY
Athletic - of physical exercise
Elocution - art of style of speaking effectively in public
School Activities Franchise - privilege or special right
Miniature - a small size
Multifarious - of many elements
Potentialities - powerful
Psychomotor Development - skills development associated with mind and hand
Resources - a source or possibility of help

1. a) True, b) True, c) False, d) True, e) True.
2. Exhibition - Excursion Activities
Photography - Leisure Time Activity
Mass Parade - Physical Development Activity
Fancy Dress - Cultural Development Activity
Performing Dance - Cultural Development Activity
Recitation of a Poems - Literary Activity
Celebration of Social Festivals - Civic Development Activity

Aggarwal, J.C. (1994): Educational Administration, Management and Supervision, Principles
and Practu'ces, New Delhi.
Aggarwal, J.C. (1967): Educational Administration, School Organisation and Supervision,
Arya Book Depot, New Delhi.
Kochhar S.K. (1990): Secondary School Administration, Jullundhar University Publishers.
Mukerjee, S.N. (1959): Secondary School Administration, Acharya Book Depot, Baroda.
Safaya, R.N. and Shaida B.D. (1969): School Administration and Organisation, Dhanpat Rai
& Sons, Jullundhar.
UNIT 14 INSTRUCTIONAL MANAGEMENT
RELATED ACTIVITIES-I
Structure
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Objectives
14.3 Need for Time Management at Macro and Micro Level
14.3.1 School Calendar
14.3.2 School Time Table
14.3.3 Principles of Time Table Construction
14.3.4 Role of a Teacher
14.4 Conducting Examinations
14.4.1 How to Conduct Examinations?
14.4.3 Parent Teacher Association: Its Importance
14.4.4 Establishment and Objectives of Parent Teacher Association
14.4.5 Activities to be Organised
14.5 Let Us Sum Up
14.1 INTRODUCTION
As students you have seen your teacher performing certain functions like teaching, taking
attendance, checking assignments, giving report cards etc. For most of the time you see your
teachers teaching. Role of a teacher is manifold. Helshe is a counsellor, a guide, a facilitator
and also imparts instruction.
Can a teacher enter a classroom and start teaching without deciding what is to be taught, when
it is to be taught and how it is to be taught? Can the 3ntjre course be covered in a few months
and students be allowed to go home? Or can a few topici be covered in detail and the rest
of the course be left for students to cover on their own? should more importance be given to
some subjects or equal weightage to all subjects?
The quesuons given above are impractical and unimaginable. The entire schedule for instruction
or various other activities (CCA) to be carried out in one academic year has to be planned
properly for effective instructional management so that the organisation works smoothly.
Then we should know, what is an organisation. A good organisation is an arrangement of
persons wherein its members may work effectively, economically and harmoniously together
to achieve a common purpose. Besides, it includes organisation of concepts and material e.g.
organisation of records, managing library and laboratory, conducting parent teacher association
meetings, students, preparing profile etc.
What is required to make an ,organisation successful?
1. Proper coordination of all the activities going on round the year,
2. Proper coordination amongst parents, teachers and the management, and
3. Proper and timely utilization of resources or we can say optimum use of resources.
For all the above given points one person cannot be made responsible. It requires a collective
effort. And this collective work has to 6e charted out properly, so that there is no wastage of
resources. Can you tell when is this possible? This is possible if there is an effective leader
(principal) and capable teachers. The principal and teachers will have to come together to
form a plan at macro and micLolevels for effective instructional management related activities. 31
School Activities What are the objectives of instructional management activities? What does this instructional
management activity contain and what will you learn at the end of the unit?
14.2 OBJECTIVES
Having gone tHrough this unit, you will be able to:
discuss the importance of instructional management related activities;
explain the principles of framing time table;
develop skill in conducting examinations;
describe the role of a teacher in conducting parent-teacher association;
develop the skill of maintaining records;
discuss the importance of library;
develop the technique of maintaining a laboratory; and
describe the role of a teacher in managing instructional activities.
14.3 NEED FOR TIME MANAGEMENT AT MACRO

AND MICRO LEVEL
Time management today has become every body's problem. You are in a queue hurrying to
your school, you have just managed to eat some snacks and packed some for lunch. You go
to school, come back, check homework of children, cook or help in cooking. Every task is
time bound. Every body seems to be running behind time and trying to manage time. Managing
any programme requires time management. Without this there will be chaos, duplication of
work, no coofdination, thus wastage of resources. At times it may lead to a flop of the
programme. To avoid duplication of work, chaos and lack of coordination, time management
is needed.
Time management has to be at two levels, macro and micro. Macro level would mean broad
outline and micro level would mean at ground level with attention to details. For example,
macro level time management would include management of school calendar. Micro level
management would include management of school time table.
Let us first discuss the school calendar.
l4.3.1 School Calendar

Is a school calendar something like a desk calendar or calendar showing days and date? It is
something more than a date calendar. In a date calendar all the dates are given, and holidays
are marked in red. But in a school calendar there need not be all dates. In addition to the dates
a programme is charted against dates. e.g.
17th Jan. to 25th Jan. : Sports festival will be celebrated.
6th Jan : Prite distribution ceremony.
Now, the question is, what are the steps to be kept in mind for preparing a school calendar?
The steps are:
i) Number of working days in a year is calculated.
ii) Number of holidays and Sundays is excluded from a year.
iii) Number of days required to conduct examinations is calculated.
iv) Circumstances probably going to disturb the school schedule, e.g. Board Examination
Centre, or Election booth or community programmes are indicated.
v) After excluding the above days the working days in every month are calculated.
vi) Dates for probable examinations are mentioned.
vii) Dates for special lectures, workshops, seminars, funfairs, sports festivals, cultural
activities, parent teacher association meeting, vacating classes, picnic, tours, camps,
staff meetings, science fair, exhibition, projects to be taken up during the year etc. are Instructional Management
also mentioned. Related Activities4
viii) All the activities given in point number seven have to be interpersed through out the
year in such a way that teaching-learning does not become monotonous and it remains
enjoy able.
Do you think it is necessary to chalk out such a programme for all the activities to be carried
out? Why?
Yes, it is necessary. If we plan the activities and work out the plan, we can plan in advance
for the forthcoming activities. Thus we have a detailed programme in front of us and we can
allot work to students and teachers in a better way, which ultimately assures the success of
the programme. Parents also come to know the programme schedule of the school.
In a school calendar, curricular and co-cumcular activities of the year are mentioned, which
help teachers as well as students to preplan the activities in advance.
For various activities different committees have to be formed, and these committees should
be given the responsibility to chalk out a detailed programme each and act accordingly, so that
various committees get enough time to prepare for the event. Also the activities will become
educational in the real sense.
Before making a school calendar, there should be a meeting of the principal, teachers and
parent teacher association members, wherein stock should be taken of the previous year's
activities. Feedback should be taken regarding the problems and disturbances that took place
in the last academic session. After the meeting there should be small group meetings wherein
points discussed in the meeting should be consolidated. After consolidation along with the
modification, datewise and monthwise calendar is to be prepared, which would act as a
guideline for school programme.
14.3.2 School Time Table

Have you ever thought of how a school runs smoothly? How does a teacher know which class
he has to go for teaching'? How d o students come to know that a teacher is engaged in the
class'? Is there any framework to know all these things? Yes, this framework is known as the
time table. It occupies a very important place from the point of view of administration
because it determines how the whole programme of the school is carried out.
Time table an very important framework and the school authorities should devise it very
carefully so that the time of students and teachers is utilized to the maximum and they derive
the greatest advantages from the resources of the school.
What is a Time Table?

The school time table is a chart which indicates all the activities undertaken in a school. It
shows:
hours of work
teacher at work and at rest
rooms being used in certain periods
recreational time
time of morning assembly
time of roll call
time of co-cumcular activities
class engaged in games
playground being used
In short, time table is a schedule which tells what work is being done during which period,
hy whom it is being done, where it is being done and when it is being done.
Activities Importance of the Time Table
As we have discussed that time table is a necessary tool for efficient working of a school.
The question is how does time table help to make functioning of a school smooth? The
importance of time table is presented in Fig. 14.1.
Elunioates wastage of tune & energy
Avoids dup1ic:ttion & ovalapping
e
Ensures due attention to every subject & activity
B~ingssystem into the school life
Ensures equal distribution of work Lunong the teachers
-
Helps in adjusting school work according to pupil's need
Allots wo~kwhen the teacher is absent
t-C-3 Develops moral value and other good habits
Aids in maintaining school disciplin
Adds to the eff~ciencyof a school
Fig. 14.1 : Importance of Time Table
The functions that a time table performs are listed below:
i) It eliminates wastage of time and energy

Time table shows exactly what is to be done at a particular time. It thus directs both
teachers' and pupils' energy and attention to one thing at a time by placing proper
persons at their proper places at the proper time.
ii) It presents duplication and overlapping

A time table, showing various activities to be undertaken by various classes and under
whose supervision, is essential to avoid duplication and overlapping.
iii) It ensures due attention to every subject and activity
By framing a time table, due attention is given to every subject. Periods are allotted
to difficult subjects according to their importance, difficult of value and their fatiguing
nature.
iv) It brings system into school life
Every activity of a school is planned in advance. It ensures smooth and orderly working
of school. Let us for a moment think what would happen if there was no time table
in a school? In the absence of a time table there would be confusion and chaos. No
teacher would know which class to take. No student would know which class to go
to. Now would it be possible to determine what activity should be undertaken at what
time and under whose charge.
v) It ensures equal distribution of work among teachers

Time table indicates in a summary form ihe work allotted to each teacher. It shows the
amount of work that has been allotted to each teacher. Thus, it prevents allotment of
too much work or too little work to any one of the teachers.
vi) It helps in adjusting school work according to the needs of pupils

School authorities can adjust school work according to the psychological needs of the
pupils. Fatigue, interest, freshness of mind and body are taken into consideration while
adjusting school work in the time table.
vii) It helps in arrangement of proxy periods

Time table shows vacant or free periods of all teachers. This is helpful in allotting
work when some teacher is absent.
viii) It develops moral values and other good habits
Time table helps to develop qualities like punctuality and regularity both in teacher
and the taught by placing before them a set programme of activities. It develops
methodical attitude towards work among pupils and teachers.
ix) It promotes school discipline
School time table directly promotes discipline in a school to a great extent. By keeping
students busy in desirable activities, and with everyone minding his own business,
discipline is maintained in the school.
x) It adds to the efficiency of the school by maximum utilisation of existing resources
The time table can be framed in such a way that science laboratory, library, art room,
assembly hall, play ground etc. are used to the maximum extent and help attain the
goals of an institution.
From the above discussion, we can say that time table not only facilitates work, but it also
.adds to the efficiency in various spheres.
We have discussed that nature of a time table, and its importance. .We would like to know that
how many types of time tables are to be prepared t o - m d e the function smooth.
Types of Time Tables

We have discussed that how time table is an effective instrument and how it promotes
efficiency in a school. Now we will see, what are the different types of time table to be
prepared in a school.
When you visit any school and meet the headmaster you must have seen a comprehensive
time table lying under the glass of his table. It is known as master time table or general time
table. We can also name it as a consolidated time table.
On the basis of the master time table, a class teacher prepares the time table for his class and
it is put in every classroom. This is known as the class time table.
A teacher, for his own record, prepares a time table.
From this discussion, we can say that there are at least three types of time tables available
in the school as indicated below:
chool Activities
Master
Time Class
Table Time Table
Time Table
Fig. 14.2 :lSrpes of Time Table

Let us discuss in brief each of these time tables.
Master Time Table
This time table gives a complete, correct and comprehensive picture of the entire school
programme. It is a consolidated form of class time tables and teacher's time tables. This time
table is generally meant to be used by the headmaster.
Class Time Table

This time table shows the daily programme of a class i.e. distribution of subject with teacher
for each class. It also indicates the breaks and the periods for games and other co-cumcular
activities. Each class follows its time table and a copy of its time table is to be hung in each
classroom.
Teacher's Time Table

Every' teacher has a copy of his own programme showing details of his academic and non-
academic work.
There are three types of time tables. For preparing Master Table, one requires certain
skills and a person should know some basic principles. A person should have knowledge of
how to overcome the defects of Master Time Table. Now let us discuss the basic principle of
time table construction.
14.3.3 Principles of Time Table Construction

We have already studied that time table is an important instrument, which gives clear and
comprehensive picture of school activities i.e. what work is being done during which period,
where, by whom and when. It is really a complicated task because it is determined by a
number of factors and conditions which change from place to place and from school to
school.
Again, framing of a time table is a time consuming task, which also requires specific skills.
One has to keep in mind that available resources are used to the maximum, because the
purpose of a school is to function effectively and systematically.
The basic principles for making a time table are indicated in the Fig. 14.3.
The question arises of how to construct the Master Time Table? What are the fact~rsto be
kept in mind while framing the Time Table? Are there any principles to be followed? What
are those principles?
The following principles have to kept in mind for preparing a Time Table.
i) Q p e of School
The type of the school i.e. boys or girls or mixed school, urban or rural school, secondary or
higher secondary school or both, determine the nature of activities of a school and accordingly
a time table is framed.
One more point that is to be kept in mind is that specific needs of a school are to be taken
into consideration while framing time table.
ii) Departmental Regulations

Generally, the State Department of Education fixes length of the school year, and its terms
Instructiond Management
Related Activities-I
Principles of
Time Table
\ Construction
Amount of Time
I e
l Type of School
Principle of
Justice
of Subjects and Recreation
Fatigue Teachers
Variety Elasticity
F
ig.14.3 : Principles of.T i e Table Construction
i.e. when art academic year starts and when it ends, the duration of the school day and even
the number of periods for each subject. It is essential that the school time table is in agreement
with Government regulations.
iii) Amount of Time Available

A time table is to be framed keeping in.view the available time i.e. length of the school year
and total number of holidays. For example, in a double shift schools, the duration of the
school day is naturally shorter.
iv) Principle of Justice

In assigning work, care has to be taken that:
a) each teacher is assigned those subjects which helshe feels he/she is best qualified to
teach,
b) helshe does not teach in more than two departments,
c) teaching load for every teacher is about equal to that of others.
v) Relative Importance and Diiculty Value of Subjects
Time has to be provided to each subject according to its importance and its difficulty value.
For example, more time is required for Mathematics and English, not because they are more
important but because they are more difficult.
Besides, there are certain social and economic considerations that determine the importance
of a subject in the school cumculum and accordingly, time is allotted to them in the time
table, for example, in rural schoolS more time is required or devoted for practicals. 17
School Activities vi) Incidence of Fatigue
The element of fatigue influences the construction of school time table in a number of ways.
Children are fatigued at certain periods or on certain days. Fatigue is not only physical but
it is also ps~chologicalin nature, which results in a definite weakening of attention and
diminishing interest and affects learning.
a) Work Rate: In school some subjects are more fatiguing than others. They involve more
mental strain and effort. Such subjects are to be taught during early hours when the
students' minds are fresh.
b) It is a common feeling to think that mental freshness is the greatest in the morning. This
is also true just after recess. The order of subjects causing strain is as follows:
(1) Mathematics (2) English (3) Other languages (4) Sciences (5) Social Studies1
Humanities (6) Science practicals (7) Drawing.
Howevur, this needs not be true for all students. Some might find learning of Languages
more diificult than Mathematics. Some find Sciences more difficult to learn.
c) The fatigue principle is true for days of the week also. Tuesdays and Wednesdays
are considered to be the best days in which maximum work could be done. Towards the
end of the week fatigue is the greatest.
d) Younger children are more quickly fatigued. The duration of a class period for them does
not generally exceed 30 to 35 minutes. Psychologically also, their minds are likely
distracted to some other activities.
e) Certain seasons too cause fatigue. In summer due to heat, we do not like to work. So the
duration of the period needs to be reduced. If it is possible, change timings and keep the
school in the morning during summer season.
vii) Principle of Variety

Time table has to be constructed in a manner so that it allows frequent change of places and
postures for pupils. It has been seen experimentally that change of room, seat and posture
usually is an antidote against weariness. This applies to both, students and teachers. Variety
can be introduced in the following manner.
a) No subject except Science prgticals should be kept for two consecutive periods, as it will
cause monotony.
b) The s m e class should nof, as .farm possible, sit in the same room for the whole day.
c) The same teacher should not have two consequtive periods in the same class, as far as
possible except in primary classes.
d) If a subject is taught only 213 times a week, periods should follow at intervals.
e) The 'physical training periods, science practical and drawing work allow a change.
viii) Free Periods for Teachers

Free periods for teachers need to be provided so as to increase their efficiency and also to
provide time for their correction work. e.g.
1. Language teachers need more free periods as they have to do more correction work.
2. In the periods immediately preceding science and other practical periods, a teacher should
be kept free to enable hidher to make necessary preparations.
ix) Principle of Play and Recreation

Careful attention needs to be given to provide for rest and recreation and provision for various
co-curricular activities should also be made in the time table, to avoid monotony.
x) Maximum Utilization of Resources

While constructing a time table, number of teachers, their qualifications and experience,
number and size of classrooms and material resources available, should always be kept in
mind, so as to make the maximum use of all the resources and avoid wastage or under Iastmctiooal Mmaganmt
utilization of resources.
-
Related Activities I
xi) Principle of Elasticity

We know that time table is an instrument to help school carry on its work smoothly and
efficiently. It should not be fixed or rigid, but should provide scope for adjustment and
changes to meet specific needs of students as well as of teachers.
The above principles provide bases in framing a time table. The difficult task of framing the
time table becomes easier, if one knows the basic principles and tries to implement them. It
is not everybody's cup of tea. One should possess the skill of framing a time table.

Teachers should also have a role in the preparation of the time table, because after all it has
to be implemented by them. It so happens, some of the days, a teacher has so much of work
that he/she hardly gets an opportunity to rest. Whereas there might be days when teachers are
totally free. What can you expect from an exhausted teacher? Not only is the quality of
teaching affected, there is lack of enthusiasm and lack of any innovative idea as well.
If teachers are taken into confidence and then according to the principles of time table
making, a time table is prepared, its implementation will be smooth.
A teacher should take care that they do not waste time of another teacher while teaching in
a class after the period is over. Nor should teacher leave a class before the period is over. m e
incoming teachers should also come on time. After all, teachers are role models. Students
learn punctuality from their teachers. Teachers who have been assigned extra duties, should
get some relaxation in the time table. All teachers should cooperate to make a time table
fimctional.
Check Your Progress

I Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
I b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Read the following statements and check whether it is true or false and put a tick mark
(4) on it.
a) A teacher requires much more skills in acquiring mastery in techniques of
. teaching. (T/F)
b) Time table ensures due attention to subjects and activities. flm
c) School calendar is just like an ordinary calendar. (T/F)
d) School calendar helps in work allocation to different committees.
2. Read the following statements and mention the type of time table against each of the
statements.
a) It is a consolidated form of class time table and teacher's time table.
b) It shows the daily programme of a particular class.
3. Read the following statements carefully and mention the principle to be applied while
framing time table.
a) The teaching load for every teacher is about equal to that of other. (principle of
...............................)
b) Specific needs are to be kept in mind while constructing a time table. (principle
of ................................
c) More time is required for Mathematics. (principle of ...............................)
d) The same class should not sit in the same room for the whole day. (principle of
...............................)
School Activities
14.4 CONDUCTING EXAMINATIONS
It is not enough to just 'teach'. A teacher has also to check the performance of hislher students
which in a way is a check on hislher performance. This is done by devising and administering
appropriate tests to measure the level and quality of student learning. There are many ways
to test students' learning. Students may be evaluated through recitations, home work, unit
tests or other types of assignments.
Again, it is not enough just to evaluate students. A teacher must interpret test results and relate
the findings to students progress or lack of it in order to improve teaching-learning process.
These findings provide a very meaningful feedback to a teacher on the effectiveness of
teaching-learning process and on the basis of it helshe must cooperate and enlist the cooperation
of supervisors and senior teachers both in the process of student evaluation and in improving
hidher own teaching wherever required.
A teacher must report student achievement and progress to parents by means of report cards
and conferences regularly. This would enlist the cooperation of parents in promoting the
education of their children.
The question is how to conduct examinations? What are the points to be kept in mind while
conducting an examination? How to plan for an examination in advance?
14.4.1 How to Conduct Examinations?

In the school calendar examination dates are fixed. They are announced on the notice board.
Examination Dates
S.No. Date Subject Time
Signature of Headmaster
After due notice to students, teachers should be asked to set question papers.
Question papers have to be typed and cyclostyled.
After cyclostyling, bundles are made depending on the seating arrangements e.g. blockwise
and classwise.
In a classroom roll numbers have to be written on the desks just before the date of
commencement of examination.
Each classroom is given a block number in Roman letters.
Roll number or examination numbers included in each block have to be placed on
blackboard in respective classroom.
The blocks and roll numbers are displapd together on the blackboard near the school
office or entrance.
S.No. Block No. Roll Nos. Class

Fifteen minutes before commencement of the exam carry the bundles containing attendance Instructional Management*
sheet, question papers, answer sheets and thread. Related Activities-I
When students settle down, proper instruction should be given to them.

Any correction required in question paper has to be announced just before students begin
to write.
Invigilators should be vigilant throughout the examination.
Each answer sheet has to be signed by an invigilator.
Attendance of students has to be recorded properly.
All extra sheets given have to be recorded.
10 minutes before the time is up, a warning bell has to be given and students are asked
to tie up their supplementary sheets with the main answer book.
After the last bell, collect answer sheets roll numberwise.
Arrange the supplementary sheets classwise and submit them to concerned subject teachers.
Keep a record of those who have not appeared for the examination. Ask them to bring
medical certificate if they have been ill.
Conducting examination is not an easy task and requires detailed planning. The points to be
considered are: Who will do what? What will helshe do? How will helshe do it? It is not an
individual effort but collective effort of all teachers to make examination procedure systematic.
Again, paper setting and duplicating are confidential matters. In a separate room, these can
be arranged.

Teachers should set the question paper well in time, get them typed and proof read them
to avoid typographical errors.
Teachers should respect invigilation schedule and abide by it.
In case of an emergency they should inform examination incharge to avoid last minute
hassles.
Proper instructions have to be typed on question paper to avoid any confusion.
Concerned teacher should take a round when the examination is going on.
A teacher should check papers on time and give the feedback promptly.
Here, we have discussed the most predominant evaluating technique i.e. a written test.
There can be an oral test, practicals, projects, unit test and assignments for evaluating
performance of students.
Depending on the nature of a project, assignment or oral test, criteria for evaluation should
be fixed. They should be objective in nature. According to the set criteria, marks or grades
have to be allotted, and are to be added to the concerned subject. At the end, result card is
to be prepared and given to students for parents' signature.
14.4.3 Parent Teacher Association : Its Importance

Parents send their children to school for education. School educates children. Both are interested
in children's progress and both are answerable to each other but we have experienced that
illiterate and uneducated parents do not understand the importance of education, so they do
not provide a good educational environment for their children. In a village, few children
complete primary education and the problem of absentecism from school is more rampant.
Parents are busy in agricultural and other activities. They do not keep contact with the school.
On the other hand, educated parents are often busy in their professional work. They might not
find time to keep contact with school. It, thus, becomes the responsibility of the school to
ensure the growth and development of children.
One-fourth of a child's time is spent in school. Once a child is admitted to a school, parents
start thinking that their responsibility is over. Teachers think that parents do not take interest
School Activities in child's education. On the other hand, parents think that teachers do not teach well in the
school. Both are blaming each other. But both are equally responsible for child's progress, so
both have to take interest in the child's growth and development.
In such a situation the Parent Teacher Association is a necessity. Apart from getting an
opportunity to know the progress of their children it gives a chance to parents to understand
needs and ideals of the school and also helps parents to participate in some of the school
activities. Thus it helps in developing social aspect of school life.
14.4.4 Establishment and Objectives of Parent Teacher Association (PTA)

Only home visits by a teacher are not enough. Parents should take interest in child's education.
They should also know problems academics as well as personal problems, that the children
facing and with the help of teachers, try to solve them. They should know when the child
comes to school, what helshe does in the school? What are hislher interestlattitude and
aptitude towards study? What is histher progress? Whether helshe takes part in other activities
of the school? What should be done to improve growth and development of the child? In such
a situation PTA helps in developing all-round personality of the child. Every school should
have a PTA.
For establishment of PTA the following steps need to be taken:
Invite parents to school
Explain to them the objectives of PTA
Give them brief idea about the activities of PTA
Make membership of PTA voluntary
All parents should be invited
Teachers have to take up the responsibility to conduct PTA meetings
Try to involve more parents in activities
How does Parent Teacher Association help?

A parent teacher association helps teachers and parents in many ways. Some of these include:
The relationship between parents and teachers will improve if both of them try to know
each other.
Parents and teachers try to give respect to each other and have trust in one another.
Instead of blaming each other, both should have positive outlook.
PTA solves the problem of student indiscipline.
Parents come to know the habits, hidden talents and progress of their children.
It improves school performance.
It helps in reducing wastage and stagnation.
Both realise the responsibility towards the children.
It helps in developing personality of children.
It proves that school is a miniature form of the society.
We have discussed the importance of Parent Teacher Association. Now, we will understand
the objectives of Parent Teacher Association.
Objective of Parent Teacher Association

The objectives of Parent Teacher Association are the following:
i) To bring home and the school in close contact.
These days teacher and parents do not come in contact with each other. Parents also do
not know the teacher. Both should meet each other on some occasions.
ii) To promote the welfare of the children in home and community.
Parents are busy in their professions. They do not find time to visit the school and take
interest in child's progress. Once a year, the school invites parents, which helps them to
know about the child's performance and the problems of the child. Parents come to know Instructional Management
the behaviour of the child. Parents and teacher may cooperate with each other intelligently Related Activities4
in the training of a child.
Somehow both complain about each other. In some cases, parents blame teachers and
teachers blame parents for not taking interest. If both of them come together, know each
other, understand each other, it helps in growth and development of child's progress.
Parent Teacher Association also helps school to inform the community of what it is doing
and the problems it is facing. The involvement of parents and the community might help
a school to raise resources for its various activities.
The importance of PTA is clear and the objectives are also understood. Can you suggest
what are the activities to be organised for a FTA?
14.4.5 Activities to be Organised

The following activities are to be organised in a FTA:
The performance of a child is discussed.
The personal as well as academic problems of a child can be discussed jointly and effort
made to solve these problems.
Celebration of festivals can be organised. Invite parents and community members and
accept their viewpoints.
Activities can be taken up with the help of the community e.g. cleanliness of the city or
village, shram yagnya, eye camp, tours, funfair, cultural programme etc.
When to keep PTA meeting

Generally middle of the second term is the appropriate time to organise a PTA meeting.
During this time, performance of the child in various subjects is announced so that parents
and teachers get an idea of a child's progress.
In PTA meeting, invite an educationist as a chief guest, who will motivate students and give
guidance to parents. In a PTA meeting students will narrate their experiences of the school,
teacher will express their view points and parents will give their reactions.
In this way, PTA meeting is to be organised once in a year. It gives good results. The value
of such organisation has been fully realised in our country.
The entire programme of PTA should be chalked out by an executive committee, set up by
the association itself. Advance planning, showing dates of major meetings and broad goals of
the year's programme proves beneficial.
Check Your Progress

4. Read the following statements and state whether it is TrueIFalse
a) A Parent Teacher Association helps in developing social aspect of school life.

(TrueIFalse)
b) In a Parent Teacher Association, activities can be taken up with the help of the
community. (TrueIFalse)
C) Beginning of the first term is a; appropriate time to keep PTA meeting. (True1
False)
5. Complete the sentence.
a) Students may be evaluated through recitation homework ............................
b) Teacher must report pupil achievement and progress to parents by means
of ..........................
School Activities
14.5 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have discussed management of instruction related resources, namely man,
money, material and finance. We began the discussion with the functions of a teacher. Effective
functionirqg is required for effective organisation and effective organisation can be achieved
by proper planning and coordination of resources which help in the instructional process.
Time has to be managed properly both at macro and micro levels. Schools maintain school
calendar for macro time management. Time tables should be based on principles and rules of
time table making. As a teacher, one has to conduct examinations from to time and also has
to organise parent teacher associations. Conducting examinations and organising PTAs require
managerial skills on the part of a teacher.

1. Construct the following time tables.
a) Master time table
b) Class time table
F) Teacher's time table
2. Organise a meeting of the Parent Teacher Association and prepare a report on the outcome
of such a meeting.

1. Proper management of time makes instructional activity effective and efficient.
2. Smooth conduct of examinations is not possible without prior management of examination
related activities.
3. Parent teachers associations are indispensable for a school's functioning.

1. a) T, b) T, C) F, d) T
2. a) Master time table
b) Class time table
3. a) Justice
b) Type of school
C) Difficulty value of a subject
d) Variety
4. a)T, b)T, c ) F
5. a) Unit test, assignments
b) Report cards

Aggarwal, J.C. (1994): Educational Administration, Management and Supervision: Principles
and Practices, New Delhi.
Aggarwal, J.C. (1967): Educational Administration, School Organisation and Supervision,
Arya Book Depot, New Delhi.
Harris Ben, H. (1963): Supervisory Behaviour in Education, Prentice Hall.
Kochhar, S.K. (1990): Secondary School Administration, University Publishers, New Delhi.
Mukerji, S.N. (1959): Secondary School Administration, Acharya Book Depot, Baroda.
Safaya, R.N. and Shaida B.D. (1969): School Administration and Organisation, :Dhanpat
Rai & Sons, Jullundhar.
44
School Activities discuss the importance of school diary;
define Cumulative Record Card and discuss its contents and importance;
discuss the importance of teacher's diary;
enumerate the present condition of school library and discuss its importance in a school
system;
explain the role of a teacher in managing school library;
discuss rhe importance of science laboratory; and
develop the skill to manage science laboratories.
Every institution is required to maintain various kinds of records, which reflect the aims
and objectives of the institution. They also show its origin and growth and the philosophy
of the institution. In the early days, very few records were required to be maintained. But
today, with the increasing responsibilities of schools, the number of school records has
also increased. Every state has prescribed a number of records which a secondary school must
maintain.
The question is, what are the types of records that the school has to maintain.
15.3.1 n p e s of School Records

The records can broadly be classified under the following six headings:
i) General Records
( 1 ) General register (2) Log book (3) Visitors' book (4) Staff meeting record (5) Public
relations record.
ii) Records of Teachers

(1) Service book (2) Attendance register (3) Leave register (4) Register of private tutions of
teacher (5) Confidential record (6) Teacher's diary.
iii) Records of Pupils

(1) Attendance register (2) School leaving certificate (3) Cumulative record card (4) Admission
record (5) Performance record.
iv) Equipment Records
(1) Dead stock register (2) Laboratory register (3) Library register (4) Stationery issue book
(5) Stock and issue of sports material (6) Inventories of infrastructural facilities.
v) Statistical Data
Statistical information related to pupil enrolment, sex-wise distribution of pupils, pupil-staff
ratio, cost per st~dent,failure records etc.
vi) Financial Records

(1) Daily cash book (2) Ledger (3) Contingency register (4) Register of fee collection
(5) Register of donations received.
Besides these records a school has to keep correspondence files.
15.3.2 Need for School Records
School is a social institution answerable to parents, managing committee, Education
Department, coinmunity and to pupils. All this makes keeping and maintaining of records
essential.
Every school is required to keep an accurate and complete account of each and every pupil
on its rolls and submit periodically reports based on these records. These facts and figures are
essential as they are the basis for receiving state grants.
Records are again essential for furnishing the Department of Education with an overall picture Illstrudiond Management
Related Activities-I1
of the school, which is based on facts and figures. These data are utilised for planning future
programmes in budgetary form.
A school has to maintain computer records of each student. These records will reveal progress
that each student has made and also show the weaknesses and strengths of the educational
programme. Where computer facility is not available these records can be prepared manually
with the assistance of teacher and administrative staff.
School records also assist us in assessing the educational progress and needs of particular
locality.
Reports based on records are sent to parents. Conferences with parents are also based on
definite information, which is available in the records. This is a sure way of getting constructive
cooperation from home and community for achieving the aims of education.
Again, the school is entrusted with the task of all-round development of the personality of
each child. It is absolutely essential to keep a record of hisher day-to-day growth and
development.
15.3.3 How to Maintain Records?

The Principal is the person who is finally responsible for the school records but since helshe
cannot possibly maintain all records himself, these records are maintained by teachers and
clerical staff. While maintaining records the following points should be kept in mind.
i) Prepare a stock list of all registers maintained in the school. It indicates what type of
records are kept in the school. This makes record keeping systematic.
ii) On the outer cover of each register containing records write distinctly:
(a) name of the school (b) name of the register (c) the serial number of the register
(d) number of volumes of the register (e) the number of pages of the volume
(f) opening and closing date of the volume, etc.
iii) All files and registers should be kept neat and tidy.
iv) There should be no over-writing or cancelling of entries. If any corrections are made,
these should be signed by the concerned persons.
V) Make all entries in ink.
vi) Do not open a new volume of any register every year, if the previous volume contains
some blank pages.
vii) Fill up every column provided in the prescribed register and do no leave any blank
spaces.
viii) Records should be genuine, valid, reliable and accurate. They should be easily understood
by those for whom they are meant.
ix) Records should be kept in the office under proper lock and key and nobody should be
allowed to remove them from the school under any circumstances without permission.
Thus records and registers are very useful devices. They should be kept neat and clean and
should be maintained carefully and systematically.
15.4 SCHOOL DIARY, STUDENT PROFILEAND

OTHER STUDENT RECORDS
Previously, we have discussed various types of records that a school has to prepare, how these
rehords are useful to various agencies like the Government, parents, students, teachers
community and to the management. We have also emphasized the need for maintenance of
these important documents for longer periods.
Now, we will discuss some of the important records of students and teachers.
Let us first discuss the school diary.
School Activities 15.4.1 School Diary
The School Diary is a mirror of a school, wherein there is the logo of the school. The motto
of the school is written in it and the entire year's programme is listed. The following can be
found in A school diary.
There is a transparent plastic cover.
On the cover page, in the centre or at the top there is the school emblem and the name
of the school.
On the bottom there is space for writing name, standard, division and address.
On the first page there is personal memoranda wherein again name, address, number of
siblings studying in the same school, date of birth, age, sex, nationality and blood group
are mentioned.
On the second page details regarding the Trust and office bearers of the school are
written.
From third page onwards various prayers are listed daywise.
After various prayers, there is a list of instructions regarding discipline of school and
penalties for breaking school discipline.
The school also includes a list of holidays and the tentative schedule of school activities.
At the bottom of every page in the diary there can be a thought or a proverb or some
quotation.
There is a place for recording results of pupils.
There can be a complaint or remark coloumn, wherein special remarks like untidy uniform,
incomplete homework, late arrival, instarees of mischief etc. can be written and sent to
parents for signature.
At the end there can be a record of various activities in which the child has participated.
Last page contains the emblem of the school.
Now let us discuss the importance of school diary.
Importanoe of School Diary

School diary is helpful to everyone- Trust members and management, parents, teachers and
students.
Trust members can have telephone numbers of office bearer and teachers so that they are to
be contacted as and when required.
Parent can know various activities of the school, their children's progress, complaints against
the children, homework given to children, etc.
The diary is helpful to a teacher. Hdshe can know the progress of students and bring it to the
notice of parents. Teachers can ask students to note homework in their diary. Teachers can
find the personal details like blood group, home address etc. of students as and when required.
Pupils get en opportunity to learn to fix priorities depending on amount of work. They can
note down homework in the diary. They learn how to maintain a diary. They can learn various
prayers. They can read various quotations. From the diary, they can know about discipline of
the school and various penalties for breaking school discipline.
School diary is useful to one and all in a school and also to others outside the school.
15.4.2 Student's Profile: Cumulative Record Card

As we all know that the main aim of education is to develop all-round personality of the child.
To dischaqe this function, it is absolutely essential to keep a profile of hidher growth and
development. During hidher schooling, helshe has to decide the subjects which shehe will
study and after schooling take a decision regarding hisfher profession or vocation. Usually
parents take advice of teachers. If a teacher gives guidance without any authentic data, is it
helpful? If it is not, then what is to' be done by a teacher? Hdshe has to prepare a profile
which gives information about a student. What is that Profile? It is known as Cumulative Imtructional Management
Related Activities-II
Record Card. (CRC)
What is Cumulative Record Card (CRC)?

It is a record of child indicating growth and development while in school in all aspects from
beginning to the end of his school career.
It is a mirror which reflects the many sided development of a pupil.
Cumulative Record Card is a very important record. Let us see why it is as important as is
claimed.
15.4.3 What is the Importance of CRC?

The Secondary Education Commission emphasized the importance of Cumulative Record
Card in the following words:
"Neither the external examination nor the internal examination, singly or together,
can give a complete and correct picture of pupil's all-round progress at any
particular stage of his education, yet it is important for us to assess this, in order
to determine his future course of study or future vocation. For this purpose, a
proper system of school records should be maintained for every pupil indicating
the work done by him in the school from day-to-day, from month-to-month,
from term-to-term, and from year-to-year. Such school records will present a
clear and continuous statement of the attainments of the child in different
intellectual pursuits throughout successive stages of his education."
Thus, from a CRC, useful, valid and authentic information can be collected.
It helps in deciding upon the vocation and profession for a student.
It helps to observe various aspects of child's personality.
The data helps when a student leaves the school and gets admission in another school.
8 It helps in identifying an abnormal child and those who are weak in studies.
8 It helps in solving the problems of the child.
Thus, Cumulative Record Card differs from other pupil's record.
All other pupil records give one-sided view of the child's development individually and not
cumulatively, but Cumulative Record Card provides information on various aspects physical,
cultural, aesthetical, moral, intellectual, and social. Since we are educating the 'whole' child,
this record is multi-dimensional.
From this discussion, we can find out characteristics of a CRC easily.
Characteristics of CRC
From the time a child enters school till hisher completion of studies, maintaining a
record is a continuous process.
8 This record is not meant for criticism.
8 The informatid should be valid, reliable and correct.
8 Every aspect of the child is to be seen in a progressive way.
8 It is a comprehensive and continuous record. Information should be entered every month,
every term and every year.
It is said that CRC is a comprehensible and multi-dimensional record. The question is what
is the content of CRC? What are the dimensions included in it?
15.4.4 Contents of Cumulative Record Card

It contains a pupil's personal data, socio-economic data, attendance, physical and medical
reports, scholastic achievement, interests and aptitudes, personality traits etc. in short, a
complete history of hisfher stay in school. Now we will discuss the contents in detail.
School Activities i) Personal Data
(i) Name and sex (2) Class to which admitted (3) Date of birth in words and figures
(4) Permanent address (5) Father's or guardian's name (6) Present address (7) Previous
school attended with date of joining and leaving with reasons.
ii) Socio-economic Data

(1) Occupation of father and mother (2) Number of brothers and sisters with their ages
(3) Pupil's position among the siblings (4) Economic status (5) Special home conditions
if any.
iii) Attendance
(1) Possible and actual termwise attendance (2) Reasons for long absence, if any.
iv) PhysicaVMedical Report

(1) Height (2) Weight (3) Chest (4) Vision (5) Ears (6) Nose (7) Lungs, Liver and Heart
etc. (8) Any Special disability (9) General Health.
v) Schdaktic Achievements
There should be at least three tests each year and the results of periodical assessment in
each subject should be shown in the form of grades. The child's position in the class
should also be noted.
vi) Interests and Aptitudes
A) (1) Scientific (2) Social (3) Literary (4) Mechanical (5) Artistic (6) Musical and
(7) Adventure etc.
These interests may be rated and recorded.
B) Pupil's Preferences:
(1) Favourite subject (2) Subject liked the least (3) Vocational preferences
(4) Pupil's general attitude to school.
A rating should be done.
vii) Personality 'lhits
(I) Sociability (2) Zeal exhibited (3) Efficiency displayed (4) Success achieved.
Rating should be done.
viii) Co-curricular Activities
(1) Participation (2) Zeal exhibited (3) Efficiency displayed (4) Success achieved.
Rating should be done.
ix) Class Teacher's Remarks:
Head Master's Remarks:

............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
All the above information is given on a card, big enough to contain all the data.
Sample form of a Cumulative Record Card Instructionrd h n n g e m m t
Related ~ctiviiks-II
i) Personal Information
A. Full Name : ...............................................................................................................
i...
Sex ............. ............................... Birth Place ..................................

Birth date
Permanent address .........................................................................................................
Name of the ParentsIGuardian .....................................................................................
Mother tongue ..............................Socio-economic Status .........................................
B. Information about Previous Schools
Name of the Admitted Std. Reason for Reason Special

School and Place Yew Leaving for Change Remarka
ii) Socio-economic Information

Father : Educational Qualifications .....................................................................................
.....................................................
Occupation ......................................................................
Mother: Educational Qualifications ....................................Occupation ...............................
Family's Average Income ....................................................................................................
Pupil's position among the siblings .....................................................................................
Special home condition, if any ..................................:..........................................................
Time available for child
Parents' Guidance I
iii) Physical Condition
iv) Scholastic Achievements
Std. Year Std. Year Subject Std. Ykar Std. Year
Attendance
<- (%) ->
Grand Rank % Rank 96 Rank 46 Rank
Total %
1.
2.
3.
1. GmesISports 7. DrawingICraft
2. Camping 8. Music
3. Tout 9. Social Activity
4. Handicraft 10. Literary Activity
5. Cultural Activities 11. Appeared in Special Exam
6. NC~IACClScouts 12. Any Other Activities
Year Interest and Linking Special Skills

and Subjects (priority)
SM.
Beginning
Stage
Middle
Stage
End of
Schooling
Name of Test given Marks obtained % Standardbed Knowledge

the Test Test
~lrshuctlaaalMatwemcnt
15.4.5 How to Maintain a CRC? Related Activities-II
Cumulative Record Card, though it is very important, is very detailed. As we all have
experienced, that a teacher remains busy with academic as well as administrative work. HOW
does helshe find time to fill up detailed information for each student? Some teachers may feel
that this is boring work and time consuming also. As a responsible teacher, one should not
think so. We have already discussed the importance of CRC. It also helps counsellors as well
as teachers. So, a teacher should spare the time from his routine work. An important point a
teacher has to keep in mind, is that while filling the record, helshe should not be biased.
Since the CRC is a very important document, it must be simple, uptodate, accurate and
comprehensive. A teacher should fill the information very carefully. Only then can it be
useful.
15.4.6 Pupils Attendance Register and Teacher's Diary

Each class has its own register, showing names of pupils on rolls of a class. This register is
maintained by the class teacher. Attendance is to be marked at the beginning of the school
day. After prayer or after assembly ten minutes are given for recording attendance. A class
teacher has to take attendance of students daily.
Ink should be used for marking attendance. 'Dots' should not be put in the column, no blank
should be left. 'P' for present, 'A' for absent, 'L'for Leave and 'S' for Sick, should be used.
Students who remains absent for many days should be asked to give reasons and if sick asked
to bring a medical certificate. The names of the students who are absent without permission
for twelve days continuously, should be struck off and reported to parents.
Teacher's Diary
Teacher's diary is a map for a teacher. It provides a view of the tasks to be performed. Every
school should have a teacher's diary. In this diary there is the programme for the entire year,
which is followed by daily programme.
Academic year : ........................... Subject : ...................................
Months Chapters and Topics Total periods No. of periods mquired

available
June
July
Aug.
The table given above gives an indcation regarding courses to be covered in a month. It
indicates as to how many periods will be available? Which chapter will be taken up etc.
I Similarly, a programme is prepared for the entire year and for all subjects by concerned
subject teachers. This programme is approved by the headmaster. After approval, a detailed
weekwise programme is prepared regarding topics to be covered, objectives to be achieved,
methods to be used, teaching aids required, any homework to be given, etc.
Weekwise Programme
i
Topics Objectives Approach Teaching Home Evaluation
MethodlMedia Aid-required Work
School Activities A teacher knows what is to be taught, when, it is to be taught from the time table and the
monthly chart, what methods, media and approach to be used is also readily available. Finally,
type of homework and evaluation are also mentioned in the teacher's d i m .
Daily Record
There is something like a daily record in a school. The daily record is in the form of a register,
which is placed in a classroom and in which a teacher enters the matter taught in a period.
Now let us discuss the importance of Teacher's Diary.
Importance of Teacher's Diary

It is a blueprint of instructional process for a teacher because it indicates what is to be taught, I
what are the objectives, how to teach, what homework should be given and so on. The I
advantages and importance a teacher's diary

A teacher can do the work in a period according to available time.
A teacher can study or revise and prepare before teaching, so that a shehe does not loose
track of the matter to be taught.
In a diary the teacher notes down different activities or anecdotes occuring in a class
which increases herhis accountability.
A teacher enters the classroom with self-confidence as helshe is well prepared, due to
which the quality of teaching is good.
A teacher can organize the teaching work in a better way.
A teacher is able to read books, reference material, teaching material, due to which
teaching becomes more intense and concrete.
In this way organized teaching is made lively.
Check Your Progress

1. Find out the type of record each of the following belongs to:
1) Log Book, 2) Service Book, 3) Cumulative Record Card, 4) Pupil-Staff Ratio,
5) Ledger.
2. Below are mentioned a few statements. Indicate the statement which is TRUE and
which is FALSE.
i) School records assist teachers to assess the progress of the students. 0
ii) Stock list indicates the type of records that are kept in the school. n
iii) Over writing in school records is allowed. 0
iv) All entries in records are to be made by pencil. 0
v) Cumulative Record Card helps in solving problems of the child. n
vi) Cumulative Record Card gives one-side view of a child's development
individually and not cumulatively. 0
vii) Teacher's diary is a mirror for instruction. 0
viii) School diary is helpful to teacher, pupils and parents.
InstructionalManagement
15.5 MANAGING THE LIBRARY AND LABORATORY Related Activities-I1
15.5.1 Importance of Library

Books are friends and treasure houses of wisdom. They give us pleasure and lead us to great
heights.
The need for a good library service in a modern school is no longer an issue for debate. All
thinking people, who are informed about the purpose of education, nature of the learning
process, curriculum and the instructional process, and procedures in today's schools, agree on
the important contribution which library services make to the character and quality of
educational programmes. Schools that have a good library service usually have better
instructional programmes than those without an effective library service.
With the changed concept of education as a process of self-education, where the teacher's role
is largely to be of a guide and a facilitator, the role of library has assumed major importance.
The modern trend in education is to encourage students to collect, on their own, information
from various sources. From this point of view reading in a library itself is a part of school
education. A library is indispensable for such modem methods of teaching as problem-solving
method, project method, assignment methods, supervised study etc. Thus, a library is the hub
and centre of intellectual activity in a recognised school and plays the same part, for all
subjects, as does a laboratory for science subjects, or a workshop for technical subjects.
According to the Education Commission (1964-66), a collection of books, even a collection
of good books does not constitute a library. A library should be the centre of intellectual life
of a school, available at all times for reference, for study and for private reading. It should
be a quiet place, provide an environment which encourages study and reading, and furnished
and equipped for comfortable use.
Yet, not all schools have recognised important part which a library plays if more modern
techniques of teaching are utilised to provide education and growth of children. In some
cases, library facilities are generally inadequate or totally lacking, while in other schools,
there is constant effort to improve facilities so that the library becomes the focus of many
instructional activities.
In schools, the textbook is an important means of learning for teachers and the taught. It
provides a specific approach to pass on information and knowledge as briefly as possible.
While it has advantages, there is a serious drawback in it. With total reliance on a textbook,
teachers and students can limit their thinking to whatever material is available in the textbook.
With today's procedures of teaching-learning, textbook material is not considered sufficient.
Supplementary reading, both on the part of the teachers and pupils, is essential. Besides using
library by themselves teachers must motivate and stimulate pupils to undertake independent
study and learn to use the resources that a library has. In modem times library is an essential
educational aid and proper use of it must be made.
15.5.2 Present Condition of School Libraries

The present condition of school libraries is deplorable, to say the least. Unfortunately, this
aspect of education has generally been neglected. There are very few schools with functional
libraries. There are very few books in school libraries. They are usually old and outdated and
often purchased just to oblige publishers without any regard to student's requirements and
interests.
The purpose of a library cannot be realised if it is not properly housed, manned and equipped.
In most secondary schools, there are no separate rooms for libraries. Even if a room
is provided, there is hardly any sitting arrangement. Suitable library furniture is not
available.
In a majority of schools, where there is a library, there is no full time trained librarian.
HeJshe is often an overworked teacher who does not have the time to look after the
library. Further, those teachers who are given the responsibility of looking after the
library have no training in the organization of libraries. Naturally, therefore, there is
nothing like an imaginative and well planned library service which could assist and
inspire students.
School Activities Although in many schools there might be a lGge number of books in the library, most
of them have not been properly selected after taking into consideration the needs and
interasts of the students or even teachers.
It has been observed that most teachers do not have any love for reading. Neither are they
interested in reading nor do they stimulate the students to read.
At the time of an inspection, some books, maps, charts are purchased for the purpose of
window-dressing.
Most schools.face financial difficulties. There are no budget allocations for libraries in
private schools. In Government and local body schools, allocation is meager, and does
not allow purchase of cupboards, shelves, furniture and other necessary equipment. Hence
it is not possible to build a library.
Unfomunately, library reading does not find any place in the school curriculum. There is
no library period in the time table. Schools subscribe to a number of journals and
newspapers, but these are not used by teachers and students. The school time table is so
overcrowded that students do not find time to make use of its facilities.
Even if the school library is well equipped and good library service is available, most
students do not avail of this facility. Their attitude towards Library - reading is not
healthy. The reasons are overcrowded curriculum, defective examination system, lack of
interest on the part of teachers and unhealthy home environment.
15.5.3 Managing Library

The various factors which contribute to an efficient running of a school library are as under:
i) Location
A library is known as the soul of an institution. Therefore, its location, arrangement and
equipment must receive special attention.
It should be in a quiet corner of the school building so that it is free from noise and
disturbances.
It should be well lighted and airy. The interior of the hall should be properly maintained
and it 'should be as spacious as possible.
ii) Equipment
It should have a large number of plain tables and comfortable chairs. Another important
requirement for a good library is to have a number of large almirahs. Other equipment
necessary f ~ the
r library are newspaper stands, sloping magazines shelves, display boards,
notice bowd, librarian's counter and bulletin boards, wherein jackets of new arrivals are
displayed.
A catalogue of books must be arranged subjectwise and authorwise so that students do not
waste their time hunting for books.
iii) Selection of Books

In the words of the Secondary Education Commission, "The guiding principle in selection
should not be teacher's own ideas of what books the students must read but their natural and
psychologiual interests."
The author9 should be of good reputation. The subject matter should be meaningful and in
psychological sequence. The schools should constitute a committee for recommending books
to be purchased. In the case of books which arein greater demand it is desirable to purchase
multiple copies so that students do not have to wait, for long periods to consult or to borrow
a book.
iv) Omganwtion
Books should generally be kept in shelves, by subjects, so that all books on a subject can be
found at one place. In schools it is desirable that there is an open shelf system, which will
allow students to pick up books they desire to read. However, some reference materials can
be kept separately to meet the speed needs of students and, teachers. A library should all& Instructiod Management
students and teachers to borrow books for study at home. Related Activities-I1
v) Library Rules
Some specific rules should be displayed for the use of readers.

A large number of secondary schools do not have any librarian. The job is generally entrusted
to a teacher as an extra chore. Slhe is not competent and also does not find time to perform
hislher duty well. The result is that the library remains unutilised by students. A school should
have a full time qualified and trained librarian. To assure the best results it would be necessary
to provide regular and continuous service by a librarian in the use of the library.
It has been very aptly said that "No library can be maximally successful unless the teachers
use it, are aware of its resources, see the possibility of its use as an instructional aid and
stimulate its use through the procedures, they employ in their teaching". Teachers can achieve
thls by:
Asking students to go to the library whenever they feel the need for reference material
arises.
Training students in the use of catalogues so that they can locate books easily.
Telling students about books that might interest them.
Developing assignments which would require students to use the resources of the library.
Distributing suggested readings through mimeographed materials.
The best use of the library can be assured by scheduling the time table so that all students visit
library regularly sometime during the day or week. There should be library period for each
class when students come to the library to read materials of their own choice.
The need for extra reading among students is indeed great. They should be encouraged in
this direction through all possible means. It would be very encouraging if a library is kept
open after school hours. This will allow students to read whenever they feel like reading
something.
15.5.5 Science Laboratory

Every school should have a well equipped science labotafory ta,aid instruction and stimulate
greater interest in science courses. It provides an opportunity for actually applying scientific
theories. We are living in a technological age and the cultural and educational value of science
is being recognized increasingly. No school can ignore efficient science teaching.
Our aim is not to stuff minds of pupils with mere facts of science but to develop in them the
application, ability, skills of experimentation, construction, inculcating scientific attitudes,
interests, appreciation etc. One of the important functions of a science laboratory is the deepening
of students' understanding of scientific concepts and then their application.
Let us now discuss the importance of a laboratory.
Importance of a Laboratory
Things learnt by the students through purposeful activity are permanently affixed in the
minds of the pupils.
Knowledge imparted without experimental evidence remains superficial.
It provides opportunity for training in scientific method.
Pupils learn to observe, collect data, analyse data, handle equipment etc.
While performing practical work they learn to cooperate, become resourceful, take initiative,
become self reliant.
Students learn to operate instruments and various apparatus. They also learn to repair
them, if and when required.
School Activities Let us ciiscuss how to organise one.
In a secondary school an all purpose laboratory can serve the purpose. In higher secondary
schools, on the other hand, separate laboratories for Physics, Chemistry and Biology are
required.
Let us look at an all purpose laboratory.
An all purpose laboratory serves the purpose of both practical as well as theoretical
work.
The size of the laboratory can be varied according to the number of students. For 40
students the dimensions can be 45' x 25'.
A storage cum preparation room should be provided along with the laboratory.
Provision should be made on walls to keep reagent bottles.
There should be provision of sink, gas connection, .demonstration table, working tables,
chairs and almirahs.
Preparation & Storage
nnnnnn
nnnnnn
n n o n n ~
InInoEl
~i~.15:
. 1Layout of an all P u 9 o s e Laboratory
The table and chairs should not be fixed so that seating arrangement can be changed as Instructional Management
per the requirement. Related Activities-I1
There should be provision of electricity and many switch boards.

Laboratory should have appropriate lighting. It is always better to have natural light.
Windows should have dark glasses so that same laboratory can be used as dark room
Behind the demonstration table, there should be a large blackboard.

Layout of an all purpose laboratory is presented in Fig.15.1.
Let us discuss in detail the requirements for a laboratory.
Location
The location of a laboratory should be such that there is minimum disturbance either from
classes or playground. Moreover natural light should be available during working hours. It
is better to have laboratory on the extreme end of the school on the ground floor. Orientation
should be north-south with variation.
Walls of the laboratory can be 1-112 ft. thick. The size can be 45' x 25' so that 40 students
can use it at a time.
The walls can be painted or distemper coated, which will last for a longer time. Corners can
be rounded to avoid accumulation of dirt in orders. Walls should be cemented.
Floor should be smooth and cemented with proper slope and water drainage system. Its
drainage system should be such that water does not accumulate in comers.
Windows can be 6' x 4' above the floor. There can be 1 ft. high ventilators. Windows should
open outwards so that window sills can be used-as working area.
Almirahs
Almirahs can be 8 ft. x 5 ft. provided or fixed inrthe wall recess of 1 ft. There can be 7 to
8 almirahs with stone or wooden shelves. These almirahs can be used to store materials,
instruments, glasswares, books, reagents etc.
Notice Board and Chart Hangers

There can be a railing along the wall to hang charts and display any other material. There
can be a notice board just near the entrance or the wall in between two windows. The board
can be used for displaying results or any instruction to the students.
There can also be a place for a fire extinguisher on the walls.
Now after floor, walls and windows, let us come to the door.
l h o doors are required which open outside. One for entry and another for exit. The doors
can be of 8' x 4' dimension.
There should be provisi~nof 4 sinks in wall recesses.

Place for a balance can also be made in the wall recess.
Water Supply ..
For constant water supply there should be an overhead water tank.
-
School Activities Electricity Supply
The electric fitting should be done in the laboratory with tube lights, switch boards and power
plugs. Wiring should be good and to the extent possible concealed so that no accidental
contact with exposed wire takes place.
Tables and Stods

There should be long tables. A number of stools can be placed across or there can be twin
1 1
tables with two stools. The tables should be 2--x3-~10 dimension. Under the table there
2 2
1
can be shelves to keep books. Stools can be 2- ft. high.
2
Gas Connection
Gas connecoion is required at one end of the demonstration table. If such a connection is not
available, spirit lamp or petromax chullahs can be used. They can be useful for both lighting
and for heaaing as and when required.
Demonstration Table
There should be a large demonstration table of 10' x 4' x 4' so that it is visible to all students.
Blackboard
Behind the demonstration table there can be a big blackboard. It can be green in colour, which
is comfortable for the eyes. It should not have any decoration. Blackboard should be 10 ft.
and 4 ft. wide. It is useful to put salient features and processes of the lesson/practicals on the
board so that students can see them at a glance.
Behind the laboratory there should be preparation zone or dark room-cum-preparation room,
where reagents required for practicals can be prepared in advance.
Higher Secondary School Laberatories
Chemistry haboratory
In a Chernisuy laboratory stools are not required.
More space is required to store reagents or more shelves are required.
Reagents commonly and frequently used are placed in the working area on the table.
There are wooden shelves which can be used from both sides and are placed in the centre
of table so that studeats from both sides can use chemicals.
Tables halve acid proof coating.
Sinks are required at the end of every table.
Special instructions have to be given for handling chemicals.
There can1 be lockers below the table to store glassware.
Students can be given charge of certain glassware for use.
There should be special 'place for keeping weighing balance, distilled water and
concentrated acids.
There should be burettes on every table.
There shopld be a gas connection with open and close knob system.
There should be a test-tube holder on every table plus a test-tube stand.
Biology Labomtory
Biology deals with life and living organism, be it plants or animals. In a Biology laboratory,
provision has to be made for the following:
An aquarium and a vivarium.
Cupboards to store dry materials and models.
1
A see through cupboard tbr keeping preserved specimens in bottles with for malign Instructional Management
copper sulphate solution and the specimen. The bottles should be neatly labelled and Related Activities-11
classified.
Cupboards to store simple as well as compound microscope.
Tables and chairs.
A sink is required but 2-3 sinks are sufficient.
A separate cupboard to store glass apparatus.
A large demonstration table and a large blackboard.
Working tables and stools. Students will sit only on one side of the table so that light
is not obstructed.
On the table stain bottles, dissection trays, spirit lamps etc. can be kept.
Physics Laboratory
Physics laboratory is different from Chemistry and Biology laboratories. Chemistry lab has
chemicals and Biology lab has microscopes. In Physics lab there are lenses, spcctroscopic
prisms, galvanometer, voltameter, pendulum, vernier callipers etc. Apart from these:
Large tables are required for working.
Stools are required for seating purposes.
Almirahs for storing the instruments.
Fixed stands to keep certain instruments, and
A dark room for some of the Physics practicals.
Instructions for Students
Students should handle apparatus appropriately.
They should replace reagents on the shelves after usage.
School bags should be kept outside the lab.
Students should carry along with them journals, practical books and observation notebooks
in the lab.
Reagents should not be mixed.
Concentrated acids should not be sucked by mouth through a pipette.
Microscope should be cleaned after use.
Keep the table clean. Place the stools back in place.
Clean the glassware after use.
Throw dust in the dust bin.
Don't throw waste material in sink.
In case of confusion call the teacher, do not manipulate or copy answers.
Keep the material back on shelve or in almirah after use.
Do not tamper with levels.
In case of fire, take necessary action by using fire extinguishers.
Do not waste gas, water or electricity.
Get your observation books and notebooks signed hefore leaving the laboratory.
Play while you play
Work while you work
Students must be told to make work smooth and safe, play only in the playground and not
ln the !ahoratory. Any mischief in lab can be hazardous or even fatal.
61
school Activities 15.5.6 Managing Laboratory
At the end of the year, there should be stock taking, to check how much material is and how
much breakage has takcn place. Unusable apparatus, either broken or are out of stock, have
to be replaced by placing an order to the concerned agencies.
Once the material is received it has to be put into appropriate bottles and labelled. Apparatus
should be numbcred as per the dead stock register. Numbers are placed on each and every
object.
Any repairs required should be taken carc of during vacations, so that functioning of the
laboratory does not suffer.
Problems Faced in Laboratory

Sometimes materials do not reach on time.
Sometimes reagents are diluted and do not give appropriate results.
People meant for repair work don't come on time.
Glassware is in short supply.
Sometimes electricity supply is not available.
Sometimes water is not available.

Teacher should take time to take stock of available and required materials, apparatus and
instruments. As and when required, helshe should place the orders for replacements.
The rules or norms set for the laboratory are strictly observed. Such monitoring should be
there.
Teachers should maintain the dead stock register and a register of attendance and a register
of the practicals carried out throughout the year.
Teacher should prepare reagents and solutions well in advance and rehearse the practical
before demonstrating it.
Teacher should check the work of pupils hy taking frequent rounds and should see that weak
students are not dominated by good students.
Teacher should know how to repair instrument in case of minor damage or problems.
In all, a teacher has to be a good showman.
15.6 LET US SUM UP

The functioning of school involves maintenance of various school records viz. general records,
pupils' records, equipment records, financial records ctc. A teacher should be oriented to
maintain many of these records, although other school people are also associated with their
maintenance. Apart from these records, there are certain records which are concerned with
students, namely, school diary, student profile, attendance register, etc. A teacher should also
develop required competence to maintain these records. School library and science laboratories
are vital component of all instructional activities carried out in the school. Detailed knowledge
of these components of the school and their maintenance is a must. Hence, a teacher should
also get himselfherself trained to carry out the responsibility of maintaining them.

1. Make a list of records which are in your school. Carry out a detailcd content analysis of
these records.
2 . Analyse cumulative record cards of any five students of class IX and make an objective
assessment of these students.
3. Prepare a detailed note of the use of your school library by s:udents and teachers.
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Instructional Management
Related Activities-11
UNIT 16 ADMINISTRATION RELATED
ACTIVITIES
Structure
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Objectives
16.3 Preparation of the School Budget
16.3.1 Meaning and Purpose of School Budget
16.3.2 Types of School Budget
16.3.3 Preparing a School Budget
16.3.4 Managing the School Budget
16.4 Purchasing and Storing
16.4.1 Purchasing Materials
16.4.2 Storing Materials
16.4.3 Maintenance of Dead Stock Register
16.5 Managing Other School Auti~iities
i6.5.1 Co-curricular Activities
1'1.5.2 Extra Curricular Activities
16.5.1 Fur~r~ationof Student Bodies
16.5.4 Transport
16.6 1.x; Cis Sum Up
16.8 Answers to Chcck Your Progresb
16.1 INTRODUCTION
A school organises different academic and non-academic programmes throughout the year for
its pupils. To organise these programmes, it requires resources in the form of nloney. man and
materials. To tap these resources from various sources and manage them properly. the teachers
and principal require to plan for it, i.e., prepare the budget, purchase or hire the requircd
resources and also plan out the activities to be organised. This unit describes budget preparation.
pn~cedureof purchasing and storing materials and the ways in which various activities be
organised in the school.
16.2 OBJECTIVES
Going through this unit, you will be able to:
explain the meaning and purpose of preparing school budget;
describe the steps of preparing school budget;
explain the procedures of purchasing and storing of materials; and
describe the procedures of organising activities for pupils.
16.3 PREPARATION OF THE SCHOOL BUDGET 1

In order ro prepare the school budget, you should know what a budget is and why is it needed
:ilt a kchool Thisi i expla~nedbr~cfly.
1
16.3.1 Meaning and Purpose of School Budget Administration Related Activities
il Meaning
A budget is a plan of expenditure and shows our intentions regarding the distribution of
income for various items of consumption. savings and investment. It, therefore, helps in
:~ppropriateuse of money for achieving the objcctives within a prescribed time frame. Budgeting
is a process of preparing a statement of the expected income and the proposed expenditure
over a period of time. In a school set up, it is the process of preparing a summary of
programmes of the school reflecting the expected resources and expenditures. The budget
helps a school to achieve the set objectives. The specific purposes of preparing a budget are
as follows.
ii) Purposes
1. It helps in planning school programmes.
2. It provides a cost-and-time framework for implementing school programmes.
3. It pennits the most appropriate use of school resources.
4. It guides the school principal to delegate authority to teachers and students incharge of
various school activities as per their budget estimates.
5. It serves as a guideline to evaluate the school programmes.
6. It helps to monitor the implementation of various programmes.
7. It reflects the priorities attached to various objectives and activities of the school.
16.3.2 Types of School Budget

Schools prepare two types of budget from the point of view of time coverage. A budget that
covers the coming financial year is known as current budget. Similarly, a budget that covers
more than one year and keeps in view the long range perspective is known as long-term
b u d ~ e t .Several times in a school, one has to prepare budget for specific programmes. This
is known as programme budget. However, in most schools while preparing a budget one
refers to previous year's budget and plans the income and expenditure for the current year.
This is known as traditional budget. All these types of budget are discussed in the following
paragraphs:
i) Current Budget
You know that schools receive grants from the government for a year for carrying out many
of their activities. These grants are for salaries of teaching and non-teaching staff, purchase
of equipments, maintenance of building, sanitary materials, contingency, student services and
the like. Students also pay tuition fees, examination fees, sports and games fees, medical fees
etc. per term or year. The money that a school gets from these sources are the income of the
school in a year. Within that year a school organises some activities for pupils. These activities
include teaching, sports, cultural programmes, examination, construction etc. For carrying out
tbese activities the school spends money. This requires preparing a plan for the whole year,
which indicates how much income it will have from different sources and how much it will spend
on different heads during this year. The plan prepared for the year is known as current budget.
ii) Long-term Budget

As you know, schools are established by Government or private organisations with certain
objcctives. In order to achieve the long-term objectives, a school plans well in advance and
continues to work year after year to achieve these objectives. Such plans layout the possible
sources of school's income and possible heads of expenditure for more than one year, generally
five years. But, plans are also prepared for 10-15 ycars or even more. Taking into consideration
such long-term budget (he fiscal budget of a school is generally worked out. The long-term
budget provides a perspective and priority for the current budget to he prepared.
iii) School Programme Budget

This budget is prepared 1)y a school for a specific purpose. In fact, i t serves as a guideline 65
School Activities for carrying out a programme and is called a "School Programme Budget". Suppose for
example, a school wants to organize an essay competition. For this programme, school has
to lay down the income it will have in the form of entry fees, sponsorship from some agencies
etc. After estimating the income, school has to plan the expenditure needed for organising the
competition. This expenditure could be for purchase of stationery, hiring the venue, contingency,
prizes etc. You can easily note that, this planning of income and expenditure is only for a
specific puspose and this kind of budgeting is needed for many programmes in the school.
In brief it can be said, that, when a budget is prepared for a specific purpose with respect to
specific programme and serves as a guideline to carry out the programme, it is called School
Programme Budget.
iv) Traditional Budget

A traditional budget does not lay emphasis on purposes to be achieved, but, on the issue of
generating income and expenditure on different heads. It is prepared with reference to the
previous years budget where possible sources of income and heads of expenditure remain the
same. It means it does not deviate from the budget of the previous year and follows the
tradition. Certainly it requires any price hike to be kept in mind and raise the amount under
each head accordingly. In most schools, except a few progressive ones, it is the traditional
budget which is prepared.
Thus, you have seen that there are four types of budget which are:
a Current Budget
a Long-term Budget
School Programme Budget
Traditional Budget
16.3.3 Preparing a School Budget
From the preceding section you know that a school budget may be for one year or more than
one year. It may also be objective oriented or a traditional one. Whatever be its type, a school
budget provides extensive and accurate estimates of income and expenditure.
Activity 1 I
In order to have better understanding of the budget, visit a school Principal and collect
the following information:
I i) Steps followed in budget preparation.
I
1 ii) Heads of expenditure and income of the school.
I
The collected information may be as follows:
The headings of income of a school are:
a) Student fees
b) Government grants
C) DonationIGifts
d) Parent Teacher Association Support
e) Sponsorship
f) Student Activities
The items of expenditure are:

a) Salary to teachers and supportive staff
b) Examinations
c) Construction and Repair
di Equipments purchase and maintenance Administration Related Activities
e) Teaching aids and materials

f) Stationery
g) Infrastructure
h) Library
i) Medical check-up
j) Advertising
k) Extra-curricular activities
1) Miscellaneous (Tax, Electricity Bill and Telephone Bill etc.)
Steps in the Budget Preparation

Budget preparation is a complex process. It involves both individual effort and
group-work. The staff and administrator should follow the following steps in preparing a
school budget:
i) Determine the objectives of educational programmes of the school and examine objectives
of the existing programmes.
ii) Fix short-term and long-term objectives.

iii) Priority of the objectives and programme are decided.
iv) Prepare detailed plans for educational programme to be done.
V) Prepare plans for implementation of the programmes.

vi) Work out details of expenditure and income or benefit from the programme.
vii) Develop a plan for evaluating programme.
Through the above seven steps a school budget is prepared and it may be placed before a
committee formed by the school or Government for approval. Once a budget is approved,
it is ready for implementation. The success of the budget depends much on its proper
management i.e., close monitoring. In the next section you will learn to manage a school
budget.
16.3.4 Managing the School Budget

You must be knowing that in our country schools are having a common fund. The income
from different sources is collected and put in this account. Within the appropriation for
various budget heads, school principal and- teachers are entitled to make commitments to
spend money. Any expenditure that incurred can be subjected to a particular norm designed
to guarantee that good accounting practices and rules are followed. Expenditure is entered in
the register immediately. Whatever financial transactions are made daily or monthly, proper
expenditure vouchers are maintained. If the allotted money on any budget head is
inadequate or in case of any new heading 1s needed and there is no provision in the budget,
special provision can be made for that by the Principal. The Principal has to call
special meeting of the budgeting committee or of the management as the case may
be for making that special provision. Then only can expenditure be made under that
heading.
It 1s the role of teachers and specially the Principal of a school to ensure that the objectives
envisaged in the budget are achieved within the specified time by spending the allocated
funds. This process requires close and continuous monitoring of the budget. At the end of the
year there is the need for a final appraisal by the school management. Further, auditing is done
by a Chartered Accountant at the end of the financial year and subsequently the District
Education Officer. The Accountant General of the State Government also does auditing of
schools once In two-three years. For any lapses that are noted, the school administrators are
answerable.
6
C) Hiringlemploying resource persons should be done by the Principal with prior permission Administration Relaled Activities
of the governing body.
) Daily labourers or works that require expenditure below Rs. 5000 can be done directly
by the Principals.
e) Teachers can purchase laboratory equipments, teaching aids, study materials, sports
materials etc. with the permission of the school Principal.
f) Books for the library can be purchased directly by looking into the budgetary provision.
g) Any repair of building or equipment can be done by the school Principal with the approval
of the school's governing body.
The materials and equipment purchased are stored properly by the school authority. The
responsibility for storing and maintaining is given to different staff members of the school.
The following table shows the personnel incharge of different sections.
-
Incharge Section
a) Librarian a) Books and Magazines in the Library.

I b) Sports Teacher I b) Sports and games materials.
I
I C) Laboratory TechnicianlAssistant
I c) Equipments. Chemicals etc.
I
d) TechniciansReachers d) Teaching Aids (maps, charts, models,
OHP, VCR, T V etc.).
e) Principal I e) Overall Incharge.
16.4.2 Storing Materials

It has to be ensured that materials are stored properly for further use. For example, you may
observe that in many schools the computers are kept in the Computer Laboratory with a air-
conditioning facility, that maps and charts are wrapped up in plastic covers and kept inside
a cupboard, that books in the library are kept in different racks and cleanliness is maintained
to keep them dust free. You can also see that for storing these materials, personnel are
properly trained to classify these materials and catalogue them and store them according to
the catalogue. It helps in quick and easy tracing of the needed materials and thereby maximising
their use by students and teachers. In addition to this, proper storing is needed to save
materials from being damaged also.
Another point which is of utmost importance for you to know is the basis for discarding a
material or equipment. Any material 'or equipment that is lying idle in a school for years
without any use or if the material is out of order and is not repairable should be discarded.
There are specific procedures for discarding such materials. The person incharge of the
materials, as mentioned above, will have to inform the Principal who can take the final
decision to sell or dispose off the material as required. The materials considered to be useless
or obsolete or irrepairable are often disposed off through auctions.
You, as a customer, know that some gadgets that we use in our house viz., TV, radio etc.
require maintenance and companies also give warranty period of oneltwo years for such
items. If anything goes wrong, they repair such items free of charge during the warranty
period. Schools require equipments, viz., Computers, TVs, VCR, OHP, Slide Projector etc.
and these items require regular maintenance. There would be some expenditure earmarked in
the budget for this purpose. Authorised dealers who deliver these items should be given a
contract for maintenance. Moreover, if a school has a competent technician, he can take
proper care of these materials. The details of purchase and storage can be maintained in a
register and the current status of materials can be known directly.
16.4.3 Maintenance of Dead Stock Register

A Dead Stock register is maintained by a school to find out the purchase and provision for
its maintenance. It contains the following headings:
School Activities
Sr. Item Date of Budget Total Amount Balance Nature of Status
No. Purchase Purchase Head Amount Paid Amount Warranty &
& Receipt Sanctioned Maintenance
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
I. ONlDA 5/6/97 Equip- Rs 60,000 Rs 25,000 Rs 35,000 2 y e a s ExceI-
Colour rV Receipt ment warranty lent
FST 53cm No.339
Media
Centre,
Baroda
For your understanding an example has been given where the entries are made under different
headings for the purchase of a TV,
From the above example you note that TV was purchased on 5th June, 1997 under thc budget
head Equipment. Under this budget head Rs. 60,000 was sanctioned. The remaining amount
to be paid was Rs. 35,000. It also mentions details of the TV, brand name, receipt no. and the
nature of warranty and its condition. If the items are to be repaired, exchanged or sold, these
information will also be recorded in the Dead Stock register. In case they are sold or lost, the
account of those items in the Dead stock register will be closed by putting a red cross or a
statement stating that it is "closed".
Check Your Progress

b) Compare your answers with those given at thc end of the unit.
6. What are the norms followed by a school Principal to purchase materials for the
school?
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
7. What materials are purchased by a school and who are the people given the charge
of storing them?
.........................................................................................................................................
........... .............................................................................................................................
i
.........................................................................................................................................
8. How is the Dead Stock register maintained?
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
16.5 MANAGING OTHER SCHOOL ACTIVITIES

Schools mainly organise curricular activities. But, in order to promote all-round development
of children, schools organise many other activities. Such activities are known as co-curricular
and extra-curricular activities. You will learn from the following as to how such activities are
organised by schools.
16.5.1 Co-curricularActivities
The activities which are supportive of curriculum of a school are co-curricular activities. Such
activities are:
- Essay competition
- Debate competition
- Painting competition Administration Related Activities
-- Study tours
- Poem writing competition, and
- Science fair exhibition, etc.
Such activities are organised by a school from time to time through out the year to promote
students' special abilities. The organisation of these activities are planned out at the beginning
of the academic year. To organise all such activities, schools in our country follow different
procedures. To know the details of the organisation of these activities do the following
activity.
Activity 3
Visit a school Principal and obtain the following information from himlher:
1. Names of co-curricular activities organised in the school.
2. Procedure followed for organising these activities.
You may learn from the principal names of co-curricular activities organised in school, matched
with the list that you have read earlier. Further, the procedure followed to organise these
activities may be as follows:
I. Deciding the type and number of co-curricular activities to be organised during the
academic year.
2. Fixing tentative dates for organisation of these activities.
3. Planning the procedure of organisation which involves:
teachers to be incharge of the activities,
money required for organisation of the activity,
time required for the activity and timing of the activity,
mode of students' participation,
how to raise money for the programme,
venue of the programme,
monitoring of the programme,
evaluation of the programme.
At the execution stage, teachers and students incharge of activities are delegated with the
power to take necessary decision and provide regular feedback to the Principal. It is very
often seen that with the available facilities of a school, such activities are organised
and sometimes students are charged extra money or community provides the necessary
support.
16.5.2 Extra Curricular Activities

Extra curricular activities are those activities that are not related to the syllabus but help
students to develop their social, moral, emotional and mental faculties through entertainment
and refreshment. Some of these activities are:
1. Picnics
2. Excursions
3. Campus cleaning
4. Raising funds for relief work
5. Fun-fairs
6. Annual day celebrations
7. Farewell party etc.
Scllool Activities
Such activities are organised from time to time in a school throughout the year. Proper
planning and execution are required for the success of these programmes. The steps followed
for the organisation of extra-curricular activities are mostly the same as that of co-curricular
activities. However, students' initiative is required much more in the organisation and success
of extra-curricular activities. Therefore, there is a need for various student bodies and committees
formed by school to look into different problems.
16.5.3 Formation of Student Bodies

Students are the beneficiaries of a school. They have therefore, a direct say in school
administration. For this purpose, the following bodies and committees are formed.
1. Class Monitor and Class Representative
2. School President
3. Sports Committee
4. Science Committee
5. Cultural Committee
6. Assembly Committee
7. Disciplinary Action Committee
8. Cleanliness Committee, etc.
As the name of the above bodies and committees suggests, they are formed for carrying out
different activities in a school. You can see that in most of our schools, elections are not
held. Students are generally nominated by teachers to these bodies. However, the following
points are often taken care of by teachers in nominating students and in conducting
election:
1. Intelligent students having leadership quality are selected/elected.
2. Representative of girl students.
3. Students's interest in carrying out responsibility and sometimes parents consent is also
sought.
4. Representation of all the classes.
5. In some schools rotation of these position among students is also observed.
The formation of these bodies and committees is to smoothly organise school activities rather
than to politicise school atmosphere. In most committees, teachers are represented. At times
even they head various committees.
16.5.4 Transport
You might have known that transport is a service provided or arranged by schools for students
and staff. Transportation needed by a school are: daily, and occasional. Daily transportation
is provided for students and teachers to attend school daily. But occasional transportation
services are needed for study tours, picnics or for other such occasions. Many schools in our
country have their own vehicles and staff for transportation. As per the requirements, services
are provided. However, transportation is not always free for students and staff. They are
charged a fixed amount on monthly basis or for the particular occasional service. Some
occasional transportation, like study tours, sports events or exhibition where the school is
represented and picnic etc. are free of charge. Charges of transportation are decided upon by
the school committee or management. Some schools hire such services from private agencies.
Some times students organise their own transportation. However, if the school is responsible
for students' transportation, school authorities usually enter into an agreement with some
private agencies for providing these services. These agreements are made to avoid any untoward
incidents and ensure regularity of services.
Administration Related Activities
Check Your Progress
9. Name some co-curricular and extra curricular activities that are organised in schools.
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
10. Write the procedure of organising co-curricular and extra curricular activities.
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
11. What are the different students' bodies which exist in school?
1 12. What are the points considered by teachers to nominate or elect students to different
bodies.
............................................................................................................................................
13. How are transportation services organised in a school?
16.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have learnt that school prepares current budget and long-term budget. In this
process it lists down sources and amount of income and the amount of expenditure under
different items. In the budget preparing process priority areas are decided upon and accordingly
different programmes are organised. School purchases different goods and services as per the
budget outline. But if it has to make any purchase beyond what has been indicated in the
budget, special provisions have to be made. For storing purchased goods, different staff
members are given the charge and a dead stock register is maintained to know the status of
different materials that are purchased. If any material is exhausted or any equipment is not
working, sold, exchanged, stolen, or damaged, its status is shown in the dead stock register
and if required, the account for that is closed in the register.
You have also learnt that the school organises co-curricular and extra curricular activities
through proper planning and continuous monitoring. In this process, active participation of
students is needed. Schools, therefore, follow proper steps to organise such activities. They
also organises students election or nominate students to different bodies of the school and
ensure their participation. Transportation is an essential service provided by schools to students
and staff. This service may be daily or occasional but students and staff are charged some
fixed amount of money. However if the service is required for an institutional cause, generally
the school provides it free of cost.
School Activities
1. Visit a secondary s c h ~ oand
l meet the PrincipalMeadmaster. Find out the following from him.
a) The type of budget helshe prepares.
b) Process followed to prepare the budget.
C) Process of implementation.
2. Visit two schools and find out from the office the process followed to purchase materials
and equipment.
3. Visit a nearby school and find out as to why different co-curricular activities are organised.
4. How can you help the school in the following activities'?
a) Organising a study tour
b) Purchasing computers
C) Maintaining dead stock registers
d) Formation of student bodies

1. A budget ns a plan of expenditure that shows our intention regarding the distribution of
income for various items of consumptions i.e., saving and investment.
2. a ) Current Budget
The money that a school earns and spends in a year. School organises a lot of activities
in an academic year. School spends money for these activities and earns money. School
also gets finance from the government. So the financial plan of a year is known as current
budget.
b) Long-term Budget
In order to achieve the long-term ohjecJives, school has to plan for it. Such plans layout
the possible sources of school income and possible heads of expenditure for more than
one year, generally for five years or ten years.
c) School Programme Budget
The budget which are prepared for a specific programme or purpose are school programme
budget. A school may have to prepare many such budget in a year.
d) Traditional Budget
A traditional budget does not lay emphasis on purposes to be achieved, but on the issue
of generating income and expenditure on different heads. Such budgets are prepared with
reference to previous year's budget. In such budgets, the income and expenditure remain
mostly the same.
3. i) It gives direction to the head of the school to spend properly.
ii) Caution the school head to generate funds.
iii) To evaluate the progress of school.
iv) To see that the fund is not mismanaged.
4. i) Determine the objectives.
ii) Priorities the objectives.
iii) Prepare details of educational programme.
iv) Prepare plans for implementation of the programme.
V) Work-out details of expenditure and income.
vi) Develop a plan for evaluating the programme.
5 i) Know the objectives to be achieved though the budget,
ii) Knowledge of the amount of money under various headings. Administration Related Activities
iii) Good accounting practice and rules are followed.

iv) If needed special provisions are made in the budget to achieve the objectives.
v) Close and continuous monitoring of the budget.
vi) Final appraisal be made by the school management.
vii) Auditing is to be done by competent authority.
i. For purchasing any materials, a school Principal has to follow the following
norms.
a) Materials costing less than Rs. 500 can be purchased directly by the Principal.
b) If the cost of the material is above Rs. 5,000, prior permission of the school
governing body is needed.
c) Teachers also can purchase teaching materials with Principals' permission.
d) Books for the library can be purchased directly by looking into the budgetary
provision.
e) Repair of school building and equipment can be made by the school Principal with
prior approval of school governing body.
7. Personnel Materials
i) Librarian - Books, Magazines in the library.
ii) Sports teacher - Sports and games materials.
iii) Laboratory technicians - Equipment, chemicals etc.
iv) Teachers and technicians - Teaching Aids (Maps, Charts, Models, OHP,
VCR, TV etc.).
v) Principal - Overall incharge.
8. Dead stock register is maintained in thk following manner. It helps to find out about the
purchase and provision for its maintenance.
1. S.No., 2. Item purchased, 3. Date of purchased, 4. Budget head, 5. Total amount
sanctioned, 6. Amounts Paid, 7. Balance amount, 8. Nature of warranty and maintenance,
and 9. Status.
9. The following are the co-curricular activities and extra curricular activities generally
organised in a school.
Co-curricular activities:
- Essay competition
- Debate competition
- Painting competition
- Study tours
- Poem writing, and
- Science fair exhibition.
Extra curricular activities:
1. Picnics
2. Excursions
3. Campus cleaning
4. , Raising funds for relief work
5. Fun fairs
6. Annual day celebrations
7. Farewell party etc.
School Activities 10. The following procedure may be followed to organise co-curricular and extra curricular
activities.
- Identify the teacher to be incharge of the activity.
- Other teacherls to be associated with the activity.
- Money required for the organisation of the activity.
- Time required for the organisation of the activity.
- Mode of students' participation.
- How to raise money for the programme.
- Venue of the programme.
- Monitoring of the programme.
- Evaluation of the programme.
11. Some of the different student bodies that exist in a school are:
- Class Monitor and Class Representative
- School President
- Sport Committee
- Science Committee
- Cultural Committee
- Aasembly Committee
- Disciplinary Action Committee
- Cleanliness Committee
12. The teacher shall consider the following points for nominating or electing students to
different bodies.
- Intelligent students having leadership quality are selectedlelected.
- Representative girl students.
- Student having the interest to carry out the responsibility and parents giving the
consent.
- Representation of all the classes.
- Rotation of position among students may also be considered.
13. Transportation services are organised in a school in the following manner.
Daily and occasional transportation services required by the school. If the school is
having its own vehicles, the problem is not there for staff but students are charged the
actual amount which are decided by the school management Committee. A school can
also hire such services from private agencies through contract. Sometimes the students
also organise their own transportation. However, regular transportation services are ensured
by the school authority

Anderson, V.D. (1963): Secondary School Administration, Houghton, M. Company, Boston.
Balsara, M. (ed.) (1996): Educational Planning and Socio-economic Equality, Kaniska
Publisher, New Delhi.
and Management, Indian Publication, Ambala
Mathur, S.S. (1990): ~ducational~dministration
Cantt., Ambala, India.
Thurston, L.M. and Roe, W.H. (1995): State School Administration, Harper & Brother,
New York.
Vashist, S.R. (ed.) (1994): School Administration, Anmol Publication Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

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Teacher and School

Block-1 School System [4]

Unit-2 Structure of School Education

Unit-3 School Organisation

Unit-4 Organisational Behaviour

Block-2 Teacher-Role and Development [4]

Unit-6 Roles of a Teacher

Unit-7 Teacher Development

Unit-8 Teacher Evaluation

Block-3 School Management [3]

Unit-10 Leadership Roles

Unit-11 Organizational Climate

Block-4 School Activities [5]

Unit-13 Co-curricular Activities

Unit-14 Instructional Management Related Activities-I

Unit-15 Instructional Management Related Activities-II

1.10 Points for Discussion

1.3 SOCIETY AS A SYSTEM

1.3.2 Society as a System

1.3.3 Education as a Sub-system to Society

1.3.4 Socialization of the Young Generation as a Social Aim

1.5.1 Parents of Students as Mediators for Linking Community

1.5.2 Planned Intervention in Community Activities - Importance

1.5.3 Importance of Transforming the Realities in the Community as

Check Your Progress

1.6 SCHOOL COMPLEX

1.6.1 Activities of School Complex

Check Your Progress

1.7.1 Community Schools

1.7.2 Neighbourhood Schools

1.9 UNIT-END ACTIVITIES

1.10 POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

1.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

2.3 INDIAN CONSTITUTION AND SCHOOL EDUCATION

2'- Indian Constitution and School Education

1.3.5 Education as a Socialization Process

1.3.6 '~efinitionof Education

1.3.7 Different Modes of Education

1.3.8 Formal Education as a Sub-system of Societal System

I Cheek Your Progress

1 1. Define a system in 2-3 lines.

2. Justify the statement - "Society is a system a n d a a t education is a sub-system of

Fig. 1.2 : Education and its Linkages

All the above characteristics make a school a formallstructural education system.

Social Structure of the School

' 1.4.2 Objectives of School as Emerging from Social Aim

1.5 SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY

Fig. 1.4 : Relatiomhip between Education and Society

1 26 to them by the institution.

3. Give the constitutional provisions for the education of minorities, Scheduled

2.3.2 Status of Indian Schools

Fig. 2 1 : Types of School Fnterprises in India

SI. No. Major Head Centre States U.Ts Total

1. General Education 6619.00 9607.19 587.16 16813.35

Source: Planning Commission, Govt. of India (1992-97). p.320.

2.3.3 The Structure of Indian School Education

DIR(S) DIR(ET) DIR (SCH) DY(FA)

-----------t Regional or Circle Office