Uninterruptible

power supply

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An uninterruptible power supply or

uninterruptible power source (UPS) is an
electrical apparatus that provides
emergency power to a load when the input
power source or mains power fails. A UPS
differs from an auxiliary or emergency
power system or standby generator in that
it will provide near-instantaneous
protection from input power interruptions,
by supplying energy stored in batteries,
supercapacitors, or flywheels. The on-
battery run-time of most uninterruptible
power sources is relatively short (only a
few minutes) but sufficient to start a
standby power source or properly shut
down the protected equipment. It is a type
of continual power system.
 A tower type UPS with one IEC 60320 C14 input and
three C13 outlets

A large data-center-scale UPS being installed by

electricians
A UPS is typically used to protect
hardware such as computers, data
centers, telecommunication equipment or
other electrical equipment where an
unexpected power disruption could cause
injuries, fatalities, serious business
disruption or data loss. UPS units range in
size from units designed to protect a
single computer without a video monitor
(around 200 volt-ampere rating) to large
units powering entire data centers or
buildings. The world's largest UPS, the 46-
megawatt Battery Electric Storage System
(BESS), in Fairbanks, Alaska, powers the
entire city and nearby rural communities
during outages.[1]

Common power problems

The primary role of any UPS is to provide
short-term power when the input power
source fails. However, most UPS units are
also capable in varying degrees of
correcting common utility power
problems:

1. Voltage spike or sustained

overvoltage
2. Momentary or sustained reduction in
input voltage
 3. Voltage sag
4. Noise, defined as a high frequency
transient or oscillation, usually
injected into the line by nearby
equipment
5. Instability of the mains frequency
6. Harmonic distortion, defined as a
departure from the ideal sinusoidal
waveform expected on the line

Some manufacturers of UPS units

categorize their products in accordance
with the number of power-related
problems they address.[2]
Technologies
The three general categories of modern
UPS systems are on-line, line-interactive
and standby:[3][4]

An on-line UPS uses a "double

conversion" method of accepting AC
input, rectifying to DC for passing
through the rechargeable battery (or
battery strings), then inverting back to
120 V/230 V AC for powering the
protected equipment.
A line-interactive UPS maintains the
inverter in line and redirects the battery's
DC current path from the normal
 charging mode to supplying current
when power is lost.
In a standby ("off-line") system the load
is powered directly by the input power
and the backup power circuitry is only
invoked when the utility power fails.

Most UPS below one kilovolt-ampere

(1 kVA) are of the line-interactive or
standby variety which are usually less
expensive.

For large power units, dynamic

uninterruptible power supplies (DUPS) are
sometimes used. A synchronous
motor/alternator is connected on the
mains via a choke. Energy is stored in a
flywheel. When the mains power fails, an
eddy-current regulation maintains the
power on the load as long as the flywheel's
energy is not exhausted. DUPS are
sometimes combined or integrated with a
diesel generator that is turned on after a
brief delay, forming a diesel rotary
uninterruptible power supply (DRUPS).

A fuel cell UPS was developed by the

company Hydrogenics using hydrogen and
a fuel cell as a power source, potentially
providing long run times in a small
space.[5]
Offline/standby …

Offline/standby UPS: The green line illustrates the

flow of electric power. Typical protection time: 5–20
minutes. Capacity expansion: Usually not available.

The offline/standby UPS offers only the

most basic features, providing surge
protection and battery backup. The
protected equipment is normally
connected directly to incoming utility
power. When the incoming voltage falls
below or rises above a predetermined level
the UPS turns on its internal DC-AC
inverter circuitry, which is powered from an
internal storage battery. The UPS then
mechanically switches the connected
equipment on to its DC-AC inverter output.
The switch-over time can be as long as 25
milliseconds depending on the amount of
time it takes the standby UPS to detect the
lost utility voltage. The UPS will be
designed to power certain equipment,
such as a personal computer, without any
objectionable dip or brownout to that
device.

Line-interactive …

Line-interactive UPS: The green line illustrates the

flow of electric power. Typical protection time: 5–30
minutes. Capacity expansion: several hours.
The line-interactive UPS is similar in
operation to a standby UPS, but with the
addition of a multi-tap variable-voltage
autotransformer. This is a special type of
transformer that can add or subtract
powered coils of wire, thereby increasing
or decreasing the magnetic field and the
output voltage of the transformer. This
may also be performed by a buck–boost
transformer which is distinct from an
autotransformer, since the former may be
wired to provide galvanic isolation.

This type of UPS is able to tolerate

continuous undervoltage brownouts and
overvoltage surges without consuming the
limited reserve battery power. It instead
compensates by automatically selecting
different power taps on the
autotransformer. Depending on the design,
changing the autotransformer tap can
cause a very brief output power
disruption,[6] which may cause UPSs
equipped with a power-loss alarm to
"chirp" for a moment.

This has become popular even in the

cheapest UPSs because it takes
advantage of components already
included. The main 50/60 Hz transformer
used to convert between line voltage and
battery voltage needs to provide two
slightly different turns ratios: One to
convert the battery output voltage
(typically a multiple of 12 V) to line
voltage, and a second one to convert the
line voltage to a slightly higher battery
charging voltage (such as a multiple of
14 V). The difference between the two
voltages is because charging a battery
requires a delta voltage (up to 13–14 V for
charging a 12 V battery). Furthermore, it is
easier to do the switching on the line-
voltage side of the transformer because of
the lower currents on that side.
To gain the buck/boost feature, all that is
required is two separate switches so that
the AC input can be connected to one of
the two primary taps, while the load is
connected to the other, thus using the
main transformer's primary windings as an
autotransformer. The battery can still be
charged while "bucking" an overvoltage,
but while "boosting" an undervoltage, the
transformer output is too low to charge the
batteries.

Autotransformers can be engineered to

cover a wide range of varying input
voltages, but this requires more taps and
increases complexity, and expense of the
UPS. It is common for the autotransformer
to cover a range only from about 90 V to
140 V for 120 V power, and then switch to
battery if the voltage goes much higher or
lower than that range.

In low-voltage conditions the UPS will use

more current than normal so it may need a
higher current circuit than a normal device.
For example, to power a 1000-W device at
120 V, the UPS will draw 8.33 A. If a
brownout occurs and the voltage drops to
100 V, the UPS will draw 10 A to
compensate. This also works in reverse,
so that in an overvoltage condition, the
UPS will need less current.

Online/double-conversion …

In an online UPS, the batteries are always

connected to the inverter, so that no power
transfer switches are necessary. When
power loss occurs, the rectifier simply
drops out of the circuit and the batteries
keep the power steady and unchanged.
When power is restored, the rectifier
resumes carrying most of the load and
begins charging the batteries, though the
charging current may be limited to prevent
the high-power rectifier from overheating
the batteries and boiling off the electrolyte.
The main advantage of an on-line UPS is
its ability to provide an "electrical firewall"
between the incoming utility power and
sensitive electronic equipment.

The online UPS is ideal for environments

where electrical isolation is necessary or
for equipment that is very sensitive to
power fluctuations. Although it was at one
time reserved for very large installations of
10 kW or more, advances in technology
have now permitted it to be available as a
common consumer device, supplying
500 W or less. The online UPS may be
necessary when the power environment is
"noisy", when utility power sags, outages
and other anomalies are frequent, when
protection of sensitive IT equipment loads
is required, or when operation from an
extended-run backup generator is
necessary.

The basic technology of the online UPS is

the same as in a standby or line-interactive
UPS. However it typically costs much
more, due to it having a much greater
current AC-to-DC battery-charger/rectifier,
and with the rectifier and inverter designed
to run continuously with improved cooling
systems. It is called a double-conversion
UPS due to the rectifier directly driving the
inverter, even when powered from normal
AC current.

Online UPS typically has a static transfer

switch (STS) for increasing reliability.

Other designs

Hybrid topology/double conversion

on demand
…

These hybrid rotary UPS[7] designs do not

have official designations, although one
name used by UTL is "double conversion
on demand".[8] This style of UPS is
targeted towards high-efficiency
applications while still maintaining the
features and protection level offered by
double conversion.

A hybrid (double conversion on demand)

UPS operates as an off-line/standby UPS
when power conditions are within a certain
preset window. This allows the UPS to
achieve very high efficiency ratings. When
the power conditions fluctuate outside of
the predefined windows, the UPS switches
to online/double-conversion operation.[8]
In double-conversion mode the UPS can
adjust for voltage variations without
having to use battery power, can filter out
line noise and control frequency.

Ferroresonant …

Ferroresonant units operate in the same

way as a standby UPS unit; however, they
are online with the exception that a
ferroresonant transformer, is used to filter
the output. This transformer is designed to
hold energy long enough to cover the time
between switching from line power to
battery power and effectively eliminates
the transfer time. Many ferroresonant
UPSs are 82–88% efficient (AC/DC-AC)
and offer excellent isolation.

The transformer has three windings, one

for ordinary mains power, the second for
rectified battery power, and the third for
output AC power to the load.

This once was the dominant type of UPS

and is limited to around the 150 kVA
range. These units are still mainly used in
some industrial settings (oil and gas,
petrochemical, chemical, utility, and heavy
industry markets) due to the robust nature
of the UPS. Many ferroresonant UPSs
utilizing controlled ferro technology may
interact with power-factor-correcting
equipment. This will result in fluctuating
output voltage of the UPS, but may be
corrected by reducing the load levels, or
adding other linear type loads.

DC power …

A UPS designed for powering DC

equipment is very similar to an online UPS,
except that it does not need an output
inverter. Also, if the UPS's battery voltage
is matched with the voltage the device
needs, the device's power supply will not
be needed either. Since one or more power
conversion steps are eliminated, this
increases efficiency and run time.

Many systems used in

telecommunications use an extra-low
voltage "common battery" 48 V DC power,
because it has less restrictive safety
regulations, such as being installed in
conduit and junction boxes. DC has
typically been the dominant power source
for telecommunications, and AC has
typically been the dominant source for
computers and servers.
There has been much experimentation
with 48 V DC power for computer servers,
in the hope of reducing the likelihood of
failure and the cost of equipment.
However, to supply the same amount of
power, the current would be higher than an
equivalent 115 V or 230 V circuit; greater
current requires larger conductors, or more
energy lost as heat.

High voltage DC (380 V) is finding use in

some data center applications, and allows
for small power conductors, but is subject
to the more complex electrical code rules
for safe containment of high voltages.[9]
Rotary …

A rotary UPS uses the inertia of a high-

mass spinning flywheel (flywheel energy
storage) to provide short-term ride-through
in the event of power loss. The flywheel
also acts as a buffer against power spikes
and sags, since such short-term power
events are not able to appreciably affect
the rotational speed of the high-mass
flywheel. It is also one of the oldest
designs, predating vacuum tubes and
integrated circuits.
It can be considered to be on line since it
spins continuously under normal
conditions. However, unlike a battery-
based UPS, flywheel-based UPS systems
typically provide 10 to 20 seconds of
protection before the flywheel has slowed
and power output stops.[10] It is
traditionally used in conjunction with
standby generators, providing backup
power only for the brief period of time the
engine needs to start running and stabilize
its output.

The rotary UPS is generally reserved for

applications needing more than 10,000 W
of protection, to justify the expense and
benefit from the advantages rotary UPS
systems bring. A larger flywheel or
multiple flywheels operating in parallel will
increase the reserve running time or
capacity.

Because the flywheels are a mechanical

power source, it is not necessary to use an
electric motor or generator as an
intermediary between it and a diesel
engine designed to provide emergency
power. By using a transmission gearbox,
the rotational inertia of the flywheel can be
used to directly start up a diesel engine,
and once running, the diesel engine can be
used to directly spin the flywheel. Multiple
flywheels can likewise be connected in
parallel through mechanical countershafts,
without the need for separate motors and
generators for each flywheel.

They are normally designed to provide very

high current output compared to a purely
electronic UPS, and are better able to
provide inrush current for inductive loads
such as motor startup or compressor
loads, as well as medical MRI and cath lab
equipment. It is also able to tolerate short-
circuit conditions up to 17 times larger
than an electronic UPS, permitting one
device to blow a fuse and fail while other
devices still continue to be powered from
the rotary UPS.

Its life cycle is usually far greater than a

purely electronic UPS, up to 30 years or
more. But they do require periodic
downtime for mechanical maintenance,
such as ball bearing replacement. In larger
systems redundancy of the system
ensures the availability of processes
during this maintenance. Battery-based
designs do not require downtime if the
batteries can be hot-swapped, which is
usually the case for larger units. Newer
rotary units use technologies such as
magnetic bearings and air-evacuated
enclosures to increase standby efficiency
and reduce maintenance to very low
levels.

Typically, the high-mass flywheel is used in

conjunction with a motor-generator
system. These units can be configured as:

1. A motor driving a mechanically

connected generator,[7]
2. A combined synchronous motor and
generator wound in alternating slots
 of a single rotor and stator,
3. A hybrid rotary UPS, designed similar
to an online UPS, except that it uses
the flywheel in place of batteries. The
rectifier drives a motor to spin the
flywheel, while a generator uses the
flywheel to power the inverter.

In case No. 3 the motor generator can be

synchronous/synchronous or
induction/synchronous. The motor side of
the unit in case Nos. 2 and 3 can be driven
directly by an AC power source (typically
when in inverter bypass), a 6-step double-
conversion motor drive, or a 6-pulse
inverter. Case No. 1 uses an integrated
flywheel as a short-term energy source
instead of batteries to allow time for
external, electrically coupled gensets to
start and be brought online. Case Nos. 2
and 3 can use batteries or a free-standing
electrically coupled flywheel as the short-
term energy source.

Form factors
Smaller UPS systems come in several
different forms and sizes. However, the
two most common forms are tower and
rack-mount.[11]
Tower models stand upright on the ground
or on a desk or shelf, and are typically
used in network workstations or desktop
computer applications. Rack-mount
models can be mounted in standard 19-
inch rack enclosures and can require
anywhere from 1U to 12U (rack units).
They are typically used in server and
networking applications. Some devices
feature user interfaces that rotate 90°,
allowing the devices to be mounted
vertically on the ground or horizontally as
would be found in a rack.

Applications
N + 1 …

In large business environments where

reliability is of great importance, a single
huge UPS can also be a single point of
failure that can disrupt many other
systems. To provide greater reliability,
multiple smaller UPS modules and
batteries can be integrated together to
provide redundant power protection
equivalent to one very large UPS. "N + 1"
means that if the load can be supplied by
N modules, the installation will contain
N + 1 modules. In this way, failure of one
module will not impact system
operation.[12]

Multiple redundancy …

Many computer servers offer the option of

redundant power supplies, so that in the
event of one power supply failing, one or
more other power supplies are able to
power the load. This is a critical point –
each power supply must be able to power
the entire server by itself.

Redundancy is further enhanced by

plugging each power supply into a
different circuit (i.e. to a different circuit
breaker).

Redundant protection can be extended

further yet by connecting each power
supply to its own UPS. This provides
double protection from both a power
supply failure and a UPS failure, so that
continued operation is assured. This
configuration is also referred to as 1 + 1 or
2N redundancy. If the budget does not
allow for two identical UPS units then it is
common practice to plug one power
supply into mains power and the other into
the UPS.[13]
Outdoor use …

When a UPS system is placed outdoors, it

should have some specific features that
guarantee that it can tolerate weather
without any effects on performance.
Factors such as temperature, humidity,
rain, and snow among others should be
considered by the manufacturer when
designing an outdoor UPS system.
Operating temperature ranges for outdoor
UPS systems could be around −40 °C to
+55 °C.[14]
Outdoor UPS systems can either be pole,
ground (pedestal), or host mounted.
Outdoor environment could mean extreme
cold, in which case the outdoor UPS
system should include a battery heater
mat, or extreme heat, in which case the
outdoor UPS system should include a fan
system or an air conditioning system.

Internal view of a solar inverter. Note the many large

capacitors (blue cylinders), used to store energy
briefly and improve the output waveform.

A solar inverter, or PV inverter, or solar

converter, converts the variable direct
current (DC) output of a photovoltaic (PV)
solar panel into a utility frequency
alternating current (AC) that can be fed
into a commercial electrical grid or used
by a local, off-grid electrical network. It is a
critical BOS–component in a photovoltaic
system, allowing the use of ordinary AC-
powered equipment. Solar inverters have
special functions adapted for use with
photovoltaic arrays, including maximum
power point tracking and anti-islanding
protection.

Harmonic distortion

UPS output waveform (yellow) compared to normal

120 VAC 60 Hz power waveform (violet)

The output of some electronic UPSes can

have a significant departure from an ideal
sinusoidal waveform. This is especially
true of inexpensive consumer-grade
single-phase units designed for home and
office use. These often utilize simple
switching AC power supplies and the
output resembles a square wave rich in
harmonics. These harmonics can cause
interference with other electronic devices
including radio communication and some
devices (e.g. inductive loads such as AC
motors) may perform with reduced
efficiency or not at all. More sophisticated
(and expensive) UPS units can produce
nearly pure sinusoidal AC power.

Power factor
A problem in the combination of a double-
conversion UPS and a generator is the
voltage distortion created by the UPS. The
input of a double-conversion UPS is
essentially a big rectifier. The current
drawn by the UPS is non-sinusoidal. This
can cause the voltage from the AC mains
or a generator to also become non-
sinusoidal. The voltage distortion then can
cause problems in all electrical equipment
connected to that power source, including
the UPS itself. It will also cause more
power to be lost in the wiring supplying
power to the UPS due to the spikes in
current flow. This level of "noise" is
measured as a percentage of "total
harmonic distortion of the current" (THDI).
Classic UPS rectifiers have a THDI level of
around 25%–30%. To reduce voltage
distortion, this requires heavier mains
wiring or generators more than twice as
large as the UPS.

There are several solutions to reduce the

THDI in a double-conversion UPS:

Classic solutions such as passive filters

reduce THDI to 5%–10% at full load. They
are reliable, but big and only work at full
load, and present their own problems
when used in tandem with generators.
An alternative solution is an active filter.
Through the use of such a device, THDI
can drop to 5% over the full power range.
The newest technology in double-
conversion UPS units is a rectifier that
does not use classic rectifier components
(thyristors and diodes) but uses high-
frequency components instead. A double-
conversion UPS with an insulated-gate
bipolar transistor rectifier and inductor can
have a THDI as small as 2%. This
completely eliminates the need to oversize
the generator (and transformers), without
additional filters, investment cost, losses,
or space.
Communication
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Power management (PM) requires:

1. The UPS to report its status to the

computer it powers via a
communications link such as a serial
port, Ethernet and Simple Network
Management Protocol, GSM/GPRS or
USB
2. A subsystem in the OS that
processes the reports and generates
notifications, PM events, or
 commands an ordered shut down.[15]
Some UPS manufacturers publish
their communication protocols, but
other manufacturers (such as APC)
use proprietary protocols.

The basic computer-to-UPS control

methods are intended for one-to-one
signaling from a single source to a single
target. For example, a single UPS may
connect to a single computer to provide
status information about the UPS, and
allow the computer to control the UPS.
Similarly, the USB protocol is also intended
to connect a single computer to multiple
peripheral devices.
In some situations it is useful for a single
large UPS to be able to communicate with
several protected devices. For traditional
serial or USB control, a signal replication
device may be used, which for example
allows one UPS to connect to five
computers using serial or USB
connections.[16] However, the splitting is
typically only one direction from UPS to
the devices to provide status information.
Return control signals may only be
permitted from one of the protected
systems to the UPS.[17]
As Ethernet has increased in common use
since the 1990s, control signals are now
commonly sent between a single UPS and
multiple computers using standard
Ethernet data communication methods
such as TCP/IP.[18] The status and control
information is typically encrypted so that
for example an outside hacker can not
gain control of the UPS and command it to
shut down.[19]

Distribution of UPS status and control data

requires that all intermediary devices such
as Ethernet switches or serial multiplexers
be powered by one or more UPS systems,
in order for the UPS alerts to reach the
target systems during a power outage. To
avoid the dependency on Ethernet
infrastructure, the UPSs can be connected
directly to main control server by using
GSM/GPRS channel also. The SMS or
GPRS data packets sent from UPSs trigger
software to shut down the PCs to reduce
the load.

Batteries
Battery cabinet

There are three main types of UPS

batteries: Valve Regulated Lead Acid
(VRLA), Flooded Cell or VLA
batteries,Lithium Ion batteries. The run-
time for a battery-operated UPS depends
on the type and size of batteries and rate
of discharge, and the efficiency of the
inverter. The total capacity of a lead–acid
battery is a function of the rate at which it
is discharged, which is described as
Peukert's law.

Manufacturers supply run-time rating in

minutes for packaged UPS systems.
Larger systems (such as for data centers)
require detailed calculation of the load,
inverter efficiency, and battery
characteristics to ensure the required
endurance is attained.[20]

Common battery characteristics

and load testing
…
When a lead–acid battery is charged or
discharged, this initially affects only the
reacting chemicals, which are at the
interface between the electrodes and the
electrolyte. With time, the charge stored in
the chemicals at the interface, often called
"interface charge", spreads by diffusion of
these chemicals throughout the volume of
the active material.

If a battery has been completely

discharged (e.g. the car lights were left on
overnight) and next is given a fast charge
for only a few minutes, then during the
short charging time it develops only a
charge near the interface. The battery
voltage may rise to be close to the charger
voltage so that the charging current
decreases significantly. After a few hours
this interface charge not will spread to the
volume of the electrode and electrolyte,
leading to an interface charge so low that
it may be insufficient to start a car.[21]

Due to the interface charge, brief UPS self-

test functions lasting only a few seconds
may not accurately reflect the true runtime
capacity of a UPS, and instead an
extended recalibration or rundown test that
deeply discharges the battery is
needed.[22]

The deep discharge testing is itself

damaging to batteries due to the
chemicals in the discharged battery
starting to crystallize into highly stable
molecular shapes that will not re-dissolve
when the battery is recharged,
permanently reducing charge capacity. In
lead acid batteries this is known as
sulfation but also affects other types such
as nickel cadmium batteries and lithium
batteries.[23] Therefore, it is commonly
recommended that rundown tests be
performed infrequently, such as every six
months to a year.[24][25]

Testing of strings of batteries/cells …

Multi-kilowatt commercial UPS systems

with large and easily accessible battery
banks are capable of isolating and testing
individual cells within a battery string,
which consists of either combined-cell
battery units (such as 12-V lead acid
batteries) or individual chemical cells
wired in series. Isolating a single cell and
installing a jumper in place of it allows the
one battery to be discharge-tested, while
the rest of the battery string remains
charged and available to provide
protection.[26]

It is also possible to measure the electrical

characteristics of individual cells in a
battery string, using intermediate sensor
wires that are installed at every cell-to-cell
junction, and monitored both individually
and collectively. Battery strings may also
be wired as series-parallel, for example
two sets of 20 cells. In such a situation it
is also necessary to monitor current flow
between parallel strings, as current may
circulate between the strings to balance
out the effects of weak cells, dead cells
with high resistance, or shorted cells. For
example, stronger strings can discharge
through weaker strings until voltage
imbalances are equalized, and this must
be factored into the individual inter-cell
measurements within each string.[27]

Series-parallel battery interactions …

Battery strings wired in series-parallel can

develop unusual failure modes due to
interactions between the multiple parallel
strings. Defective batteries in one string
can adversely affect the operation and
lifespan of good or new batteries in other
strings. These issues also apply to other
situations where series-parallel strings are
used, not just in UPS systems but also in
electric vehicle applications.[28]

Consider a series-parallel battery

arrangement with all good cells, and one
becomes shorted or dead:

The failed cell will reduce the maximum

developed voltage for the entire series
string it is within.
Other series strings wired in parallel with
the degraded string will now discharge
through the degraded string until their
voltage matches the voltage of the
degraded string, potentially
overcharging and leading to electrolyte
boiling and outgassing from the
remaining good cells in the degraded
string. These parallel strings can now
never be fully recharged, as the
increased voltage will bleed off through
the string containing the failed battery.
Charging systems may attempt to gauge
battery string capacity by measuring
overall voltage. Due to the overall string
voltage depletion due to the dead cells,
the charging system may detect this as
a state of discharge, and will
continuously attempt to charge the
series-parallel strings, which leads to
continuous overcharging and damage to
all the cells in the degraded series string
containing the damaged battery.
If lead-acid batteries are used, all cells in
the formerly good parallel strings will
begin to sulfate due to the inability for
them to be fully recharged, resulting in
the storage capacity of these cells being
permanently damaged, even if the
damaged cell in the one degraded string
is eventually discovered and replaced
with a new one.
The only way to prevent these subtle
series-parallel string interactions is by not
using parallel strings at all and using
separate charge controllers and inverters
for individual series strings.

Series new/old battery interactions …

Even just a single string of batteries wired

in series can have adverse interactions if
new batteries are mixed with old batteries.
Older batteries tend to have reduced
storage capacity, and so will both
discharge faster than new batteries and
also charge to their maximum capacity
more rapidly than new batteries.

As a mixed string of new and old batteries

is depleted, the string voltage will drop,
and when the old batteries are exhausted
the new batteries still have charge
available. The newer cells may continue to
discharge through the rest of the string,
but due to the low voltage this energy flow
may not be useful, and may be wasted in
the old cells as resistance heating.

For cells that are supposed to operate

within a specific discharge window, new
cells with more capacity may cause the
old cells in the series string to continue to
discharge beyond the safe bottom limit of
the discharge window, damaging the old
cells.

When recharged, the old cells recharge

more rapidly, leading to a rapid rise of
voltage to near the fully charged state, but
before the new cells with more capacity
have fully recharged. The charge controller
detects the high voltage of a nearly fully
charged string and reduces current flow.
The new cells with more capacity now
charge very slowly, so slowly that the
chemicals may begin to crystallize before
reaching the fully charged state, reducing
new cell capacity over several
charge/discharge cycles until their
capacity more closely matches the old
cells in the series string.

For such reasons, some industrial UPS

management systems recommend
periodic replacement of entire battery
arrays potentially using hundreds of
expensive batteries, due to these
damaging interactions between new
batteries and old batteries, within and
across series and parallel strings.[29]
Standards
EN 62040-1:2008 Uninterruptible power
systems (UPS) – Part 1: General and
safety requirements for UPS
EN 62040-2:2006 Uninterruptible power
systems (UPS) – Part 2:
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
requirements
EN 62040-3:2011 Uninterruptible power
systems (UPS) – Part 3: Method of
specifying the performance and test
requirements
EN 62040-4:2013 Uninterruptible power
systems (UPS) – Part 4: Environmental
 aspects – Requirements and reporting

See also
Battery room
Emergency power system
Fuel cell applications
IT baseline protection
Power conditioner
Dynamic voltage restoration
Net metering system with energy
storage
Surge protector
Switched-mode power supply (SMPS)
 Switched-mode power supply
applications

References
1. "Electricity storage: Location, location,
location … and cost – Battery storage
for transmission support in Alaska" .
eia.gov. Energy Information
Administration (EIA). 2012. Retrieved
July 23, 2012.
2. E-book on choosing a UPS topology
based on application type "Avoiding
Trap Doors Associated with
Purchasing a UPS System" (PDF).
 Archived from the original (PDF) on
2013-03-26. Retrieved 2018-12-11.
3. Solter, W. (2002), "A new international
UPS classification by IEC 62040-3",
24th Annual International
Telecommunications Energy
Conference, pp. 541–545,
doi:10.1109/INTLEC.2002.1048709 ,
ISBN 0-7803-7512-2,
S2CID 195862090
4. Detailed explanation of UPS
topologies "High-Availability Power
Systems, Part I: UPS Internal
Topology" (PDF). November 2000.
 Archived from the original (PDF) on
2013-03-26. Retrieved 2018-12-11.
5. "Hydrogen Fuel Cell UPS" .
6. "UPS On-Line Uninterruptible Power
Supply Backup Power Source" .
Archived from the original on October
4, 2013.
7. "Hybrid Rotary UPS" (PDF). Archived
from the original (PDF) on December
4, 2014.
8. "Increasing energy efficiency with
modular HP three-phase power
distribution" . HP.
 9. Ton, My; Fortenbery, Brian; Tschudi,
William (January 2007). "DC Power for
Improved Data Center Efficiency"
(PDF). Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory. Archived from the original
(PDF) on 2010-10-08.

10. "15 Seconds versus 15 Minutes: White

Paper 107 Designing for High
Availability" (PDF). Active Power.
2007.
11. "UPS Buying Guide" . TrippLite.com.
12. Detailed explanation of optimized
N + 1 configurations"Balancing
Scalability and Reliability in the Critical
 Power System: When Does N + 1
Become Too Many + 1?" . Archived
from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-
03.
13. Detailed explanation of UPS
redundancy options"High-Availability
Power Systems, Part II: Redundancy
Options" (PDF). Archived from the
original (PDF) on 2013-03-26.
Retrieved 2018-12-11.
14. Refer to safety standard IEC 60950-22
or a local derivative according to
location e.g. EN 60950-22 (Europe);
UL 60950-22 (USA)
15. Raymond, Eric Steven. UPS HOWTO,
section 3.3 . The Linux
Documentation Project, 2003–2007.
16. Generex. "Multi-XS User Manual"
(PDF). "Multi-XS is an active RS232
data switch, designed to handle serial
communications of one UPS with up
to 5 / 10 computers"
17. APC AP9207 Share-UPS, User Manual,
pp. 6–7, Port 1 is called the Advanced
port because it supplies smart
signaling, which provides the
advanced capabilities available to a
server running PowerChute plus
software. The Advanced port provides
 full access to the Computer Interface
port of the UPS. Ports 2–8 on the rear
panel of Share-UPS are called Basic
ports because they supply simple UPS
signaling for On Battery and Low
Battery conditions in the UPS. "Share-
UPS User Manual" (PDF). Archived
from the original (PDF) on April 24,
2012. Retrieved November 14, 2011.
18. An example of an Ethernet UPS
controller: Liebert IntelliSlot Web Card
Communications Interface Card
Archived 2016-04-13 at the Wayback
Machine
19. APC Application Note #67 "APC
Network Management Card Security
Implementation" (PDF). Archived from
the original (PDF) on April 24, 2012.
Retrieved November 14, 2011.
20. "How to calculate battery run-time" .
PowerStream Technologies. Retrieved
2010-04-26.
21. Saslow, Wayne M. (2002). Electricity,
Magnetism, and Light. Toronto:
Thomson Learning. pp. 302–4.
ISBN 0-12-619455-6.
22. Peter M. Curtis (2011). Maintaining
Mission Critical Systems in a 24/7
 Environment . Wiley. pp. 261–262.
ISBN 9781118041628.
23. Michael F. Hordeski (2005).
Emergency and backup power
sources: preparing for blackouts and
brownouts . The Fairmont Press, Inc.
ISBN 9780881734850.
24. Leonardo Energy. "Maintenance
Manager's Guide, Section 2.1" .
Retrieved August 1, 2012.
25. APC Inc. "Knowledgebase article:
What is the expected life of my APC
UPS battery?, Answer ID 8301" .
26. "Maintaining and Testing Your UPS
System to Ensure Continuous Power,
Section: Maintaining a Battery Bank" .
The Data Center Journal.
27. BTECH Inc, BTECH's Focus –
Predicting Battery Failure and
Installation Manual , page 18, showing
sensor wires for each cell/battery on a
battery string, and also note that the
current transducer sensors to detect
cross-string series-parallel current
recirculation.
28. "Cell Balancing" . Electropaedia.
Woodbank Communications.
29. Cotton, Bart (January 2005). "Battery
Asset Management: VRLA ageing
characteristics" (PDF). Batteries
International. Archived from the
original (PDF) on 2013-04-06.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media

related to Uninterruptible power
supply.

Scott Siddens (February 2007), UPS on

the front line , Plant Engineering,
archived from the original on 2009-11-
09
Cottuli, Carol (2011), Comparison of
Static and Rotary UPS (PDF), Schneider
Electric, White Paper 92 rev. 2, retrieved
April 7, 2012
Rasmussen, Neil (2011), The Different
Types of UPS Systems (PDF), Schneider
Electric, White Paper 1 rev. 7, retrieved
April 7, 2012
VanDee, Dawn (March 1, 1999),
"Rounding Up Rotary UPS Features" ,
EC&M, Penton Business Media, retrieved
April 7, 2012
"UPS Basics" . Eaton Corporation. 2012.
Retrieved 2014-01-08.
 The Different Type of UPS Systems
Available , archived from the original on
2015-05-30

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