Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation Digital Material

MECHANICAL
MEASUREMENTS &
I N S T R U M E N TAT I O N
(R17A0328)
4 TH Y E AR B . TE C H I - S E M E S TE R
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

COURSE OBJECTIVES
UNIT - 1 CO1: To study concept of architecture of the
measurments
UNIT - 2 CO2: To deliver working principle of mechanical

measurements system.
UNIT - 3 CO3: To impart knowledge of mathematical modeling
of the control system under different time domain.
UNIT - 4 CO4: To analyze the stress and strain measurements

and humidity measurements.
UNIT - 5 CO5: To understand the measurements of Force,

Torque and power and Elements of Control Systems.

UNIT 1
DEFINITION,
MEASUREMENT OF
DISPLACEMENT
C O 1 : To s t u d y c o n c e p t o f a r c h i t e c t u r e o f
the measurments

UNIT – I (SYLLABUS)
Definition
• Basic Principles of Measurements
• Generalized Configuration and Functional descriptions of instruments
• Performance Characteristics
• Classification and Elimination of errors
Measurement of Displacement:
• Construction of Various Transducers
• Piezo electric, Inductive, Capacitance, resistance, ionization and photo electric

Transducers
• Calibration Procedures

COURSE OUTLINE UNIT -1
LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS Learning objectives (2

to 3 objectives)
1 Definition- Basic Principles of Definition of Understanding of basics
Measurments measurement. of measurement and
instrumentation
2 Generalized Configuration and Measurement system, • Understand the
Functional Descriptions Performance general
Characteristics measurement
system
• Learn different
Characteristics
affecting
measurement
3 Classification & elimination of errors Errors obtained during Learn to identify and
measurement eliminate various errors
4 Definition & Classification of Transducer Transducer Types Learn about Transducer
and it applicattions
5 Piezoelectric & Learn & understand the

inductive principle of the
Transducers for Measuring Transducers for
6 Photo Electric &
Displacement measuring displacement
capacitive
7 Resistance
LECTURE 1
DEFINITION- BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASURMENTS

TOPICS TO BE COVERED
LECTURE 1
• Definition of measurement Definition- Basic Principles
of Measurments
• Instrumentation
• Methods of Measurement
• Objectives of Measurments
• Applications

MEASUREMENT
• The word measurement is used to tell us the length, the weight, the temperature, the
colour or a change in one of these physical entities of a material.
Or
• Measurement provides us with means for describing the various physical and
chemical parameters of materials in quantitative terms.

EXAMPLE
For example, 10 mm length of and object implies that the object is 10 times
as large as 1 mm; the unit employed in expressing length

Two requirements which are to be satisfied to get good result from
the measurement.
• The standard must be accurately known and internationally
accepted.
• The apparatus and experimental procedure adopted for
comparison must be provable.

INSTRUMENTATION
• The human senses cannot provide exact quantitative information

about the knowledge of events occurring in our environments.
• The firm requirements of precise and accurate measurements in

the technological fields have, led to the development of mechanical
aids called instruments.

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
• Direct and indirect measurement
• Primary and secondary & tertiary measurement.
• Contact and non-contact type of measurement

❖ Direct Measurement
The value of the physical parameter is determined by comparing it

directly with different standards
Eg: Mass, length and time
❖ Indirect Measurement
The value of the physical parameter is more generally determined by

indirect comparison with the secondary standards through calibration.
Eg: The measurement is converting into an analogous signal which

subsequently process and fed to the end device at present the result of
measurement.

❖ Primary And Secondary & Tertiary Measurement.
Based upon the complexity of the measurement systems, the

measurement is generally grouped into three categories.
• Primary
• Secondary
• Tertiary.

❖ Primary measurement.
The sought value of physical parameter is determined by comparing it

directly with reference standards the required information is obtained to
sense of side and touch.
Example
a) Matching of two lengths is determining the length of a object with

ruler.
b) Estimation the temperature difference between the components of

the container by inserting fingers.
c) Measurement of time by counting a number of strokes of a block.

❖ Secondary & Tertiary Measurement.
The indirect measurements involving one transmission are called

secondary measurements
The indirect measurements involving two convergent are called tertiary

measurements
Examples:
a) The convergent of pressure into displacement by means of be allows

and the convergent of force into displacement.
b) Pressure measurement by manometer and the temperature

measurement by mercury in glass tube thermometer.
c) The measurement of static pressure by boundary tube pressure

gauge is a typical example of tertiary measurement.
❖ Contact And Non-contact Type Of Measurements.
Contact type:
Where the sensing element of measuring device as a contact with

medium whose characteristics are being measured.
Non-contact type:
Where the sense doesn't communicate physically with the medium.
Example:
The optical, radioactive and some of the electrical/electronic

measurement belong to this category.

OBJECTIVES OF INSTRUMENTATION
1. The major objective of instrumentation is to measure and control
the field parameters to increase safety and efficiency of the
process.
2. To achieve good quality.
3. To achieve auto machine and automatic control of process there
by reducing human.
4. To maintain the operation of the plan within the design
exportations and to achieve good quantity product.

LECTURE 2
GENERALISED CONFIGURATION AND ITS FUNCTIONAL
DESCRIPTIONS

LECTURE 1
• Generalized Configuration and Generalized Configuration
and Functional Descriptions
Functional Descriptions of
Measuring Instruments
• Primary Elements of Measurement
System
• Performance Characteristics
• Static
• Dynamic
• Applications

GENERALIZED MEASUREMENT SYSTEM AND
ITS FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS

Variable
Conversion
Element
Primary
Sensing Variable
Element Manipulation
Element
Primary
Elements of
Measurement
System
Data
Transmission
Data
Element presentation
Element

Input Signal
Data
Primary Variable Variable Data Presentation
Sensing Conversion Manipulation Transmission
Element Element Element Element Element
Human
Readable Output
Observer

• Performance characteristics of a measuring instrument
The performance characteristics of an instrument system is conclusion
by low accurately the system measures the requires input and how
absolutely it reject the undesirable inputs.
Error = Measured Value ( ) – True Value ( )
Correction = ( - ).

❖ Static characteristics
1. Range and span,
2. Accuracy, error, correction,
3. Calibration,
4. Repeatability,
5. Reproducibility 7. Sensitivity,
6. Precision, 8. Threshold,
9. Resolution,
10.Drift,
11.Hysteresis, dead zone.

❖ Dynamic characteristics
1. Speed of response and measuring lag,
2. Fidelity and dynamic error,
3. Over shoot,
4. Dead time and dead zone,
5. Frequency response.

LECTURE 3
C L A S S I F I C AT I O N A N D E L I M I N AT I O N O F E R R O R S

LECTURE 3
• Classification of Errors Classification and
elimination of Errors
• Elimination of Errors
• Types of Instruments

CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS AND
ELIMINATION OF ERRORS:
• No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy
• It is important to find out the accuracy rate and errors occurred
• A study of errors is a first step in finding ways to reduce them.
Errors are Classified into:
1. Gross errors
2. Systematic (or) instrumental errors
3. Random (or) Accidental errors

❖ Gross Errors
Human mistakes in reading instruments and recording and calculating

measurement result.
Ex: The temperature is 31.50C, but it will write as 21.50c
This can be avoided by adopting two means
1. Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
2. Two, three (or) even more readings should be taken for quantity
under measurement

❖ Systematic Errors
These type of errors are divided into three categories.
a. Instrumental errors
– Due to inherent short comings of the instrument
– Due to misuse of instruments
b. Due to loading effects of instruments. Environmental errors

– These errors are caused due to changes in the environmental
conditions in the area surrounding the instrument
c. Observational
– These errors are caused by the habits of individual observers, which is
known as Parallax error

❖ Random Errors
The causes of such errors is unknown (or) not determinable in the

ordinary process making measurements.
a. Certain human errors
b. Errors caused due to the disturbances to the equipment’s
c. Errors caused by fluctuating experimental conditions.

LECTURE 4
MEASUREMENT OF DISPLACEMENT

LECTURE 4
• Definiton- Displacement, Measurement of
Displacement
Transducer
• Classification of Transducers
• Classification Based on Power Source
• Classification based on type of Output
• Classification based on the electrical
principle involved
• Advantages and Limitations of
Transducers
• Applications
• Assignment

MEASUREMENT OF DISPLACEMENT
Displacement
• A small change in position of an object from one point to another.
Measurement of Displacement
• Displacement can be measured by both mechanical and electrical
methods,
• But only electrical methods which are common in industrial use will
be described here.

Transducer
It is a small device that converts any physical quantity into measurable

electrical signals and vice versa.
Functions of Transducers
• Detects or senses the present and changes in physical quantity
being measured.
• Provided a proportional output signal..

❖ Classification of Transducer
Transducers are broadly classified into Three groups :
1. Classification Based on Power Source
– Active transducers (self-generating type)
– Passive transducers (Externally powered)
2. Classification based on type of Output
– Analog Transducer
– Digital Transducer

3. Classification based on the electrical principle involved
– Variable resistance type
– Variable inductance type
– Variable capacitance type
– Voltage generating type
– Voltage divider type

❖ Transducer for the Measurement of Displacement:
I. Variable resistance transducer
II. Variable inductance transducer
III. Variable capacitance transducer
IV. Piezo electric transducer
V. Photo electric or light detecting transducer

I. Photo conductive
II. Photo voltaic
III. Photo emissive
VI. Ionization transducers.

❖ Advantages of electrical transducers over other transducers
• Mass and inertia effects are minimized
• Amplification or attenuation is minimized
• Effect of friction is minimized
• They are compact in size
• Remote indication is possible
• Power consumption is less and loading errors are minimized.
❖ Limitations
• They need external power supply, and are of High cost
• Instrument electrical properties may change the actual reading of

the variable which is to be measured.

LECTURE 5
TRANSDUCERS FOR MEASUREMENT OF DISPLACEMENT

LECTURE 5
• Piezo Electric Transducer Transducers for
Measurement of
• Inductive Transducers displacement
• Linear Variable Differential Transducer

• Rotary Variable Differential Transducer
• Synchros
• Resolvers
• Applications
• Assignment

❖ Piezo Electric transducers
QαF
Q=KF Where,
Q is the Charge (in coulombs)
F = Impressed Force ( in Newtons)
K = Crystal Sensitivity = C/N
The relationship between the force F and the change t in the crystal
thickness t is given by the stress-strain relationship.

Advantages of Piezoelectric transducers are:
• High frequency response,
• High output,
• Rugged construction
• Negligible phase shift, and
• Small size.
Applications:
Piezo-electric transducers are most often used for accelerometers,

pressure cells and force cells in that order.

❖ Variable Inductance transducers
1. Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)
The linear variable-differential transformer (LVDT) is the most widely

used inductive transducer to translate linear motion into electrical signal.

Construction and Circuit of a typical LVDT

Advantages
• The output voltage is practically linear for displacements upto 5 mm.
• Have infinite resolution.
• Can possess a high sensitivity.
• These usually tolerate a high degree of shock and vibration without

any adverse effects.
• Simple, light in weight, and easy to align and maintain.
Applications:
• Sensitive to stray magnetic fields but shielding is possible
• Inherently low in power output.

2. Rotary Variable Differential Transducer (RVDT)
• It is used to convert rectangular displacement into electrical signal.
• It is same as that of LVDT except that is employs a cam shaped core.
3. Synchros
• The devices by which the angular position of shaft is converted into

electrical signal. The synchros are electromagnetic transducers..
4. Resolvers
• Resolving is nothing but converting from one co-ordinate system to
another coordinate system.
• These converts the shafts angular position into Cartesian coordinates

i.e., converted into those signals which are proportional to the sine
and cosine of the rotor position
LECTURE 6

LECTURE 6
• Photo ElectricTransducer Transducers for
Measurement of
• Photo Emissive Cell displacement
• Photo Conductive Cell

• Photo Voltaic Cell
• Capacitive Transducers
• Applications
• Assignment

PHOTO ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
These transducers operate on the principle that when light strikes special
combination of materials, a voltage may be generated, a resistance
change may take place, or electrons may flow.
Based on the principle of rotation photo electric transducers are classified
into the 3 types.
• Photo – Emissive Cell

• Photo – Conductive Cell

• Photo – Voltaic Cell
These transducers operate on the photo-valtaic effect, i.e., when light's

trikes a junction of certain dissimilar metals, a potential difference is built
up.
Applications:
• Used for a wide variety of purposes in control engineering for

precision measuring devices, in exposure meters used in
photography.
• They are also used in solar batteries as sources of electrical power

for rockets and satellites used in space research.

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
It works on the principle of a capacitor which comprises of two or more

dissimilar metal plate conductors separated by an insulator.
Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the charges to the applied voltage

and for a parallel plate capacitor
𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜖𝑜 𝜖 𝑟 𝑁 − 1 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠
𝑡
Where,
A = overlapping area b/w plates (m2)
t = distance b/w plates (m)
N = No. of plates
𝜖𝑜 = permittivity of free space = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
𝜖𝑟 = = relative permittivity of the material b/w plates

Differential Capacitor:

Let the normal position of the central plate be a line as shown, the capacitances C1 & C2 are
then identical.
𝐴
𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶 = 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟
𝑡
When the plate is displaced parallel through a
distance x, then:
𝐴 𝐴
𝐶1 = 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟 𝐶2 = 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟
𝑡+𝑥 𝑡−𝑥
For an alternating Voltage E applied b/w 1 & 2 then C1 & C2 are :
𝐸 𝐶2 𝑡+𝑥 𝐸 𝐶1 𝑡−𝑥
𝐸1 = =𝐸 𝐸2 = =𝐸
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 2𝑡 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 2𝑡
Therefore, the output from the terminal pairs 1, 3 & 2, 3 is fed into differential measurement
𝑥
𝐸1 − 𝐸2 = 𝐸
𝑡
Cylindrical Capacitor:

2𝜋𝑙
𝐶 = 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟 𝑟2 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠
log 𝑒 (𝑟 )
1
Where,
l = length of overlapping part of cylinder (m)
r1 = radius of inner cylinder conductor(m)
r2 = radius of outer cylinder conductor(m)
𝜖𝑜 = permittivity of free space = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
𝜖𝑟 = = relative permittivity of the material b/w plates

LECTURE 7

LECTURE 7
• Resistance Transducers Transducers for
Measurement of
• Linear motion Potentiometers displacement
• Angular motion Potentiometers

• Applications
• Assignment

VARIABLE RESISTANCE TRANSDUCERS
VRT
Mechanically Varied
Resistance Thermal Resistance Change Resistivity Change
(Potentiometer) (Resistance Thermometers) (resistance strain gauge)

❖ Linear Motion Potentiometers

❖ Rotary Motion Potentiometers

THANK YOU

UNIT 3
F L O W M E A S U R E M E N T, M E A S U R E M E N T O F S P E E D ,
A C C E L E R AT I O N & V I B R AT I O N

UNIT – III
Flow Measurement:
• Rotameter, Magnetic, Ultrasonic, Turbine flow meter,
hot-wire anemometer, Laser Doppler anemometer
Measurement of Speed:
• Mechanical tachometers, Electrical tachometer,
Stroboscope, Noncontact type of tachometers

UNIT – III
Measurement of Acceleration & Vibration:

• Different simple instruments, Principles of Seismic
instruments, Vibrometer and accelerometer using this
principle

COURSE OUTLINE
UNIT -3
LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS Learning objectives
1 Measurement of Flow: Liquid level Different Type- Hook,

Sight & float
2 Indirect Methods of measurement of Advantages &
flow: Capacitive liquid level, Ultrasonic disadvantages
method
3 Magnetic type level indicator Cryogenic Fuel &

Bubbler level indicator
4 Types of flow measurement Flow meters,
Instruments Rotamtere
5 Turbine Flowmeter Hot wire anemeometer
6 Ultrasonic Flow measurement LDA

COURSE OUTLINE
UNIT -3
LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS Learning objectives
7 Measurement of Speed, Acceleration Mechanical

and Vibration Tachometer
8 Electrical Tachometers, Measurement Tachogenerator
of acceleration

LECTURE 1
• Direct methods Measurement of Liquid and
Flow
• Hook type level indicators
• Sight Glass
• Float type

MEASUREMENT OF LIQUID LEVEL
• Liquid level refers to the position or height of a liquid surface above
a datum line.
• Level measurements are made to a certain quantity of the liquid
held with in a container.
• Level offers both the pressure and rate of flow in and out of the
container and as such its measurement and control is an important
function in a variety of processes.
• The task of liquid level measurement may be accomplished by
direct methods and indirect methods.
❑Direct method
❑Indirect Method

DIRECT METHODS
• This is the simplest method of measuring liquid level. In this
method, the level of liquid is measured directly by means of the
following level indicators:
➢ Hook-type Level Indicator
➢ Sight Glass
➢ Float-type
➢ Float and shaft liquid level gauge.

DIRECT METHODS
HOOK-TYPE LEVEL
INDICATOR
• When the level of liquid in an

open tank is measured directly
on a scale (the scale may be in
the liquid or outside it), it is
sometimes difficult to read the
level accurately because of
parallax error.
• In this case a hook type of
level indicator is used.

CONSTRUCTION & WORKING
• Hook-type level indicator consists of a wire of corrosion resisting
alloy (such as stainless steel) about ¼ in (0.063 mm) diameter.
• Bent into U-Shane with one arm longer than the other as shown in
Fig. The shorter arm is pointed with a °60 tater.
• While the longer one is attached to a slider having a Vernier scale.
Which moves over the main scale and indicates the level.
• In hook-type level indicator, the hook is pushed below the surface
of liquid whose level is to be measured and gradually raised until
the point is just about to break through the surface.
• It is then clamped, and the level is read on the scale. This principle
is further utilized in the measuring point manometer in which the
measuring point consists of a steel point fixed with the point
upwards underneath the water surface.

DIRECT METHODS
SIGHT GLASS
• A sight glass (also called a

gauge glass) is another
method of liquid level
measurement.
• It is used for the continuous
indication of liquid level within,
tank or vessel.

• A sight glass instrument consists of a graduated tube of toughened
glass which is connected to the interior of the tank at the bottom in
which the water level is required.
• Figure shows a simple sight glass for an open tank in which the
liquid level in the sight glass matches the level of liquid in the tank,
As the Ievel of liquid in the tank rises and falls, the level in the sight
glass also rises and falls accordingly.
• Thus, by measuring the level in the sight glass, the level of liquid in
the tank is measured.
• In sight glass, it is not necessary to use the same liquid as in the
tank.
• Any other desired liquid also can be used.

DIRECT METHODS
➢FLOAT-TYPE
• FIoat-Type Level Indicator moat

operated level indicator is used
to measure liquid levels in a tank
in which a float rests on the
surface of liquid and follows the
changing level of liquid.
• The movement of the float is
transmitted to a pointer through
a suitable mechanism which
indicates the level on a
calibrated scale.
• Various types of floats are used
such as hollow mewl spheres,
cylindrical-shaped floats and
disc-shaped floats.

• Figure shows the simplest form of float operated mechanism for
the continuous liquid level measurement.
• In this case, the movement of the float is transmitted to the pointer
by stainless steel or phosphor-bronze flexible cable wound around
a pulley, and the pointer indicates liquid level in the tank.
• The float is made of corrosion resisting material (such as stainless
steel) and rests on liquid level surface between two grids to avoid
error due to turbulence.
• With this type of instrument, liquid level from ½ ft. (152 mm) to 60,
ft. (1.52 m) can be easily measured.

THANK YOU

LECTURE 2
• Indirect Methods Indirect methods
• Capacitive liquid level sensors

• Ultrasonic method
• Advantages & disadvantages

INDIRECT METHODS
• Indirect methods liquid level measurements converts the changes
in liquid level into some other form such as resistive, capacitive or
inductive beyond force, hydrostatic pressure … Etc. and measures
them.
• Thus the change occurred in these parameters gives the measures
of liquid level.

INDIRECT METHOD
CAPACITIVE LIQUID LEVEL SENSOR
• The principle of operation of

capacitance level indicator is
based upon the familiar
capacitance equation of a parallel
plate capacitor.
• Therefore, it is seen from the
above elation that if A and D are
constant, then the capacitance of a
capacitor is directly proportional to
the dielectric constant, and this
principle is utilized in the
capacitance level indicator

• Figure shows a capacitance type Liquid level indicator.
• It consists of an insulated capacitance probe (which is a metal
electrode) firmly fixed near and parallel to the maul wall of the tank.
• If liquid in the tank is non-inductive, the capacitance probe and the
tank wall form the plates of a parallel plate capacitor and liquid in
between them acts as the dielectric.
• If liquid is conductive, the capacitance probe and liquid form the
plates of the capacitor and the insulation of the probe acts as the
dielectric.
• A capacitance measuring device is connected with the probe and
the tank wall, which is calibrated in terms of the level of liquid in the
tank.

INDIRECT METHOD
ULTRASONIC METHOD
• Ultrasonic liquid level works on the

principle of reflection of the sound
wave from the surface of the liquid.
• The schematic arrangement of
liquid level measurement by
ultrasonic liquid level gauge is
illustrated above

• The transmitter ‘T’ sends the ultrasonic wave towards the free
surface of the liquid.
• The wave gets reflected from the surface. The reflected waves
received by the receiver ‘R’.
• The time taken by the transmitted wave to travel to the surface of
the liquid and then back to the receives gives the level of the liquid.
• As the level of the liquid reaches the time taken to reach the
surface of the liquid and then back to receiver also changes.
• Thus the change in the level of the liquid are determined
accurately.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
• Advantages:-
➢ Operating principle is very simple.
➢ It can be used for various types of liquids and solid substances.
• Disadvantages:-
➢ Very expensive.
➢ Very experienced and skilled operator is required for measurement

THANK YOU

LECTURE 3
• Magnetic type level indicator Indirect Methods
• Cryogenic fuel level indicator

• Bubbler level indicator

INDIRECT METHOD
MAGNETIC TYPE LEVEL INDICATORS:
• These are used for measuring the

toxic and corrosive liquids.
• It is used to measure the level of
liquids which contain corrosive and
toxic materials.
• It contains a float in which a
magnet is arranged and is placed
in the chamber, whose liquid level
is to be determined.

• The float moves up and down with the increase and decrease in
the level of liquid respectively.
• A magnetic shielding device and an indicator containing small
wafers arranged in series and attached to the sealed chamber.
• These wafers are coated with luminous paint and rotate 180*.
• As the level changes the float moves (along with the magnet) up
and down.
• Due to this movement of magnet, wafers rotate and present a
black coloured surface for the movement of float in opposite
direction.

INDIRECT METHOD
CRYOGENIC FUEL LEVEL INDICATOR:
• A gas which changes its state

(gaseous state into liquid state).
When cooled to very low
temperatures is known as
cryogenic fluid.
• A cryogenic fluid exists in liquid
state at very low temperatures,
which are usually less than the
temperature levels at which a
superconductor exhibits zero
resistance characteristic.

BUBBLER LEVEL INDICATOR:

• The Bubbler type level indicator is also known as purge type of
liquid level meter.
• In this technique of level measurement, the air pressure in the
pneumatic pipeline is adjusted and maintained slightly greater than
the hydrostatic pressure at the lower end of the bubbler tube.
• The bubbler tube is dipped in the tank such that its lower end is at
zero level i.e., reference level, and the other end is attached to a
pressure regulator and a pressure gauge.
• Now the supply of air through the bubbler tube is adjusted so that
the air pressure is slightly higher than the pressure exerted by the
liquid column in the vessel or tank.

• This is accomplished by adjusting the air pressure regulator until a
slow discharge of air takes place i.e., bubbles are seen leaving the
lower end of the bubbler tube.
• (In some cases a small air flow meter is arranged to control an

excessive air flow if any).
• When there is a small flow of air and the fluid has uniform density,
the pressure indicated by the pressure gauge is directly
proportional to the height of the level in the tank provided the
gauge is calibrated properly in unit of liquid level.

THANK YOU

LECTURE 4
• Types of flow measuring Flow Measurement
instruments
• Flow meters
• Rotometer
• Advantages

FLOW MEASUREMENT
• Measurement of fluid velocity, flow rate and flow quantity with
varying degree of accuracy or a fundamental necessity in almost
all the flow situations of engineering.
• Studying ocean or air currents, monitoring gas input into a vacuum
chamber, measuring blood movement in a vein.
• The scientist or engineer is faced with choosing a method to
measure flow.
• For experiment procedures, it may be necessary to measure the
rates of flow either into or out of the engines. “Pumps, compressors
and turbines”.

• In industrial organizations flow measurement is needed for
providing the basis for controlling processes and operations.
• That is for determining the proportions of materials entering or
leaving, a continuous manufacturing process.
• Flow measurements are also made for the purpose of cost
accounting in distribution of water and gas to domestic consumers,
and in the gasoline pumping stations.

TYPES OF FLOW MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
➢ Quantity meters:
• In this class of instruments actual flow rate is measured.
• Flow rate measurement devices frequently required accurate.
Pressure and temperature measurements in order to calculate the
output of the instrument.
• The overall accuracy of the instrument depends upon the accuracy
of pressure and temperature measurements.
1. Weight or volume tanks.
2. Positive displacement or semi-positive displacement meters

FLOW METERS
• Obstruction meters.
• Orifice Nozzle Venture
• Variable-area meters.
• Velocity probes.
• Static pressure probes.
• Total pressure probes.
• Special methods.
• Turbine type meters.
• Magnetic flow meters.

ROTAMETER
• The rotameter is the most
extensively used form of the
variable area flow meter.
• It consists of a vertical tapered
tube with a float which is free to
move up or down within the tube
as shown in Fig.
• The tube is made tapered so that
there is a linear relationship
between the flow rate and
position in the float within the
tube

• The free area between float and inside wall of the tube forms an
annular orifice.
• The tube is mounted vertically with the small end at the bottom.
• The fluid to be measured enters the tube from the boom and passes
upward around the float and exit at the top.
• When there is no flow through the rotameter, the float rests at the
bottom of the metering tube where the maximum diameter of the float
is approximately the same as the bore of the tube.
• When fluid enters the metering tube, the float moves up, and the flow
area of the annular orifice increases.
• The pressure differential across the annular orifice is paranormal to
the square of its flow area and to the square of the flow rate.
• The float is pushed upward until the `limns force produced by the
pressure differential across its upper and lower surface is equal to the
weight of the float

• If the flow rate rises, the pressure differential and hence the lining
force increases temporarily, and the float then rises, widening the
annular orifice until the force cawed by the pressure differential is
again equal to the weight of the Boat.
• Thus, the pressure differential remains constant and the area of
the annular orifice (i.e., free area between float and inside wall of
the tube) to which the float moves.
• Changes in proportion to the flow rate. Any decrease in flow rate
causes the float to drop to a lower position.
• Every float position corresponds to one particular flow rate for a
quid of a given density and viscosity.

ADVANTAGES OF ROTAMETER
• Simplicity of operation.
• Ease of reading and installation.
• Relatively low cost.
• Handles wide variety of corrosive fluids.
• Easily equipped with data transmission, indicating and recording
devices. Disadvantages:-
• Glass tube subject to breakage.
• Limited to small pipe sizes and capacities.
• Less accurate compared to venture and orifice meters.
• Must be mounted vertically.
• Subject to oscillations.

THANK YOU

LECTURE 5
• Turbine flow meter Flow Measurement
• Advantages & disadvantages

• Hot wire anemometer
• Magnetic flow measurement

TURBINE FLOW METER
• Principle: - The permanent magnet attached to the body of rotor is
polarized at 90° to the axis of rotation.
• When the rotor rotates due to the velocity of the fluid (V), the
permanent magnet also rotates along with the rotor.
• Therefore, a rotating magnetic field will be generated which is then
cut by the pickup coil.
• Due to this ac-voltage pulses are generated whose frequency is
directly proportional to the flow rate.

➢ Advantages:-
• Good accuracy and repeatability. Easy to install and maintain.
• Low pressure drop. Electrical output is available. Good transient
response.
➢ Disadvantages:-
• High cost.
• The bearing of the rotor may subject to corrosion.
• Wear and tear problems. Applications:-
• Used to determine the fluid flow in pipes and tubes.
• Flow of water in rivers.
• Used to determine wind velocity in weather situations or conditions.

HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER
• When a fluid flows over an
electrically heated surface,
heat transfer takes place from
the surface or wire to the fluid.
• Hence, the temperature of the
heated wire decreases which
causes variations in the
resistance.
• The change that occurred in
the resistance of the wire is
related to the flow rate.

• The sensor is a 5 micron diameter platinum tungsten wire welded
between the two prongs of the probe and heated electrically as a
part of Wheat stone bridge circuit.
• When the probe is introduced into the fluid flowing, it tends to be
cooled by the instantaneous velocity and consequently there is a
tendency for the electrical resistance to change.
• The rate of cooling depends up on the dimensions and physical
properties of the wire.
• Difference of the temperature between the wire and fluid, physical
properties of the fluid, string velocity under measurement.

MAGNETIC FLOWMETER
• Magnetic flow meter depends up
on the faradays law of
electromagnetic induction.
• These meters utilize the principles
of faradays law of electromagnetic
induction for making a flow
measurement.
• It states that whenever a conductor
moves through a magnet field of
given field strength; a voltage is
induced in the conductor, which is
proportional to the relative
between the conductor and the
magnetic field.

• In case of magnetic flow meters electrically conductive flowing
liquid works as the conductor the induced voltage.
• The length L of which is the distance between the electrodes and
equals the pipe diameter.
• As the liquid passes through the pipe section, it also passes
through the magnetic field set up by the magnet coils, thus
inducing the voltage in the liquid which is detected by the pair of
electrodes mounted in the pipe wall.
• The amplitude of the induced voltage is proportional to the velocity
of the flowing liquid.
• The magnetic coils may energized either by AC or DC voltage, but
the recent development is the pulsed DC-type in which the
magnetic coils are periodically energized.

➢ Advantages:-
• It can handle greasy materials.
• It can handle corrosive fluids.
• Accuracy is good.
• It has very low pressure drop.
➢ Disadvantages:-
• Cost is more.
• Heavy and larger in sizes.
• Explosion proof when installed in hazardous electrical areas.
• It must be full at all times.

THANK YOU

LECTURE 6
• Ultrasonic Flow measurement Flow Measurement
• Laser Doppler Anemometer (LDA)

ULTRASONIC FLOW METER

• The velocity of propagation of ultrasonic sound waves in a fluid is
changed when the velocity of the flow of fluid changes.
• The arrangement of flow rate measurement using ultrasonic
transducer contains two piezo-electric crystals placed in the fluid
whose flow rate is to be measured of these two crystals one acts as a
transmitting transducer and the other acts as a receiving transducer.
• The transmitter and receiver are separated by some distance say “L”.
• Generally the transmitting transducer is placed in the upstream and it
transmits ultrasonic pulses.
• These ultrasonic pulses are then received by the receiving transducer
placed at the downstream flow. Let the time taken by the ultrasonic
pulsed to travel from the transmitter and received at the receiver is
“delta”.

LASER DOPPLER ANEMOMETER (LDA)

• The optical flow visualization methods offer the advantage that
they do not disturb the flow during the measurement process.
• The LDA is a device that offers the non-disturbance advantages of
optical methods while affording a very precise quantitate
measurement of flow velocity.
• This instrument is the most recent development in the area of flow
measurement, especially measurement of high frequency
turbulence fluctuation.
• The operating principle of this instrument involves the focusing of
laser beams at a point, where the velocity is to be measured and
then sensing with a photo detector.

• The light scattered by then particles carried along with the fluid as
it passes though the laser focal point.
• The velocity of the particles which is assumed to be equal to the
fluid velocity causes a Doppler shift of the frequency of the
scattered light and produces a photo detector signal related to the
velocity.

THANK YOU

LECTURE 7
• Mechanical Tachometer Measurement of Speed,
acceleration & Vibration
• Tachoscope
• Hand speed indicators
• Slipping Clutch tachometer
• Centrifugal force tachometer
• Vibrating tachometer

MEASUREMENT OF SPEED, ACCLERATION
AND VIBRATION
• Speed is a rate variable defined as the time-rate of motion.
Common forms and units of speed measurement include: linear
speed expressed in meters per second (m/s), and the angular
speed of a rotating machine usually expressed in radians per
second (rad/s) or revolutions per minute (rpm).
• Measurement of rotational speed has acquired prominence
compared to the measurement of linear speed.
• Angular measurements are made with a device called tachometer.
• Tachometers may be broadly classified into two categories:
➢ Mechanical tachometers and
➢ Electrical tachometers.

MECHANICAL TACHOMETERS
• The revolution counter, sometimes
called a speed counter, consists of
a worm gear which is also the
shaft attachment and is driven by
the speed source.
• The worm drives the spur gear
which in turn actuates the pointer
on a calibrated dial.
• A properly designed and
manufactured revolution counter
would give a satisfactory speed
measure upto 2000-3000 rpm.
•

TACHOSCOPE
• The difficulty of starting a counter and a
watch at exactly the same time led to the
development of tachoscope, which consists
of a revolution counter incorporating a built-
in timing device.
• The two components are integrally mounted,
and start simultaneously when the contact
point is pressed against the rotating shaft.
• The instrument runs until the contact point is
disengaged from the shaft.
• The rotational speed is computed from the
readings of the counter and timer.
• Tachoscopes have been used to measure
speeds upto 5000 rpm.

HAND SPEED INDICATOR
• The indicator has an integral stop watch and
counter with automatic disconnect.
• The spindle operates when brought in
contact with the shaft, but the counter does
not function until the start and wind button is
pressed to start the watch and engage the
automatic clutch.
• Depressing of the starting button also serves
to wind the starting watch. After a fixed time-
interval (usually 3 or 6 seconds), the
revolution counter automatically gets
disengaged.

SLIPPING CLUTCH TACHOMETER
• The rotating shaft drives an

indicating shaft through at
slipping clutch.
• A pointer attached to the
indicator shaft moves over a
calibrated scale against the
torque of a spring.
• The pointer position gives a
measure of the shaft speed.

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE TACHOMETER
• The device operates on the principle

that centrifugal force is proportional
to the speed of rotation.
• Two flyballs (small weights) are
arranged about a central spindle.
• Centrifugal force developed by these
rotating balls works to compress the
spring as a function of rotational
speed.
• A grooved collar or sleeve attached
to the free end of the spring then
slides on the spindle and its position
can be calibrated in terms of the
shaft speed.

VIBRATING TACHOMETER
• Tachometers of the vibrating reed

type utilize the fact that speed and
vibration in a body are interrelated.
• The instrument consists of a set of
vertical reeds, each having its own
natural frequency of vibration.
• The reeds are lined up in order of
their natural frequency and are
fastened to a base plate at one end,
with the other end free to vibrate.

VIBRATING TACHOMETER
• Tachometers of the vibrating reed

type utilize the fact that speed and
vibration in a body are interrelated.
• The instrument consists of a set of
vertical reeds, each having its own
natural frequency of vibration.
• The reeds are lined up in order of
their natural frequency and are
fastened to a base plate at one end,
with the other end free to vibrate.

THANK YOU

LECTURE 8
• Drug cup tachometer Electrical Tachometer
• Tachogenerator
• Stroboscope
• Measurement of Acceleration

ELECTRICAL TACHOMETERS
• An electrical tachometer depends for its indications upon an
electrical' signal generated in proportion to the rotational speed of
the shaft.
• Depending on the type of the transducer, electrical tachometers
have been constructed in a variety of different designs.

DRUG CUP TACHOMETER
• In an eddy current or drag type
tachometer, the test shaft rotates a
permanent magnet and this induces
eddy currents in a drag cup or disc
held close to the magnet.
• The eddy currents produce a torque
which rotates the cup against the
torque of a spiral spring.
• The disc tums in the direction of the
rotating magnetic field until the torque
developed equals that of the spring.
• A pointer attached to the cup indicates
the rotational speed on a calibrated
scale.

TACHOGENEREATORS

• These tachometers employ small magnet type d.c or a.c
generators which translate the rotational speeds into d.c. or a.c
voltage signal.
• The operating principle of such tachometers is illustrated in Fig.
• Relative perpendicular motion between a magnetic field and
conductor results in voltage generation in the conductor.
• D. C. tachometergenerator: This is an accurately made dc.
generator with a permanent magnet of horse-shoe type.
• A.C. tachometer generator: The unit embodies a stator surrounding
a rotating permanent magnet.

STROBOSCOPE
• The stroboscope utilises the phenomenon of vision when an object
is viewed intermittently.
• The human sense of vision is so slow to react to light stimuli that it
is unable to separate two different light impulses reaching the eye
within a very short Period of time (less than 0.1second).
• A succession of impulses following one another at brief intervals
are observed by the eye as a continuous unbroken sequence.
• A mechanical disk type stroboscope consists essentially of a
whirling disk attached to motor whose speed can be varied and
measured.
• A reference mark on the rotating shaft on the shaft appears to be
stationary.

MEASUREMENT OF ACCELERATION:
• There are two types of accelerometers generally used for

measurement of acceleration:
(i) Piezo-eletric type, and (ii) seismic type.
➢ Piezo-electric accelerometer: The unit is perhaps the simplest and
most commonly used transducer employed for measuring
acceleration.
• The sensor consists of a piezo-electric crystal sandwitched,
between two electrodes and has a mass placed on it.
• The unit is fastened to the base whose acceleration characteristics
are to be obtained.
• The can threaded to the base acts as a 'spring and squeezes the
mass against the crystal.

• Mass exerts a force on the crystal and a certain output voltage is
generated. If the base is now accelerated downward, inertial
reaction force on the base acts upward against the top of the can.
This relieves stress on the crystal.
• From Newton's second law, force = mass × acceleration

THANK YOU

UNIT-IV
STRESS STRAIN MEASUREMENT

Measurement Systems
2
Measuring Strain (Strain Gages)
•What is Strain? Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an
applied force. More specifically, strain is defined as the fractional change in
length.
•When a force is applied to a structure, the components of the structure change
slightly in their dimensions and are said to be strained.
• Devices to measure these small changes in dimensions are called strain gages.
• What devices can be used to measure strain?
Electrical Resistance Strain Gage
• The ideal sensor for the measurement of strain would
- Have good spatial resolution, implying that the sensor would
measure strain at a point
- Be unaffected by changes in ambient conditions
- Have a high-frequency response for dynamic strain measurements.
• A device that closely meets these characteristics is the resistance strain
gage.
3
What is Strain Gage?
• A strain gauge, a device whose electrical resistance varies in proportion

to the amount of strain in the device. The most widely used gage is the
bonded metallic strain gage.
4
•The electrical resistance strain gage is an extremely common device used to
measure strain in structures and also as a sensing element in a wide variety of
transducers, including those used to measure force, acceleration and pressure.
•Electrical-resistance strain gages and associated signal conditioners are simple,
inexpensive and quite reliable.
•To understand the function of a strain gage, consider the measurement of strain
in a simple structure shown below.
5
•The figure shows a situation in which a supported beam is bent by applying a
lateral force.
•With this type of loading, the beam will become longer on the bottom surface
and shorter on the top surface.
•A wire that is attached to the beam using two standoffs functions as a simple
strain gage.
• Consider the original lengt h of the wire be l (i.e. under no loading).
• When the beam is loaded, t his wire is stretched and its length becomes l + δl.
• The ratio δl/l is known as t he strain and is usually given a symbol ε.
•In the above case, the strai n in the wire is approximately the same as the strain
in the lower surface of the b eam.
•The stretching of the wire w ill cause its electrical resistance to change so that
the wire is a detector of stra in.
6
•Strain has units of inches per inch or millimeters per millimeter and hence it is
dimensionless. In most structures the values of strain are usually very small. For
example, low-strength steel will yield (take a permanent deform) at a strain
about 0.0014.
• Therefore, usually the strain is expressed in units of microstrain (µstrain).
• Thus, 0.0014 strain = 0.0014 × 10^6 µstrain = 1400 µstrain.
•In the engineering design process, it is often necessary to determine the
stresses in a structure experimentally to determine if the structure is sound.
•It is difficult to measure the stress directly, but a strain gage can be used to
measure the strain, and then the stress can be determined using the Hooke’s law.
That is
σ = Eε
where, σ is the normal stress and E is the modulus of elasticity (also called
Young’s modulus) which is a material property.
•For a wire to work as a strain gage, the relationship between the change in
resistance and the strain must be known.
7
• The resistance of a wire is given by
L
R=
A
where, R is the resistance, ρ is the resistivity of wire which is a function of the
wire material, L is the length of wire, and A is the cross-sectional area of the wire.
•Taking logarithms of both sides, separating the terms and differentiating each
term, we get dR d dL dA
= + −
R  L A
•The above equation relates a small change in resistance to changes in resistivity,
length and cross-sectional area.
• The term dL/L is the axial strain, εa.
• The term dA/A can be evaluated from the equation of the cross-sectional area
A=πD^2/4.
• Taking the logarithm and differentiating the above equation we get
dA dD
=2
A D
8
• The term dD/D is known as the transverse strain, εt.
• Solid mechanics provides the following relationship between the axial and
transverse strain t = −va
where, v is known as Poisson’s ratio and it is the property of material.
•The negative sign indicates that as the wire becomes longer, the transverse
dimension decreases.
• Combining the above equations we get
dR d
= +  a (1+ 2v)
R 
•The above equation shows the relationship between the change in resistance of
the wire, strain, and the change in resistivity of the wire.
• The strain gage factor, S, is defined as dR / R
S=
a
d / 
• Combining the above two equations we get S = 1+ 2v +
a
9
•If the temperature is held constant, the change in resistivity is proportional to the
strain.
•The strain gage factor is approximately constant, although it is sensitive to the
temperature change.
• In summary, we have following equations:
10
•In addition to the strain gages constructed in the form of straight wires, another
common type of strain gages are constructed by etching them from thin foil metal
sheets that are bounded to a plastic backing, as shown below.
• This backing is glued to the structure whose strain needs to be measured.

• The dimensions of strain gages vary. They can be as small as 200 µm.
• Strains as high as 200,000 µε can be measured.
• Strain gages can also be constructed from semiconductor materials.
•The semiconductor strain gages are commonly used as sensing elements in pressure
and acceleration transducers. However, they cannot measure very high strain.
11
•If a structure is loaded in a single direction, there exists a transverse strain but no
transverse stress.
• This strain can be measured as t = −va
• This effect is included when manufacturers determine strain gage factors.
•In many situations, the surface of a structure is stressed simultaneously in more than one
direction, leading to the so-called biaxial stress.
• In biaxial stress there is a transverse strain that results from the transverse stress.
•This transverse strain affects the strain gage output and be described with a transverse
gage factor, St, defined as
dR / R
St =
t
• The transverse sensitivity effects are usually neglected in the strain measurements.
•To define the strain on a surface, it is necessary to specify two orthogonal linear strains εx
and εy, and a third strain called the shear strain, γxy, the change in angle between two
originally orthogonal lines when the solid is strained.
•These strains can be determined by three suitably placed strain gages in an arrangement
called a strain rosette.
12
• Two common arrangements of the three strain gages are:
- Rectangular rosette
- Equiangular rosette
• In rectangular rosette, the gages are placed at angles of 0, 45 and 90 degrees.
• In equiangular rosette, the gages are arranged at 0, 60 and 120 degrees.
13
─
14
Measuring Displacement
•Potentiometers are very common devices used to measure displacement. A linear
potentiometer is used for linear measurements and an angular potentiometer is used for
angular measurements.
•The linear potentiometer is a device in which the resistance varies as a function
of the position of a slider, shown below.
•With the supply voltage (Vs), the output voltage (Vo) will vary between zero and the
supply voltage.
•For linear potentiometer, the output is a simple linear function of the slider position. That
is x
Vo = V s
L
15
Measuring Displacement
•It should be noted that the device measuring Vo must have a high impedance to
maintain a linear response and avoid loading error.
•Linear potentiometers can be used to measure displacements as small as 0.1 to 0.2 in.
(2.5 to 5 mm) up to displacements of more than 1 ft.
16
•The electrical resistance strain gage is an extremely common device used to
measure strain in structures and also as a sensing element in a wide variety of
transducers, including those used to measure force, acceleration and pressure.
•Electrical-resistance strain gages and associated signal conditioners are simple,
inexpensive and quite reliable.
•To understand the function of a strain gage, consider the measurement of strain
in a simple structure shown below.
17
Sling Pyschrometer :-
• A sling psychrometer, which uses

thermometers attached to a handle or length
of rope and spun in the air for about one
minute, is sometimes used for field
measurements, but is being replaced by
more convenient electronic sensors. A
whirling psychrometer uses the same
principle, but the two thermometers are
fitted into a device that resembles a ratchet
or football rattle.
Sling Psychrometer
Operation
•
:
In order to measure the dry bulb and wet bulb temperature, the
Psychrometer frame – glass covering – thermometer arrangement is rotated
at 5 m/s to 10 m/s to get the necessary air motion. The thermometer whose
- bulb is bare contacts the air indicates the dry bulb temperature. At the same
time, the thermometer whose bulb is covered with the wet wick comes in
contact with the air and when this pass on the wet wick present on the bulb
of the thermometer, the moisture present in the wick starts evaporating and
a cooling effect is produced at bulb. Now the temperature indicated by the
thermometer is the wet bulb thermometer which will naturally be lesser
than the dry bulb temperature.
Precautions :-
• If the Psychrometer is rotated for a short period, then the wet bulb
temperature recorded will not be proper. If the Psychrometer is rotated for a
longer period, the wick will get dried soon and the wet bulb temperature
will not be at its minimum value.
Application
:-
✓ It is used for checking humidity level in
air- conditioned rooms and installations.
✓ It is used to set and check hair hygrometer.
✓ It is used in the measurement range of 0
to 100% RH.
✓ It is used for measuring wet bulb
temperature between 0’C to 180’C.
MEASUREMENT OF FORCE,
TORQUE AND POWER
UNIT-V
Measurement of force
• Force can be said as any interaction
of the object, such that it changes
the objects motions or causes the
change in velocity.
• In other words if the force is

unopposed it will change the
velocity of the body.
The measurement of Force
• The forces can be measured in many
ways as follows
1. Direct methods.
2. Indirect methods.
1. Direct method-It involves a direct

companion with known as gravitational
force on the standard mass for Example
Balancing mass.
The measurement of Force
• The following methods are used to
measure the forces
1. Direct methods
2. Indirect methods
2.Indirect methods- It involves the
measurement of the effects of force on a
body such as acceleration of a body
known mass subjected to force.
Direct measurement of force measurement
Equal Arm-
It is most simple force measuring system,
it basic principle is based on the moment
of comparsion. This system consist of
beam pivoted on a knife edge of fulcrum
placed exactly at the centre of the
beam.
When the a unknown force is applied at
one end of the beam, the mass on the
other end of the beam balances the
unknown forces.
Analytical Balance
• Analytical means analyzing or logical
reason.
• With Figure shown there are two pivoted
arms at point ‘O’ and two forces are held
at the two points as W1 and W2, taking
W2 as unknown force,
• The unbalance in the weight will be
indicated by the arm in certain angular
distance.
Unequal Arm balance
• Unequal Arm is used to
measure the heavier weight
with the help of lighter weights.
It uses two arms out of which
one is called as load arm, and
other is power arm.
• Load arm is where the load is
applied and where as the power
arm is used to apply the counter
weights to balance in
equilibrium.
Pendulum scale weight
• The input is direct force proportional to
the weight. The input is transmitted with
the suitable agency and applied to the
load rod.
• As the load is applied the sectors rotate
about the pivot moving the counter
weights outwards .
Indirect methods of Force measurement
• Accelerometer-
A force will make a body to
accelerate. By measuring the
acceleration, the force may be
determined from the equation
F=m.a
Load cell
• Load cell is a electromechanical transducer that convert the
loads/forces acting on it into an analog electrical signals. The major
drawback is the need to minimize the friction.
• Load cell provides accurate measurement of compressive and tensile
load/forces.
• Types of load cell.
1. Hydraulic load cell.
2. Pneumatic load cell.
Hydraulic Load cell
Pneumatic Load cell
Elastic loaded members
• It works with principle of finding the
deflection or strain produced in the body
to measure the force applied.
• The strain or deflection can be directly
measured or in an indirect way by using
secondary transducers by converting the
displacement into another form of output
which naturally electrical in nature.
Proving Rings
• Proving ring is used to
measure the displacement
caused by the force.
• The displacement transducer is
placed on the both ends of the
rings.
• With LVDT transformer or
Strain gauge the displacement
is found out.
Strain gauge
Strain Gauge
Diaphragm pressure gauge
• Diaphragm pressure sensor uses
the elastic deformation of
diaphragm to measure the relative
difference between an unknown
pressure and reference pressure.
• Diaphragm is made of silicon which
is a thin circular membrane
Diaphragm pressure gauge
Pressure capsule
Bourdon pressure tube gauge
Bellows pressure gauge
Strain type load gauge
Electronic Weighing Machine
Torque measurement
• Torque is the just the rotational force through the distance, it is
represented as moment vector force.
Types of Torque measurement devices
1. Prony brake.
2. Torque measurement using the strain gauge.
3.Torque measurement using torsional bar.
i)Optical method.
ii) Capacitive method.
iii)Laser optic method.
Prony brake or absorption dynamometer
Prony brake or absorption dynamometer
Torque measurement using strain gauge
Torque measurement using torsion bars
Capacitive method
Capacitive method
Laser Optic method
Proximity sensor method
Surface acoustic wave (SAW) method
Surface acoustic wave (SAW) method
Measurement of Power
• Measurement of power is generally done by the help of
dynamometer.
• A dynamometer is brake expect for which it is not measuring device
and it will indicate the magnitude of the force required in attempt to
stop the engine.
• Types of Dynamometer-
1. Absorption Dynamometer.
2. Driving Dynamometer.
3. Transmission Dynamometer.
Type of Dynamometer
• Absorption dynamometer-
They dissipate mechanical energy as the torque is measured. So
they are particularly useful for power measuring the power or torque
developed by the engines or electric motor.
• Driving dynamometer-
They measure power or torque and also provide energy to
operate the device to be tested. Hence they are used in compressor
and pumps.
Type of Dynamometer
• Transmission dynamometer-
These dynamometer are located at a particular place in a
machine and they sense the torque. They do not supply or receive
energy. These are also called torque meters.
Mechanical Dynamometers-
they come under the absorption type. There are two types of
mechanical dynamometer as follows
1. Prony brake.
2. Rope brake.
Prony brake
Rope brake
DC Dynamometer
Servo controlled Dynamometer
Eddy current or Inductor Dynamometer
Hydraulic Dynamometer
Temperature Measurement
• Temperature is the most widely monitored parameter in science and
industry .
• Temperature is defined as the average kinetic energy of the individual
molecules that comprise the component of the system
• The following are the common methods used to measure the
temperature
1. Liquid in thermometer.
2. Bimetallic strip.
3. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
Temperature measurement
Classification of temperature measuring
device
• Based on contact type
1. Thermometer.
2. Bimetallic strip.
3. Thermocouple.
4. Liquid in glass thermometer.
5. Resistance Temperature detector.
6. Thermistors
Classification of temperature measuring
device
•Based on the non contact type-
1.Radiation type pyrometer.
2.Optical pyrometer.
3.Fibre-optic pyrometer.
Liquid in Glass Thermometer
Pressure thermometer
Bimetallic strip
Bimetallic strip
Thermocouple
• The thermocouple is a device that converts thermal energy into
electrical energy. Thermocouple are very simple and durable
temperature sensors.
• Thermocouple uses of dissimilar metals to generates a voltage

proportional to the temperature.
Thermocouple
Laws of thermocouple
• Law of Homogeneous circuit-
“ This law states that a thermoelectric effect current cannot be

sustained in a circuit of a single homogenous materials, regardless of
variation in its cross section and by the application of heat alone.”
This law suggest that two dissimilar materials are required for
formation of any thermocouple circuit.
Laws of thermocouple
• Law of Intermediate metals-
“If an intermediate metal is inserted into a thermocouple circuit at

any point. The net emf will not be affected provided the two
junctions introduced by the third metal are at identical temperature.”
this law allows the measurement of the thermoelectric emf by

introducing a device into the circuit at any point without affecting net
emf, provided that additional junction introduced are all the same
temperature.
Law of intermediate temperature
“ If a thermocouple circuit generates an emf e1 and when its

two junction are at temperature T1 and T2, and e2 when the two
junction are at the temperature are maintained at T1 and T3, then the
thermocouple will generate an emf of e1 and e2 when its junction
temperature are maintained at T1 and T3”
Law of intermediate temperature
Various materials in Thermocouple
thermocouple
• Seebeck effect where two dissimilar metals A and B are used to close
loop and connecting Junctions are at two different temperature T1
and T2. the e.m.f produced is found to be almost linear in
temperature and very repetitive for constant materials.
• The e.m.f produced by the thermocouple loop is approximately given

by
E=𝛼(𝑇1 − 𝑇2)
Advantages of thermocouple
Thermopiles
• An extension of Thermocouple is the thermopile. Thermopiles
comprises a number of thermocouples connected in series, wherein
the hot junction are arranged side by side or in a star formation.
• In such cases the total output is given by sum of individual emfs.
• The advantages of combining thermocouples to form a thermopiles
is that a much more sensitive element is obtained For Eg a
sensitivity of 0.002 C at 1m V/C can be achieved with the chromal-
constantan thermopile consisting of 14 thermocouple.
thermopiles
• If n identical thermocouples are combined to form a thermopile then
the total emf will be n times the output of the single thermocouple
• For special purpose application such as measurement of temperature
of sheet glass thermopiles are constructed using a series of
semiconductors. For average temperature measurement
thermocouple can be connected in parallel.
• During formation one has to ensure that the hot junction of the
individual thermocouples are properly insulated from the one
another.
Resistor temperature Detector (RTD)
• The resistance of the metal highly dependent on temperature.
• When the wire is heated, the resistance of the wire increases so a
temperature can be measured using the resistance and it conversely
decrease the resistance as the temperature also decreases.
• Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) act similar to an electrical
transducer and it coverts the temperature to voltage signals by the
measurement of resistance.
• An RTD is a temperature sensor that works on the principle that the
resistance of electrically conductive materials is proportional to the
temperature to which they are exposed.
• Resistance of a metal increases with an increase in temperature.
Hence metals can be classified as per their positive temperature
coefficient (PTC).
• The RTD metals are best suited because of their coefficient of
resistance and ability to withstand repeated temperature cycle.
• The temperature range of RTDs are about 200 to 650 ‘C.
• RTDs are more rugged and have more less linear characteristic over a
wide temperature.
• Many Materials are commonly used for making resistance

thermometer such Platinum, nickel and copper.
• However mostly popular and widely used is platinum. So popular as
they are called as Platinum resistance thermometer.
• Some of the following reasons for choosing platinum are.
1. Chemical inertness.
2. Almost Linear relationship with temperature and resistance.
3. Large temperature Coefficient of resistance, resulting in readily
measurable values of resistance change due to variations in
temperature.
4. It must have resist to corrosion.
5. It should be inexpensive.
Thermistor
• Thermistor is a temperature sensitive resistor.
• Unlike metals it shows a decrease in resistance value with the
increase value of Temperature.
• It is made of oxides of nickel, cobalt or manganese and sulphides of
iron. Aluminum or coppers.
Thermistor
Thermistor
• Materials used in the thermistors for temperature measurement
have very high temperature coefficient (8-10 times higher than
platinum and copper) and higher resistivity.
• Thus they are very sensitive to small variations in temperature and
respond quickly.
• The temperature range of thermistor is -250 C to 650C
• Thermistors are also produced using oxides of manganese,Nickel
cobalt, Nickel copper, iron zinc, titanium and tin.
thermistor
• There are two type of thermistor depending upon temperature
coefficient of resistance (k)
1. Positive temperature coefficient (PTC)
2. Negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
Positive temperature coefficient- the resistance will increase with

increase in temperature.
Negative temperature coefficient- the resistance will decrease with
the increase in temperature.
pyrometer
• The pyrometer temperature measurement is based on the change in
the intensity and color of radiation.
• The pyrometer are used in temperature measurement by radiation.
• It is possible to determine the temperature of a body through a
measurement of the thermal radiation emitted by the body.
• Types of pyrometer
1. Total radiation pyrometer.
2. Infrared pyrometer.
3. Optical radiation pyrometer.
Total Radiation Pyrometer
Advantages and disadvantages
• It is non- contact type device.
• It gives a very quick response.
• High temperature measurement can be accomplished.
Disadvantages-
• Errors in temperature measurement are possible due to emission of
radiations to the atmosphere.
• Emissivity errors affect measurements.
Optical pyrometer
• In order to measure temperature the brightness generated by the
radiation of the unknown source or hot body whose temperature is to
be determined is compared with that of the reference lamp.
• The brightness of the reference lamp is adjusted equal to the hot
under consideration.
• The light intensity depends on the temperature of the object
irrespective to wavelength.
• The current flowing through the filament is adjusted by means of a
rheostat and ammeter is used to measure it.
Optical pyrometer
• The current passing through the circuit is proportional to the
temperature of the unknown source.
• An optical pyrometer essentially consist of an eyepiece by means of
which the filament and the source are focused so that they are super
imposed enabling a clear view for the observer.
Image of lamp through eyepiece
Infrared pyrometer
• It is well known fact that every material or matter whose temperature
is above absolute zero emits infrared radiation depending on
temperature.
• Infrared radiation are invisible to human eye and can be sensed as
heat.
• Radiations that have longer wave lengths that visible light are
known as infrared radiation, These radiations posses less energy
and less harmful.
• It can be sensed by the Infrared sensor. It essential measure the
radiation of the objects.
Infrared pyrometer
Infrared pyrometer
• It is ideally suited for the 500-600 C. the Infrared energy increase
with the temperature and decreases with temperature.
• The wavelength of the infrared radiation is 0.7 to 20 micrometer, but
normally radiation in the wavelength range 0.7-14 micrometer are
employed for the measurement.
• It usually comprises of the lens through which the infrared wave is
focused on the detector.
The infrared energy is absorbed and converted into electrical signals by
the detector. The amount of the radiation striking the detector
determines Output signals.
Ice bath check

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MECHANICAL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT - 2 CO2: To deliver working principle of mechanical

UNIT - 4 CO4: To analyze the stress and strain measurements

UNIT - 5 CO5: To understand the measurements of Force,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

• Basic Principles of Measurements

• Generalized Configuration and Functional descriptions of instruments

• Classification and Elimination of errors

• Piezo electric, Inductive, Capacitance, resistance, ionization and photo electric

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS Learning objectives (2

5 Piezoelectric & Learn & understand the

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

• The standard must be accurately known and internationally

• The apparatus and experimental procedure adopted for

comparison must be provable.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

• The human senses cannot provide exact quantitative information

• The firm requirements of precise and accurate measurements in

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

• Direct and indirect measurement

• Primary and secondary & tertiary measurement.

• Contact and non-contact type of measurement

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The value of the physical parameter is determined by comparing it

Eg: Mass, length and time

The value of the physical parameter is more generally determined by

Eg: The measurement is converting into an analogous signal which

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Based upon the complexity of the measurement systems, the

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The sought value of physical parameter is determined by comparing it

a) Matching of two lengths is determining the length of a object with

b) Estimation the temperature difference between the components of

c) Measurement of time by counting a number of strokes of a block.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The indirect measurements involving one transmission are called

The indirect measurements involving two convergent are called tertiary

a) The convergent of pressure into displacement by means of be allows

b) Pressure measurement by manometer and the temperature

c) The measurement of static pressure by boundary tube pressure

Where the sensing element of measuring device as a contact with

Where the sense doesn't communicate physically with the medium.

The optical, radioactive and some of the electrical/electronic

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

1. The major objective of instrumentation is to measure and control

the field parameters to increase safety and efficiency of the

2. To achieve good quality.

3. To achieve auto machine and automatic control of process there

4. To maintain the operation of the plan within the design

exportations and to achieve good quantity product.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING