International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering

Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 3, Issue 1, January 2013)

`A Review on the Prediction of Cavitation Erosion Inception

in Hydraulic Control Valves
B V.Hubballi1, Dr. V. B. Sondur 2
1
JCE, Belgaum Karnataka
2
MMEC, Belgaum Karnataka ,
Abstract-- Cavitation can occur in control valves II. OVER V IEW O F C AVITATION EROSION
handling fluids, causing loud noise as well as damaging
valve components and ultimately leading to additional costs.
The term „cavitation‟ is derived from the Latin verb
When actions for preventing cavitation are considered, it is cavitare meaning „to hollow out‟, thus referring to the
essential to recognize the existence of cavitation and formation of cavities. Cavitation can occur in valves
location of cavitation inception point. In fluid power when used in throttling or modulating service. Cavitation
components and systems cavitation can occur in various is the sudden vaporization and condensation of a liquid
locations where the access for measuring instruments is downstream of the valve due to localized low pressure
limited. Therefore, the existence of cavitation is often very zones.
difficult to detect. In this review paper, cavitation If the localized pressure falls below the vapor pressure
phenomenon is explained and effects of cavitation in the
of the fluid, the liquid vaporizes (boils) and forms a
control valves are dealt. This article discusses the causes of
cavitation, how it can be predicted and mechanisms used to
vapor pocket. As the vapor bubbles flow downstream, the
control or eliminate it. pressure recovers and the bubbles violently implode
causing a popping or rumbling sound. The condensation
Keywords-- Cavitation, Cavitation erosion, of the bubbles not only produces a ringing sound, but
Cavitation prediction, Control valve, Fluid Power. also creates localized stresses in the pipe walls and valve
body that can cause severe pitting.
I. INTRODUCTION
In typical industrial plants there are hundreds of
control loops. Most of these loops include a control valve
as the final control element. Therefore, reliable system
performance is directly associated with the control valve
reliability. Control valves play a crucial role in safely
controlling high process fluid energy levels to avoid
valve and piping damage from acoustic noise, vibration,
cavitation and erosion. Designing valves to resist the
deleterious effects of the throttling process fluid is only
as effective as the valve sizing and selection process
itself.
Valves are often used in fluid power systems to
control the operation of the actuators. The valves assert
their authority in the circuit by regulating pressure by
creating special pressure conditions, by deciding how
much oil will flow in portions of the circuit and by
guiding the oil where to go.
Due to small opening in the initial stage of the valve,
there is sudden flow occurs and this causes high
velocity of flow, hence this turbulent flow erodes the Figure. 1
poppet element and loses all characteristics of valve. The effect of cavitation plays a fundamental role in the
Therefore a control valve designed with hardened trim hydraulic components design and the capability of
material could last almost indefinitely on low pressure predicting its causes and characteristics is fundamental
drop service conditions. Of equal importance is the for the optimization of fluid systems. If cavitation levels
mutually dependent interaction of hydraulic fluids with are reduced below damaging levels the associated
component design, component metallurgy and the design vibration and noise levels will also be reduced to an
of the hydraulic system itself. acceptable level.

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 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 3, Issue 1, January 2013)
The two main mechanisms posited for cavitation  In area I, termed the incubation period, a loss in
erosion damage are: high pressure shock waves created weight is not yet measurable.
by the collapsing vapor, which can result in material  In area II is characterized by an almost constant
fatigue and plastic deformation and micro-jet erosion rate. Areas and depths of the material
impingement resulting from asymmetrical collapse of the erosion increase with time.
vapor bubbles near the material surfaces.  In area III, the surface that is already strongly
The material surface, depending on its structure, is fractured reduces the probability for an implosion
deformed, loosened and eventually eroded in particles in close to the surface as it acts as a kind of protective
various ways due to the frequent strain from the pressure cushion; the material erodes at a much slower rate.
waves created by the microjet occurring when the bubble
collapses.

Figure .3 The course of development of cavitation erosion

Figure. 2

III. SUMMARY O F ARTICLES

Cavitation [1] can arise in hydrodynamic flows when
the pressure drops. This effect is, however, regarded to
be a destructive phenomenon for the most part. In
addition to pump rotors, control valves are particularly
exposed to this problem, since the static pressure at the
vena-contract even at moderate operating conditions can
reach levels sufficient for cavitation to start occurring in
liquids.
The consequences for a control valve as well as for the
entire control process vary and are often destructives like
loud noise, strong vibrations, and choked flow caused by
vapor formation, change of fluid properties, erosion of
valve components and destruction of the control valve.
Cavitation shall be generally understood as the
dynamic process of the formation and implosion of
cavities in fluids. Valve coefficient of discharge,
operating pressure ratio, pressure drop, geometry of the
valve, gas contents of the fluid, fluid viscosity, surface Figure 4. Distribution of pressure in the valve
tension of the fluid and fluid density are important It is assumed that, in a control valve, the ratio of the
parameters for the significant of cavitation. external pressure difference (p1 – p2) to the internal
Cavitation erosion is generally subdivided into three pressure difference (p1 - pmin) for all cavitation-free
areas FIG 3. operating states equals a valve-specific value XFZ.

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Therefore, an analysis of flow conditions is needed
when a valve is used for flow or pressure control [2].
American Water Works Association (AWWA)
recommends that the constant cavitation data be used
when judging the affects of cavitation on the life of the
valve. A cavitation index can be calculated to predict
whether cavitation will occur as follows:

σ = ( P - P ) / (P - P ) ---- Eq.2
u v u d
The lower the value for the cavitation index (Fig.7),
the more likely cavitation will occur. As a rule of thumb,
manufacturers typically suggest that when σ is less than
Figure .5 2.5, cavitation may occur.

Determining the cavitation coefficient, XFZ

------ Eq.1
Since the minimum pressure occurs in one of the
unsteady vortex cores downstream of the restriction, it
cannot be determined by direct measurement. It is
therefore assumed that the minimum pressure p min equals Figure .8
the vapor pressure pV of the fluid when cavitation noise
begins, thus determining the pressure ratio XFZ as a
function of the valve load y by means of noise
measurements (Fig .5).
The sealing slope and plug surface of parabolic plugs
are particularly at risk from erosion (Fig. 6).The area
around the sealing edge should be given a Stellite facing.
A hard facing of the whole surface is recommended
when the cavitation intensity increases.

Figure .7
i) ii)
Most Control Valve Manufacturers [3] used a
Figure .6 i) Formation of cavitation zones
ii) Areas of parabolic plug at risk from erosion
cavitation index based on the standard control valve
pressure recovery test curve (Fig.9) to control valve
If a valve‟s XFZ values are known over the entire travel cavitation and damage control. This curve represents
range, it can be determined in advance for all operating capacity limitations as a result of bubble formation in the
pressure ratios whether cavitation effects are to be throttling vena contracta area (Fig.8).
expected. In case of an operating pressure ratio X F < XFZ Choked flow (FL) is achieved when further decrease
there is no danger of cavitation occurring. in pressure drop no longer results in an increase in
Valves can withstand limited durations of cavitation, capacity. The cavitation index (Kc) was defined as the
but when the valve must be throttled or modulated in point of initial departure from a proportional relationship
cavitating conditions for long periods of time, the life of between pressure drop and capacity.
the valve can be drastically reduced.

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Most manufacturers established an allowable This was the aim of a preliminary study conducted by
application cavitation index between FL and Kc, which YLec Consultants for EDF [ 5 ], Research and
has to vary with valve type. Development Division DER where cavitation erosion
was the phenomenon involved.
It is possible to make predictions of Mean Depth of
Deformation Rate [MDDR], when the parameters of the
flow, such as the velocity or the σ value are changed.
This is done solely during the so called incubation period
of the erosion process. A set of solutions are proposed in
this paper which can minimize the risks of cavitation
damage.

---Eq.4
Application of this method will permit to identify the
valves which are likely to present problems. It is able to
predict short term damage with a reasonable accuracy.
For long term damage, the experimental method based on
application of scaling laws (λ, λ3) is used. This procedure
permits to predict with an excellent precision the
Figure .9 histograms of pits which will be produced at any scale
Because of the wide range of variables (service and during the incubation period by extrapolation of
valve types) influencing cavitation damage potential, histograms obtained on models.
there is no simple universal index and calculation method Scaling includes dimensions, velocity, type of fluid
that can be used for all manufactures and valve types. To and type of material. The effect of geometric scale on
help improve this situation the Instrumentation, Systems long term cavitation damage has still to be characterised.
and Automation Society (ISA) set out to develop a more The theoretical approach developed in this paper can also
reliable method for accessing control valve cavitation be used to design valves or valve systems which could
damage potential. In 1995 ISA released a Recommended lead to non risky cavitation conditions are use of variable
Practice which included a method to predict control valve pumps, larger valves, valves in parallel, valves in series
cavitation damage potential for any type of control valve. and use of an Optivalve system.
In order to predict Cavitation Erosion, H. Soyama, H. C. Samuel Martin, H. Medlarz, D. C. Wiggert [ 6 ],
Kumano and M. Saka [ 4 ] ,proposed a new parameter in investigated cavitation in directional control valves in
the relation between the impact and the resistance of the order to identify the damage mechanisms characteristic
material. It is “threshold level” of materials to the of components of aircraft hydraulic systems. Tests have
cavitation impacts. The threshold level means that the been conducted in both a metal prototype valve and a
cavitation impacts which are larger than the threshold plexiglass model three times its size. A common test
level may affect the material. The existence of the facility was designed that allowed for control of flow,
threshold level was revealed experimentally in this work upstream pressure, downstream pressure, dissolved gas
using a cavitating jet apparatus (ASTM G134-95). content, and spool position.
In this paper, the intensity of the cavitation impacts Sandor BERNAD et al [7] presents a numerical
induced by a cavitating jet was measured by using a investigation of cavitating flows using the mixture model
PVDF transducer. The force Fi was measured by the implemented in the FLUENT commercial code. The flow
PVDF transducer. The energy E of the cavitation impact inside the poppet valve is a complex process which is
related to the cavitation erosion will be summation of the strongly dependent on the details of the valve geometry,
square of the force Fi, which is larger than the threshold the fluid properties and the operating conditions.
level Fth. Separation and re-attachment of jets can have a profound
effect on the flow pressure and force characteristics as
well as influencing the susceptibility to cavitations.
----- Eq.3 The numerical results agree very well both
The high number of valves used in a nuclear power qualitatively and quantitatively with the experiments.
plant makes it necessary to develop risk estimate This cavitational model is able to capture the major
methods for these phenomena. dynamics of the cavitating flows inside the hydraulic
power equipment.

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 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 3, Issue 1, January 2013)
Cavitation are investigated by Yongjian Li, Haosheng Ashok K. Singhal , Mahesh M. Athavale [12],
Chen, Jiadao Wang, Darong Chen [ 8 ],using presented the „„full cavitation model”. The basic
experimental and numerical methods. The Computational approach consists of using the standard viscous flow
Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software FLUENT was adopted Navier-Stokes equations for variable fluid density and a
to analyze. It solves the equations governing the motion conventional turbulence model e.g., k-ε model. The full
of fluids based on the finite volume method FVM, which cavitation model has been implemented into an
is one of the most popular numerical discretization advanced, general purpose, commercial CFD code, CFD-
methods used in CFD. Here, Reynolds averaged Navier– ACE1.
Stokes equations were used to simulate the turbulent This model has been used successfully on a variety of
flow. The turbulent models were based on the Re- different problems for research as well as commercial
Normalization Group RNG k- ε model and the pressure applications like Cavitation in diesel fuel injectors with
gradient effect is considered. complex multi-port geometries and time-varying
Comparing the experimental and numerical results, it geometries and pressure loading, turbomachinery,
is found that cavitation is closely related to the local Automotive Vane and Gear pump oil pump design
pressure of the fluid. Much research has been carried out optimization and automotive thermostatic valves
to find out which factors affect cavitation. It has been Sandor BERNAD, Sebastian MUNTEAN, Romeo F.
proved that the geometric structure of the surface, from SUSAN-RESIGA, Ioan ANTON [13], presents an analysis
the shape in macroscale to the roughness in microscale, of the development and evolution of the main vortex
plays an important role in cavitation. inside at the chamber of a conical poppet valve (Fig.10),
Lian Zhanghua, Meng Yingfeng, Liu Gan, Yi Hao [ 9 ] as function of the poppet displacement.
, analyzed fluid field of high pressure and structure A numerical investigation has been performed for
improvement of throttle valve. The fluid fields of several typical axi-symmetrical poppet valve geometry.
throttle valves were computed with the PHOENICS CFD Although the geometry is axi-symmetric, the
software. As a result, the optimum structure of a throttle computations have been done by assuming the flow to be
valve has been obtained. axi-symmetric as well (2D), or by assuming a full 3D
The cavitation flow issued from the gap of a poppet flow.
valve has been studied by Dipl- Ing. Q. Chen and
Prof.Dr.-Ing.B.Stoffel [10], using RNG and k-ε
turbulence models, and the results of the numerical
simulation were compared with flow visualization
experimental methods. A general multiphase model
“Mixture” was chosen for investigating the cavitation
phenomenon in this poppet valve. The continuity
equation and the momentum equation are used as the
fundamental equations. The dynamic mesh model in
FLUENT 6.1 is used to model flows. The results of
simulation were analyzed and compared to confirm the
calculation credibility of cavitation and dynamic mesh
modeling.
Figure .10 Cross sectional view of poppet valve
A multidimensional CFD approach is used by F.
Franzoni, M. Milani, L. Montorsi [11], to analyze the The main difference between 2D and 3D flows is that
cavitating phenomena typical of hydraulic components in 3D one can observe a circumferential motion in the
using water as operating fluid. The turbulence effects on recirculating region. This additional small swirling
cavitating regions are addressed for different operating component might be the onset of axial-symmetry
conditions. In the analysis, both basic geometries and breaking, leading to poppet oscillations.
water hydraulic poppet valves are addressed, and the
numerical are compared to experimental measurements.
The diverging and converging flows in hydraulic valves
are simulated and the influence of the seat shape on
cavitation onset, pressure distribution and discharge
coefficient is discussed.

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The material is characterized by its classical stress-
strain relationship and its metallurgical behavior is
analyzed from microhardness measurements on cross
sections of eroded samples.
The simulation of cavitation phenomena plays an
important role for development of modern hydraulic
tools and injection systems. Cavitation leads to a
reduction of mass flow and influences the wave motion
in hydraulic components significantly. U. Iben, F.
Wrona, C.-D. Munz , M. Beck [17], their article deals
with the simulation of a homogeneous cavitation model
based on thermodynamic properties of the liquid and
steam to understand basic physical phenomena.
The cavitation performance of various metals and
hydraulic fluids used in a hydraulic system was evaluated
Figure .11 Streamlines in the meridian half-plane by R. Pai, D.J. Hargreaves [18] using the vibratory test
method. It was shown that an increase in viscosity led to
Numerical simulations are performed for both 2D a decrease in the rate of growth and collapse of bubbles
(meridian half-plane) and 3D axi-symmetric domains. and hence reduced erosion on the surfaces of the
Fig.15 shows the streamlines in the meridian half plane specimens.
for an axi-symmetric flow computation. The main Cavitation can damage almost any solid material,
conclusion of the paper is that, the cavitational behavior including strong materials like stainless steel, cast iron or
can be improve by adjusting the geometrical parameters bronze. Cavitation damage to Specimens was assessed by
of the poppet valve. weight loss and photomicrographic inspection. The
amount of material removed from the specimen by
cavitation can be determined by weighing the specimen
before and after exposure.
Cavitation erosion pits and their effects on erosion
progression were investigated in detail for different
materials by means of vibratory erosion by A. Abouel-
Kasem1, A. Ezz El-Deen, K. M. Emara, S. M. Ahmed [
19 ]. It revealed that microjet-pits had a limited effect on
erosion and that the predominant failure was a fatigue
process. As reported by Hammitt et al [20], also that the
Figure.12, A set of 3D pathlines.
damage accumulates over thousands of impacts before a
GAO Hong, FU Xin, YANG Hua-yong [14], were particle is dislodged.
performed Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) At the Institute of Hydraulics and Automation, T.
simulations of cavitating flow through water hydraulic Koivula, A. Ellman and M. Vilenius [21], studied several
poppet valves using advanced RNG K- epsilon cavitation detection methods. The existence of cavitation
turbulence model. can be detected either directly or indirectly. Indirect
A numerical analysis of three dimensional detection can be done by monitoring steady-state flow
incompressible turbulent flows through high pressure properties and with high-speed pressure transducers or
drop control valves was carried out by Young Joon An, accelerometers the cavitation-induced shock waves can
Byeong Jin Kim and Byeong Rog Shin [15], using a CFD- be recorded. Measurement of frequency spectrum of
ACE code to develop anti-cavitation control valve used acoustic pressure reveals also the presence of cavitation.
in LNG marine system. In this study, flow characteristics In addition, an ultrasonic transmitter-receiver has been
of control valves with complex flow fields including tested for direct cavitation detection.
pressure drop, cavitation effect and variation of flow High-speed pressure transducer is used to record
coefficient as well as correlation of discharge coefficient pressure peaks due to cavitation. In the left, no cavitation
were investigated and analyzed. is present and only pump fluctuations can be seen. In the
N. Berchiche, J. P. Franc, J. M. Michel [16], proposed second figure, cavitation has just incepted and when
analytical model for the prediction of cavitation erosion cavitation has developed extensively (in the right), the
of ductile materials. It is based upon a physical analysis pressure peaks get higher.
of the work-hardening process due to the successive
bubble collapses.

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Detection of cavitation can be based on attenuation,
reflection or scattering of ultrasonic waves from cavities.
Direct detection of cavitation is possible with flow
visualization. Cavitation was detected indirectly with
pressure sensors, accelerometers and acoustic
instruments. Results showed that the inception of
cavitation is first seen as high frequent pulsation.

Figure .15 The Volume Loss Rate Curve

The volume loss rate curve (Fig.15) can be divided

into four typical periods: I - Incubation period; A -
Acceleration period; D - Deceleration period; S - Steady
state erosion period.
Timo KOIVULA [24], described the cavitation
mechanism. There are two possible mechanisms to cause
Figure.13 cavitation erosion. When a cavity collapses within the
body of liquid, the collapse is symmetrical. The
Xin Fu, Liang Lu, Xiao-dong Ruan, Jun Zou, and Xue-
symmetrical collapse of a cavity emits a shock wave to
wen Du [22] , have conducted investigations on
the surrounding liquid (see Figure 16). When a cavity is
cavitation noise in non-circular opening spool valves.
in contact with or very close to the solid boundary, the
The cavitation noise is used as a good sign to cavitation
collapse is asymmetrical. In asymmetrical collapse the
process because of its similar trends in different valves.
cavity is perturbed from the side away from the solid
Cavitation inception is judged from the overall sound
boundary and finally the fluid is penetrating through the
levels and the noise spectrums (Fig.14), which show
cavity and a micro-jet is formed.
good similarity.
When cavitation is intensive enough the flow rate
through an orifice does not increase when the
downstream pressure is decreased. This phenomenon is
typically referred as “saturation” or „choking”.

Figure .14

CONSTANTIN PATRASCOIU [23], presented new

kinds of theoretical volume loss rate curve of erosion
cavitation progress is proposed. The analytical models
describing this new kind of erosion curves give a new
vision of the volume loss rate curve and produce a good
concordance between the experimental and theoretical
model. There may also appear some open problem such
as optimally correlating this analytical cavitation erosion Figure.16 Shock wave mechanism and Micro-jet mechanism
Cavitation
models with the properties of the implied materials.

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The presence of cavitation is clearly seen in (Fig.17), S Hattori, T Hirose, K Sugiyama [26], carried out
where the measured and calculated flow rates are erosion tests and the measurements of impact loads in
compared. The degree of cavitation can be estimated bubble collapses with a vibratory apparatus. Then
with the aid of a non-dimensional parameter typically evaluated the incubation period based on a cumulative
referred as cavitation number, K. damage rule by measuring the impact loads of cavitation
K= 2 x ( pd – pv) / ρ x υ2 ---- Eq.5 acting on the specimen surface and by using the
The numerator in the above equation corresponds to “constant impact load - number of impact loads curve”
the static pressure, which resists cavitation and similar to the modified Miner‟s rule which is employed
denominator corresponds to the dynamic pressure, which for fatigue life prediction. They found that the parameter
α
promotes cavitation. When cavitation starts to occur the Σ(F ×n ) (F : impact load, n : number of impacts and α:
cavitation number is called incipient or critical cavitation i i i i

number. Usually the critical cavitation number for constant) is suitable for the evaluation of the erosion life.
orifices is between 0.2 and 1.5. Abdolreza Davari, Ahmad Noorbakhsh [27], explained
In this paper, cavitation‟s noise, vibration and erosion the detection of cavitation. Monitoring of Steady-State
characteristics were studied in both orifices and valves, Flow Behaviour, High-Speed Monitoring of Pressure and
and the relationships between the bubble inception and Vibrations, Monitoring of Acoustic Pressure Emission,
flow choking conditions were illustrated. The threshold Detection of Cavities by Flow Visualisation are indirect
of cavitation inception was determined by camera views. methods to measure the shock waves generated by cavity
Gheorghe BARAN, Ioan MAGHETI, Carmen Anca implosions.
SAFTA, Mariana SAVU [25], the goal of this paper is to A cavitation index, called Sigma (σ), has been
presents a method of is how could be acoustically developed and applied to quantify cavitation in control
identified stages of cavitation in the valve and how could valves. The inverse of Sigma (1/σ or XF is used by the
be reduce the cavitation stage. To measure the level of International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in IEC
acoustic intensity and the vibration‟s acceleration 60534-8-4 to correlate hydrodynamic noise with
amplitude, mechanical signals were converted in cavitation. Sigma has been adopted by the International
electrical signals using a microphone and a piezoelectric Society of Automation (ISA) in RP75.23.01 as an
accelerometer. industry-recommended practice to evaluate cavitation in
control valve applications.
JEFF PARISH [28], presents the anti-cavitation
control mechanisms. A variety of mechanisms that
trigger this energy conversion can be employed to control
or eliminate cavitation are cavitation bubble isolation,
sudden expansion and contraction, turbulent mixing
directional changes etc. Many types of anti-cavitation
trim solutions will employ multiple mechanisms to
achieve the most effective results.
In hydraulic systems [29], the presence of cavitation is
dependent on fluid flow or flow number (f).The critical
value of K that produces cavitation is defined as the
"incipient" cavitation number (Ki)

--- Eq.6
Figure 18, illustrates the dependence of the flow
Figure.17 number on both fluid type and the dimension of valve
opening. This means that the oil in emulsion shown
The prediction of cavitation erosion rates is important produces a significantly larger flow number than the
in order to evaluate the exact life of components. The other fluids evaluated and, therefore, will also exhibit a
measurement of impact loads in bubble collapses helps to greater cavitation potential.
predict the life under cavitation erosion.

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The sigma method has been successfully incorporated
into some control valve manufacturer for valve sizing
and selection. Using the sigma method will help to
reduce the cavitation related problems and provide
reliable, cost effective control valve solutions.
According to literature, there are several types of
devices and techniques that have been used for collecting
data about cavitation erosion in laboratory tests. The
vibratory test rigs are the most commonly used of these
devices, which facilitate the conduction of accelerated
tests, allowing a large quantity of data to be accumulated
over a relatively short period using a wide variety of test
conditions, liquids, and materials.
Overall it concludes that the techniques of prediction
of cavitation can be classified into three main categories:
1) Empirical correlations with flow conditions, material
properties or with electrochemical or noise
measurements.
Figure.18 2) Simulation techniques using special test devices to
reproduce a given aggressiveness in an accelerated
way.
3) Analytical methods.

V. NOMENCLATURE
σ = Cavitation index
P = Downstream pressure
d
P = Vapor pressure
v
P = Upstream pressure,
u
E = Energy
F = Force
Fth = Threshold level
A = Surface area
Figure 19, Illustrates the dependence of K, on flow number and
V1 = Upstream Velocity
orifice shape σ = Cavitation parameter
f = Flow number
IV. CONCLUSIONS a = Half-cone apex angle of the poppet valve
x = The valve displace relative to the sleeve
Cavitation is a harmful phenomenon in a hydraulic
H = The lift of a poppet valve
components and systems. It not only disturbs the flow
Cd= The discharge coefficient
continuity and changes the physical performance, but
p =Mass density
also, in many cases, it results in undesirable effects such
q = Kinematic viscosity
as intensive noise, vibration and erosion of the solid
Re = Reynolds number
surfaces subjected to it. Therefore, the investigation
about cavitation is of practical significance and more REFERENCES
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 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 3, Issue 1, January 2013)
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