Spring 2020

Unit-1
Mechanisms and Machines
Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines
(ME2013)
• Mechanism:
A combination of bodies assembled in such a
way that motion of one causes constrained and
predictable motion to others is known as
Mechanism

• Machines:
A machine is a mechanism or a combination of
mechanism which apart from imparting definite
motion to the parts, also transmits and modifies
the available mechanical energy into some kind
of desired work 2
 Types of Constrained Motions
• Completely constrained motion
When the motion between two elements is limited to a
definite direction irrespective of the direction of force
applied, then the motion is said to be completely
constrained motion

3
 Types of Constrained Motions
• Incompletely constrained motion
When the motion between two elements can take place
in more than one direction, then the motion is called an
incompletely constrained motion

4
 Types of Constrained Motions
• Successfully constrained motion
When the motion between two
elements is possible in more than one
direction but is made to have motion
in only one direction by using some
external means is said to be
successfully constrained motion

Example: Piston in a cylinder of an IC engine can

only reciprocate and is not allowed to rotate about
its axis by the constraint due to piston pin
5
 Kinematic Link
Each part of a machine / mechanism, which moves
relative to some other part, is known as a kinematic
link (or simply link) or element
 Links can be classified into Binary, Ternary, Quaternary
etc. depending upon its ends on which revolute or turning pairs can
be placed

link which is connected link which is connected to link which is connected to

to two other links three other links four other links 6
Kinematic Link: Examples

7
 Kinematic Pair
• Joint of two links having relative motion between
them

Types of Pairs: according to

1. Nature of contact
2. Nature of mechanical constraint
3. Nature of relative motion

Refer Section 1.8: S. S. Rattan, Pg,: 6

8
 Types of Kinematic Pair
1. According to nature of contact
• Higher pair
When the two elements of a pair have a line or point contact
when relative motion takes place
Examples: A pair of friction discs; toothed gearing; ball and roller
bearings; cam and follower

• Lower pair
When the two elements of a pair have a surface contact when
relative motion takes place
Examples: nut turning on a screw, shaft rotating in a bearing,
universal joint, all pairs of a slider crank mechanism
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 Types of Kinematic Pair
2. According to nature of mechanical constraint
• Closed Pair
When the two elements of a pair are
held together mechanically in such a
manner that only the required type of
relative motion occurs, they are
called a closed pair
Or
When one element is completely
surrounded by the other, it is called a
closed pair
Example: All lower pairs and some
higher pairs
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 Types of Kinematic Pair
2. According to nature of mechanical constraint

• Unclosed Pair
When the two elements of a pair
are not held mechanically and are
held in contact by the action of
external forces, are called unclosed
pair
Example: cam and spring loaded
follower pair

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 Types of Kinematic Pair
3. According to nature of relative motion

• Sliding Pair
It consists of two elements connected in such a
manner that one is constrained to have sliding
motion relative to another
Example:
 a rectangular bar in a rectangular hole
 piston and cylinder of an engine

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 Types of Kinematic Pair
3. According to nature of relative motion

• Turning (Revolute) Pair

It consists of two elements connected in such a
manner that one is constrained to turn or revolve
about a fixed axis of another element
Example:
 a shaft with collar at both ends
revolving in a circular hole
 crankshaft turning in a bearing
 cycle wheels revolving over their
axles
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 Types of Kinematic Pair
3. According to nature of relative motion

• Rolling Pairs
When two elements are so connected that one is
constrained to roll on another element which is
fixed, forms a rolling pair
Example:
 Ball and roller bearings
 a wheel rolling on a flat surface

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 Types of Kinematic Pair
3. According to nature of relative motion

• Screw (or Helical) Pairs

When one element turns about the other element
by means of threads, it forms a screw pair. The
motion in this case is a combination of sliding and
turning
Example:
 the lead screw of a lathe with nut
 bolt with a nut

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 Types of Kinematic Pair
3. According to nature of relative motion

• Spherical Pair
When one element in the form of a sphere turns
about the other fixed element, it forms a spherical
pair
Example:
 the ball and socket joint
 the mirror attachment of vehicles

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 Kinematic Chain
 A kinematic chain is an assembly of links in
which the relative motion of the links is
possible and the motion of each relative to
the other is definite

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 Types of Joints
The usual types of joints in a chain are:
 Binary Joint (B):
If two links are joined at the same connection; it is called a binary joint

In general, if ‘n’ number of

links are connected at a joint,
it is equivalent to (n-1) binary
joints

 Ternary Joint (T): If three links are joined at a connection, it is known as a

ternary joint. It is considered equivalent to two binary joints since fixing of any
one link constitutes two binary joints with each of the other two links

 Quaternary Joint (Q): If four links are joined at a connection, it is known as a

quaternary joint. It is considered equivalent to three binary joints since fixing of
any one link constitutes three binary joints 18
 Degree of Freedom
The degree of freedom (DOF) of a body is equal to the number of
independent coordinates required to specify the movement

Example: For a cricket ball when it is in air, six independent

coordinates are required to define its motion

 Three independent displacement

coordinates along the three axes (x, y, z)
 Three independent coordinates for
rotations about these axes are required
to describe its motion in space

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 DOF of Joints
Lower Pairs
(a) Spherical/Ball Joint (b) Revolute/Hinge Joint
3 DoF 1 DoF

(c) Planar Joint (d) Prismatic/Slider Joint 1 DoF

3 DoF

(f) Screw/Helical Joint

(e) Cylindrical Joint 1 DoF
2 DoF

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 DOF of Mechanisms
 Expressing the number of degrees of freedom of a linkage in terms of the
number of links and the number of pair of connections of different types
is known as number synthesis

For Space mechanism:

the number of degrees of freedom (F) can be determined as:

F = 6(N-1) - 5P1 - 4P2 - 3P3 - 2P4 - P5

where,
F = degrees of freedom
N = total number of links in a mechanism
P1 = total number of pairs having one degree of freedom
P2 = total number of pairs having two degrees of freedom
P3 = total number of pairs having three degrees of freedom
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And likewise….
 DOF of Mechanisms
For plane mechanism:

F = 3(N-1) - 2P1 - 1P2 Grubler’s Criterion

where, N = Number of links in a Mechanism

P1 = total number of pairs having one degree of freedom
P2= total number of pairs having two degrees of freedom

 The Grubler’s criteria can be modified to:

F = 3(N-1) - 2P1 Kutzbach’s Criterion

where, N = Number of links in a Mechanism

P1 = total number of pairs having one degree of freedom
 Kutzbach’s Criterion is applicable to linkages having pairs with a single degree of freedom
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 Degree of Freedom
• Redundant Links
 These links do not introduce any extra constraint
 Should not be counted to find the degrees of
freedom

 The function of this

mechanism does not change if
anyone of links 2, 4, or 5 is
removed.
 So, effective number of links is
4 though it has 5 links.
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 Degree of Freedom
• Redundant degree of freedom
Sometimes, one or more links can be moved without
causing any motion to the rest of the links of the
mechanism. In this case Grubler’s criteria can be
modified to:
F = 3(N-1) - 2P1 - 1P2 - Fr
where, Fr is the number of redundant degree of freedom

In this mechanism:
 the roller 3 can rotate about its axis
without causing any movement to the
rest of the mechanism.
 Thus, the mechanism has one
redundant degree of freedom 24
 Degree of Freedom
Note that:
 P1 refers to lower pairs (surface contact:- screw pair,
turning pairs like pin joints, hinge joints, etc.)
 P2 refers to higher pair (Point or line contact)

 The degree of freedom can also be calculated by using

F = N - (2L + 1), where L is number of loops.
Imp: This empirical relation is only valid for mechanism
with turning pairs
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 DOF: Numerical Examples
Adapted from TOM by S. S. Rattan
Example 1.1: From the kinematic linkages shown in figure, calculate the following:
• The number of binary links (Nb)
• The number of ternary links (Nt)
• The number of other (quaternary, etc.) links (No)
• The total number of links (N)
• The number of loops (L)
• The number of joints or pairs (P1)
• The number of degrees of freedom (F)

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 DOF: Numerical Examples
Example 1.1:
Nb : 5, 6, 7, 8
Nt : 1, 2, 3, 4

P1 : (1,7), (1,4), (1,2), (4,7), (4,6), (4,8), (3,8), (3,6), (3,5), (3,2), (5,2)

The system has negative degree of freedom: Super-structure

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 DOF: Numerical Examples
Example 1.1: Nb : 5, 6, 7, 8
Nt : 1, 2, 3, 4

P1 : (1,7), (1,8), (1,2), (7,4), (8,3), (3,2), (2,5), (5,6), (6,4), (4,3)

The linkage has constrained motion when one of the seven links is
driven by an external source
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 DOF: Numerical Examples
Example 1.1: Nb : 1, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
Nt : 5, 3
NO : 2, 4

P1 : (1,5), (5,10), (5,9), (5,11), (10,4), (4,9), (4,8), (4,3), (3,7),

(3,6), (7,2), (8,2), (6,2), (2,11), (2,1)

DOF=0. Therefore, the linkage is a structure

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 DOF: Numerical Examples
Adapted from TOM by S. S. Rattan
Example 1.3: Determine the degree of freedom of the following mechanisms:

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 DOF: Numerical Examples
Example 1.3 (a):

N=8
No of pairs with 1 dof (P1 ) = 10
No of pairs with 2 dof (P2 ) = 0

P1 : (1,2), (2,3), (3,4), (4,1), (4,5), (5,6),

(6,7), (7,1), (6,8), (8,1)

F = 3(N – 1) – 2P1 – P2
F = 3(8 – 1) – 2×10 – 0
F=1

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 DOF: Numerical Examples
Example 1.3 (b):
Link with
redundant dof
N=4
No of pairs with 1 dof (P1 ) = 4
No of pairs with 2 dof (P2 ) = 0 3
4
P1 : (1,2), (2,3), (3,4), (4,1) 2

1 1
F = 3(N – 1) – 2P1 – P2 – Fr
F = 3(4 – 1) – 2×4 – 0 – 1
F=0
DOF=0. Therefore, the linkage is locked
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 DOF: Numerical Examples
Example 1.3 (c):

N=7
No. of pairs with 1 dof (P1 ) = 8
No. of pairs with 2 dof (P2 ) = 1
P1 : (1,2), (2,3), (3,4), (4,1), (1,5), (5,6),
(6,7), (7,1)
P2 : (3,6)
F = 3(N – 1) – 2P1 – P2
F = 3(7 – 1) – 2×8 – 1
F=1
The linkage has constrained motion when one of links is driven by
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an external source
 The Four-Bar Chain
• It consists of four rigid links which are connected in the form of
a quadrilateral by four pin-joints
• When one of the link is fixed, it is known as a Four-bar
mechanism
 Crank: link that makes complete revolution
 Coupler: link opposite to fixed link
 Lever or Rocker: the fourth link if it oscillates

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 Inversions of Four Bar Chain
• If in a four bar kinematic chain all links are free, motion will be
unconstrained.
• When one link of a kinematic chain is fixed, it works as a
mechanism.
• From a four link kinematic chain, four different mechanisms
can be obtained by fixing each of the four links turn by turn.
All these mechanisms are called inversions of the parent
kinematic chain.
• By this principle of inversions of a four link chain, several
useful mechanisms can be obtained

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The Four-Bar Chain and its Inversions

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 Grashof’s Law
 It states that a four-bar mechanism has at least one
revolving link if the sum of the length of the largest
and the shortest link is less than the sum of the
lengths of the other two links

 In a four-bar linkage
s = length of shortest bar
l = length of longest bar
p, q = lengths of intermediate bar
 Grashof's law states that a four-bar mechanism
has at least one revolving link if:
s + l <= p + q
 and all three mobile links will rock if:
s+l>p+q 37
 Crank–Lever or Crank-Rocker Mechanism

Link 1 (O2O4)  Fixed

Link 2 (O2A)  Crank
(can have full rotation)
Link 3 (AB) Coupler
Link 4 (O4B)  Lever or Rocker

In this case for every complete  The link adjacent to shortest link is fixed
rotation of link 2, the link 4, makes
oscillation between extreme positions
O4B1 and O4B2.

 The proportions of the length of the

links for Crank-Lever mechanism
are:
(l1 + l2) < (l3 + l4)
(l3 + l2) < (l1 + l4)
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 Double lever or Rocker-Rocker Mechanism

Link 1 (O2O4)  Fixed

Link 3 (AB)  Coupler
Link 2 (O2A) and 4 (O4B)  Lever or
Rocker

Link 2 oscillates between positions O2A1

and O2A2 whereas Link 4 oscillates
between positions O4B1 and O4B2.
 The link opposite to shortest link is fixed

 The proportions of the lengths of

the links for double Lever
mechanism are:
(l3 + l4) < (l1 + l2)
(l3 + l2) < (l1 + l4)
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 Drag Link Mechanism (Double Crank)
3

Link 1 (AD)  Fixed

4
Link 3 (BC)  Coupler 2
Link 2 (AB) and 4 (CD)  Crank
1

The links 2 and 4 of the drag link

mechanism make complete
revolutions.
 The shortest link is fixed

 The proportions of the lengths of

the links for drag link mechanism
are:
l3 > l 1
l4 > l 2
l3 > (l1 + l4 - l2)
l3 < (l2 + l4 – l1)
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 Parallel Crank Mechanism (Double Crank)

Link 1 (O2O4)  Fixed

Link 3 (AB)  Coupler
Link 2 (O2A) and 4 (O4B)  Crank

The links 2 and 4 of the parallel crank

mechanism make complete
revolutions
 Lengths of links 2 and 4 are equal
 Lengths of links 1 and 3 are also
equal
 Example:
Coupling of the locomotive wheels
where wheels act as cranks of equal
length and length of the coupling
rod is equal to centre distance
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between the two coupled wheels
 Mechanical Advantage
 Mechanical Advantage (MA) of a mechanism is the ratio of the
output force or torque to the input force or torque at any instant.

T4 2 T2 - Input torque or torque at link 2

MA   T4 - Output torque or torque at link 4
T2 4 ω2 - Angular velocity of link 2
ω4- Angular velocity of link 4

 The velocity of link 4 (rocker)

becomes zero at extreme positions
(C’D and C”D). So, the MA
becomes infinite. These positions
are known as Toggle positions.
 At these positions, the angle
Crank-Rocker Mechanism between crank and coupler is
either zero or 180o
 Transmission Angle
 Transmission angle (µ) is the angle between the output link and the
coupler
 When µ = 90o, torque transmitted to output link is
maximum
 When µ = 0o, the mechanism would lock or jam
 If µ deviates significantly from 90o, the torque on output
link decreases
 µ is maximum when θ is 180o and minimum when θ is 0o.
(Valid for double crank or crank-rocker mechanism)

Maximum and Minimum transmission angles of Maximum and Minimum transmission angles
crank-rocker mechanism of double rocker mechanism
 The Slider-Crank Chain
When one of the turning pairs of a four bar chain is
replaced by a sliding pair, it becomes a Single Slider-
Crank Chain or simply a Slider-Crank Chain.
Four bar mechanism Single Slider Crank Chain
(all turning pairs) Also termed as 3R-1P Kinematic Chain

Link 4 replaced
by a slider

Link 1  Fixed
Link 1  Fixed
Link 2  Crank (can have full rotation)
Link 3  Connecting rod
Link 4  Slider (or piston)
 Inversions of Single-Slider Crank (3R-1P) Chain
• Four inversions of 3R-1P chain can be obtained
1. First Inversion
 Fixing of link 1 of slider-crank chain
results in first inversion
Link 1  Fixed
Link 2  Crank (can have full rotation)
Link 3  Connecting rod
(connects link 2 with 4)
Link 4  Slider (or piston)

Sliding pair between links 1 and 4

Applications:
• Reciprocating engine: link 4 (piston) is the driver
• Compressor: link 2 (crank) is the driver
 Inversions of Single-Slider Crank (3R-1P) Chain
2. Second Inversion
 Fixing of link 2 of slider-crank chain
results in second inversion
Link 1  slotted link which facilitates
movement of link 4
Link 2  Fixed
Link 3  can have full rotation
Link 4  Slider

Sliding pair between links 1 and 4

Applications:
• Whitworth Quick-Return Mechanism
• Rotary Engine
Inversions of Single-Slider Crank (3R-1P) Chain
2. Second Inversion (Application)
Whitworth Quick-Return Mechanism
 Used cutting operation

Identify links 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 in the animation

Inversions of Single-Slider Crank (3R-1P) Chain
2. Second Inversion (Application)
Rotary Engine
 Inversions of Single-Slider Crank (3R-1P) Chain
3. Third Inversion
 Fixing of link 3 of slider-crank chain
results in third inversion
Link 1  slotted link which facilitates
movement of link 4
Link 2  acts as crank
Link 3  fixed
Link 4  oscillates

Sliding pair between links 1 and 4

Applications:
• Crank and Slotted-lever Quick-Return mechanism
• Oscillating Cylinder engine
Inversions of Single-Slider Crank (3R-1P) Chain
3. Third Inversion (Application)
Oscillating cylinder engine
Inversions of Single-Slider Crank (3R-1P) Chain
3. Third Inversion (Application)
Crank and Slotted-lever Quick-Return mechanism

Difference between
Whitworth and Crank and
Slotted Lever Quick return
mechanisms? (Hint: Refer Pg. 31,
Textbook: S. S. Rattan)
 Inversions of Single-Slider Crank (3R-1P) Chain
4. Fourth Inversion
 Fixing of link 4 of slider-crank chain
results in fourth inversion
Link 1  reciprocates
Link 2  connects links 1 and 3
Link 3  oscillates about fixed pivot B
on link 4
Link 4  fixed

Sliding pair between links 1 and 4

Applications:
• Hand pump
Inversions of Single-Slider Crank (3R-1P) Chain
4. Fourth Inversion (Application)
Hand Pump