Weak Induction
Weak Induction
Weak Induction
i. P(1) is True.
Prove
i. P(1) {Base Case}
Conclude
iii. P(n) is True for Every Integer n ≥ 1 {Conclusion}
Remark
• Do not always need to start at 1.
Examples -- Weak Induction
n
n(n + 1)
1. ∑ k =
k=1
2
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
2. ∑ k = 2
k=1
6
n 2
3 ⎛ n(n + 1) ⎞
3. ∑ k = ⎜
⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
k=1
n
4. ∑ 2 k
= 2 n+1
−1
k=0
n
n(n + 1)
Proposition: ∑ k =
k=1
2
Proof:
Base Case: n = 1.
1
1(1+ 1) 1∗ 2
∑ k = 1 and 2 = 2 = 1.
k=1
Inductive Step:
n
n(n + 1)
Assume: ∑k = 2
k=1
n+1
(n + 1)(n + 2)
Must Show: ∑ k =
k=1
2
Inductive Proof:
n+1 n
∑ k = (n + 1) + ∑ k (recursion)
k=1 k=1
n(n + 1)
= (n + 1) + (inductive hypothesis)
2
2(n + 1) n ( n + 1)
= + (common denominator)
2 2
(n + 1) ( 2 + n )
= ( factoring)
2
Good Semantics
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
Proposition: ∑ k = 2
k=1
6
Good Proof:
Base Case: n = 1.
1
1(1 + 1)(2 ∗1 + 1) 1∗ 2 ∗ 3
∑ k = 1 and
2
6
=
6
= 1.
k=1
Inductive Step:
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
Assume: ∑k = 2
6
k=1
n+1
(n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 3)
Must Show: ∑ k = 2
k=1
6
Inductive Proof:
n+1 n
∑ k 2 = (n + 1)2 + ∑ k 2 (recursion)
k=1 k=1
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= (n + 1)2 + (inductive hypothesis)
6
= (n + 1)
( 6(n + 1) + n(2n + 1) )
( factoring)
6
= (n + 1)
( 6n + 6 + 2n 2 + n ) (expanding)
6
(n + 1)(2n 2 + 7n + 6)
= (adding)
6
(n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 3)
= ( factoring)
6
Bad Semantics
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
Prop: ∑ k = 2
k=1
6
Bad Proof:
Base Case: n = 1.
1
2 1(1 + 1)(2 ∗1 + 1) 1∗ 2 ∗ 3
∑k = 6
=
6
= 1.
k=1
Inductive Step:
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
Assume: ∑k = 2
6
k=1
n+1
(n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 3)
Must Show: ∑ k = 2
k=1
6
n+1
(n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 3)
∑k = 2
6
k=1
n
(n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 3)
(n + 1) + ∑ k =
2 2
k =1
6
(n + 1)
( 6n + 6 + 2n 2
+n ) = (n + 1)(n 2
+ 7n + 6)
6 6
(n + 1)(n 2 + 7n + 6) (n + 1)(n 2 + 7n + 6)
= BAD
6 6
Bad Semantics (continued)
4. Start with what you know; prove what you do not know.
RHS(n+1) = ..........
= ..........
= ..........
= same intermediate result;
E. After you finish the inductive step, you should state a conclusion, summarizing what
your proof has shown.
Questions
1. Is induction circular?
• Aren’t we assuming what we are trying to prove?
• If we assume the result, can’t we prove anything at all?
6. Proof of Induction?
• Well Ordering Principle
Failed Induction
n
Proposition: ∑ k = n 2
k=1
Proof:
Base Case: n = 1.
1
∑k =1 and 12 = 1 .
k=1
Inductive Step:
n
Assume: ∑ k = n 2
k=1
n+1
Must Show: ∑ k = (n + 1) 2
k=1
n+1 n
∑ k = (n + 1) + ∑ k (recursion)
k=1 k=1
= (n + 1) + n 2 (inductive hypothesis)
≠ (n + 1)2 (when n ≠ 0)
PROOF FAILS
Theorem: All horses have the same color.
Theorem: All horses have the same color.
There once was an island where all the inhabitants were Perfect Logicians and also
Perfectly Law Abiding. The islanders had the following three laws:
1. Anyone who finds out that they have blue eyes must commit suicide that same
day before sundown by jumping off a cliff.
2. No one is allowed to tell another person that the other person has blue eyes.
3. No mirrors are allowed on the island.
One day a man from the Island of Perfect Truth Tellers visits the Island of Perfect
Logicians. After the dinner that night the visitor from the Island of Perfect Truth Tellers
says to all the inhabitants of the Island of Perfect Logicians that he is happy to have
dinner on an island where at least one person has blue eyes. (All the residents of the
Island of Perfect Truth Tellers have brown eyes.)
There are 100 inhabitants on the Island of Perfect Logician, and all 100 inhabitants
have blue eyes. One hundred days after the visit of the person from the Island of Perfect
Truth Tellers all the inhabitant of the Island of Perfect Logicians jump off a cliff. Why?