General

Chemistry I
Dr. Laila Mohammed Al-Harbi
Assistant professor

Web Site: http://lalhrbi.kau.edu.sa

Contact Info: [email protected]

 Technicalities

• Locations:
– Science tower 07 room 173 first floor
– phone 6400000 ext. 23024
– email [email protected]
– web site: http://lalhrbi.kau.edu.sa
• Exam schedule:
• 1st exam : from lecture 1-11 ( Chapters 1-4) = 30 marks
• 2nd exam: from lecture 12-24 (Chapters 5,7-9) = 30 marks
• Final exam: from lecture 1-33 = 40 marks
• (Chapters 1,2,3,4,5,7,8,914,15,24&25)

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 CHEM 110
No. of Units
1 Course No. Course Title Pre-requisites
Th. Pr. Credit
Chem 110 General Chemistry I 3 - 3 -
Course Objectives:
The course aims to introduce students to basic knowledge and principle in
chemistry.

Course Description :
It provides an introduction to the general principles of chemistry for students
planning a professional career in chemistry, a related science, the health
professions, or engineering. By the end of this course the student will be able to
understand the following: Significant figures, scientific notation and units,
stoichiometry, atomic structure & periodic table, chemical bonding, gases, ionic
equilibrium, basic principles of organic and basic principles of biochemistry .

Main text books:

Chemistry, by Chang, 10th. ed., 2007, McGraw-Hill.
Chemistry, by Steven S. Zumdahl, 6th ed., Houghton Mifflin College Div.

Subsidiary books :
Chemistry, by
Dr.Mortimer, 6th ed., Wadsworth Inc.
LAILA AL-HARBI
 CHEM 110

Main text book :

Chemistry, by
Chang, 10th. ed.,
2007, McGraw-
Hill.

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 ‫نصائح للمذاكرة كيمياء ‪110‬‬
‫المذاكرة أول باول‬ ‫•‬
‫عدم التغيب عن المحاضرات‬ ‫•‬
‫مذاكرة الكتاب الدراسي و المحاضرات‬ ‫•‬
‫حل بنك اﻻسئلة ‪ ...‬حيث يحوي على مجموعة مختلفة من اﻻسئلة بافكار متعدده ‪ ...‬تساعدك‬ ‫•‬
‫على التدرب‬
‫التدرب على اﻻسئلة في الموقع التفاعلي حيث أن الطريقة شبيهة تماما باﻻختبار اﻻلكتروني‬ ‫•‬
‫• ‪http://prod.kau.edu.sa/faculties/science/website2/index.aspx‬‬

‫و أخيرا ‪ ...‬التوفيق بيد ﷲ سبحانه و تعالي‬ ‫•‬

‫‪Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI‬‬

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
 Chapter 1
The study of change
• Measurement
SI units
Mass and weight
Volume
Temperature scales

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 Objectives

• By the end of this chapter you should:

• Know the 7 SI basic units and their
prefixes.
• Be able to convert from one unit to
other.
• Know to derive units from the 7 SI basic
units.
• Common units (L & mL)
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
• Know the temperature Scales
 Introduction

• Chemistry is the
gas
study of matter
and the changes
it undergoes
• There are three
states of matter

liquid
solid
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
 1.7 Measurement and Units
The International System of units (SI Units)
• used for commerce and science around
the world

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

Examples
The Kg is the SI unit of
The SI unit of mass is
(a) length
(a) The pound
(b) mass
(b) The gram
(c) temperature
(c) The kilogram
(d) current
(d) The mole

12
 1m

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 ‫‪To transfer between perifexs‬‬
‫خط اﻻعداد ‪• A) use numerical line‬‬
‫معامل التحويل ‪• B) use transfer factor‬‬

‫للتحويل من الوحده اﻻساسية و مضاعفتها أو المشتقات‬

‫يمكننا استخدام خط اﻻعداد أو استخدام معامل التحويل‬
‫)بضرب الطريفين في الوسطين ( و لكن ﻻ تخلطي بين‬
‫الطريقتيين كما أن الطريقتين يعطوا نفس النتيجة اذا‬
‫استخدموا بطريقة صحيحة‪.‬‬
‫‪Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI‬‬
 ‫معامل التحويل‬ ‫معامل التحويل‬
‫‪1012‬‬ ‫‪1012‬‬
‫‪109‬‬ ‫‪109‬‬
‫‪106‬‬ ‫‪106‬‬
‫‪103‬‬ ‫‪103‬‬
‫‪102‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬
‫‪p‬‬ ‫‪n‬‬ ‫‪µ‬‬ ‫‪m c d SI‬‬ ‫‪K‬‬ ‫‪M‬‬ ‫‪G‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬
‫‪103 103 103 10‬‬ ‫‪10 10‬‬
‫‪103 103 103 103‬‬
‫وحدة صغيرة‬ ‫وحدة كبيرة‬

‫بهذا اﻻتجاه تزيد الوحده‬

‫للتحويل من صغير الى كبير نقسم ÷ ‪ ,‬للتحويل من كبير الى صغير نضرب ×‬

‫للتحويل من الوحده اﻻساسية و مضاعفتها أو المشتقات يمكننا استخدام خط‬

‫اﻻعداد أو استخدام معامل التحويل )بضرب الطريفين في الوسطين ( و لكن ﻻ‬
‫تخلطي بين الطريقتيين كما أن الطريقتين يعطوا نفس النتيجة اذا تم استخدامها‬
‫‪Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI‬‬ ‫بنفس بطريقة صحيحة‪.‬‬
‫‪I.‬‬ ‫?‪Convert 134 pm to m‬‬
‫‪II.‬‬ ‫?‪How many meters are in 134 pm‬‬
‫الحل باستخدام خط اﻻعداد‬

‫للتحويل من صغير الى كبير نقسم ÷‬

‫= ‪1 pm‬‬ ‫‪1×10-12 m‬‬ ‫الحل باستخدام الجدول طرفين في وسطين‬

‫‪134 pm = ?? m‬‬
‫‪134‬‬ ‫‪×1×10‬‬
‫‪Dr. LAILA‬‬ ‫‪AL-HARBI‬‬
‫‪-12 m = 1.34×10-10 m‬‬
 Examples • The SI prefixes giga
and micro represent,
• The SI unit of mass respectively:
is • A. 10-9 and 10-6.

• B. 106 and 10-3.

• (a). The pound • C. 103 and 10-3.
• (b). The gram • D. 109 and 10-6.

• (c). The kilogram

• (d). The mole.

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

How many microseconds are in a second?
(a). 1 x 10-1 1 µs= 1 x 10 -6 s
(b). 1 x 10-6 x µs = 1 s
(c). 1 x 10-15
(d). 1 x 10 6
Explanation: Since the prefix micro means 1 x 10-6, there will be
1 x 10 + 6 microseconds in one second.

s µs

1 x 10 6 1 x 10 6 µs

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 Example
• Which of the following is the smallest
distance?
• (a) 21 m → 21m
• (b) 2.1 x 102 cm → 2.1m
• (c) 21 mm → 0.021 m
• (d) 2.1 x 104 pm → 2.1 x 10-8 m

Put all of them in the same unit

Explanation: Even though 2.1 x 104 is the largest number in this

question, the units of pm (picometers) are the smallest units here,
making it the smallest distance.
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
• A) 6.0 km is how many
micrometers?

• Solution 1

1 km = 103 m
6 km = x = 6 × 103 m km µm
1µm = 1× 10-6 m

x = 6 × 103 m
6 × 109 6 × 109
x = 6 × 109µm

Explanation: convert first to meter then from meter to

micro ( two steps solution )

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

• Example • Example
• The diameter of an atom is • Which of these quantities
approximately 1 10-7 mm. represents the largest
What is this diameter when mass?
expressed in nanometers?
• A. 2.0 102 mg
• A. 1 10-18 nm
• B. 1 10-15 nm
• B. 0.0010 kg
• C. 1 10-9 nm • C. 1.0 105 g
• D. 1 10-1 nm • D. 2.0 102 cg
• Put all of them in the same
• = 1× 10-7 × 1 × 106 = unit
• 1 × 10-1 nm = 0.1 nm A) 0.2 g
B)1 g
C) 0.1 g
D) 2 g
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
 SI derived units

• are defined in terms of the seven base

quantities via a system of quantity equations.
• The SI derived units for these derived
quantities are obtained from these equations
and the seven SI base units. For example
• Area = width x length
• Unit of width = m Treat units like numbers
• Unit of length = m
• Unit of Area = m× m = m2
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
Volume –
Volume = width × length × heights = m × m × m = m3
SI derived unit for volume is cubic meter (m3)
Common unit of volume is liter (L) and milliliter (ml)
The relation ship between liter (L) and ml (1L= 1000mL)
The relation ship between liter (L) and metric system
1 L = 1 dm3
The relation ship between milliliter (ml) and metric system
1 mL = 1 cm3
1 dm3 = (1 x 10-1 m)3 = 1 x 10-3 m3
1 cm3 = (1 x 10-2 m)3 = 1 x 10-6 m3
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
Example (1) Example (3)
• How many liters are in 25
dm3 ?

How many liters are in

• since 1L = 1 dm3
250 cm3 ?
• 25 dm3 = 25L
Since 1L = 1 dm3
and 1mL = 1 cm3
Example (2)
250 cm3 = 250 mL
• How many milliliters are L → mL
in 32 cm3 ? 250/1000 = 0.25 L
• Since 1mL = 1 cm3

• 32 cm3 = 32 mL
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
Examples • How many cubic
centimeters are there
• The diameter of an in exactly one cubic
atom is approximately meter?
1 10-7 mm. What is
this diameter when • A. 1 10-6 cm3
expressed in • B. 1 10-3 cm3
nanometers? • C. 1 10-2 cm3
• D. 1 106 cm3
• A. 1 10-18 nm
• Solution
• B. 1 10-15 nm
• (1m )3 = (cm )3
• C. 1 10-9 nm
• 1m3 = (1 102)3 cm 3
• D. 1 10-1 nm
• 1m3 = 1 106 cm3
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
 Mass and Weight
• Mass is the measure of the amount of
matter in an object.
SI unit of mass is the kilogram
(kg)
1 kg = 1000 g = 1 x 103 g

• Weight is the measurement of the pull

of gravity on an object.

weight = c x mass
• The Mass of an object doesn't change
when an object's location changes.
Weight, on the other hand does The weight of man on earth is 50 pounds.
change with location. is 8.25 pounds on moon
• Chemist are interested primarily in
mass

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 Density
Density is defined as the amount of
matter in a given amount of space.
mass
density = volume
SI derived unit for density is kg/m3

common units of density are g/mL ,

g/L

Density decrease with temperature

(g/ml )g/cm3 for liquid and solids g/L =
0.001g/ml for gases

Because density of gases are very

low
The density of copper
is 8.94 g/cm3.
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
 Questions in Density

Given Given
Given
m&V m&d
V&d
?d ?V
?m
d = m/V V = m /d
m=dxV
28
 Example 1.1

• A piece of Gold metal • A piece of platinum

has a volume of 15.6 metal with a density of
cm3, with a mass of 301 21.5 g/cm3 has a
g What is its density? volume of 4.49 cm3.
m What is its mass?
d= V
m
301 g/ 15.6 cm3 d= V
= 19.3 g/ cm3
m=dxV
= 21.5 g/cm3 x 4.49 cm3
= 96.5 g
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
 Example 1.2

• The density of mercury • The density of sulfuric

is 13.6 g/mL has a acid is 1.41 g/mL has a
volume of 5.50 mL. What volume of 242 mL.
is its mass? What is its mass?
m
d= V
m=dxV m
d= V
= 13.6 g/mL x 5.50 mL m=dxV
= 74.8 g
= 1.41 g/mL x 242 mL
= 341.22 g
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
Temperature Scales
• Fahrenheit °F →°F = [ (9/5) × °C] + 32
• Celsius °C → °C = (5/9) (°F - 32)
• Kelvin ° K → ° K = °C + 273.15

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 Temperature Units Conversion
1. Degrees Celsius 0C: Scale 0 → 100 Thus:
100 divisions or 100 degrees
2. Kelvin K: Scale 273 → 373
Thus: 100 divisions or 100 degrees
1K = 1 C
3. Degrees Fahrenheit 0F : Scale from 32→ 212
Thus: 180 divisions or 180 degrees
Thus: the size of degree in 0F scale is only
100/180 or
5/9 of a degree on the 0C scale 10F = (5/9) 10C
32
 Example 1.3
• Convert 224 0C to degrees Fahrenheit?
• °F = (9 0F /5 0C) × °C + 32
• [°F = (9 0F /5 0C) × 224 °C] + 32 0C = 435 0F

• Convert -452 0F to degrees Celsius.

• °C = (5 0C /9 0F) (°F - 32 0F)
• °C = (5 0C /9 0F) (-452 °F - 32 0F) = -269 0C

• Convert -38.9 0C to degrees Kelvin..

• ° K = [-38.9 °C + 273.15 °C ] × 1 K/ 1 0C = 234.3 K
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
• Ammonia boils at -33.4 C. What temperature
is this in F?
• A. -60.1 F
• B. -92.1 F
• C. -28.1 F
• D. +13.5 F
F = (9 0F /5 0C) × °C + 32
[°F = (9 0F /5 0C) × -33.4 °C] + 32 0C = -28.10F

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 Useful sites

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=djTNU
p4XIRo
• http://www.convertunits.com/
Chapter 2

Atoms, Molecules, and ions

 Chapter 2
Atoms. Molecules, and ions

• 2.3 atomic number, mass number, and isotopes

• 2.4 the periodic table
• 2.5 molecules and ions
• 2.6 chemical formulas
Molecular formula
Molecular models
Ionic formulas
2.7 naming compounds
Ionic compounds
Molecular compounds

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 Objectives
• By the end of this chapter you should:
• Know atomic number, mass number, and
isotopes
• Be able to distinguish between molecules
(diatomic & polyatomic ) and ions ( cation
& anions) .
• Know different Chemical formulas
• Know how to Name Ionic & covalent
compounds

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 2.3 atomic number, mass number, and
isotopes
• Protons and electrons are the only particles that have a charge.
• Protons and neutrons have essentially the same mass.
• The mass of an electron is so small we ignore it.
• Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus)
• Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
• = atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons

Note that th № of P= № of e- Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 Symbols of Elements
Mass Number A
Atomic Number Z X Element Symbol

• Symbols of Elements
All atoms of the same element have
the same number of protons: The
atomic number (Z)

• The mass of an atom in atomic

mass units (amu) is the total
number of protons and neutrons
in the atom.
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
 Isotopes
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with
different masses.
• Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons.

Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium

1 2 3
1 H 1 H (D) 1 H (T)
235 238
92 U 92 U
Chemically, isotopes are not very different from each other.

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 Isotopes
Isotopes : Not all atoms of the same element have
the same mass due to different numbers of
neutrons in those atoms. (Same Z, different A)
There are, for example, three naturally occurring
isotopes of uranium:
– Uranium-234 Uranium-236 Uranium-238

isobaric: nuclear transformation in which nuclei have the same

(A) but different (Z).
58Fe on 58Ni / 64Ni on 64Zn / 48Ca on 48Ti.

Isotones (Same N, different A)

& ( N = 21 )

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 Example 2.1
• Give the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in each
of the following species
• 20
11 Na
22
11 Na O
17
8
14
6 C
22 14
20
11 Na 11 Na
17
8 O 6 C
Mass Number 20 22 17 14
Atomic Number 11 11 8 6
Number of electrons 11 11 8 6
Number of protons 11 11 8 6
Number of neutrons 20-11 = 9 22-11=11 17-8=9 14-6=8

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

• The nucleus of an atom • Atoms with identical
contains: atomic numbers but
a. protons and neutrons. different mass
numbers are called:
b. protons and electrons. a. mutants.
c. electrons and neutrons. b. isomers.
d. air. c. Isotopes.
d. symbiots.

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 Example 7
• Consider the following nuclei:
• 14C; 14N; 12C; 13N
• Which are isotopes? Isotones?
Isobars?
• 14C and 12C are isotopes of C
• 13N and 14N are isotopes of N
• 14C and 14N are isobars (A =14)
• 12C and 13N are isotones (N = 6).

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net
positive or negative charge.
cation – ion with a positive charge
If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons
it becomes a cation.

11 protons 11 protons
Na 11 electrons Na+ 10 electrons

anion – ion with a negative charge

If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons
it becomes an anion.
17 protons
Cl
17 protons Cl- 18 electrons
17 electrons
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
 Ion ( № of e ≠ p)
( lose or gain electrons_)

Cation: ( № of e < p) Anion: ( № of e > p)

an ion with a +ve charge an ion with a -ve charge (
(lose electron/s) Gain electron/s)

Monoatomic Polyatomic Monoatomic Polyatomic

cation cation anion anion
Na+, K+, Mg2+ NH4+ Cl-, Br-,S2- OH-, PO43-
A magnesium ion, 12Mg2+, has
A. 12 protons and 13 electrons.
B. 24 protons and 26 electrons.
C. 12 protons and 10 electrons.
D. 24 protons and 22 electrons.
E. 12 protons and 14 electrons.

A sulfide ion, 16S2- , has:

A. 16 protons and 16 electrons
B. 32 protons and 16 electrons
C. 16 protons and 14 electrons
D. 16 protons and 18 electrons
E. 32 protons and 18 electrons

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

How many protons and electrons are in 27 3
13 protons, 10 (13 – 3) electrons 13 Al

How many protons and electrons are in 78 2

34 protons, 36 (34 + 2) electrons 34 Se

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

Use the following table and choose which of the species are neutral?
Atom or ion element I II III IV V VI
Atom or ion electrons (e) 6 10 18 10 28 7
Atom or ion protons (p) 6 8 17 11 30 7
Atom or ion neutrons (n) 6 8 18 11 36 6

A. III and V C. II and III

B. IV and V D. I and VI
Use the following table and choose which of the species are negatively
charged?
Atom or ion element I II III IV V VI
Atom or ion electrons (e) 6 10 18 10 28 7
Atom or ion protons (p) 6 8 17 11 30 7
Atom or ion neutrons (n) 6 8 18 11 36 6

A. III and V C. II and III

B. IV and V D. I and VI
Atoms with the same number of electrons and number of
protons are called…
A. Ions B. isotopes
C. neutral atoms D.AL-HARBI
Dr. LAILA different atoms
 Periodic Table of elements
• Elements arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
• Horizontal Rows in periodic table are called periods.
• Vertical Columns are groups or families; elements have similar properties.
• representative elements: A Group; transition elements: B Group

These five groups are known by their names

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
 Main-group elements [1A to 8A]

Transition metals
Alkali Metal

Noble Gas
Alkali Earth Metal

Halogen
Period

Group
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
• Elements in the periodic table are divided
into three categories:

– Metal: (in green colour, Most elements) is a

good conductor of heat and electricity

– Nonmetal: (in blue colour, 17 elements) is a

poor conductor of heat and electricity

– Metalloid: (in brown colour, 8 elements) has

properties that are intermediate between
those of metals and nonmetals
 Nonmetals are on the right side of the periodic
table (with the exception of H) (blue).
Metalloids border the stair-step line (with
the exception of Al, Po, and At).
Metals are on the left side of the chart (green color)
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
• Positive ions are called: • The elements located in group
a. positrons. 7A of the periodic table are
called:
b. anions.
a. alkali metals.
c. cations. b. noble gases.
d. nucleons. c. chalcogens.
d. halogens.

What are the ions present in the compound (NH4)2SO4 ?

NH3, H2, and SO2

N3–, H+, S2–, O2–
NH42+ and SO4–
NH4+ and SO42– (3 IONS)
(NH4+)2 and SO42–
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
1- Selenium (34Se) element is: 3- Which of the following sets of
(a) a nonmetal elements is expected to have
(b) found in group 6A similar chemical properties?
(c) both a and b a) Sulfur and phosphorous
b) Sulfur and oxygen
c) Sulfur and argon
2- Gallium (Ga) element is
found in the periodic table 4- Which of these elements is most
in likely to be a good conductor of
electricity?
(a) period 3, group 1B Which of the following is metal?
(b) period 3A, group 4 A. N
B. S
(c) period 4, group 1A C. He
(d) period 4, group 3A D. Fe

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 2.5 Molecules and Ions
A molecule: is an aggregate of two or more
atoms in a definite arrangement held together
by chemical forces, a molecule may contain
atoms of the same element or atoms of two or
more elements.

H2 H2O NH3 CH4

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

2.5
 2.5 Molecules and Ions
Molecule

Diatomic molecule: Polyatomic molecule:

contains only two contains more than two
atoms atoms
H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO O3, H2O, NH3, CH4

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

An ion: is an atom or a group of atoms
that has a net positive (+ve) or negative (-ve)
Charge. Ion

Cation: an ion with a +ve Anion: an ion with a -ve

charge (lose electron/s) charge ( Gain electron/s)

Monoatomic Polyatomic Monoatomic Polyatomic

cation cation anion anion
Na+, K+, Mg2+ NH4+ Cl-, Br-,S2- OH-, PO43-

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

• Which of the following is an • Which of the following is an
example of monatomic
example of polyatomic
anion?
cation?

• A) Mg+2
• A)Mg+2
• B) NH4+1
• B) NH4+1
• C)O-2 • C)O-2
• D) SO4-2
• D) SO4-2

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 2.6 Chemical formulas
• Molecular formulas give the actual numbers and
types of atoms in a molecule.
E.g. CH4, H2O2, C2H4, C6H12O6
• Empirical formulas give the smallest whole
number ratio of atoms in a molecule. The
empirical formula of many compounds is the
same as the molecular formula
E.g. CH4, HO, CH2, CH2O

• Ionic formulas: the number of electrons lost &

gained must be equal, so + and -charge cancel
out.
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
 An empirical formula shows the simplest
whole-number ratio of the atoms in a substance

molecular empirical
1
H2O H2O
6 CH2O
C6H12O6
3
C2H6O2
3
O3 O
2
N2H4 NH2

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 EXAMPLE 2.3
• Write the Empirical formulas for the following
molecules
Acetylene C2H2 divided by 2 CH

Glucose C6H12O6 divided by 6 CH2O

Nitrous oxide N2O , the Empirical formulas is same as

molecular formula N2O

Caffeine C8H10N4O2 divided by 2 C4H5N2O

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 ‫‪Examples‬‬
‫‪• Which of the following‬‬
‫‪• Which of the‬‬
‫‪following is empirical‬‬ ‫‪is molecular formula‬‬
‫‪formula‬‬ ‫‪A. CO2‬‬
‫‪A. O3 >>>>>> O‬‬ ‫‪B. H2SO4‬‬
‫‪B. H2SO4‬‬ ‫‪C. S8‬‬
‫‪C. S8 >>>>>>> S‬‬ ‫‪D. CH4O‬‬
‫‪D. C6H12O6 >>>> CH2O‬‬
‫المطلوب الصيغة التي ﻻيمكن‬ ‫المطلوب الصيغة التي يمكن تبسيطها‬
‫تبسيطها‬ ‫اﻻجابة الثالثة هي الوحيده التي يمكن تبسيطها‬
‫اﻻجابة الثانية ﻻيمكن تبسيطها‬ ‫هي اﻻجابة الصحيحة‬
‫هي اﻻجابة الصحيحة‬ ‫‪Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI‬‬
 Rules for writing ionic formula:
• 1) Write down formulas of ions
• 2) Combine the smallest number of ions to give the charge sum
equal to 0; if the charges are not equal, find the lowest common
multiple

• E.g. Predict the formula for the compound formed from the
following elements:
• Potassium bromide K+ Cl– = KCl

• Zinc iodide Zn+2 I– = ZnI2

• Aluminum oxide Al+3 O–2 = Al2O3

2 × +3 = +6 3 × -2 = -6
Al2O3
Al3+ O2-
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
 • Write the formula of
Examples 2.4
a)chromium sulfate ,
• Write the formula of b)titanium oxide?
magnesium nitride?

3 × +2 = +6 2 × -3 = -6 2 × +3 = +6 3 × -2 = -6

Cr 2(SO4)3

Mg 3N2 Cr 3+ SO42-
2 × +4 = +8 4 × -2 = -8
Ti 2O 4
Mg 2+ N3- Ti 4+ O 2-

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 2.7 naming compounds
Ionic compounds
Molecular compounds
• Ionic compounds
consist of metals ( positive ions (cations) and negative ions
(anions).
A. Naming Cations
1. Fixed charge metals:
Cations have same name as the metal element. (Groups1A, 2A,
3A , transition metals ) have specific charge.
Ag+ silver ion Zn2+ zinc ion , Al3+ Aluminum ion
Li+ lithium ion Ca2+ calcium ion

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 Naming Ionic compounds
Metals Non metals
Positive ion Negative ion
Cation Anion

( 1A , 2A ,3A & transition metals) monoatomic Polyatomic

Variable anions anions
Fixed
charge
charge
metals (STOCK SYSTEM)
metals If the metal can form more than 1 cation, the
Cations have charge is indicated by a Roman numeral in
same name as parenthesis after the metal name.
the metal
element
Ag+ silver ion ,Zn2+ zinc ion , Al3+
Fe2+ iron(II) ,Au+ gold(I), Cu+ copper(I) ,
Aluminum ion , Li+ lithium ion ,
Fe3+ iron(III) Au3+ gold(III) Cu2+ copper (II)
Ca2+ calcium ion
Hg2 +2mercury(I) Hg2+ mercury (II)
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
• 2. Variable charge metals:
• If the metal has more than one oxidation state, the
charge is indicated by a Roman numeral in
parenthesis after the metal name.
• Most of the transition metals are variable charge
metals.
• E.g. Common metals which exist in more than one
positive state:
• Fe2+ iron(II) ,Au+ gold(I), Cu+ copper(I) ,
Fe3+ iron(III) Au3+ gold(III) Cu2+ copper (II)
Hg2 +2mercury(I) Hg2+ mercury (II)
• 3. Polyatomic cations: consist of nonmetals:
H3O+ hydronium ion NH4+ ammonium
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
Variable charge metals

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 NOTE
• Some Cations of variable charge have name for each
oxidation state
• Example
Fe2+ iron(II) ferrous , Fe3+ iron(III) ferric
Cu+ copper(I) cuprous , Cu2+ Copper (II) cupric
Hg2 +2mercury(I) mercurous
Hg2+ mercury (II) mercuric
Mercury (Hg) is the only metal has this formula when it
form cation with only one positive charge :
Hg22+ NOT Hg+
The cation of two positive charges has the formula Hg2+
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
 B. Naming Anions
• 1. monoatomic anions: change ending to -ide
• E.g. Oxygen→ Oxide Sulfur → Sulfide
Hydrogen →Hydride chlorine → Chloride
Florine → Floride Bromine → Bromide

• Polyatomic anions: most end in -ate or -ite; usually contain O

(oxy)
• Know polyatomic anions on handout.
• Carbonate CO3-2 , Nitrate NO3- , Sulfate SO4-2 ,
• Phosphate PO4-3
Cyanide CN- , Hydroxide OH- , Oxide O2-2
See table 2.3

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

• Ionic compounds names start with the positive ion (metal)
(include Roman numeral in parenthesis ONLY IF metal has
variable charge) followed by the negative ion (nonmetal).
• NaCl Sodium Chloride
• BaCl2 Barium Chloride
• K2O Potassium oxide
• KNO3 Potassium Nitrate
• Na2CO3 Sodium Carbonate
• FeCl2 Iron(II) Chloride → ferrous Chloride
• FeCl3 Iron(III) Chloride → ferric Chloride
• Cr2S3 Chromium(III) Sulfide
• (NH4)3PO4 Ammonium Phosphate
• Cu(NO3)2 Cupper(II)nitrate
• PbO Lead(II) oxide
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
 Example 2.6 PRACTIES EXERICISE 2.6

• Write the chemical formula • Write the chemical formula for

for the following compounds the following compounds
• Mercury(I)nitrite • Rubidium sulfate
Hg2 (NO2)2 • Rb 2 SO4

• Cesium sulfide
Ce2S • Barium hydride
• BaH 2
Calcium phosphate
Ca3 (PO4)2

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

Example 2.5 p61:
(b) KH2PO4
Name the following compounds: 1. Cation: K form only one
(a) Cu(NO3)2 type of cation
1. Cation: Copper cation (can form → Potassium Note: not
two potassium (I)
types of cation →Stock system) → 2. Anion: H2PO4- has a
Copper (II) common name
2. Anion: NO3- anion has a common
name dihydrogen phosphate
Nitrate Thus: the name of the
Thus: the name of the compound is: compound is:
Copper (II) nitrate Potasium dihydroen
phosphate

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 (c) NH4ClO3 Example 2.6 p62:
1. Cation: NH4+ has a Write chemical formulas for
common name the following
ammonium compounds:
2. Anion: ClO3- has a (a) Mercury (I) nitrite
common name Roman number (I) shows
that mercury has
chlorate
+1 charge → Hg22+
Thus: the name of the
Nitrite is a common name of
compound is: NO2-
Ammonium chlorate Thus: the chemical formula
is:
Hg2(NO2)2

H.W. Solve the practice exercise p62

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
Molecular compounds
• nonmetals or nonmetals + metalloids
• common names
• H2O water
• NH3 ammonia
• CH4 methane
• H2S hydrogen sulfide
• SiH4 silane
• B2H6 diborane
• 1) Name 1st element & use a prefix (table 2.4) to
indicate the number of atoms.
• .
• 2)Name 2nd element & include prefix for number of
atoms (see table 2.4).
• 3) Change ending of 2nd element to –ide.

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

 Note
• Note that mono- is never used for the first element

• For oxides, the ending “a” in the prefix is omitted.

• N2O4 dinitrogen tetroxide not (dinitrogen tetraoxide)

• For oxides, the ending “o” in the prefix is omitted.

• N2O dinitrogen monoxide not (dinitrogen monooxide )

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

Molecular Compounds

HI hydrogen iodide
NF3 nitrogen trifluoride

Br2O7 Dibromine heptoxide

SO2 sulfur dioxide

N2Cl4 dinitrogen tetrachloride

NO2 nitrogen dioxide

N2O dinitrogen monoxide

ICl3 Iodine trifchloride
Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI
 MOLECULAR COMPOUND
IONIC COMPOUNDS

• Iron (III) sulfide → Fe2S3 • Tetrasulfur octoxide → S4O8

• Silver dichromate → Ag2Cr2O7 • Aluminum hydride → AlH3

• Sodium phosphide → Na3P

• Diphosphorus pentasulfide → P2S5
• Cobalt (III) nitrite → Co(NO2)3
• Sulfur hexafloride SF6
• Tin(IV) chloride → SnCl4
• Chromium(III) thiocyanate →
• Dinetrogen pentoxide P2O5
Cr(SCN)3

• Lead(IV) oxide → PbO2 • Disulfur pentafluoride S2F10

• Calcium phosphite →Ca3(PO3)2
• Arsenic(V) sulfide → As2S5
• manganese(VII) oxide → Mn2O7

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

Which of these pairs of elements would be most likely to
form an ionic compound?
(a) P and Br
(b) Cu and K
(c) C and O
(d) O and Zn
(e) Al and Rb

Which of these pairs of elements would be most likely to

form a molecular compound?
(a) Na and Br (b) C and O
(c) Ca and O (d) Zn and O
(e) Mg and Cl

Dr. LAILA AL-HARBI

Chapter 3
Mass relationships in
chemical reactions
Dr. Laila Al-Harbi
 Chapter 3
Mass relationships in chemical
reactions
• 3.1 atomic mass
• 3.2 Avogadro’s number and molar mass of an element
• 3.3 molecular mass
• 3.5 percent composition of compounds
• 3.6 experimental determination of empirical formula
• 3.7 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations
• 3.9 limiting reagents
• 3.10 reaction yield

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

 3.1 atomic mass
• Each atom have more than one isotope with
different abundance
• Average atomic Mass: the average mass of
all of the isotopes of an element, each one
weighted by its proportionate abundance
• Science each atom have more than one isotope
with different abundance
% abundance of isotope 1 % abundance of isotope 2
Average Atomic Mass = (mass of isotope 1) + (mass of isotope 2) + ...
100 100

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

 Average atomic mass
Average atomic mass of Lithium
Average atomic mass of carbon

• Natural lithium is: • Natural Carbon is:

• 7.42% 6Li (6.015 amu) • 1.18% 13C (13 amu)
• 92.58% 7Li (7.016 amu • 98.9% 12C (12 amu)
(7.42% x 6.015) + (92.58% x 7.016) (98.9 % x 12) + (1.18% x 13)
100 100
= 6.941 amu = 12.01 amu

The average atomic mass is between the atomic masses of the isotopes
And near the value of the highest abundance
Dr. Laila Al-Harbi
 PRACTIES EXERICISE 3.1
EXAMPLE 3.1

• 65Cu (30.91percent) • 10B (19.78 percent)

Atomic mass 64.9278 Atomic mass 10.0129
• 63Cu (69.091percent) • 11B (80.78percent)
Atomic mass 62.93 Atomic mass 11.0093
(30.91% x 64.9278) + 69.091% x 62.93)
(19.78 % x 10.0129) + 80.78% 11.0093)
100
100

= 63.55 amu =10.81amu

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

 Iodine has two isotopes 126I and 127I, with the
equal abundance.
Calculate the average atomic mass of Iodine (53I).
(a) 126.5 amu
(b) 35.45 amu
(c) 1.265 amu
(d) 71.92 amu

equal abundance MEAN each atom

has abundance 50% .
 3.2 Avogadro’s number and molar mass of an element
• Atomic mass is the mass of an atom in atomic mass units (amu)

By definition:
1 atom 12C “weighs” 12 amu

• On this scale1H = 1.008 amu 16O = 16.00 amu

• Avogadro's Number , Is the number of atoms in exactly 12
grams of carbon-12 (NA = 6.022 x 1023)
• The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that contains as many
elementary entities as there are atoms in exactly 12.00 grams of 12C
• One mole of a substance contains an Avogadro's Number of units

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

 THUS:
one mole of H atoms has
6.022 x 1023 atoms
&
One mole of H2 molecules has
6.022 x 1023 molecules
 C C S

Hg

Cu Fe

One mole of these substances contain = 6.022 x 1023 atoms

but is not equal because they have different molar masses

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

 Molar Mass
• Molar mass (M): the mass (in g or kg) of one mole
of a substance;
M = mass/mol = g/mol

For ONE MOLE: 1 amu = 1 g

• The atomic mass of 12C is 12.00 amu = 12.00 g
• 1 mole of 12C = 12.00 amu = 12.00 g = has NA of
atoms = has 6.022 x 1023 atoms
• Thus:
The Molar Mass (M) of 12C = 12.00 g/mol
11
 Molar Mass (g/mol)
=
Atomic Mass (amu)
Examples:
1. The atomic mass of Na = 22.99 amu
The molar mass of Na = 22.99 g/mol

2. The atomic mass of P = 30.97 amu

The molar mass of P = 30.97 g/mol

12
 Molecular Mass
• Molecular Mass (molecular weight): is
the sum of the atomic masses (in amu)
in the molecule. (MOLECULE)
• Molecular Mass: multiply the atomic
mass of each element by the number of
atoms of that element present in the
molecule and sum over all the elements.
• e.g. Molecular Mass of H2O is:
(2 x atomic mass of H) + (1x atomic mass of O)
(2 x 1.008 amu) + (1x 16.00 amu) = 18.02 amu
13
 Example
• What is the molar mass of the following
compound ?
• NH3 , CH3COOH , Na2SO4 , C6H12O6

• NH3 = (1×14)+(3×1) = 17 g/mol

• C2H4O2 = (2×12)+(4×1) )+(2×16) = 60 g/mol

• Na2SO4 = (2×23)+(1×32) )+(4×16) = 142 g/mol

• C6H12O6 = (6×12)+(12×1) )+(6×16) = 180 g/mol

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

 EXAMPLE 3.5
• Calculate the molecular masses ( in amu) of the following compounds ?
• Sulfur dioxide SO2 = 32.07+2 (16) = 64.07 amu

• Caffeine C8H10 N4O2

= 8(12.01)+ 10 (1.008) + 4(14.01)+ 2(16) = 194.20amu

Practice exercise3.5
Calculate the molecular masses of methanol?
• methanol C H4O
= 1(12.01)+ 4 (1.008) + 1(16) = 32.4 amu

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

 n = number of moles
m = mass (atom or molecule)
M = molar mass (atomic mass or molecular
mass)
What is the relation between them?
m g
n mol
M g / mol

n = number of moles
N = number of atoms or molecules
NA = Avogadro's number (atoms (or
molecules)/mol)
What is the relation between them?
N atoms (or molecules)
n mol
NA atoms (or molecules) / mol
16
 EXAMPLE 3.2
How many moles of He atoms are in 6.46 g of He ?

m 6.46 g
n( He) 1.61mol
M 4.003 g / mol
How many grams of Zn are in 0.356 mole of Zn?
m
n ( Zn ) m nM
M
m 0 . 356 mol x 65 . 39 g/mol 23 . 3 g

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

 Example 3.6
• Methane is the principle component of
natural gas . How many CH4 are in 6.07 g of
CH4?
m 6.06 g
n( He) 0.378mol
M 16.04 g / mol

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

Example 3.4 p84:
How many S atoms are in 16.3 g of S?

Strategy:
1. How many moles in 16.3 g of S = X mol
2. 1 mole → 6.022 x1023 S atoms
X moles → ? atoms

19
Solution:
From the periodic Table: The atomic mass of S =
32.07 amu
The molar mass of S = 32.07 g/mol
Thus: 32.07 g → 1 mole of S
16.3 g of S → ? mole
1 mol x 16.3 g
n 0.508 mol
32.07 g
We know: 1 mol of S → 6.022 x1023 S atoms
0.508 mole → ? S atoms
6.022 x10 23 atoms x 0.508 mol
number of S atoms
1 mol
3.06 x10 23 S atoms

There is 3.06 x1023 atoms of20 S in 16.3 g of S

H.W. Solve the Practice Exercise p85
 ‫حل مختصر‬
How many S atoms are in 16.3 g of S?

m 16.3 g
n( S ) 0.508 mol
M 32.07 g/mol

N
n( S ) N nxN A
NA
23
0.508 mol x 6.022 x10 atoms/mol
23
3.06 x10 atoms
21
 How many molecules of ethane (C2H6) are present in
0.334 g of C2H6?
(a) 2.01 x 1023
(b) 6.69 x 1021
(c) 4.96 x 1022
(d) 8.89 x 1020
1 mole x 0.334 g
number of moles of C 2 H 6 0.011 mol
30.068 g
1 mole of C2H6 → 6.022 x 1023 molecules of C2H6
0.011 mole of C2H6 → ? molecules of C2H6

0.011 mol x 6.022x1023 molecules

number of molecules of C 2 H 6
1 mole
6.624 x10 21 molecules 22
Dr. Laila Al-Harbi
 Example 3.7 p87:
How many hydrogen atoms are present in 25.6 g of urea
[(NH2)2CO]. The molar mass of urea is 60.06 g/mol.
m 25.6 g
n[( NH 2 ) 2 CO ] 0.426 mol
M 60.06 g / mol
N
n[( NH 2 ) 2 CO ]
NA
N nxN A 0.426 mol x6.022 x1023 molecules/mol
N 2.567 x1023 molecules
1 molecule [(NH 2 ) 2 CO ] 4 H atoms
2.567x1023 [(NH 2 ) 2 CO ] molecules ?H atoms
4 atomx2.567x1023 molecule
number of H atoms 1.03 x1024 atoms
1 molecule
23
H.W. What is the mass, in grams, of one copper
atom?
(a) 1.055 10-22 g
(b) 63.55 g
(c) 1 amu
(d) 1.66 10-24 g
Atomic mass of Cu = 63.55 amu
(e) 9.476 1021 g
Molar mass of Cu = 63.55 g/mol
63.55 g of Cu → 1 mol of Cu
1 mol of Cu → 6.022 x 1023 Cu atoms
63.55g of Cu → 6.022x1023 Cu atoms
?g of Cu → 1 Cu atom

1 atom x 63.55g 22
grams of Cu 23
1.055 x10 g
6.022x10 atom
 3.5 Percent composition of compounds

Percent composition of an n x molar mass of element

x 100%
element in compound = molar mass of compound

n is the number of moles of the element in 1 mole of the compound

2 x (12.01 g)
%C = x 100% = 52.14%
46.07 g

6 x (1.008 g)
%H = x 100% = 13.13%
46.07 g

C2H6O %O =
1 x (16.00 g)
x 100% = 34.73%
46.07 g

Check the 52.14% + 13.13% + 34.73% = 100.0%

answer!
Dr. Laila Al-Harbi
 Example 3.8 PRACTIES EXERICISE 3.8
• Calculate the percent composition • Calculate the percent composition
by mass of H , P, and O in H3PO4 by mass of H , P, and O in H2SO4
acid ? acid ?

• Molar mass of H3PO4 • Molar mass of H2SO4

• = 3(1.008)+ 1 (30.97) + 4(16) • = 2(1.008)+ 1 (32.7) + 4(16)
2(1.008)
3(1.008) %H = = 98.72
x 100% = 2.026amu
%
%H = = 97.99 amu 98.72
x 100% = 3.0864%
97.99
1(30.97) 1(32.07)
%P = %S = x 100% = 32.486 %
x 100% = 31.61 %
97.99 98.72
4(16)
4(16) %O= x 100% = 64.83%
%O= x 100% = 65.31%
97.99 98.72

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

H.W. Calculate the percent of nitrogen in Ca(NO3)2:
a) 12.01%.
b) 17.10%.
c) 18%
d) 16%.

H.W. All of the substances listed below are

fertilizers that contribute nitrogen to the soil.
Which of these is the richest source of nitrogen
on a mass percentage basis?
(a) %N = 46.6%
(a) Urea, (NH2)2CO
(b) %N = 58%
(b) Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3
(c) Guanidine, HNC(NH2)2 (c) %N = 71.1%

(d) Ammonia, NH3 (d) %N = 82.2%

‫ايا من هذه المواد هواغنى مصدر للنيتروجين على اساس‬

‫نسبه وزنيه من النيتروجين؟‬
28 ‫احتوائه على اكبر‬
 ‫‪Percent Composition and Empirical Formulas‬‬
‫‪Q: Determine the empirical formula of a compound that has the following‬‬
‫‪percent composition by mass: K 24.75, Mn 34.77, O 40.51 percent.‬‬

‫‪K‬‬ ‫‪Mn‬‬ ‫‪O‬‬

‫‪%‬‬ ‫‪100g‬‬ ‫‪24.75g‬‬ ‫‪34.77g‬‬ ‫‪40.51g‬‬

‫‪n=m/M‬‬ ‫‪24.75/39.10‬‬ ‫‪34.77/54.94‬‬ ‫‪40.51/16.00‬‬
‫‪=0.633mol‬‬ ‫‪=0.6329mol‬‬ ‫‪= 2.532mol‬‬
‫‪on smallest no. of mole‬‬ ‫‪0.633/0.632‬‬ ‫‪0.6329/0.632‬‬ ‫‪2.532/0.632‬‬
‫‪=1‬‬ ‫‪=1‬‬ ‫‪=4‬‬
‫‪The empirical formula is‬‬ ‫‪K1‬‬ ‫‪Mn1‬‬ ‫‪O4‬‬
‫‪KMnO4‬‬

‫خطوات الحل‬
‫‪ .1‬ننشأ جدول نضع فيه العناصر المذكورة في السؤال‬
‫‪ .2‬نعتبر أن النسبة المئوية معبر عنها بالجرام فلو كان عندنا ‪ 100‬جرام من المركب فهذه ال ‪ 100‬جرام موزعة على العناصر حسب‬
‫نسبتها‪.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬نوجد عدد الموﻻت ‪n‬لكل عنصر باستخدام القانون ‪. n=m/M‬‬
‫‪ .4‬نقسم عدد الموﻻت على أصغر مول من العناصر‪.‬‬
‫‪ .5‬اﻷرقام التي نحصل عليها تمثل ‪empirical formula‬بشرط أن تكون أعداد صحيحة كما في المثال السابق‪.‬‬
‫‪ .6‬في حالة ظهور أعداد عشرية نقوم بضرب اﻷرقام التي في اﻷسفل الموجودة في الصيغة بأعداد بدأ من ‪ .......3 ،2‬حتى نحصل على‬
‫أعداد صحيحة ‪.‬‬
‫‪29‬‬
‫‪Courtesy of Dr. Fawzia Albelwi‬‬
‫‪Example 3.9 p90:‬‬
‫‪Ascorbic acid composed of 40.92% C, 4.58% H, and 54.50%‬‬
‫‪O by mass. Determine its empirical formula.‬‬
‫‪C‬‬ ‫‪H‬‬ ‫‪O‬‬

‫‪%‬‬ ‫‪100g‬‬ ‫‪40.92g‬‬ ‫‪4.58g‬‬ ‫‪54.50g‬‬

‫‪n=m/M‬‬ ‫‪40.92/12.01‬‬ ‫‪4.58/1.008‬‬ ‫‪54.50/16.00‬‬
‫‪= 3.407mol‬‬ ‫‪=4.54.mol‬‬ ‫‪= 3.406 mol‬‬
‫‪on smallest no. of‬‬ ‫‪3.407/3.406‬‬ ‫‪0.4.54/3.406‬‬ ‫‪3.406/3.406‬‬
‫‪mole‬‬ ‫‪=1‬‬ ‫‪= 1.33‬‬ ‫‪=1‬‬
‫‪Convert into integer x‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3.99 = 4‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪The empirical formula‬‬ ‫‪C3‬‬ ‫‪H4‬‬ ‫‪O3‬‬
‫‪is‬‬ ‫‪C3H4O3‬‬

‫خطوات الحل‬
‫‪ .1‬ننشأ جدول نضع فيه العناصر المذكورة في السؤال‬
‫‪ .2‬نعتبر أن النسبة المئوية معبر عنها بالجرام فلو كان عندنا ‪ 100‬جرام من المركب فهذه ال ‪ 100‬جرام موزعة على العناصر حسب‬
‫نسبتها‪.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬نوجد عدد الموﻻت ‪n‬لكل عنصر باستخدام القانون ‪. n=m/M‬‬
‫‪ .4‬نقسم عدد الموﻻت على أصغر مول من العناصر‪.‬‬
‫‪ .5‬اﻷرقام التي نحصل عليها تمثل ‪empirical formula‬بشرط أن تكون أعداد صحيحة‬
‫في حالة ظهور أعداد عشرية كما في المثال السابق نقوم ‪30‬‬
‫بضرب اﻷرقام التي في اﻷسفل الموجودة في الصيغة بأعداد بدأ من ‪،2‬‬ ‫‪.6‬‬
‫‪ .......3‬حتى نحصل على أعداد صحيحة ‪.‬‬
 Determination of the Molecular Formula from the
Percent Composition by Mass
Example 3.11 p93:
A sample compound contains 1.52g of N and 3.47g of
O. The molar mass of this compound is between 92g
. Determine the molecular formula.

Solution: Present Composition

by Mass
1. n 1.52
N 0.108 mol of N
14.01 ↓
3.47
nO 0.217 mol of O Empirical Formula
16.00
2. 0.108 0.217
↓
N: 1 O 2 Molecular Formula
0.108 0.108
3. Thus the empirical formula is: NO2
31
 4. The molar mass of the empirical
formula NO2 = 14.01 + (2x16.00) =
46.01g
5. The ratio between the empirical
formula and the molecular formula:
molar mass of compound 90 1.956
Ratio Ratio 2
empirical molar mass 46.01

6. The molecular formula is (NO2)2 = N2O4

32
 PRACTIES EXERICISE 3.10
• A sample of a compound containing born (B) and hydrogen (H) contains
6.444g of B and 1.803 g of (H). The molar mass of the compound is about
30g. What is its molecular formula?

1 mol B B: 0.5961
nB = 6.444 g B x =0.5961 mol B =1.0
10.81 g B 0.5961

1 mol H 1.7888
nH = 1.803g H x =1.7888 mol H H: 0.5961 = 3
1.008 g H
BH3
Molar mass of empirical formula = 10.81 + 3 x 1.008 = 13.834g

The ratio between molar mass and the molar mass of empirical
formula
= molar mass / empirical formula = 30 g / 13.834 g ≈ 2

B2H6
Dr. Laila Al-Harbi
 3.7Chemical reactions and chemical equations

• A process in which one or more substances is changed into one or more

new substances is a chemical reaction
• A chemical equation uses chemical symbols to show what happens during
a chemical reaction
3 ways of representing the reaction of H2 with O2 to form H2O

reactants products
Dr. Laila Al-Harbi
 How to “Read” Chemical Equations
2 Mg + O2 2 MgO
2 atoms Mg + 1 molecule O2 makes 2 formula units MgO
2 moles Mg + 1 mole O2 makes 2 moles MgO
48.6 grams Mg + 32.0 grams O2 makes 80.6 g MgO

IS NOT
2 grams Mg + 1 gram O2 makes 2 g MgO

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

 Balancing Chemical Equations
• Write the correct formula(s) for the reactants on the left side
and the correct formula(s) for the product(s) on the right side
of the equation.
• Ethane reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water

C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O

Change the numbers in front of the formulas (coefficients) to

make the number of atoms of each element the same on both
sides of the equation. Do not change the subscripts

2C2H6 NOT C4H12

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

 ‫طريقة وزن المعادلة الكيمائية‬
‫نكتب الصيغه الصحيحه لكل متفاعل )على الطرف اﻻيسر(‬ ‫•‬
‫ولكل ناتج )على الطرف اﻻيمن(‬
‫وزن المعادله الكيميائيه يكون بتغير اﻻرقام التي بجانب‬ ‫•‬
‫الصيغه وليست التي تحتها بحيث يكون للعنصر نفس العدد‬
‫على طرفي المعادله‪.‬‬
‫توزن اوﻻ العناصر اﻻقل ظهورا‪ ,‬ثم توزن العناصر‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻻكثر ظهورا‬
‫الخطوه اﻻخيره هي التأكد من ان لديك نفس العدد من‬ ‫•‬
‫الذرات لكل عنصر على طرفي المعادله‬

‫‪Dr. Laila Al-Harbi‬‬

• Start by balancing those elements that appear in only one
reactant and one product.

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

• Balance those elements that appear in two or more reactants
or products.

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

• Check to make sure that you have the same number of each
type of atom on both sides of the equation.

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

 Al + O2 → Al2O3 • Fe2O3 + CO → Fe +CO2

2Al + O2 → Al2O3 • Fe2O3EXERICISE

PRACTIES + CO → 3.12
2Fe +CO2
Example 3.12
2Al + 3/2O2 → Al2O3 • Fe2O3 +1/3CO → 2Fe+1/3CO2

2(2Al + 3/2O2 → Al2O3)

• 3(Fe2O3 +1/3CO →
2Fe+1/3CO2)

4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3 • Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe +3CO2

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

H.W. What is the coefficient of H2O when the equation is
balanced:
_ Al4C3 + _ H2O _ Al(OH)3 + 3CH4
a. 13
b. 4
c. 6
d. 12

H.W. What are the coefficients of Al4C3 ,H2O and Al(OH)3,

respectively, when the equation is balanced:
_ Al4C3 + _ H2O _ Al(OH)3 + 3CH4
a. 4,1,5
b. 1,12,4
c. 1,24, 4
d. 4,12,1

42
 Amounts of Reactants and Products

1. Write balanced chemical equation

2. Convert quantities of known substances into moles
3. Use coefficients in balanced equation to calculate the number of moles of the
sought quantity
4. Convert moles of sought quantity into desired units
Dr. Laila Al-Harbi
‫لمعرفة المواد المتفاعلة أو الناتجة بمعلومية أحد المتفاعﻼت او‬ ‫•‬
‫الناتجة نقوم باﻻتي‪:‬‬
‫ﻻبد أن تكون المعادلة موزونه‬ ‫•‬
‫حددي المادة المعطاه ‪given‬ثم الماده المطلوبة‪ Required‬و‬ ‫•‬
‫اعملي عﻼقة بينهم و تجاهلي الباقي تماما‬
‫العﻼقة في المعادله الموزونه عﻼقة موﻻت‬ ‫•‬
‫فلوكانت الماده المعطاه بالجرامات نحولها الى موﻻت و‬ ‫•‬
‫اذاكانت بالموﻻت ﻻ نحتاج الى هذه الخطوة‬
‫اذا كانت الماده المطلوبة بالموﻻت نكتفى بهذا الحد‬ ‫•‬
‫اذا كانت الماده المطلوبة بالجرامات نحول الموﻻت الى‬ ‫•‬
‫جرامات‪.‬‬
‫‪Dr. Laila Al-Harbi‬‬
If 2 mol of C6H12O6 is burned , what is the
number of moles of CO2 produced?

C6 H12O6 6O2 6CO2 6 H 2O

Given Required

From the equation mole of C6H12O6 → produce 6 mol CO2

From the equation 2 mol C6H12O6 → x mol CO2
the number of moles of CO2 produced = 2 × 6/ 1=12 mol
If 2 mol of C6H12O6 is burned , what is the
mass of CO2 produced?
• If 2 mol of C6H12O6 is burned , how many
grams of CO2 produced?
C6 H12O6 6O2 6CO2 6 H 2O
Given Required

From the equation mole of C6H12O6 → produce 6 mol CO2

From the equation 2 mol C6H12O6 → x mol CO2
the number of moles of CO2 produced = 2 × 6/ 1=12 mol
the mass of CO2 produced = n × molecular mass of CO2
the mass of CO2 produced = 12 ×44.01 = 528.12 g
 Example 3.13
• A general over all equation for this very complex process represents
the degradation of glucose (C6H12O6) to CO2 and water. If 856 g of
C6H12O6 is consumed by person over a certain period, what is the
mass of CO2 produced?

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6 H2O +6CO2

• n = m/M = 856/180.2 = 4.75 mol

• From the equation mole of C6H12O6 → produce 6CO2
• From the equation 4.75 mol C6H12O6 → x CO2
• From the equation = 4.75 × 6 / 1= 28.5
• the mass of CO2 produced = n × M
• the mass of CO2 produced = 28.5 × 44.01 = 1254.35 g

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

 PRACTIES EXERICISE 3.13
Methanol burns in air according to the equation
If 209 g of methanol are used up in the combustion , what mass of water is
produced?

2CH3OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 4H2O

Given Required
n = m/M = 209/32= 6.53 mol
From the equation 2 moles of CH3OH → produce 4 mol H2O
From the equation 6.53 mol CH3OH → x mol H2O
the number of moles of H2Oproduced = 6.53 × 4/ 2=13.06 mol
the mass of H2O produced = n × molecular mass of CO2
the mass of H2O produced = 13.06 ×18 = 235g

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

 Example 3.14
• All alkali metals react with water to produce hydrogen gas and the
corresponding alkali metal hydroxide. A typical reaction is that between
lithium and water

Li (s) + 2 H2O (l) → 2 Li OH (aq) + H2 (g)

How many grams of Li are needed to produce 9.89g of H2 ?

• From the equation 2 mole of Li → produce mole of H2

• From the equation 2× 6.941 g Li → 2.016g H2
• From the equation x g Li → 9.89 g CO2
• the mass of CO2 produced = 2× 6.941× 9.89 g / 2.016g
= 68.1g Li

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

3.9 Limiting Reagent ‫الكاشف المحدد‬
• Limiting Reagent: is the reactant used
up first in a reaction and thus
determine the amount of product
• Excess Reagent ‫الكاشف الفائض‬: is the
reactant present in quantities greater
than necessary to react with the
quantity of the limiting reagent (the one
that is left at the end of the reaction).
• → Limiting reagent is in a reaction of
more than one reactant!
50
Limiting Reagent:
Reactant used up first in
the reaction.

2NO + O2 2NO2

NO is the limiting reagent

O2 is the excess reagent

51
 ‫‪Limiting Reactant‬‬
‫الكاشف المحدد هو الكاشف الذي يحدد كمية الماده الناتجه‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻻ يشترط أن يكون الكاشف المحدد هو نفسه كل مره‬ ‫•‬
‫دائما الكاشف المحدد موجود بعدد موﻻت أقل و الماده اﻻخرى‬ ‫•‬
‫موجوده بزياده‬
‫مسألة الكاشف المحدد تختلف عن المسائل السابقة أنه يعطيك كﻼ‬ ‫•‬
‫المتفاعلين و يطلب الناتج‬
‫لكل نحدد الكاشف المحدد نقوم بالخطوات التالية‬ ‫•‬
‫‪ -1‬نحول جرامات المواد المتفاعﻼت الى موﻻت‬ ‫•‬
‫‪ -2‬نقسم الجرامات الناتجة على معامل الماده في المعادلة الموزونه‬ ‫•‬
‫‪ -3‬الماده أقل عدد موﻻت هي الكاشف المحدد‬ ‫•‬
‫‪ -4‬نوجد الماده الناتجه حسب ما تعلمنا في الجزء السابق‬ ‫•‬
‫‪Dr. Laila Al-Harbi‬‬
 Example:
• When 22.0 g NaCl and 21.0 g H2SO4 are mixed and
react according to the equation below, which is the
limiting reagent?
2NaCl + 1H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2HCl

• n NaCl = 22/58.5 = 0.376/2=0.188 mol

• n H2SO4 = 21/98 = 0.214/1 = 0.241 mol

• n NaCl (0.188 mol)<n H2SO4 (0.241 mol)

• So NaCl is the limiting reagent

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi
 Example
Consider the combustion of carbon monoxide (CO) in oxygen
gas: 2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)
Starting with 3.60 moles of CO and 4 moles of O2, calculate the
number of moles of CO2 produced ?
• n CO = 3.6/2=1.88 mol
• n O2 = 4/1 = 4 mol
• n CO (1.88 mol)<n O2 (4 mol)
• So CO is the limiting reagent
From chemical eq. 2 mole CO = 2 mol CO2
3.6 mol = x

number of moles of CO2 produced = 3.6 x 2/2 = 3.6 mol

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

 Example
• 10.0g of aluminum reacts with 35.0 grams of chlorine gas to produce
aluminum chloride. Which reactant is limiting, which is in excess,
and how much product is produced?
2 Al + 3 Cl2 2 AlCl3
• n Al = 10/27=0.37 /2mol= 0.185 mol
• n Cl2 = 35/ 71= 0.493 /3 = 0.164 mol
• n Cl2 (0.185 mol)<n Al (0.164 mol)
• So Cl2 is the limiting reagent
From chemical eq. 3 mole Cl2 = 2 mol AlCl3
0.493 mol = x
number of moles of AlCl3 produced = 0.493 x 2/3 = 0.329 mol
mass of AlCl3 = 0.329 x 133.5 = 43.877 g

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

 Science Cl2 is the LR so Al is the excess the amount remain

From chemical eq. 3 mole Cl2 = 2 mol Al

0.493 mol = x
number of moles of Al react = 0.493 x 2/3 = 0.329 mol

mass of Al = 0.329 x 27 = 8.8 83 g

The excess mass of Al = total mass Al – reacted Al

= 10 -8.883 = 1.117 g

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

• Urea (NH2)2CO is prepared by reacting ammonia with carbon
dioxide
2NH3 (g) + CO2 (g) → (NH2)2CO (aq) + H2O (ι)
• In on process 637.2 g of NH3 are treated with 1142 g of CO2 a)
which of the two limiting reagents? b) calculate the mass of
(NH2)2CO formed ? C) how much excess reagent ( in gram) is
left at the end of the reaction
• n NH3 = 637.2 /17=37.482 /2mol= 18.74 mol
• n CO2 = 1142/ 44= 25.95 /1 = 25.95 mol
• n NH3 (18.74 mol)<n CO2 (25.95 mol)
• So NH3 is the limiting reagent
From chemical eq. 2 mole NH3 = 1 mol (NH2)2CO
37.482 mol = x
number of moles of AlCl3 produced = 37.82 x 1/2 = 18.94 mol
mass of AlCl3 =18.94 x 60.06 = 1125.6 g

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

• C) how much excess reagent ( in gram) is left at the end of
the reaction
Science NH3 is the LR so CO2 is the excess the amount remain

From chemical eq. 2 mole NH3 = 1 mol CO2

37.482 mol = x
number of moles of CO2 react = 0.493 x 1/2 = 18.74 mol

mass of CO2 = 18.74 x 44 = 824.56 g

The excess mass of CO2 = total mass CO2– reacted CO2

= 1142 -823.4 = 318.6 g

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

 PRACTIES EXERICISE 3.15
In one process, 124 g of Al are reacted with 601 g of Fe2O3
2Al + Fe2O3 Al2O3 + 2Fe
Calculate the mass of Al2O3 formed.

n Al = 124/27=4.59 /2mol= 2.296 mol

n Fe2O3 = 601/ 159= 3.78 /1 = 3.78 mol
n Al <n Fe2O3 >>>> So Al is the limiting reagent
From chemical eq. 2 mole Al = 2 mol Al2O3
4.59 mol = x
number of moles of AlCl3 produced = 4.59 x 1/2 = 2.296 mol
mass of AlCl3 = 2.296 x 102 = 234 g

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

• n Al = 124/27=4.59 /2mol= 2.296 mol
• n Fe2O3 = 601/ 159= 3.78 /1 = 3.78 mol
• n Al <n Fe2O3 >>>> So Al is the limiting
reagent
From chemical eq. 2 mole Al = 2 mol Al2O3
4.59 mol = x
number of moles of AlCl3 produced = 4.59 x
1/2 = 2.296 mol
mass of AlCl3 = 2.296 x 102 = 234 g

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

 3.10 Reaction Yield
Theoretical Yield is the amount of product that would
result if all the limiting reagent reacted.

Actual Yield is the amount of product actually obtained

from a reaction.

Actual Yield
% Yield = x 100
Theoretical Yield

Actual Yield is always lees .

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

• When 22.0 g NaCl mixed with excess H2SO4 and 8.95 g
HCl is formed .what is the %yield of HCl?
2NaCl + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2HCl

n NaCl = 22/58.5 = 0.376/2=0.188 mol

From chemical eq. 2 mole NaCl = 2 mol HCl
0.376 mol = x
number of moles of HCl produced = 0.376 x 2/2 =0.376 mol
mass of HCl produced = n x MM(HCl) = 0.376 x 36.5 =13.724 g
• %yield of HCl = practical/theoriotical x 100

• %yield of HCl = 8.95 /13.724 x 100 = 65.21%

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi

• When 22.0 g NaCl and 21.0 g H2SO4 are mixed and react according to
the equation below 8.95 g HCl is formed .what is the %yield of HCl?
2NaCl + 1H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2HCl

• n NaCl = 22/58.5 = 0.376/2=0.188 mol

• n H2SO4 = 21/98 = 0.214/1 = 0.241 mol

• n NaCl (0.188 mol)<n H2SO4 (0.241 mol)

• So NaCl is the limiting reagent

From chemical eq. 2 mole NaCl = 2 mol HCl
0.376 mol = x
number of moles of HCl produced = 0.376 x 2/2 =0.376 mol
mass of HCl produced = n x MM(HCl) = 0.376 x 36.5 =13.724 g
• %yield of HCl = practical/theoriotical x 100

• %yield of HCl = 8.95 /13.724 x 100 = 65.21%

Dr. Laila Al-Harbi
• In one process, 3.54×107 g of TiCl4 are reacted with 1.13×107 g of Mg
a) Calculate the theoretical yield of the Ti? b) calculate the percent
yield if 7.91×106 g of Ti are obtained ?
TiCl4 (g) + 2Mg (ι)→ Ti (s)+ 2MgCl2 (ι)

n TiCl4 = 3.54×107 g /189.68 = 1.87x105 /1= 1.87x105 mol

• n Mg = 1.13×107 g / 24.3 = 1.87x105 /2 = 2.32 x105mol

• n TiCl4 <n Mg ,So TiCl4 is the limiting reagent

From chemical eq. 1 mole TiCl4 = 1 mol Ti
1.87x105 mol = x
number of moles of Ti produced = 1.87x105 x 1/1 = 1.87x105 mol
mass of Ti produced = n x MM(HCl) = 1.87x105 x 47.88 = 8.93x109 g
• %yield of Ti = practical/theoriotical x 100
• %yield of HCl = 7.91×106 / 8.93x109 x 100 = 88.52%
Dr. Laila Al-Harbi
‫أشكر الزميلة د‪.‬نهى وزان ﻻني أستعنت‬
‫بكثير من محاضراتها‬

‫‪Dr. Laila Al-Harbi‬‬

 Chapter 4
reaction in aqueous solution

4.5 Concentration of solutions

dilution of solutions
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 4.5 Concentration of solutions
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present
in a given amount of solvent , it can be expressed in terms of its
molarity (molar concentration)

moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
volume of solution in liters

• Have mol and vol molarity

• Have molarity and vol mol of solute
• Have molarity and mol of solute volume
• AND: mol of solute grams of solute
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Questions in Molarity
n
M
V

Given: n & V Given: n & M Given: V & M

↓ ↓ ↓
M V n
m
n m nMM
MM 4
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Concentration of Solutions
What is the molar concentration of 0.730 mol glucose C H O6 12 6
in 500 ml solution

C6H 12O6 = 0.730 mol C6H 12O6x 1000 mL soln

500 mL 1L soln

= 1.46 M C6H 12O6

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
3.81g

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
• What is the molarity of an 85 ml • What is the volume (in ml) of 0.315M
ethanol C2H5OH solution containing NaOH solution contains 6.22g of
1.77g of ethanol? NaOH?
Practice exercise 4.6 Practice exercise 4.7
• Molar mass C2H5OH • Molar mass NaOH= 40g
= 46.068g
n = 1.77g/ 46.068= 0.038 mol n = 6.22g /40g= 0.1555 mol

• M=n/v= 0.038 mol/ 85 ml • v=n/M= 0.1555 mol / 0.315M

• M= 0.452 M • v= 0.494ι = 494 ml

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
Dilution is the procedure for preparing a less concentrated
solution from a more concentrated solution.
Calculation based on that the number of
moles of solute is constant we add only
solvent

Dilution

Add Solvent

Moles of solute Moles of solute

before dilution (i) = after dilution (f)

MiVi = MfVf
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Practice
• How many mL of 5.0 M K2Cr2O7 solution must be diluted to
prepare 250 mL of 0.10 M solution?

Vi = ? Mi = 5.0M Vf = 250 mL Mf = 0.10M

Mi = MfVf/Vi Vi = 250 ml ×0.1M/5ml = 5 ml

• If 10.0 mL of a 10.0 M stock solution of NaOH is diluted to 250 mL, what is

the concentration of the resulting solution?
Mf= ? Vi= 10.0 mL Mi = 10.0M Vf = 250 mL

Mi = MfVf/Vi

Mi = 10ml ×10M/250ml = 0.4 ml

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 How would you prepare 60.0 mL of 0.200 M
HNO3 from a stock solution of 4.00 M HNO3?

MiVi = MfVf

Mi = 4.00 Mf = 0.200 Vf = 60 ml Vi = ? ml

MfVf 0.200 x 60
Vi = = = 3 mL
Mi 4.00

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Practice exercise 4.9

How would you prepare 200 mL of 0.866 M NaOH from a stock

solution of 5.07 M NaOH?

MiVi = MfVf

Mi = 5.07 Mf = 0.866 Vf = 200 ml Vi = ? ml

MfVf 0.866 x 200

Vi = = = 34.2 mL
Mi 5.07

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Problem 4.74 (page 163)

M1 = 0.568 M V1 = 46.2 mL = 46.2 10-3 L Calculation based on

moles for the first Ca(NO3)2 solution (n1) = M1 V1 that we have two
solutions with
= 0.568 M 46.2 10-3 L = 0.026 mol different number of
M2 = 1.396 M V2 = 80.5 mL = 80.5 10-3 L moles mixed together
, then we will
moles for the second Ca(NO3)2 solution (n2) = M2 V2 calculate the
= 1.396 M 80.5 10-3 L = 0.112 mol molarity of the new
solution
Total moles of Ca(NO3)2 in the final solution = n1 + n2
= 0.026 + 0.112 = 0.138 mol
Total volume of the final solution = V1 + V2
= (46.2 10-3 L) + (80.5 10-3 L) = 126.7 10-3 L
The concentration of the final solution Mf = n/V
= 0.138 mol / 126.7 10-3 = 1.09 M
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
volume of solution in liters

Molarity (M)

moles of solute = mass / molar mass

volume of solution in liters

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
5.1 Substances that exist s gases
5.2 Pressure of the gas
5.3 The gas laws
5.4 Ideal gas equation
5.5 Gas stoichiometry
5.6 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
5.1 substances that exist s gases
• Gases assume the volume and shape of their
containers.
• Gases are the most compressible state of
matter.
• Gases will mix evenly and completely when
confined to the same container.
• Gases have much lower densities than liquids
and solids.
Pressure is defined as the force applied per unit are

Pressure = Force Blaise Pascal

2
Area = N/m
The SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa) define as one Newton
per square meter ( 1Pa = N/m2)

Standard atmospheric pressure, the pressure that supports a

column of mercury exactly 760 mm high at 0 oC at sea level.

Measured using a Barometer! - A device that can

weigh the atmosphere above us!
 Barometer
a Barometer! - A device A simple manometer, a device
that can weigh the for measuring the pressure of
atmosphere above us! a gas in a container
 Common Units of Pressure

Unit Atmospheric Pressure Scientific Field Used

Pascal (Pa); 1.01325 x 105 Pa SI unit; physics,
kilopascal (kPa) 101.325 kPa chemistry

Atmosphere (atm) 1 atm Chemistry

Millimeters of mercury 760 mmHg Chemistry, medicine

(mmHg) biology
Torr 760 torr Chemistry

Pounds per square inch 14.7 lb/in2 Engineering

(psl or lb/in2)

Bar 1.01325 bar Meteorology, chemistry

Remember the conversions for pressure:

760 mm Hg = 760 torr

1 atm = 760 mm Hg
760 mm Hg = 101.325 Pa
Convert 2.3 atm to torr:
Example ………………………………………
2.0 atm x 760 torr = 1520 torr
1 atm
http://www.unit-conversion.info/pressure.html

http://www.onlineconversion.com/pressure.htm
Boyle’s Law , V - P relationship

Charles Law , V - T- relationship

Avogadro’s Law ,V and Amount

Pressure is inversely proportional to Volume
P= k or V = k or
\ V P
P1V1 = k P2V2 = k’
k = k’
Then : P1V1 = P2V2
 Given: V1 =7.25 L, P1 = 4.52 atm, P2 = 1.21 atm
V2, L
Find:
Concept V1, P1, P2 V2
Plan:
P1 V1
V2
P1 ∙ V1 = P2 ∙ V2 P2
Relationships:

P1 V1
Solution: V2
P2
4.52 atm 7.25 L
27.1 L
1.21 atm
Check: since P and V are inversely proportional, when the pressure
decreases ~4x, the volume should increase ~4x, and it does
 Given: V2 =2780 mL, P1 = 762 torr, P2 = 0.500 atm
V1, mL
Find:
Concept Plan:
V1, P1, P2 V2
P2 V2
V1
Relationships:
P1 ∙ V1 = P2 ∙ V2 , P11 atm = 760 torr (exactly)

Solution: P2 V2
V1
1 atm P1
782 torr 1.03 atm 0.500 atm 2780 L
760 torr 1350 mL
1.03 atm
Check: since P and V are inversely proportional, when the pressure
decreases ~2x, the volume should increase ~2x, and it does
volume is directly proportional to
temperature
◦ constant P and amount of gas

V1 V2
as T increases, V also increases
Kelvin T = Celsius T + 273 T1 T2
V = constant x T
◦ if T measured in Kelvin
 Given: V1 =2.57 L, V2 = 2.80 L, t2 = 0.00°C
t1, K and °C
Find:
Concept V1, V2, T2 T1
Plan:
V1
T1 T2
T(K) = t(°C) + 273.15,V2 V1 V2
Relationships:
T1 T2
Solution: T2 V1 t1 T1 273.15
T1
T2 0.00 273.15 V2 t1 297.6 273.15
T2 273.15 K 273.15 K 2.57 L t1 24 C
297.6 K
2.80 L
Check: since T and V are directly proportional, when the volume
decreases, the temperature should decrease, and it does
Gas occupy 6L at 370C what will be its volume when
its temperature decreased to the half?

V1=6L , T1=370C
V2=??? , T2=½ T1

V1T2=V2T1
V1½T1=V2T1
V2 = ½V1
V2 =½(6) = 3L
volume directly proportional
to the number of gas
molecules
◦ V = constant x n
◦ constant P and T
V1 V2
◦ more gas molecules = larger
volume n1 n2
count number of gas
molecules by moles
equal volumes of gases
contain equal numbers of
molecules
◦ the gas doesn’t matter
 Given: V1 =4.65 L, V2 = 6.48 L, n1 = 0.225 mol
n2, and added moles
Find:
Concept V1, V2, n1 n2
Plan: V2
n1 n2
mol added = n – n
V,1 V1 V2
Relationships: 2 1

n1 n2

n1 V2 moles added 0.314 0.225

Solution: n 2
V1 moles added 0.089 mol
0.225 mol 6.48 L
0.314 mol
4.65 L
Check: since n and V are directly proportional, when the volume
increases, the moles should increase, and it does
When we introduced Boyle’s, Charles’s, and
Gay-Lussac’s laws, we assumed that one of the
variables remained constant.
Experimentally, all three (temperature, pressure,
and volume) usually change.
By combining all three laws, we obtain the
combined gas law:
P1 V 1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2
• By combing the gas laws we can write a general equation
• R is called the gas constant
• the value of R depends on the units of P and V
atm L
• we will use 0.08206 mol K
and convert P to atm and V to
L
• the other gas laws are found in the ideal gas law if
two variables are kept constant
• allows us to find one of the variables if we know the
other 3
PV nRT
since the volume of a gas varies with pressure and temperature,
chemists have agreed on a set of conditions to report our
measurements so that comparison is easy – we call these
standard conditions
◦ STP
standard pressure = 1 atm

standard temperature = 273 K = 0°C

One mole of a gas occupy 22.41 L at STP

Calculate the (volume in liters occupied by 7.40g
of NH3 at STP
Solution 2
n NH3 = 7.4 / 17 = 0.435 mol

V = nRT/P
V = 0.435 (0.0821) 273/1 = 9.74 L

Solution 2
1 mole occupy 22.4 L at STP
0.435 mole x >>>>>>>>>> V = 0.435 X 22.4=9.74 L
 What is the volume of 2g What is the volume of 2g
O2 gas at STP O2 gas at 4 atm and 350C
PV = nRT
PV = nRT
V = nRT/P
V = nRT/P T = 35 +273 = 308 K
V = 2 × 0.0821 ×308/ 32 ×4
V = 2 × 0.0821 × 273/32 × 1
V = 0.395 L
V = 1.4 L
 1 mol mass
mass moles moles
molar mass molar mass
mass in grams
density
volume in liters

P V n R T
mass
P V R T
molar mass
mass P (molar mass)
density
V R T

density is directly proportional to molar mass

From density calculations From number of moles
calculations
M = dRT/ P
n = mass / M

PV= nRT

PV= (mass / M ) RT
A chemist synthesized a greensh-yellow gaseous
compound of chlorine and oxygen and find that its
denity is 7.7g/L at 36°C and 2.88 atm. Calculate
the molar mass and determine its molecular
formula.
Molar mass = dRT/ P
ℳ = 7.7g/L ×0.0821×(36+273)/2.88 = 67.9
g/mol
Mass of empirical formula (ClO)= 35.45+16= 51.45
Ratio = Molar mass / Mass of empirical formula =
67.9/51.45= 1.3
molecular formula. ClO2
Example 5.11
Calculate the volume of O2(in L) requred for the
complete combustion of 7.64 L of (C2H2) measured at
the same T & P
2 C2H2 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 4CO2 (g) + 2H2O (ι)
From Avogadro low v= Rn

Volume of O2 = 7.64 L × 5L O2 /2L C2H2 = 19.1 L

 2NaN3 (S) → 2 Na (s) + 3N2 (g)
Calculate the volume of N2 generate at 80°C
and 823 mmHg by the decomposition of 60 g
of NaN3
n of N2 = (60/65.02) × 3/2= 1.38

PV=nRT → V=nRT/P

V= 1.38 × 0.0821 ×(80+273)/ (823/760)

= 36.9 L
 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

V and T
are
constant

PA PB P total = PA + P B
Consider a case in which two gases, A and B, are in a container of volume V.

nART
PA = nA is the number of moles of A
V
nBRT
PB = nB is the number of moles of B
V
nA nB
PT = P A + P B XA = XB =
nA + nB nA + nB

P A = XA PT PB = XB P T

ni
Pi = Xi PT mole fraction (Xi) =
nT
We can measure the volume of a gas by
displacement.
By collecting the gas in a graduated cylinder, we
can measure the amount of gas produced.
The gas collected is referred
to as “wet” gas since it also
contains water vapor.

PT = P O2 + P H2O

40 Chapter 11
 7.1 From Classical Physics to Quantum Theory
7.3 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
7.6 Quantum Numbers
7.7 Atomic Orbital's
7.8 Electron Configurations
7.9 The Building-Up Principle
Home work
p312: 7.3, 7.8, 7.16, 7.18
p313: 7.32, 7.34, 7.120
p314: 7.56, 7.58, 7.62, 7.66, 7.70
p315: 7.76, 7.78, 7.79, 7.84, 7.88, 7.90, 7.124

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 Properties of Waves
Wavelength (λ) is the
distance between identical
points on successive waves.

Amplitude is the vertical

distance from the midline of
a wave to the peak or trough

Frequency (ν) is the

number of waves that pass
through a particular point in
1 second (Hz = 1 cycle/s).
The speed (u) of the wave = l x nDr Laila Al-Harbi
 Electromagnetic radiation
is the emission and
transmission of energy in
the form of electromagnetic
waves.

All electromagnetic
radiation travels at the
same velocity: the
speed of light (c),
All electromagnetic radiation
lxn=c

Speed of light (c) in vacuum = 3.00 x 108 m/s

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
The wave length of the What is the l in meter (m)
green light from a traffic of an electromagnetic
signal is centered at waves whose frequncy is
522nm . What is the 3.64 x107Hz?
frequency of this
radiation? c=lxn
l = c/ n
c=lxn = 3 x108 / 3.64 x107
n = c/ l = 7.25 m
= 3 x108 / 522 x10-9
= 5.57 x1014 Hz

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 Energy (light) is emitted
or absorbed in discrete
units (quantum).

E=hxn

E = h x c/l

Planck’s constant (h)

h = 6.63 x 10-34 J•s

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
7.2

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
When copper is bombarded with high-energy electrons, X
rays are emitted. Calculate the energy (in joules)
associated with the photons if the wavelength of the X rays
is 0.154 nm.
E=hxn
E=hxc/l
E = 6.63 x 10-34 (J•s) x 3.00 x 10 8 (m/s) / 0.154 x 10-9 (m)
E = 1.29 x 10 -15 J

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
Line Emission Spectrum of
Hydrogen Atoms

Emission Spectra Emission Spectra of the

Hydrogen atom
Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 Bohr’s Model of
the Atom (1913)
1. e- can only have specific
(quantized) energy values
2. light is emitted as e- moves
from one energy level to a
lower energy level
1
En = -RH( )
n2
n (principal quantum number) = 1,2,3,…
RH (Rydberg constant) = 2.18 x 10-18J

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 ni = 3 ni = 3 Ephoton = DE = Ef - E
1
Ef = -RH( )
ni = 2
n2f
1
nf = 2 Ei = -RH( )
n2i
1 1
DE = RH (n2 n2f
)
i

nn
f f==11

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 1 1
DE = RH (n2 n2f
)
i

When photon is emitted When photon is

absorbed
ni > n f
ni < nf
DE is negative
DE is positive
Energy is lost to the Energy is gained from
surrounding the surrounding

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
Dr Laila Al-Harbi
Electrons in multi-electron atoms can be classified
into a series of:
shells → subshells → orbitals

Three quantum numbers are required to describe the

distribution of electrons in hydrogen and other atoms.

A fourth quantum the spin quantum number –

describe the behavior of a specific electron and
completes the description of electron in the atoms

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
The principal quantum number, n, describes the energy level on
which the orbital resides and to distance from nucleus (size)
The maximum number of electrons in principle quantum number
n = 2n2
The values of n are integers ≥ 0.
possible values of n = 1, 2, 3, 4, .....

n=1 n=2 n=3

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
related to shape of various subshells within a given shell

Allowed values of ℓ are integers ranging from 0 to n − 1.

We use letter designations to communicate the different values

of ℓ and, therefore, the shapes and types of orbitals.

Value of ℓ 0 1 2 3
Type of orbital s p d f

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
s Orbitals

Value of ℓ= 0.

Spherical in shape.

Radius of sphere
increases with increasing
value of n.

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
Value of ℓ = 1.
Have two lobes with a node between them.
mℓ =2 ℓ +1 = 2×1+1 = 3
Value of mℓ = 1,0,-1 ( Px , Pz , Py)

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
Value of ℓ is 2.
mℓ =2 ℓ +1 = 2×2+1 = 5

Value of mℓ = 2,1,0,-1,-2
( dxy , dzy , dxz ,d z d x - y )
2 2 2

Complex stracture

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 Describes the three-dimensional orientation of the orbital.
Values are integers ranging from - ℓ to ℓ :
−ℓ ≤ ml ≤ ℓ.
The number of orbitals in each subshell ℓ equal =2 ℓ +1
mℓ =2 ℓ +1
Therefore, on any given energy level, there can be up to 1 s orbital,
3 p orbitals, 5 d orbitals, 7 f orbitals, etc

Value of ℓ 0 (s) 1(p) 2(d) 3(f)

Value of mℓ 0 -1, 0 ,+1 -1, 0 ,+1 -1, 0 ,+1

№ of orbitals 2(0)+1=1 2(1)+1=3 2(2)+1=5 2(3)+1=7

2e 6e 10e 14e

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
The “spin” of an electron describes
its magnetic field, which affects its
energy.

The spin quantum number has only

2 allowed values:
ms = +1/2 and −1/2.
Orbital diagram
The Pauli exclusion principle 2He
“No two electrons in the same atom 1s2
can have identicalvalues for all four
of their quantum numbers”.
2He
1s2
n =1 , ℓ=0 , mℓ=0 , ms = +½
n =1 , ℓ=0 , mℓ=0 , ms = -½

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 Principal Angular momentum Magnetic Spin Quantum
Quantum Quantum Number Quantum Number
Number Number
n ℓ mℓ ms
the energy level shape of various orientation of The “spin” of an
(size) subshells the orbital electron
integers ≥ 0 from 0 to n − 1 −ℓ ≤ ml ≤ ℓ +1/2 and −1/2
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, .
№ of electrons Value of ℓ 0 1 2 3 № of orbitals in
n = 2n2 each subshell ℓ
Type of s p d f equal =2 ℓ +1
orbital

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
For a one-electron
hydrogen atom,
orbitals on the same
energy level have the
same energy.
That is, they are
degenerate.

The energies of H orbitals

increase as follows
1s<2s<3s=3p=3d<4s=4p4d
=4f

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
Electrons in the smaller orbitals (lower energy) are closerto
nucleus (e.g., 1s) than electrons in larger orbitals (e.g., 2p, 3s)

Thus they are "shielded" from the attractive forces of the

nucleus.

This causes slight increase in energy of the more distant

electrons.

thus 4s orbital is lower in energy than the 3d orbital .

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
As the number of electrons
increases, though, so does the
repulsion between them.

Therefore, in many-electron
atoms, orbitals on the same
energy level are no longer
degenerate.

Order of orbitals (filling) in

multi-electron atom
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s
< 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p <
6s

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
is how the electrons are
distributed among the number of electrons
various atomic orbitals in an in the orbital or subshell
atom.
1s1
The four quantum numbers
n, ℓ, mℓ and ms enable us to principal quantum angular momentum
label completely an electron number n quantum number ℓ
in any orbital in any atom.
Orbital diagram
The value of ms has no effect
on the energy ,size, shape ,
or orintation of an orbital, H
but it determines , how 1s1
electron are arranged in an
orbital. Dr Laila Al-Harbi
Each box represents one
orbital.

Half-arrows represent the

electrons.

The direction of the arrow

represents the spin of the
electron.

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
n = 4, ℓ = 2 , mℓ =-2, -1, 0, 1,2

n = 3, ℓ = 1 , mℓ = -1, 0, 1

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 n = 3, ℓ = 0 , mℓ =0
n = 3, ℓ = 1, mℓ = -1, 0, 1 9
n = 3, ℓ = 2 , mℓ =-2, -1, 0, 1,2
Total number of orbitals = n2 = (3)2 = 9
Total number elecrons in orbitals = 2n2 = 2(3)2 = 18 electrons

n = 4, ℓ = 0 , mℓ =0
n = 4, ℓ = 1, mℓ = -1, 0, 1
n = 4, ℓ = 2 , mℓ =-2, -1, 0, 1,2 16
n = 4, ℓ = 3 , mℓ =03,-2, -1, 0, 1,2,3
Total number of orbitals = n2 = (4)2 = 16
Total number elecrons in orbitals = 2n2 = 2(4)2 = 32 electrons
Dr Laila Al-Harbi
Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 Total number of orbitals = n2 = (3)2 = 9

Total number of orbitals = n2 = (4)2 = 16

3 7
Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 Paramagnetic Diamagnetic
unpaired electrons all electrons paired

2p 2p
attracted by a magnetic repelled by magnet
Dr Laila Al-Harbi
1-Which of the following 3- How many unpaired
is paramagnetic electrons in N atom

a) 2
Mg 5
Ar
b)
c) 4
He 3
d)
N
4- How many unpaired
electrons in Mg
2- Which of the
following is dimagnatic a) 2
b) 0
Mg c) 4
Na d) 3
N
Dr Laila Al-Harbi
The most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells is
the one with the greatest number of parallel spins

7N

7N

8C
8O

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
The Aufbau principle dictates that as protons are added one to the nucleus to
build up the elements, electrons are similarly added to the atomic orbitals.

Representative elements (s,p)

transition metals (d)

lanthanides (4f)
actinides (5f)
Dr Laila Al-Harbi
Ions derived from representative

Ions derived from main group elements lose or gain electrons to

have noble gas electron configuration ns2 np6.

isoelectronic – are atoms or ions have the same number of

electrons
Elements in same group have same valence shell configurations
e.g., group V:
7N 2s2 2p3
15P 3s2 3p3
33As 4s2 4p3
51Sb 5s2 5p3
83Bi 6s2 6p3
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 1H 1s1 General Configurations of 1A
3Li 1s2 2s1

11Na 1s22s22p63s1 1A ns1

19K 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 Paramagnetic , 1 unpaired electrons

4Be 1s22s2 General Configurations of 2A

12Mg 1s22s22p63s2 2A ns2
20Ca 1s22s22p63s23p64s2 Diamagnetic , 0 unpaired electrons

5B 1s22s22p1 General Configurations of 3A

ns2np1
13Al 1s22s22p63s23p1 3A Paramagnetic , 1 unpaired electrons

6C 1s22s22p2
4A ns2np2
14Si 1s22s22p63s23p2 Paramagnetic , 2 unpaired electrons
Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 7N 1s22s22p3
5A ns2np3
15P 1s22s22p63s23p3 Paramagnetic , 3 unpaired electrons

8O 1s22s22p4
6A ns2np4
16S 1s22s22p63s23p4
Paramagnetic , 2 unpaired electrons

9F 1s22s22p5
7A ns2np5
17Cl 1s22s22p63s23p5 Paramagnetic , 1 unpaired electrons

2He 1s2
10Ne 1s22s22p6 8A ns2np6
18Ar 1s22s22p63s23p6
Diamagnetic , 0 unpaired electrons

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 1H
-1 1s2 = [He] ions
ns2
3Li
+1 1s2 = [He] 1A
11Na
+1 1s22s22p6 = [Ne] Lose 1e
ns2np6
Paramagnetic , 1 unpaired electrons
+1 1s22s22p63s23p6 = [Ar]
+1
19K

General Configurations of 2A
4Be 1s2 = [He]
+2

12Mg
+2 1s22s22p6 = [Ne]
2 A
Lose 2e ns2np6
Diamagnetic , 0 unpaired electrons
+2
5B
+3 1s2 = [He] 3A General Configurations of 3A

13Al
+3 1s22s22p6 = [Ne]
Lose 3e ns2np6
+3 Diamagnetic , 0 unpaired electrons

6C 1s22s22p2
4A ns2np6
14Si 1s22s22p63s23p2 ±4 Diamagnetic , 0 unpaired electrons
Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 7N 1s22s22p6 = [Ne]
-3

5A ns2np6
15P
-3 1s22s22p63s23p6 = [Ar] gain 3e Diamagnetic , 0 unpaired electrons
-3
8O 1s22s22p6 = [Ne]
-2

6A ns2np6
16S 1s22s22p63s23p6 = [Ar]
-2
gain 2e Diamagnetic , 0 unpaired electrons
-2
9F- 1s22s22p6 = [Ne]
7A ns2np6
17Cl 1s22s22p63s23p6 = [Ar]
-
gain 1e Diamagnetic , 0 unpaired electrons
-1
Na+, Al3+, F-, O2-, and N3- are all isoelectronic with Ne

10Na+, 10Al3+, 10F-, 10O2-, and 10N3- isoelectronic

with Ne
Dr Laila Al-Harbi
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Electron Configurations of Cations and Anions
Of Representative Elements

Na [Ne]3s1 Na+ [Ne]

Atoms lose electrons so that
Ca [Ar]4s2 Ca2+ [Ar] cation has a noble-gas outer
electron configuration.
Al [Ne]3s23p1 Al3+ [Ne]

H 1s1 H- 1s2 or [He]

Atoms gain electrons so that
anion has a noble-gas outer F 1s22s22p5 F- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
electron configuration.
O 1s22s22p4 O2- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

N 1s22s22p3 N3- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Cations and Anions Of Representative Elements
+1

+2

+3

-3

-2

-1
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
Group General unpaired p/d ions
Configurations

1A 1 +1

Diamagnetic , 0 unpaired electrons

ns1 Paramagnetic
2A ns2 0 Diamagnetic +2

ns2np6
3A ns2np1 1 Paramagnetic +3
4A ns2np2 2 Paramagnetic ±4
5A ns2np3 3 Paramagnetic -3
6A ns2np4 2 Paramagnetic -2
7A ns2np5 1 Paramagnetic -1

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 The general formula of S2p6 is the general formula
an element in group IA of an element in group
is A. 1A
A. S2
B. 2A
C. 6A
B. S1
D. 8A
C. S2p1

D. s1p1

Which of the following

species is isoelectronic 14
7 N3 19
9 F 20
10 Ne 24
12 Mg 27
13 Al3
with Cl- (17+1 =18)
(a) F- (9+1 =10)
(b) O2- (8+2 =10)
(c) K+ (19-1=18)
(d) Na+ (11-1 =10)

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
8.2 Periodic Classification of the Elements
8.3 Periodic Variation in Physical Properties
Effective nuclear charge
Atomic Radius
Ionic Radius
8.4 Ionization Energy
8.5 Electron Affinity
Electronegativity (ch.9 p. 377-378)

p357: 8.5, 8.8, 8.12, 8.20, 8.24, 8.26, 8.28, 8.30, 8.32
p358: 8.36, 8.38, 8.40, 8.44, 8.46
p358: 8.52, 8.54, 8.62, 8.64

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
Short-hand notation
Instead of using complete electronic configuration Short-hand notation is
useful
show preceding inert gas configuration plus the additional electrons- [noble
gas]pervious period additional electron(use general electronic configuration (A)
), for d electrons (n – 1)d orbitals.
Remember , starting from period 4 the (n – 1)d orbitals will appear ,
example

31Ga 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p1 [Ar] 4s23d104p1

32Ge 1s2 2s22p63s23p64s23d104p2 [Ar] 4s23d104p2

33As 1s2 2s22p63s23p64s23d104p3 [Ar] 4s23d104p3

34Se 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p4 [Ar] 4s23d104p4

35Br 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5 [Ar] 4s23d104p5

36Kr 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6 [Kr]

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 (n – 1)d

(n – 2)f

22Ti 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d2 [Ar] 4s23d2

46Pd [Kr] 4d10
62Pb [Xe] 4f145d2 6s26p2
78Pt [Xe] 4f14 5d9 6s1
Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 There is a tendency toward half-filled and completely filled d subshells.
This is a consequence of the closeness of the 3d and the 4s orbital
energies.
Some irregularities occur when there are enough electrons to half-fill s
and d orbitals on a given row.

For instance, the electron configuration for copper 29Cu is

[Ar] 4s1 3d 10 rather than the expected [Ar] 4s2 3d 9.

the electron configuration for 24Cr is

[Ar] 4s1 3d 5 rather than the expected [Ar] 4s2 3d 4.

Additional exceptions are Mo 5s14d5; Ag 5s14d10; Au 6s15d10

That is reasonable considering their position on the periodic chart.

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 21Sc 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d1 [Ar] 4s23d1 , para- 1 unpaired e-

22Ti 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d2 [Ar] 4s23d2 , para- 2 unpaired e-

23V 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d3 [Ar] 4s23d3 para- 3 unpaired e-1

[Ar] 4s13d5 NOT [Ar] 4s23d4
24Cr 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d5 para- 6 unpaired e-1

25Mn 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d5 [Ar] 4s23d5 para- 5 unpaired e-1

26Fe 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6 [Ar] 4s23d6 para- ,4 unpaired e-1

27Co 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d7 [Ar] 4s23d para- ,3 unpaired e-1 7

28Ni 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d8 [Ar] 4s23d8 para- ,2 unpaired e-1

29Cu 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d10 [Ar] 4s13d10 NOT [Ar] 4s23d9

30Zn 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d10 [Ar] 4s23d10 diamagnetic - ,0 unpaired e-1

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
Electron Configurations of Cations of Transition Metals

When a cation is formed from an atom of a transition metal,

electrons are always removed first from the ns orbital and then
from the (n – 1)d orbitals.
Fe: [Ar]4s23d6 , para- ,4 unpaired e-1
Mn: [Ar]4s23d5
Fe2+: [Ar]4s03d6 or [Ar]3d6 para- ,5 unpaired e-1
para- ,4 unpaired e-1 Mn2+: [Ar]4s03d5 or [Ar]3d5
Fe3+: [Ar]4s03d5 or [Ar]3d5 para- ,5 unpaired e-1
para- ,5 unpaired e-1

keep in mid that most transition metals can form more than
one cation and frequently the cations are not isoeletronic
with the preceding noble gases

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
1- How many unpaired electrons 3- How many unpaired
in Fe+2
electrons in Mn+2

a) 2 2
b) 4 5
c) 4 4
d) 3 3
2- How many unpaired
electrons in Fe+3 4- How many unpaired
electrons in Mn
a.
2
5 2
b.
4 5
c.
3 4
d.
3

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
What is the ground-state What is the ground-state
electron configuration of electron configuration of
Mn? Fe+2
3d5 3d6
4s1 3d5
4s1 3d5
4s2 3d6
4s2 3d6
4s2 3d5
4s2 3d5

What is the ground-state What is the ground-state

electron configuration of
electron configuration of Fe+3
Mn+2
3d5
3d5 4s1 3d5
4s1 3d5 4s2 3d6
4s2 3d6 4s2 3d5
4s2 3d5
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Gallium element is found in the periodic
table in
(a) period 3, group 1B
(b) period 3A, group 4
(c) period 4, group 1A
(d) period 4, group 3A

Answer (d)

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Titanium (Ti) element is found in the periodic
table in
(a) s-block
(b) P-block
(c) d-block
(d) f-block

The 15th element

in the period 4 is
(a) s-block
(b) P-block
(c) d-block
(d) f-block

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 An atom of a certain element has 15 electrons.
Without consulting a periodic table, answer the
following questions: (P)
(a) What is the ground-state electron configuration
of this element?
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
(b) How should be element be classified?
Period 3, group 5A
The element is representative
element.
(c) Is the element diamagnetic or paramagnetic
paramagnetic

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Effective nuclear charge
Atomic Radius
Ionic Radius

Effective nuclear charge

lower effective charge on nucleus
• inner electrons shield outer electrons from nucleus
• shielding effect of electrons reduces the attraction between the
nucleus and the electrons
• repulsive forces between electrons offset the attractive forces

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
Effective nuclear charge (Zeff) is the “positive charge” felt by an
electron.

Zeff = Z - s 0 < s < Z (s = shielding constant)

Zeff Z – number of inner or core electrons

Z Core Zeff Radius

Na 11 10 1 186

Mg 12 10 2 160 Within a Period

as Zeff increases
Al 13 10 3 143 radius decreases
decreases
Si 14 10 4 132
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
The atomic radius is ½ the distance between the 2 nuclei
of the adjacent atoms.
Atomic radius - a number of physical properties of
elements are related to the size of an atom
Atomic radius, in general, decreases as we move from
left to right (→) in a row of the periodic table a Period.
Atomic radius increases from top to bottom ↓ in a
family or group.

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
Within a group atomic radius increase
Within a Period atomic radius decreases

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Referring to a periodic table, arrange the
following atoms in order of increasing atomic
radius: P , Si , N
increasing … small to large
( small) N < P < Si (large)

arrange the following atoms in order of decreasing radius:

C , Li, Be
decreasing … large to small
(large) Li > Be > C (small)

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
The ionic radius is the radius of anions and Cations

Anions>>gain electrons >>> ionic radius increase because the nuclear charge
remain the same but the repulsion resulting from the additional electrons enlarges
the domain of the electron

Cations… lose electron …ionic radius decrease because removing one or more
electron from an atom reduces electron-electron repulsion but the nuclear charge
remains the same so the electron clouds shrinks , and the cation is smaller than
atom

Cation is always smaller than atom from which it is formed.

Anion is always larger than atom from which it is formed.
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 ionic radius
decrease
Atom
Anion ionic
radius
increase

Cation
Atom

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
Isoelectronic ions
Cations is smaller than anions ( 10Na+< 10F-)

The greater effective nuclear charge of

10Na+results in smaller radius.

Isoelectronic cations
10Al+3< 10Mg+2 < 10Na+

Isoelectronic anions
10F- < 10O-2 < 10N-3

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 ionic radius increase

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
For each of the following For each of the
pair ,indicate which is following pair ,indicate
larger which is smaller
A) 10F- ,10N-3 A) 18K+ ,2Li+
2 Li+
10N-3

B) 10N-3 , 18P-3
B) 10Mg+2, 18Ca+2 10N-3
18Ca+2

C) Au+ , Au+3
C) Fe+2 , Fe+3
Au+3
Fe+2
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
Ionization energy (IE) is the minimum energy (kJ/mol)
required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its
ground state.
The higher ionization energy, the more difficult it is to remove
the electrons.
The first ionization energy is the amount of energy required
to remove the 1st+electron
-
from an atom in the gaseous state.
I first ionization energy
I1 + X (g) X (g) +e 1

I2 + X (g) X2+(g) + e- I2 second ionization energy

I3 + X (g) X3+(g) + e- I3 third ionization energy

I1 < I2 < I3
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 When electron is removed from atom, repulsion among the remaining
electrons decrease, because nuclear charge remains constant. More
energy is needed to remove another electron from the positively
charged ion.

The IE for nonmetal is higher than metal , IE for metalloid fall between
metals and nonmetals (highest value for 8A).

The first IE increase from left to right (→) in period.

The first IE decrease from top to bottom (↓) in group.

But there is some exceptions

A) Group 2A (ns2 ) higher than 3A (ns2 np1) in the same period

B) Group 5A (ns2 np3) higher than 6A (ns2 np4) in the same period

(remember no exceptions in group).

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 General Trend in First Ionization Energies
Increasing First Ionization Energy
Increasing First Ionization Energy

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 ‫‪which of the following has‬‬
‫‪greatest ionization energy‬‬
‫‪which of the following has‬‬
‫‪greatest ioniz1ation energy‬‬ ‫)‪a‬‬ ‫‪C‬‬
‫)‪b‬‬ ‫‪N‬‬
‫)‪c‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬
‫)‪a‬‬ ‫‪Na‬‬ ‫)‪d‬‬ ‫‪Ne‬‬
‫)‪b‬‬ ‫‪K‬‬
‫)‪c‬‬ ‫‪Li‬‬
‫)‪d‬‬ ‫‪Rb‬‬

‫عودي للجدول الدوري حددي مكان العناصر ثم حددي هي في نفس المجموعه أم الدوري‬
‫تذكري الشذوذ فقط في ‪ IE&EA‬و في الدوره و ليس المجموعه‬
‫في حال وجود عنصر من عناصر المجموعه ‪ 8‬فأنه اﻷعلى في طاقة التأين و اﻷقل في اﻷلفة‬
‫اﻹلكترونية‬
‫الشذوذ في في طاقة التأين في عناصر المجموعتين )‪(2A & 3A) ,(5A&6A‬‬
‫ﻻ يؤخذ الشذوذ في اﻷعتبار إﻻ في حال وجود عنصرين من مجموعتي الشذوذ‬
 which of the following has
greatest ionization energy
a) C
which of the following has
b) N
greatest ionization energy
c) B
a) C
d) O
b) B
c) Li
d) O Arrange the following elements in
order of increasing IE( C,N,O,Ne)
which of the following has
greatest ionization energy a) C<N<O<Ne
b) C<N<O<Ne
a) C c) Ne<N<O<C
b) N d) C<O<N<Ne
c) O
d) Ne
Increasing (lowest to highest)
Decreasing ( highest to lowest)
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Electron affinity is the negative of the energy
change that occurs when an electron is
accepted by an atom in the gaseous state to
form an anion.

X (g) + e- X-(g)

F (g) + e
- X-(g) DH = -328 kJ/mol EA = +328 kJ/mol

O (g) + e- O-(g) DH = -141 kJ/mol EA = +141 kJ/mol

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Highest Electron affinity is for halogen

Lowest Electron affinity is for group IA

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 The EA for nonmetal is higher than metal , IA for metalloid
fall between metals and nonmetals.

The EA increase from left to right (→) in period.

The first EA decrease from top to bottom (↓) in group.

But there is some exceptions

A) Group 2A (ns2 ) lower than 1A (ns1 ) in the same period

B) Group 5A (ns2 np3) lower than 4A (ns2 np2) in the same

period
(remember no exceptions in group).
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 ‫‪which of the following has‬‬
‫‪which of the following has‬‬ ‫‪lowest EA‬‬
‫‪greatest EA‬‬
‫)‪a‬‬ ‫‪C‬‬
‫)‪a‬‬ ‫‪Na‬‬ ‫)‪b‬‬ ‫‪N‬‬
‫)‪b‬‬ ‫‪He‬‬ ‫)‪c‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬
‫)‪c‬‬ ‫‪Li‬‬ ‫)‪d‬‬ ‫‪Ne‬‬
‫)‪d‬‬ ‫‪Rb‬‬

‫عودي للجدول الدوري حددي مكان العناصر ثم حددي هي في نفس المجموعه أم الدوري‬
‫تذكري الشذوذ فقط في ‪ IE&EA‬و في الدوره و ليس المجموعه‬
‫في حال وجود عنصر من عناصر المجموعه ‪ 8‬فأنه اﻷعلى في طاقة التأين و اﻷقل في اﻷلفة‬
‫اﻹلكترونية‬
‫الشذوذ في اﻷلفة اﻷلكترونية في عناصر المجموعتين )‪(2A & 1A) ,(5A&4A‬‬
‫ﻻ يؤخذ الشذوذ في اﻷعتبار إﻻ في حال وجود عنصرين من مجموعتي الشذوذ‬
 which of the following has
greatest EA
a) C
which of the following has
b) N
greatest EA
c) B
a) C
d) Li
b) B
c) Li
d) O Arrange the following elements in
order of increasing EA ( C,N,O,Ne)
which of the following has
greatest EA a) C<N<O<Ne
b) C<N<O<Ne
a) C c) Ne<N<C<O
b) N d) C<O<N<Ne
c) O Increasing (lowest to highest)
d) Ne Decreasing ( highest to lowest)
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
9.1 Lewis dot symbols
9.2 the ionic bond
9.4 the covalent bond
9.5 Electroegativity
9.6 Writing Lewis structures
9.7 formal charge and Lewis structures
9.8 the concept of resonance
9.9 the exception of octate rules

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
When atoms interact to form chemical bond, only their outer
region are in contact

The Octet Rule: in forming chemical bonds, atoms usually gain,

lose or share electrons until they have 8 in the outer shell to
reach the same electronic configuration of the noble gasses (ns2
np6) (except hydrogen, helium and lithium).

Lewis Dot Representation: In the representation of an atom, the

valence electrons of an atom (outer most shell electrons) are
represented by dots.

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
Table 9-1
Dr.Laila Al-harbi
 Lewis dot symbols
Group 1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A

Lewis Dot x .x . x .
x x x x x

Bonding
1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
electrons
nonbonding
electrons
2e 4e 6e 8e
(pair of 0 0 0 0
1pair 2pairs 3pairs 4pairs
nonbonding
electrons)

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
What is Lewis dot structure What is Lewis dot structure
of element in group 5 of element Z=5
X. X.

.X. .X.

. x . x

x x

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
 Bond
Types of Atoms Type of Bond
Characteristic
metals to electrons
Ionic
nonmetals transferred
nonmetals to electrons
Covalent
nonmetals shared
ionic bond is the electrostatic force that hold ions together
in an ionic compound

Li +
Li+ -
F F
1s22s1 1s22s22p5 [He] 1s22s22p6 [Ne]

the resulting anions & cations attract each other in such a ratio that
the charges cancel out.
Note: Do not show the charges in the final product.
Example: KI NOT K+I-

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
Use Lewis dot symbol to show formation of Al2O3

-
2 Al +3 O 2 Al+3 3 O
[Ne] [Ne]

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
 A covalent bond is a chemical bond in which two or more
electrons are shared by two atoms.

F +
F F F
7e- 7e- 8e- 8e-

Lewis structure of F2

single covalent bond lone pairs F F lone pairs

single covalent bond

lone pairs F F lone pairs

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
Lewis structure of water
single covalent bonds

H + O + H H O H or H O H

2e-8e-2e-

Double bond – two atoms share two pairs of electrons

O C O or O C O

8e- 8e- 8e- double bonds

double bonds
Triple bond – two atoms share three pairs of electrons

N N or N N
triple bond 8e- 8e-
triple bond
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract toward itself
the electrons in a chemical bond.
High electronegativity →pick up electron easily

Electronegativity increase from left to right in(→) period.

Electronegativity decrease from top to bottom (↓ )in group .
Transition metals don’t follow these trend.

Nonmetals have high electronegativity, metals have low

electronegativity.

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
high difference in electronegativity (2 or more ), element tend
to form ionic bond ( metal + nonmetal) .(NaCl)

small difference in electronegativity (less than 2), element tend

to form polar covalent bond ( nonmetal + nonmetal) .(HCl)

Same electronegative of the same elements (equal 0 ) from

pure covalent bond (non polar covalent) ( nonmetal +
nonmetal) (H2) (F2) (N2)

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
 Classify the following
bonds as ionic, polar
Classify the following covalent, or covalent
bonds as ionic, polar
covalent, or covalent A) CsCl =3-1=2
Ionic
( metal + nonmetal)
A) HCl =3-2.1=0.9
Polar covalent b) H2S =2.5-2.1=0.4
( nonmetal + nonmetal)
Polar covalent
b) KF =4-0.8=3.2 ( nonmetal + nonmetal)
Ionic
( metal + nonmetal) c) N-N =3-3=0
c) C-C =2.5-2.5=0 Non polar covalent
Non polar covalent

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
1. Write the skeletal structure of the compounds, using chemical
symbol and placing bonded atoms next to one another.
2. (A) determine the total number of electrons in the valence
shells of all of the atoms of the molecule, add electrons ( if
molecule have net –ve charge add electrons, if molecule have
net +ve charge subtract electrons) …

∑ № of atoms (group № )

1. (B) Complete an octet for all atoms except hydrogen

∑ № of atoms (8 ) except hydrogen ∑ № of atoms (2 )

4. Find the number of bonds by C = B-A/2

5. Find the number of lone pair of electron by D=B-C
Dr.Laila Al-harbi
Write the Lewis structure of nitrogen trifluoride (NF3).

Step 1 – N is less electronegative than F, put N in center

Step 2 – A= 5X1 + 7X3 = 26 valance electrons
Step 3 – B = 8X1+8X3 =32 electrons
Step 4 - C = 32-26 =6/2=3 bonds
Step 5 - D= 26-6 =20 nonbonding electrons or 10 pair of electrons

Lewis structure of NF3 consist of 3

:F-N-F: single bond , 20 nonbonding
electrons or 10 pair of electrons
:F:
Dr.Laila Al-harbi
Write the Lewis structure of nitrogen trifluoride (NH3).

Step 1 – N is less electronegative than F, put N in center

Step 2 – A= 5X1 + 1X3 = 8 valance electrons
Step 3 – B = 8X1+2X3 =14 electrons
Step 4 - C = 14-8 =6/2=3 bonds
Step 5 - D= 8-6 =2 nonbonding electrons or 1 pair of electrons

Lewis structure of NH3 consist of 3

:H-N-H: single bond , 20nonbonding
electrons or 1 pair of electrons
:H:
Dr.Laila Al-harbi
Step 2 – A= 5X1 + 1X4 -1 = 8 valance electrons
Step 3 – B = 8X1+2X4 =16 electrons
Step 4 - C = 16-8 =8/2=4 bonds
Step 5 - D= 8-4 =4 non bonding electrons , 2 pair of
electrons
+

H
H-N-H
H
‫ليلى الحربي‬/‫د‬
A resonance structure is one of two or more Lewis structures
for a single molecule that cannot be represented accurately by
only one Lewis structure (after formal charge has been
determined ).

When number of bonds is more than number of atoms around

central atom , in this case the extra bond positions to give
resonance structure

+ - - +
O O O O O O

Ozone have 2resonance structure

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
Write the Lewis structure of carbon dioxide [CO3]-2
Step 1 – C is less electronegative than O, put C in center
Step 2 – A= 4X1 + 6X3 +2 = 24 valance electrons
Step 3 – B = 8X1+8X3 = 32 electrons
Step 4 - C = 32-24 =8/2=4 bonds
Step 5 - D= 24-8 =16 nonbonding electrons or 8 pair of electrons
- -2

:O-C-O:
:O:
Dr.Laila Al-harbi
- - - -
O C O O C O O C O

O O O
- -

Carbonate ion have 3 resonance structure

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
 formal charge is the difference between the number of
valence electrons in an isolated atom and the number of
electrons assigned to that atom in a Lewis structure.
formal total number
total number Number of
charge on an = of valence
electrons in - +
of bond
atom in a
nonbonding
Lewis the free
electrons
structure atom

0 +1 -1

:O =O- O:
6 6 6
(4+2) (2+3) (6+1)
0 +1 -1
Dr.Laila Al-harbi
 For molecules , the sum of the charges should be zero
For ion , the sum of the charges should be -ve for anions
For ion , the sum of the charges should be +ve for cations
formal charge and Lewis structures
1. For neutral molecules, a Lewis structure in which there
are no formal charges is preferable to one in which
formal charges are present.
2. Lewis structures with large formal charges are less
plausible than those with small formal charges.
3. Among Lewis structures having similar distributions of
formal charges, the most plausible structure is the one in
which negative formal charges are placed on the more
electronegative atoms

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
Write the Lewis structure of carbon disulfide (CS2).
Step 1 – C is less electronegative than S, put C in center
Step 2 – A= 4X1 + 6X2 = 16 valance electrons
Step 3 – B = 8X1+8X2 =24 electrons
Step 4 - C = 24-16 =8/2=4 bonds
Step 5 - D= 16-8 =8 nonbonding electrons or 4 pair of
electrons -1
+1 0

¨ ¨ S
S=C=S 0
0 0
¨ ¨
3 resonance structure S
-1 +1
0

S
Dr.Laila Al-harbi
 Write the Lewis structure of carbon disulfide (COS).
Step 1 – C is less electronegative than S&O, put C in center
Step 2 – A= 4X1 + 6X1+ 6X1 = 16 valance electrons
Step 3 – B = 8X1+8X1 +8X1=24 electrons
Step 4 - C = 24-16 =8/2=4 bonds
Step 5 - D= 16-8 =8 nonbonding electrons or 4 pair of
electrons -1
+1 0

¨ ¨
S=C=O 0
0 0
¨ ¨
3 resonance structure
-1 +1
0

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
Draw three resonance structure for N2O
(NNO),indicate formal charge rank the
structures . -1 +1 +1
+1 -2
-1 +1

:N=N=O: :N≡N−O: :N−N ≡ O:

5 5 6 5 5 6 5 5 6
6 4 6 5 4 7 7 4 5
-1 1 0 0 1 -1 -2 +1 +1
A B C
3 resonance structure
B< A < C
Dr.Laila Al-harbi
Write the Lewis structure of nitrogen dioxide ion [NO2]-1
Step 1 – N is less electronegative than O, put N in center
Step 2 – A= 5X1 + 6X2 +1 = 18 valance electrons
Step 3 – B = 8X1+8X2 = 24 electrons
Step 4 - C = 24-18 =6/2=3 bonds
Step 5 - D= 18-6 =12 nonbonding electrons or 6 pair of electrons

-1 0 0 0 0 -1
:

:
: :
[: O - N = O:]- ↔ [: O = N - O:]-
: :

2 resonance structure

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
 A = 1X1+4X1+5X1 =10 valance electrons

B = 1X2+8X1+8X1 =18electrons

4 bonds 2 electrons C = 18-10 =8/2=4 bonds

D= 10-8 =2 electrons

Lewis structure of HCN consist of 4 bond , 1 triple bond , 0 double

bond , 2 nonbonding electrons or 1 pair of electrons
Write the Lewis structure for nitric acid (HNO3) in which the
three O atoms are bonded to the central N atom and ionizable H
atom is bonded to one of the O atom.
Step 1 –put N in center ,surrounded by 3O atoms , H bonded to
one of the O
Step 2 – Count valence electrons 5 + (3 x 6) +1 = 24
nonbonding electrons or 12 pair of electrons

..
:O:
..
:O=N-
.. O-
.. H
3 resonance structure
:O:
..
Dr.Laila Al-harbi
Write the Lewis structure of formic acid (HCOOH ).
Step 1 –put C in center ,surrounded by 2O atoms , H Step
2 – A= 4X1 + 6X2 +2x1 = 18 valance electrons
Step 3 – B = 8X1+8X2 +2 x2 =28 electrons
Step 4 - C = 28-18 =10/2=5 bonds
Step 5 - D= 18-10 =8 nonbonding electrons or 4 pair of
electrons 3 resonance structure

:O:
..
H -C- O-
.. H
3 resonance structure

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
Write the Lewis structure of carbon dioxide [CO2]
Step 1 – C is less electronegative than O, put C in center
Step 2 – A= 4X1 + 6X2 = 16 valance electrons
Step 3 – B = 8X1+8X2 = 24 electrons
Step 4 - C = 24-18 =8/2=4 bonds
Step 5 - D= 16-8 =8 nonbonding electrons or 4 pair of
electrons

3 resonance structure

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
 Write the formal charge for
the NO2- ion?
Write the formal charge for
the carbonate ion? 1-

: :
:
:
:O - N = O:
:O:
= 2-
6 5 6
5 5 6
-1 0 0

6 6
0
6 7
-
0
:O: -
=

-1
1-
6 1-
4
7
4
-
-1 -
0
There are three types of ions or molecules that do not
follow the octet rule: (central atom)

1. Ions or molecules with an odd number of

electrons
2. Ions or molecules with less than an octet ( the
incomplete Octet)
3. Ions or molecules with more than eight valence
electrons (an expanded octet)

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
 Though relatively rare and usually quite unstable
and reactive, there are ions and molecules with an
odd number of electrons(radical).

N – 5e-
NO O – 6e- N O
11e-
A = 5X1 +6X1=11

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
 Covalent compounds containing Group 3 atoms
may be satisfied with 6 valence electrons ( Be , B ,
Al)
B – 3e- 3 single bonds (3x2) =
F B F
BF3 3F – 3x7e- 6 9 lone pairs (9x2) = 18
24e- Total = 24
F

Be – 2e-
BeH2 2H – 2x1e- H Be H
4e-

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
Usually occurs in element in 3rd period and beyond
◦ More than 4 bonds
◦ Elements ≥ row 3 can use s, p & d orbitals and have > 8 VE
P: 8 OR 10
S: 8, 10, OR 12
Xe: 8, 10, OR 12

Examples
SF6 PF5 XeF4

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
 Example 9-10
Write Lewis structure
PF5
Write Lewis structure F
AlI3 F F
P
I Al I F F
F
I Write Lewis structure
AsF5
F
Write Lewis structure F F
BeF2 As
F F
:

:F Be F: F
:
:

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
Write Lewis structure Write Lewis structure
[SO4] -2 H2SO4
= = :O: :O:
- -

= =
: :

: :

: :

: :
:O: :O:

Dr.Laila Al-harbi
14.1 the concept of equilibrium and the equilibrium constant

14.4 writing equilibrium constant expression

14.4 what does the equilibrium constant tell us

14.5 factors that effect chemical equilibrium

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Equilibrium is a state in which there are no observable changes as
time goes by.
a A (g,l,s) + b B (g,l,s) ↔ c C (g,l,s) + d D (g,l,s)
conc. of products
[C] c [D] d
K =
[A] a [B] b
conc. of reactants
equilibrium constant

[A], [B], etc. are the equilibrium concentrations

K ≈ [products] / [reactants]
K is a constant at a given temperature
Solids drop out of the expression & water drops out when the solvent is water
K has no unit
• K >> 1 ; favors products >>> Lie to the right
• K << 1 favors reactants >>> Lie to the left
• K ≈ 1: roughly equal concentration of reactants and products
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 N2O4 (g) 2NO2 (g)

[NO2 ]2 P NO
2
2
Kc = Kp = P
[N2O4] N2O4

In most cases Kc Kp

aA (g) + bB (g) cC (g) + dD (g)

Kp = Kc(RT) ∆n
∆n = moles of
∆n = (c + d) products– (a + b)reactants gaseous products –
moles of gaseous
Kp = Kc , when ∆n= 0 reactants
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
Homogeneous Equilibria (all species are in the
same phase)
CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l) CH3COO- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

[CH3COO-][H3O+]
Kc‘ = [H2O] = constant
[CH3COOH][H2O]

[CH3COO-][H3O+] =
Kc = Kc‘ [H2O]
[CH3COOH]

General practice not to include units for the

equilibrium constant.

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

[CaO][CO2] [CaCO3] = constant

Kc‘ = [CaO] = constant
[CaCO3]

[CaCO3]
Kc = [CO2] = Kc‘ x Kp = PCO 2
[CaO]
The concentration of solids and pure liquids are not
included in the expression for the equilibrium constant.

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Write the equilibrium constant expression for the following
reactions:
(a) HF (aq) + H2O (ℓ) H3O+ (aq) + F- (aq) Homogeneous
(b) 2 NO (g) + O2 (g) 2 NO2 (g) Homogeneous
(c) CH3COOH (aq) + C2H5COH (aq) CH3COOC2H5+ H2O (ℓ)
[H3O+ ][F-] [NO2]2
Kc = Kc =
[HF] [NO]2[O2]

[CH3COOC2H5] P 2 NO2
Kc = Kp =
[CH3COOH] [C2H5COH] P 2 NO P 2 O2

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 The equilibrium concentrations
2 NO (g) + O2 (g) 2 NO2 (g) Homogeneous
at 2300C are [NO] = 0.0542 M , [O2] = 0.127 M, and [NO2] = 15.5
M. Calculate the equilibrium constant Kc.

[NO2]2
Kc =
[NO]2[O2]

[15.5]2
Kc = = 6.44 × 10 5
[0.0542]2[0.127]

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
The equilibrium constant Kp for the reaction
2NO2 (g) ⇄ 2NO (g) + O2 (g) Homogeneous
is 158 at 1000K. What is the equilibrium pressure
of O2 if the PNO = 0.400 atm and PNO = 0.270 atm?

2
PNO PO 2
Kp = 2
PNO 2

2
PNO
PO 2 = Kp 2
2
PNO

PO 2 = 158 x (0.400)2/(0.270)2 = 347 atm

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Methanol is manufactured industrially by the reaction
CO (g) + 2 H2 (g) CH3OH(g) Homogeneous
Kc = 10.5 at 220°C. What is the value of Kp at this temperature

Kp = Kc (RT)∆n

∆n = 1-3 = -2

Kp = Kc (0.0821× 493)-2 = 6.41 × 10-3

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Write the equilibrium constant expression for the following
reactions:
(a) (NH4)2Se (s) 2NH3 (g) + H2Se (g) Heterogeneous
(b) AgCl (s) Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) Heterogeneous
(c) P4 (s) + 6Cl2(g) 4PCl3(ℓ) Heterogeneous

Kc = [NH3]2 [H2Se] Kp = PNH32 PH2Se

Kc = [Ag+ ]2 [Cl-]

1
Kc =
[Cl2]6

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
Example 14-6
Consider the following equilibrium at 295 K:
NH4HS (s) NH3 (g) + H2S (g) Heterogeneous

The partial pressure of each gas is 0.265 atm. Calculate Kp and

Kc for the reaction?
Kp = P P = 0.265 x 0.265 = 0.0702
NH3 H2S

Kp = Kc(RT)∆n

Kc = Kp(RT)-∆n

∆n = 2 – 0 = 2 T = 295 K

Kc = 0.0702 x (0.0821 x 295)-2 = 1.20 x 10-4

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
Q: What is Kp in terms of Kc for the following
reaction ?

2 NO ( g ) O2 ( g ) 2 NO2 ( g )
A. Kp = KcRT
B. Kp = Kc/RT Solution:
C. Kp = KcR/T n
D. Kp = Kc Kp K c ( RT )
E. Kp = Kc/(RT)2 n 2 3 1
1 Kc
Kp K c ( RT )
RT

12
 A) Predicting the direction of a reaction
The reaction quotient (Qc) is calculated by substituting the initial
concentrations of the reactants and products into the equilibrium constant (Kc)
expression.
IF
• Qc > Kc system proceeds from right to left to reach equilibrium
• Qc = Kc the system is at equilibrium
• Qc < Kc system proceeds from left to right to reach equilibrium
B) Calculating equilibrium concentration

1. Express the equilibrium concentrations of all species in terms of the initial

concentrations and a single unknown x, which represents the change in concentration.
2. Write the equilibrium constant expression in terms of the equilibrium concentrations.
Knowing the value of the equilibrium constant, solve for x.
3. Having solved for x, calculate the equilibrium concentrations of all species.
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
A) Predicting the direction of a reaction

Q has the same form as K, . . . but uses existing concentrations

n-Butane iso-Butane
0.25 0.35 Kc =2.5

Q = [iso] 0.35
Q= = = 1.40
[n] 0.25

Since Q (1.4) < Kc (2.5) , the system at equilibrium

To reach equilibrium [iso-Butane] must increase

and [n-Butane] must decrease.

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 N2 (g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3 (g) Homogeneous
0.249mol,N2 , 3.2×10-2 mol H2 , 6.42×10-4 mol NH3in A 3.50 L at 375°C , kc=
1.2, Decide whether the system is at equilibrium .if it is not predict which way
the net reaction will proceed.
[NH3]2
Q c=
[N2] [H2]3
Since the molarity = number of moles /volume in L , M=n/Vin L
[N2] °= 0.249/3.50 L = 0.0711 M
[H2] ° = 3.2×10-2 /3.50 L = 9.17 ×10-3 M
[NH3] ° = 6.42×10-4 /3.50 L = 1.83 ×10-4 M
[NH3 ]2 [1.83 ×10-4 ]2
Q c=
= = 0.611
[N2] [H2 ]3 [0.0711][9.17 ×10-3]2
Since Q (0.611) < Kc (1.2) system , the system at equilibrium
To reach equilibrium [NH3] must increase and [N2], [H2] must decrease.
The net reaction will proceed from left to right untial equilibrium is reached .
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
B) Calculating equilibrium concentration
cis-stilbene trans-stilbene Kc =24

Step 1 Define equilibrium condition in terms of initial condition and a

change variable
[cis-stibene] [trans-stibene]
Initial 0.85 0
At equilibrium 0.85-x x

Step 2 Put equilibrium Conic. into Kc .

Step 3. Solve for x. 24(0.85-x) = x = 20.4 – 24x=x

25x= 20.4 >>>>>> x = 0.816 M
At equilibrium [cis-stilbene] = 0.85 – 0.816 = 0.034 M
[trans-stilbene] = x = 0.816 M
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 M= 0.5/1 =0.5 mol
Step 1 Define equilibrium condition in terms of initial condition and a
change variable
[H2] [I2] [HI]
Initial x x 0
At equilibrium 0.5-x 0.5-x 2x
Step 2 Put equilibrium Conic. into Kc .

Step 3. Solve for x. 54.3 = (2x)2/(0.5-x)2

Square root of both sides & solve gives: 7.369 = 2x/0.5-x
x = 0.393
At equilibrium
[H2] = [I2] = 0.5 – 0.393 = 0.107 M
[HI] = 2x = 0.786 M
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Le Chatelier’s principle , If an external stress is applied to a
system at equilibrium, the system adjusts in such a way that
the stress is partially offset as the system reaches a new
equilibrium position.

factors that effect chemical equilibrium

1. Changes in Concentration
2. Changes in Volume and Pressure
3. Changes in Temperature
4. Adding a Catalyst

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

Equilibrium
Add
shifts left to
NH3
offset stress

Change Shifts the Equilibrium

Increase concentration of product(s) left
Decrease concentration of product(s) right
Increase concentration of reactant(s) right
Decrease concentration of reactant(s) left

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 N2 (g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3 (g) >>>> Kc=2.37×10-3 , T=720°C
Equilibrium shifts
left to offset stress Add 3.65 M
NH3
[N2] = 0.683 M
[H2] = 8.800M
[NH3] = 1.05M the concentration increase to 3.65 M

Calculate Qc compare it value with Kc

because Qc (2.86×10-2) > Kc (2.37×10-3) , The net reaction

direction from right to left until Qc = Kc

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 ∆n = is the number of
A (g) + B (g) C (g) moles for substance in
gaseous products
&gaseous reactants
∆n=n products –n reactants
Note: Pressure and volume are inversely proportional.
Because the pressure of gases is related directly to the concentration
by P = n/V, changing the pressure by increasing/decreasing the
volume of a container will disturb an equilibrium system.

Change Shifts the Equilibrium

Increase pressure (decrease volume) Side with fewest moles of gas

Decrease pressure (Increase volume) Side with most moles of gas

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Predict the net reaction direction (increasing P & decreasing V)
(a) 2 PbS (s) + 3O2 (g) 2PbO (s) + 2HS2 (g)
∆n=n products < n reactants = 2<3
When the volume of an equilibrium mixture of gases is reduced, a net
change occurs in the direction that produces fewer moles of gas (left to
right toward product).

(b) PCl5 (g) PCl3(g) + Cl2 (g)

∆n=n products >n reactants = 2>1 =1
When the volume of an equilibrium mixture of gases is reduced, a net
change occurs in the direction that produces fewer moles of gas (right
to left toward reactant).

(c) H2 (g) + CO2(g) H2O(g) + CO(g)

∆n=n products =n reactants = 2-2 = 0
The change in P,v has no effect on the equilibrium .
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Which of the following
Which of the following
increasing pressure will shift increasing pressure will cause no
equilibrium to left change in equilibrium
(a) 2 PbS (s) + 3O2 (g) 2PbO (s) (a) 2 PbS (s) + 3O2 (g) 2PbO (s) +
+ 2HS2 (g) 2HS2 (g)
(b) PCl5 (g) PCl3(g) + Cl2 (g) (b) PCl5 (g) PCl3(g) + Cl2 (g)
(c) H2 (g) + CO2(g) H2O(g) +
(c) H2 (g) + CO2(g) H2O(g) + CO(g)
CO(g)
(d) No correct answer
(d) No correct answer

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Change Exothermic - ∆H Endothermic +∆H
Increase temperature K decreases K increases
Decrease temperature K increases K decreases
•Adding a Catalyst
• does not change K
• does not shift the position of an equilibrium system
• system will reach equilibrium sooner

uncatalyzed catalyzed

Catalyst lowers Ea for both forward and reverse reactions

Catalyst does not change equilibrium constant or shift equilibrium.

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
 Le Châtelier’s Principle

Change Equilibrium
Change Shift Equilibrium Constant
Concentration yes no
Pressure yes no
Volume yes no
Temperature yes yes
Catalyst no no

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
Predict the net reaction direction a) if RXN heated at constant V,
b) some N2F4 removed at constant T&V c) Decrease P?
d) catalyst is added
N2F4 (g) ⇄ 2 NF2 (g) >> ∆H= 38.5 kJ/mol

a) ∆H>0 >>endothermic reaction ,T increase, K increase, a net change occurs in

the direction is from left to right toward product).

b) Conc. of the reactant decrease the system shift right to left ( some NF2
combines to produce N2F4 )

c) P decrease the system shift left to right .

d) if catalyst is added to reaction mixture ,the reaction will reach equilibrium

faster but no change in the change equilibrium constant or shift equilibrium.

Dr.Laila Al-Harbi
Q: Which of the following will result in an
equilibrium shift to the right?
PCl3 ( g ) Cl2 ( g ) PCl5 ( g ).......... H 87.9 kJ/mol

1) Increase temperature/increase volume

2) Increase temperature/decrease volume
3) Decrease temperature/increase volume
4) Decrease temperature/decrease volume
5) None of the above

28
15.2 the Acids and Bases properties of water

15.3 PH- a measure of acidity

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
Acid: Substance that produces hydrogen ions in
water solution.
HCl (aq) → H+(aq) + Cl‐(aq)

Base: Substance that produces hydroxide ions in

water solution.
NaOH (aq) → Na+(aq) + OH‐(aq)

An acid neutralizes a base

H+(aq) + OH‐(aq) → H2O(ℓ)

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 water is unique solvent , it can act as acid or base.
In pure water, a few molecules act as bases and a few act as acids.

H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH−(aq)

acid(1) + base (1) ⇄ acid(1) + base (1)

This is referred to as autoionization of water

The equilibrium expression for this process is

Kc = [H3O+] [OH−]

This special equilibrium constant is referred to as the ion-product

constant for water, Kw.

At 25°C, Kw = 1.0 10−14

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
In pure water,

Kw = [H3O+] [OH−] = 1.0 10−14

Because in pure water [H3O+] = [OH−],

[H3O+] = (1.0 10−14)1/2 = 1.0 10−7

In acidic solution
[H3O+] > [OH−]

In basic solution

[H3O+] < [OH−]

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 Calculate the [OH-] ions in a
Calculate the [H+] ions in 1.3 M HCl.
ammonia , [OH-] =0.0025 M
Kw = [H3O+] [OH−]= 1.0 10−14 Kw = [H3O+][OH−]= 1.0 10−14

[H3 O +] = 1.0 10−14/ [OH−] [OH−] = 1.0 10−14/ [H3O+]

[OH−] = 1.0 10−14/ 1.3

[H3O+] = 1.0 10−14/ 0.0025
[OH−] = 7.7 10−15 M
[H3O+] = 4.0 10−12 M

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
pH is defined as the negative base-10 logarithm of the hydronium
ion concentration.
pH = −log [H3O+] …. [H3O+] = 10-pH

In the same manner

pOH = −log [OH-] ….. [OH-] =10-pOH

In the same manner

pKw = −log [14×10-14 ] = 14

In pure water,
pH + pOH = 14
pH = pOH = 7
Dr Laila Al-Harbi
 pH Range

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Acidic Basic

Increase the acidity Neutral Increase the basisty

[H+]>[OH-] [H+] = [OH-] [OH-]>[H+]

pH = pOH = 7 pH >7
pH < 7

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
The [H+]=3.2 x 10–4 M. The [H+]=0.76 M, nitric
The [H+]=1.0 x 10–3 M. acid solution ,What is the
What is the pH in the two pH .
occasions.
pH = −log [H3O+] pH = −log [H3O+]

pH = −log 3.2 x 10–4 = 3.49 pH = −log 0.76 = 0.12

pH = −log 1.0 x 10–3 = 3.00

[H3O+] increase ,pH

decrease >>> more acidic

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
The pH = 4.82 , What is the The pH = 3.33 , What is the
[H+] of the rain water . [H+] of orange juice

[H3 O+] = 10-pH [H3O+] = 10-pH

[H3O+] = 10-3.33
[H3O+] = 10-4.82
[H3O+] = 4.7 × 10–4M
[H3O+] = 1.5 × 10–5M

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
The [OH-]=2.9 x 10–4 M. The [OH-]=2.5 x 10–7 M.
What is the pH of the NaOH What is the pH of solution
solution the blood?
pOH = −log [OH-]
pOH = −log [OH-]
pOH = −log 2.9 x 10–4 =
pOH = −log 2.5 x 10–7
3.54
=

pH + pOH = 14 pH + pOH = 14
pH = 14 – pOH pH = 14 – pOH

= 14-3.54=10.46 = 14-3.54=7.4
Dr Laila Al-Harbi
Acidic solution basic solution

+
[H3O ] -
[OH ] 1.0 10−14

pH pOH 14

Dr Laila Al-Harbi
Dr Laila Al-Harbi