10/2/21, 12:48 AM Heredity - Wikipedia

Heredity
Heredity, also called inheritance or biological inheritance, is the passing on of traits from
parents to their offspring; either through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction, the
offspring cells or organisms acquire the genetic information of their parents. Through heredity,
variations between individuals can accumulate and cause species to evolve by natural selection.
The study of heredity in biology is genetics.

Contents
Overview
Relation to theory of evolution
History
Gregor Mendel: father of genetics
Modern development of genetics and heredity
Common genetic disorders
Types
Dominant and recessive alleles
See also
References
External links

Overview
In humans, eye color is an example of an inherited characteristic: an
individual might inherit the "brown-eye trait" from one of the parents.[1]
Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes
within an organism's genome is called its genotype.[2]

The complete set of observable traits of the structure and behavior of an

organism is called its phenotype. These traits arise from the interaction
of its genotype with the environment.[3] As a result, many aspects of an
organism's phenotype are not inherited. For example, suntanned skin
comes from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight;[4]
thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children. However, some
people tan more easily than others, due to differences in their
genotype:[5] a striking example is people with the inherited trait of Heredity of phenotypic
albinism, who do not tan at all and are very sensitive to sunburn.[6] traits: Father and son
with prominent ears and
Heritable traits are known to be passed from one generation to the next crowns.
via DNA, a molecule that encodes genetic information.[2] DNA is a long
polymer that incorporates four types of bases, which are
interchangeable. The Nucleic acid sequence (the sequence of bases along a particular DNA
molecule) specifies the genetic information: this is comparable to a sequence of letters spelling out
a passage of text.[7] Before a cell divides through mitosis, the DNA is copied, so that each of the

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resulting two cells will inherit the DNA sequence. A portion of a

DNA molecule that specifies a single functional unit is called a gene;
different genes have different sequences of bases. Within cells, the
long strands of DNA form condensed structures called
chromosomes. Organisms inherit genetic material from their
parents in the form of homologous chromosomes, containing a
unique combination of DNA sequences that code for genes. The
specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is known
as a locus. If the DNA sequence at a particular locus varies between
individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles.
DNA sequences can change through mutations, producing new
alleles. If a mutation occurs within a gene, the new allele may affect
the trait that the gene controls, altering the phenotype of the
organism.[8]

However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a

trait works in some cases, most traits are more complex and are
controlled by multiple interacting genes within and among DNA structure. Bases are in
organisms.[9][10] Developmental biologists suggest that complex the centre, surrounded by
interactions in genetic networks and communication among cells phosphate–sugar chains in a
can lead to heritable variations that may underlie some of the double helix.
mechanics in developmental plasticity and canalization.[11]

Recent findings have confirmed important examples of heritable changes that cannot be explained
by direct agency of the DNA molecule. These phenomena are classed as epigenetic inheritance
systems that are causally or independently evolving over genes. Research into modes and
mechanisms of epigenetic inheritance is still in its scientific infancy, however, this area of research
has attracted much recent activity as it broadens the scope of heritability and evolutionary biology
in general.[12] DNA methylation marking chromatin, self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene
silencing by RNA interference, and the three dimensional conformation of proteins (such as
prions) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic
level.[13][14] Heritability may also occur at even larger scales. For example, ecological inheritance
through the process of niche construction is defined by the regular and repeated activities of
organisms in their environment. This generates a legacy of effect that modifies and feeds back into
the selection regime of subsequent generations. Descendants inherit genes plus environmental
characteristics generated by the ecological actions of ancestors.[15] Other examples of heritability
in evolution that are not under the direct control of genes include the inheritance of cultural traits,
group heritability, and symbiogenesis.[16][17][18] These examples of heritability that operate above
the gene are covered broadly under the title of multilevel or hierarchical selection, which has been
a subject of intense debate in the history of evolutionary science.[17][19]

Relation to theory of evolution

When Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolution in 1859, one of its major problems was the
lack of an underlying mechanism for heredity.[20] Darwin believed in a mix of blending inheritance
and the inheritance of acquired traits (pangenesis). Blending inheritance would lead to uniformity
across populations in only a few generations and then would remove variation from a population
on which natural selection could act.[21] This led to Darwin adopting some Lamarckian ideas in
later editions of On the Origin of Species and his later biological works.[22] Darwin's primary
approach to heredity was to outline how it appeared to work (noticing that traits that were not
expressed explicitly in the parent at the time of reproduction could be inherited, that certain traits
could be sex-linked, etc.) rather than suggesting mechanisms.

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Darwin's initial model of heredity was adopted by, and then heavily modified by, his cousin
Francis Galton, who laid the framework for the biometric school of heredity.[23] Galton found no
evidence to support the aspects of Darwin's pangenesis model, which relied on acquired traits.[24]

The inheritance of acquired traits was shown to have little basis in the 1880s when August
Weismann cut the tails off many generations of mice and found that their offspring continued to
develop tails.[25]

History
Scientists in Antiquity had a variety of ideas
about heredity: Theophrastus proposed that male
flowers caused female flowers to ripen;[26]
Hippocrates speculated that "seeds" were
produced by various body parts and transmitted
to offspring at the time of conception;[27] and
Aristotle thought that male and female fluids
mixed at conception.[28] Aeschylus, in 458 BC,
proposed the male as the parent, with the female
as a "nurse for the young life sown within
her".[29]

Ancient understandings of heredity transitioned

Aristotle's model of inheritance. The heat/cold part
is largely symmetrical, though influenced on the
to two debated doctrines in the 18th century. The
Doctrine of Epigenesis and the Doctrine of
father's side by other factors; but the form part is
not. Preformation were two distinct views of the
understanding of heredity. The Doctrine of
Epigenesis, originated by Aristotle, claimed that
an embryo continually develops. The modifications of the parent's traits are passed off to an
embryo during its lifetime. The foundation of this doctrine was based on the theory of inheritance
of acquired traits. In direct opposition, the Doctrine of Preformation claimed that "like generates
like" where the germ would evolve to yield offspring similar to the parents. The Preformationist
view believed procreation was an act of revealing what had been created long before. However, this
was disputed by the creation of the cell theory in the 19th century, where the fundamental unit of
life is the cell, and not some preformed parts of an organism. Various hereditary mechanisms,
including blending inheritance were also envisaged without being properly tested or quantified,
and were later disputed. Nevertheless, people were able to develop domestic breeds of animals as
well as crops through artificial selection. The inheritance of acquired traits also formed a part of
early Lamarckian ideas on evolution.

During the 18th century, Dutch microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) discovered
"animalcules" in the sperm of humans and other animals.[30] Some scientists speculated they saw
a "little man" (homunculus) inside each sperm. These scientists formed a school of thought known
as the "spermists". They contended the only contributions of the female to the next generation
were the womb in which the homunculus grew, and prenatal influences of the womb.[31] An
opposing school of thought, the ovists, believed that the future human was in the egg, and that
sperm merely stimulated the growth of the egg. Ovists thought women carried eggs containing boy
and girl children, and that the gender of the offspring was determined well before conception.[32]

An early research initiative emerged in 1878 when Alpheus Hyatt led an investigation to study the
laws of heredity through compiling data on family phenotypes (nose size, ear shape, etc.) and
expression of pathological conditions and abnormal characteristics, particularly with respect to the
age of appearance. One of the projects aims was to tabulate data to better understand why certain
traits are consistently expressed while others are highly irregular.[33]
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Gregor Mendel: father of genetics

The idea of particulate inheritance of genes can be attributed

to the Moravian[34] monk Gregor Mendel who published his
work on pea plants in 1865. However, his work was not widely
known and was rediscovered in 1901. It was initially assumed
that Mendelian inheritance only accounted for large
(qualitative) differences, such as those seen by Mendel in his
pea plants  – and the idea of additive effect of (quantitative)
genes was not realised until R.A. Fisher's (1918) paper, "The
Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of
Mendelian Inheritance" Mendel's overall contribution gave
scientists a useful overview that traits were inheritable. His
pea plant demonstration became the foundation of the study
of Mendelian Traits. These traits can be traced on a single Table showing how the genes
locus.[35] exchange according to segregation
or independent assortment during
meiosis and how this translates into
Modern development of genetics and heredity Mendel's laws

In the 1930s, work by Fisher and others resulted in a

combination of Mendelian and biometric schools into the modern evolutionary synthesis. The
modern synthesis bridged the gap between experimental geneticists and naturalists; and between
both and palaeontologists, stating that:[36][37]

1. All evolutionary phenomena can be explained in a way consistent with known genetic
mechanisms and the observational evidence of naturalists.
2. Evolution is gradual: small genetic changes, recombination ordered by natural selection.
Discontinuities amongst species (or other taxa) are explained as originating gradually through
geographical separation and extinction (not saltation).
3. Selection is overwhelmingly the main mechanism of change; even slight advantages are
important when continued. The object of selection is the phenotype in its surrounding
environment. The role of genetic drift is equivocal; though strongly supported initially by
Dobzhansky, it was downgraded later as results from ecological genetics were obtained.
4. The primacy of population thinking: the genetic diversity carried in natural populations is a key
factor in evolution. The strength of natural selection in the wild was greater than expected; the
effect of ecological factors such as niche occupation and the significance of barriers to gene
flow are all important.

The idea that speciation occurs after populations are reproductively isolated has been much
debated.[38] In plants, polyploidy must be included in any view of speciation. Formulations such as
'evolution consists primarily of changes in the frequencies of alleles between one generation and
another' were proposed rather later. The traditional view is that developmental biology ('evo-
devo') played little part in the synthesis, but an account of Gavin de Beer's work by Stephen Jay
Gould suggests he may be an exception.[39]

Almost all aspects of the synthesis have been challenged at times, with varying degrees of success.
There is no doubt, however, that the synthesis was a great landmark in evolutionary biology.[40] It
cleared up many confusions, and was directly responsible for stimulating a great deal of research
in the post-World War II era.

Trofim Lysenko however caused a backlash of what is now called Lysenkoism in the Soviet Union
when he emphasised Lamarckian ideas on the inheritance of acquired traits. This movement
affected agricultural research and led to food shortages in the 1960s and seriously affected the
USSR.[41]
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There is growing evidence that there is transgenerational inheritance of epigenetic changes in

humans[42] and other animals.[43]

Common genetic disorders

Fragile X syndrome
Sickle cell disease
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Haemophilia[35]

Types
The description of a mode of biological inheritance consists of
three main categories:

1. Number of involved loci

Monogenetic (also called "simple") – one locus
Oligogenic – few loci
Polygenetic – many loci

2. Involved chromosomes An example pedigree chart of an

autosomal dominant disorder.
Autosomal – loci are not situated on a sex
chromosome
Gonosomal – loci are situated on a sex chromosome
X-chromosomal – loci are situated on the X-
chromosome (the more common case)
Y-chromosomal – loci are situated on the Y-
chromosome
Mitochondrial – loci are situated on the mitochondrial
DNA

3. Correlation genotype–phenotype
An example pedigree chart of an
Dominant autosomal recessive disorder.
Intermediate (also called "codominant")
Recessive
Overdominant
Underdominant

These three categories are part of every exact description of a

mode of inheritance in the above order. In addition, more
specifications may be added as follows:

4. Coincidental and environmental interactions

An example pedigree chart of a sex-
Penetrance
linked disorder (the gene is on the X
Complete chromosome)
Incomplete (percentual number)
Expressivity
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Invariable
Variable
Heritability (in polygenetic and sometimes also in oligogenetic modes of inheritance)
Maternal or paternal imprinting phenomena (also see epigenetics)

5. Sex-linked interactions

Sex-linked inheritance (gonosomal loci)

Sex-limited phenotype expression (e.g., cryptorchism)
Inheritance through the maternal line (in case of mitochondrial DNA loci)
Inheritance through the paternal line (in case of Y-chromosomal loci)

6. Locus–locus interactions
Epistasis with other loci (e.g., overdominance)
Gene coupling with other loci (also see crossing over)
Homozygotous lethal factors
Semi-lethal factors

Determination and description of a mode of inheritance is also achieved primarily through

statistical analysis of pedigree data. In case the involved loci are known, methods of molecular
genetics can also be employed.

Dominant and recessive alleles

An allele is said to be dominant if it is always expressed in the appearance of an organism

(phenotype) provided that at least one copy of it is present. For example, in peas the allele for
green pods, G, is dominant to that for yellow pods, g. Thus pea plants with the pair of alleles
either GG (homozygote) or Gg (heterozygote) will have green pods. The allele for yellow pods is
recessive. The effects of this allele are only seen when it is present in both chromosomes, gg
(homozygote). This derives from Zygosity, the degree to which both copies of a chromosome or
gene have the same genetic sequence, in other words, the degree of similarity of the alleles in an
organism.

See also
Hard inheritance
Lamarckism
Heritability
Particulate inheritance
Non-Mendelian inheritance
Extranuclear inheritance
Uniparental inheritance
Epigenetic inheritance
Transgenerational epigenetics#Major controversies in the history of inheritance
Inheritance of acquired characteristics
Structural inheritance
Blending inheritance

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External links
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Heredity and Heritability (http://plato.stanford.ed
u/entries/heredity/)
""Experiments in Plant Hybridization" (1866), by Johann Gregor Mendel," by A. Andrei at the
Embryo Project Encyclopedia (http://embryo.asu.edu/pages/experiments-plant-hybridization-1
866-johann-gregor-mendel)

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