ELECTRICITY

In this module, you will:

a. Describe the basic properties of electric current, and solve problems relating current, charge and time;
b. Calculate resistance, current and potential difference by using the definition of resistance;
c. Distinguish between ohmic and non-ohmic materials, and learn what factors affect resistance.

CURRENT and RESISTANCE

Today, electric circuits are a commonplace part of our daily lives. The previous discussion introduce the
practical subject of electric circuits. We focus on a familiar concept – energy – and apply the concept of
electrical energy to simple circuits. In this section you are introduce to new several terms such as current,
resistance and electromotive force, that are necessary for describing these circuits
CURRENT AND CHARGE MOVEMENT
Although many practical applications and devices are based on the principles of static electricity did
not become an integral part of our daily lives until scientists learned to control the movement of electric
charge, known as current. Electric currents power our lights, radios, televisions sets, air conditioners,
refrigerators. Currents are also used in automobile engines, travel through miniature components that make
up the chips of the computers, and perform countless other invaluable tasks.
Electric currents are even part of the human body. This connection between physics and biology was
discovered by Luigi Galvani (1737 – 1798). While conducting electrical experiments near a frog he had recently
dissected, Galvani noticed that electrical sparks caused the frog’s legs to twitch and even convulse. After
further research, Galvani concluded that electricity was present in the frog. Today, we know that electric
currents are responsible for transmitting message between muscles and the brain. In fact, every function
involving the nervous system is initiated by electrical activity.
CURRENT is the rate of charge movement

I
A current exists whenever there is a net movement of the electric charge through a medium. To define current
more precisely, suppose electrons are moving through a wire as shown in the figure above. The electric current is the
rate at which these charges move through the cross section of the wire. If ΔQ is the amount of charge that passes
through this area in a time interval, Δt, then the current, I, is the ratio of the amount of charge to the time interval. Note
that the direction of current is opposite the movement of the negative charges.
I = ΔQ
Δt
Electric current = charge passing through a given area
Time interval
The SI unit for current is the ampere, A. One ampere is equivalent to one coulomb of charge passing
through a cross-sectional area in a time interval of one second.

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Sample Problems:
1. The current in a light bulb is 0.835 A. How long does it take for a total charge of 1.67 C to pass through
the filament of the bulb?
Given: ΔQ = 1.67 C I = 0.835A
Required: Δt = ?
Sol’n: I = ΔQ ; Δt = ΔQ
Δt I
= 1.67 C = 2.00 s
0.835 A
2. If the current in a wire of a CD player is 5.00 mA, how long would it take for 2.00 C of charge to pass
through a cross-sectional area of this wire?
2. The compressor on an air conditioner draws 40.0 A when it starts up. If the start-up time is 0.50 s, how
much charge passes a cross-sectional area of the circuit in this time?
3. A total charge of 9.0 mC passes through a cross-sectional area of a nichrome wire is 3.5 s.
a. What is the current in the wire?
b. How many electrons pass through the cross-sectional area in 10 s?
c. If the number of charges that pass through the cross-sectional area during the given time interval
doubles, what is the resulting current?
Conventional current is defined in terms of positive charge movement
The moving charges that make up a current can be positive, negative, or a combination of the two. In a
common conductor, such as copper, current is due to the motion of negatively charged electrons, because the
atomic structure of solid conductors allows the electrons to be transferred easily from one atom to the next.
In contrast, the protons are relatively fixed inside the nucleus of the atom. In certain particle accelerators, a
current exists when positively charged protons are set in motion. In some cases, gases and dissolved salts, for
example – current is the result of positive charges moving in one direction and negative charges moving in the
opposite direction.
Positive and negative charges in motion are sometimes called charge carriers. Conventional current is
defined in terms of the flow of positive charges. Thus, negative charges carriers, such as electrons, would have
a conventional current in the direction opposite their physical motion.
An electric field in a material sets the charges in motion. For a material to be a good conductor, charge
carriers in the material must be able to move easily through the material. Many metals are good conductors
because they usually contain a large number of free electrons. Body fluids and salt water are able to conduct
electric charge because they contain charged atoms called ions. Because dissolved ions can move through a
solution easily, they can be charge carriers. A solute that dissolves in water to a solution that conducts
electric current is called electrolyte.
Conventional Current
First Case Second Case Third case
Motion of charge carriers

Equivalent conventional
current

General Physics 2
2nd Semester (S.Y. 2017-2018)
P marlon_arguelles_geneveo @ PCU - SHS

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Resistance to Current
If you maintain an electric potential difference, or voltage, across any conductor, an electric current occurs. In
general, the magnitude of the current depends on the potential difference. When a light bulb is connected to battery,
the current in the bulb depends on the potential difference across the battery. For example, a 9.0 V battery connected to
a light bulb generates greater current than 6.0 V battery connected to the bulb.
But potential difference is not the only factor that determines the current in the light bulb. The materials that
make up the connecting wires and the bulb’s filament also affect the current in the bulb. Even though most materials
can be classified as conductors and insulators, some conductors allow charges to move through them easily than others.
The opposition of charge through a conductor is the conductor’s resistance. You can think of resistance as the ability
to resist the flow of charge when it is subject to a given potential difference. Quantitatively, resistance is define as the
ratio of potential difference to current.

R = ΔV
I
Resistance = Potential difference
Current
The SI unit for resistance, the ohm, is equal to one volt per ampere and is represented by the Greek letter Ω
(omega). For many materials, including most metals, experiments show that the resistance is constant over a wide range
of applied potential differences. This statement, known as Ohm’s law, in named in honor of Georg Simon Ohm (1787-
1854), the German physicist who first to conduct a systematic study of electrical resistance. Materials whose resistance
is constant over a wide range of voltages are said to obey Ohm’s law. In these materials, current I is proportional to the
applied potential difference V and inversely proportional to the resistance R. Ohm’s law is not a law of nature in the
sense that conservation of momentum or the universal law of gravitation is a law of nature; rather, it is an experimental
observation about the behaviour of some materials under a limited range of circumstances. Materials that have
constant resistance over a wide range of potential differences are said to be ohmic, meaning the current is
proportional to the potential difference. While materials that do not function according to Ohm’s law are said to be
non- ohmic. Onw common semiconducting device that is non-ohmic is the diode. Its resistance is small for currents in
one direction and large for currents in the reverse direction. Diodes are used in circuits to control the direction of
current.

Sample problem
1. The resistance of a steam iron is 19.0 Ω. What is the current in the iron when it is connected across a potential
difference of 120V?
Given: R = 19.0 Ω ΔV = 120V
Required: I = ?
Solution: I = ΔV = 120V = 6.32 A
R 19.0Ω

2. The current in the following devices when they are connected across a potential difference of 120 V.
a. a hot plate with a resistance of 48Ω
b. a microwave oven with a resistance of 20Ω
3. The current in a microwave oven is 6.25A. if the resistance of the oven’s circuitry is 17.6Ω, what is the potential
difference across the oven?
4. A typical color television draws 2.5A of current when connected across a potential difference of 115V. what is the
effective resistance of the television set?

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5. A stereo with a resistance of 65Ω is connected across a potential difference of 120V. What is the current in this
device?

Resistance depends on length, area, material, and temperature

Electrons do not move in a straight-line paths through a conductor. Instead, they undergo repeated collisions
with the metal atoms. These collisions affect the motion of charges somewhat as a force of internal friction would. This
is the origin of material’s resistance. Factors that affect the number of collisions will also affect a material’s resistance.
Factors That Affect Resistance
Factor Less resistance Greater resistance

Length
L1 L2

Cross-sectional area
A1 A2

Material
Copper Iron

Temperature Low temperature High temperature

Two of these factors – length and cross-sectional area – are purely geometrical. It is intuitive that a longer length
of wire provides more resistance than a shorter length of wire does. Similarly, a wider wire allows charges to flow more
easily than a thinner wire does, much as a larger pipe allows water to flow more easily than a smaller pipe does. The
material effects have to do with structure of the atoms making up the material. Finally, for most materials, resistance
increases as the temperature of the metal increases. When a material is hot, its atoms vibrate fast, and it is more
difficult for an electron to flow through the material.
The resistance of a piece of wire or other conducting material is proportional to its length L and inversely
proportional to its cross-sectional area A.
R=ρL
A
The constant of proportionality ρ is the electric resistivity. In SI units, resistivity is given in ohm-meters (Ω.m). For
most metals the resistivity increases with increasing temperature. For some materials, over narrow ranges, the change
in resistivity is approximately proportional to the change in temperature.

Sample Problems:
1. What is the electric resistance of an iron wire 0.50m long with a diameter of 1.3mm if the resistivity of iron is 9.7
x 10-8 Ω.m at 20°C?
Given: L = 0.50m d= 1.3mm = 1.3 x 10-3m ρiron= 9.7 x 10-8 Ω.m
Required: R = ?
Solution: A = πd2/4 = π(1.3 x 10-3m)2 / 4 = 1.33 x 10-6 m2

R = ρL = (9.7 x 10-8 Ω.m)(0.50m)

A (1.33 x 10 -6 m2)
R = 0.0037 Ω
2. A piece of copper wire has a cross section of 4.0 mm 2 and a length of 2.0 m.

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a. What is the electric resistance of the wire at 20°C if its resistivity is 1.72 x 10 -8 Ω.m?
b. What is the potential difference across the wire when it carries a current of 10A?
General Physics 2
2 nd Semester (S.Y. 2017-2018)
P marlon_arguelles_geneveo @ PCU - SHS